International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science (ISSN: 2251-0044) Vol. 3(10) pp. 343-352,
October, 2013
DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/irjas.2013.109
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/IRJAS
Copyright ©2013 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Evaluation of salinity and sodicity parameters: Bannu
SCARP, Pakistan
Mahmood Alam Khan1, Taj Ali Khan1, Muhammad Shahzad Khan1, Tariq Usman Saeed2*,
Daulat Khan1
1
Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, Pakistan
*2
Transport Department, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar Pakistan
*Corresponding author`s e-mail: tariqusaeed@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The research article evaluates the soil salinity and sodicity levels in the area stuck by water
logging and salinity. Soil Sampling was done in the SCARP area of Bannu Division, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan between December 2010 to March 2011 and tests were
performed in Environmental Engineering Lab at Department of Agricultural Engineering,
University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar Pakistan. For this purpose twenty three
sampling points were randomly selected and samplings were made at three different depths
ranging from 0-0.25, 0.25-0.5 and 0.5 to 1 meter. Soil samples were analyzed and results were
prepared for parameters like Electrical Conductivity of Soil Saturate Extract, Na+, Ca++, Mg++, K+,
CO3--, HCO3-, Cl-, SAR and RSC. The average value of ECe was 5.69 dS/m which revealed that the
soil is saline in nature. The average concentration of Na+, Ca++, Mg++, K+, CO3--, HCO3-, Cl-, SAR
and RSC were determined as 2.87 meq/l, 0.28 meq/l, 0.08 meq/l, 1.14 meq/l, 0.78 meq/l, 2.25 meq/l,
18.12 meq/l, 8.46 and 2.67 meq/l respectively. The average values of ECe and SAR are 5.69 dS/m
and 8.46 respectively. Based on these findings, the soil of the study area is classified as saline.
The average RSC value of the soil is 2.67 meq/l. These average RSC values indicate that
concentrations of carbonates and bi-carbonates are high, which cause calcium and magnesium
to precipitate in the soil. The results suggested that the study area is facing an acute
concentration of soluble salts and reclamation measures are needed to bring this area under
cultivation. Irrigation water quality analysis, reclamation of soil and provision of proper drainage
system are recommended.
Keywords: Soil salinity; Sodicity; Anions; Cations; Standard Deviation; Coefficient of Variation; SCARP
(Salinity Control and Reclamation Project)
INTRODUCTION
Soils with high amounts of soluble salts are called saline
soils. They often exhibit a whitish surface crust when dry.
The solubility of calcium sulphate or gypsum (CaSO4) is
used as the standard for comparing solubilities of salts.
Salts more soluble than gypsum are considered to be
soluble and cause salinity. Examples are sodium
sulphate or Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4) and sodium chloride,
or table-salt (NaCl). Salts less soluble than gypsum are
considered insoluble and do not cause salinity. Calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) or lime is an example of an insoluble
salt. Soils high in sodium (sodic soils) may present
+
physical restrictions to plant growth. Sodium (Na ) is a
positively charged component, or cation, of many salts.
Sodium problems are due to its behavior when attached
to clay particles. If 15 percent or more of the clay
adsorption sites are occupied by sodium (sodium-clay),
poor physical condition of the soil often restricts root
growth and makes tillage difficult (Seelig, 2000). Rise in
water table levels contributes significantly to
salinity/sodicity development (Khan and Akram, 1986).
Increasing soil salinity is a serious land degradation
issue, with the area affected by dry land salinity esti-
344 Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
mated to be approximately 4 million ha in 2000, and is
predicted to increase to 20 million ha by 2020 (National
Land and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA). Agricultureinduced salinity and sodicity not only influences the
chemical and physical characteristics of soils but also
greatly affects soil microbial and biochemical properties
(Rietz and Haynes, 2003). Soil salinization is one of the
major factors that contribute to land degradation and
decrease in crop yield (Anjum et al., 2005). It was
reported that salinity in the arid and semi-arid regions of
the world is a serious threat to agriculture (Rao et al.,
2002). Production of grain legumes is severely reduced in
salt-affected soils because their ability to form and
maintain nitrogen fixing nodules is impaired by both
salinity and sodicity (alkalinity). (Shah and Shah, 2011)
found that salinity is usually combined with high pH
conditions, due to the presence and enrichment of
calcium carbonate in the upper most soil layers in the arid
and semi-arid regions of Pakistan. (Khattak et al., 2002)
evaluated the impacts of groundwater on soil and crops
in District Karak (arid region). Soil deterioration and
reduction in crop yield were noted due to water
salinization. Tavakkoli et al. 2010 concluded that multiple
factors contributing to subsoil constraints include salinity,
sodicity, and high concentrations of chloride which are
present in many rain-fed farming soils of Southern
Australia. Moradi and Abdelbagi 2007 found that salinity
is a widespread soil problem limiting productivity of cereal
crops worldwide.
Study Area
This area lies between 32.70o to 32.78o N latitude and
70.70o to 70.72o E longitude with central coordinates of
32.73o N and 70.71o E. Zone-A of Bannu SCARP is
situated in Lakki Marwat district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Pakistan, about 180 km south of Peshawar, comprising
an area of about 3241 ha with total perimeter of 25.37 km
(Figure 1). This zone suffers a very severe water logging
and salinity problem. Main villages in Zone-A of Bannu
SCARP are: Kot Kashmir, Gandi Khan Khel, Pahar Khel
and Serai Gambila (National Drainage Program (NDP)
PC-I Proforma, Bannu SCARP-II, NWFP Pakistan. 2002).
Figure 1 shows the study area and sampling locations.
and sub-tropical continental. The soils are used for dry
farming and torrent water cultivation (Population Census
Organization, Statistics Division of Pakistan. District
Census Report of Lakki Marwat. 2000). There are two
main sources of irrigations, Kurram and Gambila Rivers.
Kurram and Gambila rivers provide surface irrigation by
canal systems, while ground water is lifted by installing
tube wells.
The study area suffers severely from waterlogging and
salinity. Texture of the soil varied from clay loams, silty
and fine sandy clay loams. The main factors contributing
to waterlogging problem are: seepage from canals,
inequity in the civil canal system (due to existing and
prevailing system of water distribution), unawareness of
farmers of the area about irrigation scheduling and
unavoidable losses from the irrigation system. The area
is facing an acute problem of soil salinity and the levels of
soil salinity in this area are needed to be identified. The
specific objectives of the study area include; investigation
of major cations and anions, and determination of soil
salinity and sodicity levels (ECe, SAR and RSC) in Zone
– A of Bannu SCARP.
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted from December 2010 to March
2011, in which soil samples were collected and then
analyzed for salinity and sodicity status of the study area.
The project area was surveyed and twenty-three (23)
sampling points were selected randomly. From each
sampling point at three different depths (0 – 0.25, 0.25 –
0.50 and 0.50 – 1m) soil samples were taken with the
help of auger. Thus total of sixty nine (69) soil samples
were collected from the whole study area (Figure-1). All
the soil samples were carefully taken to the laboratory in
plastic bags for its various characteristics following
methods described by Richards, 1959.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis results have been presented in Figures 2 to
11.
Geology and Hydrogeology
Electrical conductivity of the soil extract
Main constituents of soil in district Lakki Marwat are deep
excessively drained calcareous and coarse textured
(sand and loamy sand) developed from the silwalik sand
stone of Shin Ghar and Marwat range piedmont material.
The fine textured soils (sandy clay and clay loam) of the
area are developed from mixed material derived from
variety of rocks of Bhittani and Waziristan ranges. The
soils occur on leveled to nearly leveled position in
piedmont plains. Climate of the area is arid to semi-arid
Figure 2 shows average ECe concentrations of the soil at
each sampling location. Soil samples taken from 0 – 0.25
m depth at different locations had an average ECe value
of 6.15 dS/m, standard deviation of 2.84 dS/m and
coefficient of variation of 46.30%. The average value of
ECe of soil samples taken from depths 0.25 – 0.50 m was
5.74 dS/m, standard deviation of 2.6 dS/m and coefficient
of variation of 45.40%. Similarly, the average value of
ECe of the soil samples taken from 0.50 – 1 m depth was
Khan et al. 345
Gilg it Bal tis ta n
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Figure 1. (a) Map of Pakistan and (b) Study area showing sampling locations
14.00
ECe
ECe Avg
12.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
Sampling Location
Figure 2. Electrical Conductivity of the soil at various locations
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ECe (dS/m)
10.00
346 Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
5.00
Na
Na Avg
4.50
4.00
3.50
Na (m eq /l)
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
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Figure 3. Sodium concentration of the soil at various locations
5.18 dS/m, standard deviation of 2.55 dS/m and
coefficient of variation of 49.30%. The average values
also indicated that salts were high in the upper soil layers
as compared to the lower soil layers. Results reveal that
soil salinity was decreased from top to bottoms. The
overall average value of ECe has been 5.69 dS/m.
Richards, 1959 reports that soils having ECe greater than
15 dS/m are strongly saline. James et al. 1982 reported
that the soils having ECe greater than 4 dS/m are
classified as saline soils.
Soluble cations of soil extract
The most common cations of soils determined in the
laboratories were Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and
Potassium.
Sodium concentration of the soil extract
Average sodium concentrations of the soil at each
sampling location are presented in Figure 3. Sodium
concentration of the soil samples, which were taken from
0 - 0.25 m depths had an average value of 2.86 meq/l,
standard deviation of 0.84 meq/l and coefficient of
variation of 29.31%. Average value of sodium
concentration from 0.25 – 0.50 m depth was 2.91 meq/l,
standard deviation of 0.72 meq/l and coefficient of
variation of 24.96%. Similarly average value of sodium
concentration of the soil samples taken from 0.50 – 1 m
depth was 2.86 meq/l, standard deviation of 0.73 meq/l
and coefficient of variation of 25.54%. The overall
average sodium concentration of the soil was 2.87 meq/l.
Calcium concentration of the soil extract
Graphical presentation of average calcium concentration
of the soil samples at each sampling location can be
seen in Figure 4. Calcium concentration for the soil
samples taken from 0 - 0.25 m depths, had an average
value of 0.35 meq/l, standard deviation of 0.20 meq/l and
coefficient of variation of 57.18%. Average value of
calcium concentration of the soil samples taken from 0.25
– 0.50 m depth was 0.26 meq/l, standard deviation of
0.19 meq/l and coefficient of variation of 76%. The
average concentration of calcium of the soil samples
taken from 0.50 – 1 m depth was 0.23 meq/l, standard
deviation of 0.17 meq/l and coefficient of variation of
74.40%. The average value of all the depths reveals that
calcium content decreased with depths. The overall
average value of calcium remained as 0.28 meq/l.
Magnesium concentration of the soil extract
Figure 5 shows average concentration of magnesium of
soil samples at each sampling location. Soil samples,
taken from 0 - 0.25 m depths, had an average
magnesium concentration of 0.08 meq/l, standard
deviation of 0.05 meq/l and coefficient of variation of
Khan et al. 347
0.60
Ca
Ca Avg
0.50
Ca (meq/l)
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
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Sampling Location
Figure 4. Calcium concentration of the soil at various locations
0.18
Mg
Mg Avg
0.16
0.14
0.12
Mg (meq/l)
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
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Sampling Location
Figure 5. Magnesium concentration of the soil at various locations
61.70%. The average magnesium concentration of soil
samples taken from 0.25 - 0.5 m depths was 0.08 meq/l,
standard deviation of 0.05 meq/l and coefficient of
variation of 57.65%. The average value of magnesium
concentration of the soil sample from 0.50 – 1 m depths
was 0.07 meq/l with standard deviation of 0.03 meq/l and
coefficient of variation of 47.70%. The average values for
all depths show that magnesium content remained almost
same with depth. Its overall average value remained as
0.08 meq/l.
Potassium concentration of the soil extract
The average potassium concentration of the soil samples
at each sampling location has been shown in Figure 6.
Soil samples taken from 0 - 0.25 m depths, had an
average value of potassium was 1.34 meq/l, standard
deviation of 0.57 meq/l and coefficient of variation
43.01%. The average values of potassium concentration
of soil samples taken from 0.25 - 0.50 m depth, was 1.11
meq/l, standard deviation of 0.45 meq/l and coefficient of
348 Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
2.50
K
K Avg
2.00
K (meq/l)
1.50
1.00
0.50
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Sampling Location
Figure 6. Potassium concentration of the soil at various locations
16.00
SAR
SAR Avg
14.00
12.00
SAR
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
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Sampling Location
Figure 7. Sodium Adsorption Ration of the soil at various locations
variation of 40.95%. The average values of potassium
concentration of the soil samples taken from 0.50 – 1 m
depths, was 0.97 meq/l with standard deviation of 0.44
meq/l and coefficient of variation of 45.10%. The average
values reveal that potassium content decreased with
depths from 1.34 to 0.97 meq/l. The 0.50 – 1 m depth
results show that the soil has low content of potassium in
the lower depths. The overall average value of Potassium
concentration was 1.14 meq/l.
Sodium absorption ratio (SAR) of the soil extract
Average SAR levels of the soil samples at each sampling
location can be seen in Figure 6. Soil samples taken from
depths of 0 - 0.25 m, had an average value of SAR as
7.77, standard deviation of 5.34 and coefficient of
variation of 68.70%. The average value of SAR of the
soil samples taken from 0.25 - 0.50 m depths, was 8.63,
Khan et al. 349
2.50
CO3
CO3 Avg
2.00
CO3 (meq/l)
1.50
1.00
0.50
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Sampling Location
Figure 8. Carbonate concentration of the soil at various locations
standard deviation of 3.98 and coefficient of variation of
46.10%. The average values of soil samples taken from
0.50 – 1 m depth was 8.99, standard deviation of 4.49,
and coefficient of variation of 50.10%. The overall
average value for SAR was 8.46. James et al. 1982
reveals that soils with ECe greater than 4 dS/m and SAR
less than 13 can be classified as saline soil. The average
values reveal that SAR for all soil depths had increased
from top to lower soil layers. Soil investigation division of
WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) reported that SAR of all soils either decreases
or remains unchanged, when irrigated with water having
ECw of 1.5 dS /m, SAR less than 10 and RSC more than
5.0 meq/l.
deviation of 0.84 meq/l and coefficient of variation of
99%. The overall average concentration of carbonate of
the soil samples was 0.78 meq/l.
Bicarbonate concentration of the soil extract
The most common anions of soil determined in the
laboratories were Carbonate, Bicarbonate and Chloride.
Figure 9 shows the average concentration of
bicarbonates of the soil samples at each sampling
location. The average bicarbonate concentration of the
soil samples, taken from 0 - 0.25 m depth had an
average value of bicarbonate as 2.34 meq/l, standard
deviation of 0.86 meq/l and coefficient of variation of
36.80%. The average value of bicarbonate concentration
of soil samples taken from 0.25 - 0.50 m depths was 2.26
meq/l, standard deviation of 1.23 meq/l and coefficient of
variation of 54.60%. The average concentration of
bicarbonate of the soil samples taken from 0.50 – 1 m
depths was 2.17 meq/l, standard deviation of 0.89 meq/l
and coefficient of variation of 41%. The overall average
value of bicarbonate was 2.25 meq/l.
Carbonate concentration of the soil extract
Chloride concentration of the soil extract
Average concentration of carbonates of the soil samples
at each sampling location of the study area are seen in
Figure 8. The average carbonates concentration of the
soil samples, taken from 0 - 0.25 m depths had an
average value of 0.78 meq/l, standard deviation 0.53
meq/l and coefficient of variation 68%. The average value
of carbonates of the soil samples taken from 0.25 - 0.50
m depths was 0.69 meq/l, standard deviation of 0.47
meq/l and coefficient of variation of 67.60%. The
average concentration of carbonate of the soil samples
taken from 0.50 – 1 m depth was 0.85 meq/l, standard
The average chloride concentration of the soil samples at
each sampling location has been shown in Figure 10.
The average chloride concentration of the soil samples,
taken from 0 - 0.25 m depth had an average value of
21.69 meq/l, standard deviation of 17.52 meq/l and
coefficient of variation of 80.75%. The average chloride
concentration of soil samples taken from 0.25 - 0.5 m
depths was 18.11 meq/l, standard deviation of 14.53
meq/l and coefficient of variation of 80.20%. Similarly
average value of chloride concentration of the soil
samples taken from 0.50 – 1 m depths was 14.53 meq/l,
Soluble anions of the soil extract
350 Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
4.50
HCO3
HCO3 Avg
4.00
3.50
HCO3 (meq/l)
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
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Sampling Location
Figure 9. Bicarbonate concentration of the soil at various locations
60.00
Cl
Cl Avg
50.00
Cl (meq/l)
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
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Figure 10. Chloride concentration of the soil at various locations
standard deviation of 10.19 meq/l and coefficient of
variation of 70.09%. The average values of all the depths
reveal that chloride contents had increased with depth.
The overall average value of chloride concentration was
18.12 meq/l.
Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) level of the soil
extract
Figure 11 shows average values of Residual Sodium
Carbonate (RSC) of the soil samples at each sampling
location of the study area. The average value of RSC of
the soil samples, taken from 0 - 0.25 m depths had an
average value of 2.68 meq/l, standard deviation of 1.31
meq/l and coefficient of variation of 48.60 %. The
average RSC values of the soil samples taken from 0.25
- 0.5 m depth, was 2.62 meq/l, standard deviation of 1.66
meq/l and coefficient of variation of 63.58 %. The
average RSC value of soil samples from 0.50 – 1 m
depths was 2.73 meq/l, standard deviation of 1.32 meq/l
and coefficient of variation of 48.50%. The average
values of all the soil samples taken from 0.25 – 1 m
Khan et al. 351
5.00
RSC
RSC Avg
4.50
4.00
3.50
RSC (meq/l)
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
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Figure 11. Residual Sodium Carbonate concentration of the soil at various locations
depths indicate that the RSC had increased with depth
from 2.68 to 2.73 meq/l. However, in the subsurface layer
of 0.25 - 0.5 m depths, RSC values had decreased.
Hussain, 1967 reported that the soil with high RSC
values concentration of salts in the top layer had
negligible effect on the plant growth. However, the
adverse effect was faster when both the components i.e.
the salt concentration and residual sodium carbonate
were high. The overall average value of RSC was 2.67
meq/l.
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are drawn from this research
study.
The average values of ECe and SAR are 5.69 dS/m
and 8.46 respectively. Based on these findings, the soil of
the study area is classified as saline. The average RSC
value of the soil is 2.67 meq/l. These average RSC
values indicate that concentrations of carbonates and bicarbonates are high, which cause calcium and
magnesium to precipitate in the soil. Irrigation water
quality analysis, reclamation of soil and provision of
proper drainage system are recommended.
Competing interests
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Authors’ Contributions
This work was jointly accomplished by the whole team.
All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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