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Language of Argument
Suppose you’ve made an argument that Student Government should take
your position on a controversial issue important to you. But someone else
made an argument opposite to yours. How might you report that event to
your friends.
1. How would you tell your friends about the person who made the other argument?
“I made my case, but some guy opposed me.”
a)
b)
c)
2. What would you say about the two arguments if SG accepted your position?
“He did his best to oppose me, but I won.”
a)
b)
c)
3. What would you say if one person in SG continued to resist your argument.
“I won over most of them, but one guy just dug in his heels.”
a)
b)
c)
4. What would you say if the person who made the other argument offered weak claims that you
were able to rebut.
“He was pretty slippery, but I pinned him down.”
a)
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b)
c)
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The Five Questions of Argument
1. What do you think?
elicits
Claim
2. Why do you say that
elicits
Reasons
3. How do you know?
elicits
Evidence
4. Why do you think your reason
supports your claim?
elicits
Warrant
5. But what about this
alternative claim/reason/
evidence/warrant?
elicits
Acknowledgement &
Response
Claim: A statement made to resolve a problem by motivating others to act or think in ways they
otherwise would not. Claims are always in question.
Reasons: statements made to support a claim. Reasons are always in question: they represent the
arguers contestable judgments about the states of affairs that make a claim acceptable. Reasons
interpret, generalize from, or highlight aspects of evidence.
Evidence: Statements (or other representations) of states of affairs that are not in question (at least
for the purposes of the argument) and that make reasons and claims acceptable. Evidence almost
always involves representations of states of affairs.
Warrants: Statements of general principles of reasoning that connect certain kinds of reasons with
certain kinds of claims. Warrants are often drawn from familiar background knowledge shared by the
participants in an argument, but they can also be principles articulated for the first time. Warrants are
most effective when they don’t have to appear on the page.
Acknowledgment and Response: Statements that acknowledge alternative claims, reasons,
evidence, or warrants that do not support the claim in question. Responses can reject the alternative
summarily, argue against it, or indicate the degree to which the alternative reduces the acceptability
of the claim. Responses are optional.
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The Five Parts of Argument (Plus One)
1. Claim: a statement that is
• Not obvious or otherwise already known.
• Contestable.
• Supportable with evidence.
2. Reasons: statements that
• Explain why you think your claim should be accepted by you and by your readers.
• Represent judgments that you assume are not shared by readers.
3. Evidence: statements that
• Describe or otherwise represent facts about the world that are assumed to be shared with
readers (‘You could look it up’).
• Will not be questioned by readers, at least not for the moment.
• Note: evidence is comprised of representations of states of affairs that are treated, for the sake
of the argument at hand, as external, foundational facts.
4. Warrants: general principles that
• Assert a principled connection between a kind of reason/evidence and a kind of claim.
• Have two components, a reason/evidence side and a claim side.
• Are normally assumed rather than stated.
• Represent shared beliefs and values without which an argument cannot get off the ground.
5. Acknowledgment & Response
Acknowledgments: statements that
• Raise or refer to alternative claims, reasons, evidence, or warrants.
• Locate an argument in a field of possible arguments.
• Show readers that you have not ignored their concerns.
Responses: statements that
• Accept or reject an acknowledged alternative.
• Offer arguments or mini-arguments against an alternative.
• Explain the complications and limits of your argument.
+1. Qualifications: words, phrases, and occasionally sentences that
• Specify degrees of certainty, limits on the sufficiency or quality of evidence, etc..
• Limit the range of a claim.
• State conditions required for a claim to apply (excluding ceteris ceteribus clauses concerning
obvious conditions that go without saying).
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• Show readers your sense of the reliability and range of applicability of your argument.
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Arguments
Warrant
Claim
because of
Reason
Evidence
based on
Acknowledgment & Response
But what is your basis
for connecting those
reasons to that claim?
What are you
claiming?
What reasons do you
have for claiming that?
What evidence do you
base your reasons on?
But what about these plausible
alternatives — this other evidence,
reason, warrant. or claim?
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Because Arguments Solve Problems, They Have
Many Goals
You Don’t Need to Win to Succeed
The Venerable Bede recounts the story of St. Augustine’s reception at the court of King Aethelbert, AD 597:
When, at the king’s command, they had sat down and preached the word of life to the
king and his court, the king said: “Your words and promises are fair indeed; they are
new and uncertain, and I cannot accept them and abandon the age-old beliefs that I
have held together with the whole of the English nation. But since you have traveled
far, and I can see that you are sincere in your desire to impart to us what you believe
to be true and excellent, we will not harm you. We will receive you hospitably and take
care to supply you with all that you need; nor will we forbid you to preach and win
any people you can to your religion.
Nine Degrees of Acceptance
1. Reader, I want you to accept, believe, and act on my claim wholeheartedly.
2. Reader, I want you to accept my claim.
3. Reader, I want you to accept my claim, at least for this specific purpose.
4. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that my claim is one you could accept, even
if you are not now prepared to do so.
5. Reader, I want you to accept that my argument is a good one, even if you cannot
fully accept my claim.
6. Reader, I want you to accept that, even if you do not accept my claim, others
would have good reason for doing so.
7. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that my claim is supported by a coherent
and reasonable argument.
8. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that my claim is supported by an argument
that others might find coherent and reasonable.
9. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that you at least understand my reasons for
making my claim.
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When we think of arguments not as a battle that we win
or lose, but as an ordinary exchange in which reader
and writer seek the best solution to a problem, then we
can count as success outcomes less than the total
capitulation of the reader.
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Because Arguments are Cooperative, You Must
Acknowledge the Ideas of Others
Four Forms of Acknowledgement
1. Objections to the implications of your claim
• But that solution is expensive/hard to implement/has been tried before/ etc. . . .
• But if your claim is true, then we also have to believe . . .
• But if your claim is true, then we can’t also believe . . .
• But if your claim is true, then bad things will happen . . .
2. Objections to specific parts of your argument
• But I would draw a different conclusion . . .
• But I need more than X reasons to accept that claim . . .
• But that evidence is incomplete/unrepresentative/not fully reliable/ etc. . . .
• But I would apply a different principle . . .
• But I define X differently . . .
3. Additional factors
• But have you considered these other reasons . . .
• But have you considered this other evidence . . .
• But have you considered this other line of reasoning . . .
• But have you considered this other principle . . .
4. Alternative views
• But so-and-so has claimed . . .
• But so-and-so found evidence showing . . .
• But what about this perspective . . .
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The Language of Acknowledgment & Response
Acknowledging
When you respond to an anticipated alternative or objection, you must decide how much weight to
give it. You can just mention and dismiss it, or raise it and address it at length. We have ordered
these expressions roughly in that order, from most dismissive to most respectful.
1. You can down play an objection or alternative by summarizing it briefly in a short phrase
introduced with despite, regardless of, or notwithstanding:
Despite Congress’ claims that it wants to cut taxes, acknowledgment the public believes
that . . . response
Regardless of problems in Hong Kong, acknowledgment Southeast Asia remains a strong . . .
response
Notwithstanding declining crime rates, acknowledgment there is still a need for vigorous
enforcement of … response
You can use although and while in the same way:
Although Congress claims it wants to cut taxes, acknowledgment the public believes that
… response
While there are problems in Hong Kong, acknowledgment Southeast Asia remains a strong …
response
Even though crime has declined, acknowledgment there is still a need for vigorous enforcement of
… response
2. You can indirectly signal an objection or alternative with a seem or appear, along with some other
qualifying conditioning verb or adverb, such as plausibly, justifiably, reasonably, accurately,
understandably; foolishly, surprisingly or even certainly.
In his letters, Lincoln expresses what seems to be depression. acknowledgment But those who
observed him… response
Smith’s data appear to support these claims. acknowledgment However, on closer
examination… response
This proposal may have some merit, acknowledgment but in light of… response
Liberals have made a plausible case that the arts ought to be supported by taxpayers.
acknowledgment But they ignore the moral objections of … response
3. You can acknowledge alternatives by attributing them to unnamed sources or to no source at all.
This kind of acknowledgment gives a little weight to the possible objection. In these examples,
brackets and slashes indicate choices:
It is easy to [think/imagine/say/claim/argue] that taxes should be spent on…
There is [another/alternative/ possible/standard] [explanation / line of argument / account
/ possibility].
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Some evidence [might/ may / could / would / does] [suggest/ indicate/ point to / lead some
to think] that we should…
4. You can acknowledge an alternative by attributing it to a more or less specific source. This
construction gives slightly more validity to the position that you acknowledge:
There are some who [might/ may / could / would] [say / think / argue / claim / charge/
object] that Cuba is not. . .
5. You can acknowledge an alternative in your own voice or with a passive verb or concessive
adverb. You concede the alternative has some validity, but by changing the words, you can qualify
how much validity you acknowledge.
I [understand/ know/ realize/ appreciate] that liberals believe in . . .
It is [true / possible / likely / certain] that no good evidence proves that coffee causes
cancer . . .
It [must / should / can] be [admitted / acknowledged / noted/ conceded] that no good
evidence proves that coffee causes cancer . . .
[Granted/ admittedly/ true/ to be sure / certainly /of course], Adams admitted…
We [can/ might / may / could / would] [say / argue / claim / think] that spending on the arts
supports pornographic . . .
We have to [consider / raise] the [question/ possibility / probability] that further study
[could/ might / will] show crime has not . . .
We cannot [overlook/ ignore / dismiss / reject] the fact that Cuba was . . .
What X [says/ states/ writes/ claims / asserts / argues / suggests / shows] may [be true/ has
merit/ make sense/ be a good point]: Perhaps Lincoln did suffer . . .
Responding
We signal a response with but, however, or on the other hand. Remember that after you state your
response, readers probably expect reasons and evidence supporting it, because it will seem to be a
claim needing an argument.
1. You can respond that the acknowledged position is irrelevant.
But as insightful as that position may be, it [ignores / is not relevant to / has no bearing
on/ was formulated for other situations than] the issue at hand.
2. You can respond that the acknowledged position is unreliable.
But the evidence is [unreliable/ shaky / thin/ not the best available].
But the argument is [untenable/ wrong / weak / confused / simplistic].
But that view [overlooks/ ignores/ misses] key factors . . .
But that position is based on [unreliable / faulty / weak / confused] [reasoning / thinking /
evidence].
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WARRANTS
C: I need new sneakers. These are dirty. Look at these raggedy laces.
P: Raggedy laces and dirt aren’t enough reason to buy new sneakers.
C: Billy thinks I should get new shoes.
P: What does that have to do with it?
C: Everybody else got new shoes.
P: I doubt it, but it doesn't matter either.
C: Parents who don’t love their kids don’t buy them new shoes. Don’t you love me?
P: No new sneakers.
C: I need new sneakers.claim These are dirty. Look at these raggedy laces.evidence
P: Raggedy laces and dirt aren’t enough reason to buy new sneakers. [i.e., What you say may be true,
but it is not relevant evidence. Dirt and raggedy shoelaces are insufficient evidence of the bad condition of
shoes.]
C: Billy thinks I should get new shoes.evidence
P: What does that have to do with it? [i.e., It does not matter whether your observation is true. Billy’s
opinion is not authoritative; moreover it’s irrelevant.]
C: Everybody else got new sneakers.evidence
P: I doubt it, but it doesn't matter what they get. [i.e., I do not care whether your statement is true; I do
not buy you things only because other people get them.]
C: Parents who don’t love their kids don’t buy them new shoes.general principle Don’t you
love me?implied claim
P: No new gym shoes. [i.e., Your principle is true: parents who don’t love their children usually neglect
them, and so don’t buy them new shoes when they need them. But in order to conclude, as your
question implies, that I do not love you, the converse must also be true: all parents who do not buy their
children new shoes thereby do not love them. This last principle is false, so you cannot conclude that I
do not love you because I will not buy you new shoes.]
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Assertions, Arguments, and Warranted Arguments
In an assertion, you make a statement that you implicitly claim is true.
Y is so.
Claim
A. Today, Lincoln is revered as one of America’s most admired historical figures, but at the time, he
was not a popular President.
B. Although the Cinderella characters are known for their beauty and kindness, their weakness is
troubling.
In an argument, you make a statement that you claim is true, and you state the
evidence that you believe should lead your reader to accept the truth of your
claim.
Y is so.
Claim
because
X is true
Evidence
A. Today, Lincoln is revered as one of America's most admired historical figures, but at the time, he
was not a popular President. Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
claim Lincoln was not a popular President.
evidence Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
B. Although the Cinderella characters are known for their beauty and kindness, their weakness is a
troubling echo of the worst chauvinist stereotypes. It is only through magic that these submissive
females find the strength to achieve their goals.
claim The weakness of the Cinderella characters is a troubling echo of the worst chauvinist
stereotypes.
evidence It is only through magic that these submissive females find the strength to achieve their
goals.
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Assertions, Arguments, and Warranted Arguments —
An argument is warranted when the relationship between a claim and its
evidence is supported by a general principle (sometimes unstated) that is accepted
as true and that includes all relevant elements of the claim and the evidence.
Think of a warrant as a conceptual bridge that establishes the connection between
a claim and its evidence:
General
Principle Z
Warrant
Y is so.
because
Claim
X is true
Evidence
Even in the simplest arguments, when your claim is supported by good evidence,
there is some general principle — a warrant — that explains why that evidence
should count in support of that claim.
claim It must have rained last night.
Why do you think that? (That is, what is your evidence?)
evidence The streets are wet this morning.
What makes you think that wet streets should count as evidence of rain. (That is, what is
your warrant?)
warrant Wet streets are always a good sign of rain.
You can state warrants in many ways, but the most useful is to state it as a twopart sentence, with one part that talks about the kind of evidence you have and one
part that talks about the kind of claim you want to make:
When/if we have evidence of kind X, we can make a claim of kind Y.
warrant If streets are wet in the morning, we can conclude that it probably rained the night before.
In an argument this simple, about a matter we know so well, the connection
between the claim and its evidence is so obvious you would never state it. If you
did, your listeners might be offended that you assumed they did not know this
obvious principle. But when you make claims in your papers, especially when the
claims are strong enough to be interesting, your readers might not always see so
quickly why your evidence supports those claims — and sometimes you may not
be so clear on exactly what connects them.
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Assertions, Arguments, and Warranted Arguments —
You need not explicitly state in your paper every warrant that connects your
claims and evidence, but it is a good idea to check each of the most important
claims in your paper: What is my warrant? What general principle do I believe
and expect my readers to believe that connects my particular claim to my
particular evidence? Once you can state your warrant for yourself, then you can
decide whether your readers already know and share this general principle, in
which case you do not need to say it in your paper. If, however, your readers may
not know and believe this general principle, then you need to tell them what it is.
A. Today, Lincoln is revered as one of America's most admired historical figures, but at the time, he
was not a popular President. Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
claim Lincoln was not a popular President.
evidence Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
warrant When Presidents are brutally attacked by many newspapers, they are unpopular.
B. Although the Cinderella characters are known for their beauty and kindness, their weakness is a
troubling echo of the worst chauvinist stereotypes. It is only through magic that these submissive
females find the strength to achieve their goals.
claim The weakness of the Cinderella characters is a troubling echo of the worst chauvinist
stereotypes.
evidence It is only through magic that these submissive females find the strength to achieve their
goals.
warrant Because magic is no substitute for personal strength in achieving goals, when a story
portrays a young woman as needing magic to succeed in life, then that story perpetuates
the worst chauvinist stereotypes.
An effective argument includes a claim that is not
obvious, the evidence that leads readers to accept
the claim, and a (sometimes implicit) warrant stating
a general principle that relates the evidence to the
claim.
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