Im
mpact of Ventilation
V
n on Fire Behavior
B
in
n Legacy aand Contem
mporary
Residentiial Constru
uction
Steve Keerber, PE
Research Engineer, Co
orporate Reseearch
Issue Date: December 114, 2010
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for whaatever use or noonuse is made oof the informattion contained in this
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but not
limited to, consequential damage
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nnection with th
he use or inabillity to use the iinformation con
ntained
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ort. Informatio
on conveyed by this Report app
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DOCUMEN
D
NT INFORM
MATION
Reelease Type
Internal
Customeer (Confiden
ntial)
External (Public))
UL Distribution
Extern
nal Distributiion
Date:
December 14, 2010
H
Seccurity
Depaartment of Homeland
Key
ywords: Ventilation, Fire Behavior, M
Modern, Legaccy
Title: Imp
pact of Venttilation on Fiire Behaviorr in Legacy aand Contempporary Residdential
Construcction
Author(s)
A
Step
phen Kerber
Depaartment
Corporatte Research
Ph
hone
Reviewer(s)
R
Depaartment
Ph
hone
Tho
omas Fabian
Corporatte Research
Prav
vinray Gandh
hi
Corporatte Research
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Under the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Assistance to Firefighter
Grant Program, Underwriters Laboratories examined fire service ventilation practices as well as
the impact of changes in modern house geometries. There has been a steady change in the
residential fire environment over the past several decades. These changes include larger homes,
more open floor plans and volumes and increased synthetic fuel loads. This series of
experiments examine this change in fire behavior and the impact on firefighter ventilation tactics.
This fire research project developed the empirical data that is needed to quantify the fire
behavior associated with these scenarios and result in immediately developing the necessary
firefighting ventilation practices to reduce firefighter death and injury.
Two houses were constructed in the large fire facility of Underwriters Laboratories in
Northbrook, IL. The first of two houses constructed was a one-story, 1200 ft2, 3 bedroom, 1
bathroom house with 8 total rooms. The second house was a two-story 3200 ft2, 4 bedroom, 2.5
bathroom house with 12 total rooms. The second house featured a modern open floor plan, twostory great room and open foyer. Fifteen experiments were conducted varying the ventilation
locations and the number of ventilation openings. Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the
front door only, opening the front door and a window near and remote from the seat of the fire,
opening a window only and ventilating a higher opening in the two-story house. One scenario in
each house was conducted in triplicate to examine repeatability.
The results of these experiments provide knowledge for the fire service for them to examine their
thought processes, standard operating procedures and training content. Several tactical
considerations were developed utilizing the data from the experiments to provide specific
examples of changes that can be adopted based on a departments current strategies and tactics.
The tactical considerations addressed include:

Stages of fire development: The stages of fire development change when a fire becomes
ventilation limited. It is common with today’s fire environment to have a decay period prior
to flashover which emphasizes the importance of ventilation.

Forcing the front door is ventilation: Forcing entry has to be thought of as ventilation as
well. While forcing entry is necessary to fight the fire it must also trigger the thought that
air is being fed to the fire and the clock is ticking before either the fire gets extinguished or it
grows until an untenable condition exists jeopardizing the safety of everyone in the structure.

No smoke showing: A common event during the experiments was that once the fire became
ventilation limited the smoke being forced out of the gaps of the houses greatly diminished or
stopped all together. No some showing during size-up should increase awareness of the
potential conditions inside.

Coordination: If you add air to the fire and don’t apply water in the appropriate time frame
the fire gets larger and safety decreases. Examining the times to untenability gives the best
case scenario of how coordinated the attack needs to be. Taking the average time for every
experiment from the time of ventilation to the time of the onset of firefighter untenability
3
conditions yields 100 seconds for the one-story house and 200 seconds for the two-story
house. In many of the experiments from the onset of firefighter untenability until flashover
was less than 10 seconds. These times should be treated as being very conservative. If a
vent location already exists because the homeowner left a window or door open then the fire
is going to respond faster to additional ventilation opening because the temperatures in the
house are going to be higher. Coordination of fire attack crew is essential for a positive
outcome in today’s fire environment.

Smoke tunneling and rapid air movement through the front door: Once the front door is
opened attention should be given to the flow through the front door. A rapid in rush of air or
a tunneling effect could indicate a ventilation limited fire.

Vent Enter Search (VES): During a VES operation, primary importance should be given to
closing the door to the room. This eliminates the impact of the open vent and increases
tenability for potential occupants and firefighters while the smoke ventilates from the now
isolated room.

Flow paths: Every new ventilation opening provides a new flow path to the fire and vice
versa. This could create very dangerous conditions when there is a ventilation limited fire.

Can you vent enough?: In the experiments where multiple ventilation locations were made
it was not possible to create fuel limited fires. The fire responded to all the additional air
provided. That means that even with a ventilation location open the fire is still ventilation
limited and will respond just as fast or faster to any additional air. It is more likely that the
fire will respond faster because the already open ventilation location is allowing the fire to
maintain a higher temperature than if everything was closed. In these cases rapid fire
progression if highly probable and coordination of fire attack with ventilation is paramount.

Impact of shut door on occupant tenability and firefighter tenability: Conditions in
every experiment for the closed bedroom remained tenable for temperature and oxygen
concentration thresholds. This means that the act of closing a door between the occupant and
the fire or a firefighter and the fire can increase the chance of survivability. During
firefighter operations if a firefighter is searching ahead of a hoseline or becomes separated
from his crew and conditions deteriorate then a good choice of actions would be to get in a
room with a closed door until the fire is knocked down or escape out of the room’s window
with more time provided by the closed door.

Potential impact of open vent already on flashover time: All of these experiments were
designed to examine the first ventilation actions by an arriving crew when there are no
ventilation openings. It is possible that the fire will fail a window prior to fire department
arrival or that a door or window was left open by the occupant while exiting. It is important
to understand that an already open ventilation location is providing air to the fire, allowing it
to sustain or grow.

Pushing fire: There were no temperature spikes in any of the rooms, especially the rooms
adjacent to the fire room when water was applied from the outside. It appears that in most
cases the fire was slowed down by the water application and that external water application
4
had no negative impacts to occupant survivability. While the fog stream “pushed” steam
along the flow path there was no fire “pushed”.

No damage to surrounding rooms: Just as the fire triangle depicts, fire needs oxygen to
burn. A condition that existed in every experiment was that the fire (living room or family
room) grew until oxygen was reduced below levels to sustain it. This means that it decreased
the oxygen in the entire house by lowering the oxygen in surrounding rooms and the more
remote bedrooms until combustion was not possible. In most cases surrounding rooms such
as the dining room and kitchen had no fire in them even when the fire room was fully
involved in flames and was ventilating out of the structure.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 3
1.
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 8
2.
Objectives and Technical Plan .............................................................................................. 11
3.
Project Technical Panel......................................................................................................... 12
4.
Previous Literature ................................................................................................................ 13
5.
4.1.
Research on Window Failure ......................................................................................... 13
4.2.
Research on Ventilation ................................................................................................. 14
4.3.
Fire Service Ventilation Publications............................................................................. 15
Panel Furnace Window and Door Experiments .................................................................... 19
5.1.
Full-Scale Vertical Fire Furnace .................................................................................... 20
5.2.
Experimental Samples .................................................................................................... 21
5.3.
Construction of the Experimental Assemblies ............................................................... 22
5.4.
Instrumentation............................................................................................................... 24
5.5.
Experimental Methodology ............................................................................................ 26
5.6.
Window and Door Experiment Results .......................................................................... 27
5.7.
Window and Door Experiment Discussion .................................................................... 55
5.8.
Window and Door Experiment Conclusions .................................................................. 62
5.9.
Future Research Needed................................................................................................. 62
5.10.
6.
7.
8.
Fire Service Tactical Consideration ........................................................................... 62
Modern vs. Legacy Room Furnishings Fire Comparisons ................................................... 64
6.1.
Experiment 1 .................................................................................................................. 64
6.2.
Experiment 2 .................................................................................................................. 70
6.3.
Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 75
6.4.
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 75
Heat Release Rate Experiment.............................................................................................. 76
7.1.
Experimental Set-up and Furnishings ............................................................................ 76
7.2.
Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................. 76
7.3.
Instrumentation............................................................................................................... 76
7.4.
Results ............................................................................................................................ 76
7.5.
Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 77
7.6.
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 77
Full-Scale House Experiments .............................................................................................. 82
8.1.
One-Story Structure........................................................................................................ 82
6
8.2.
Two-Story Structure ....................................................................................................... 84
8.3.
Fuel Load........................................................................................................................ 87
8.4.
Instrumentation............................................................................................................... 89
8.5.
Experimental Methodology ............................................................................................ 92
8.6.
One-Story Experimental Results .................................................................................... 94
8.7.
Two-Story Experimental Results ................................................................................. 169
8.8.
Discussion .................................................................................................................... 256
9.
Tactical Considerations ....................................................................................................... 284
9.1.
Stages of fire development ........................................................................................... 284
9.2.
Forcing the front door is ventilation ............................................................................. 285
9.3.
No smoke showing ....................................................................................................... 286
9.4.
Coordination ................................................................................................................. 289
9.5.
Smoke tunneling and rapid air movement in through front door ................................. 292
9.6.
Vent Enter Search (VES) ............................................................................................. 294
9.7.
Flow paths .................................................................................................................... 296
9.8.
Can you vent enough? .................................................................................................. 297
9.9.
Impact of shut door on victim tenability and firefighter tenability .............................. 299
9.10.
Potential impact of open window already on flashover time ................................... 301
9.11.
Pushing Fire .............................................................................................................. 302
9.12.
No damage to surrounding rooms ............................................................................ 308
10.
Summary of Findings:...................................................................................................... 309
11.
Future Research Needs: ................................................................................................... 311
12.
Acknowledgements: ......................................................................................................... 311
13.
References: ....................................................................................................................... 312
Appendix A: Firefighter Reference Scales for the Results Sections ......................................... 315
Appendix B: Detailed One-Story House Drawings and Pictures .............................................. 317
Appendix C: Detailed Two-Story House Drawings and Pictures .............................................. 323
Appendix D: Furniture Pictures ................................................................................................. 333
Appendix E: Detailed House Experiment Room Temperature Graphs ..................................... 336
7
1. Introduction
There is a continued tragic loss of firefighters’ and civilian lives, as shown by fire statistics. It is
believed that one significant contributing factor is the lack of understanding of fire behavior in
residential structures resulting from natural ventilation and use of ventilation as a firefighter
practice on the fire ground. The changing dynamics of residential fires as a result of the changes
in construction materials, building contents and building size and geometry over the past 50
years add complexity to the influence of ventilation on fire behavior. UL conducted a series of
15 full-scale residential structure fires to examine this change in fire behavior and the impact of
firefighter ventilation tactics.
NFPA estimates1 that from 2003-2007, U.S. fire departments responded to an average of 378,600
residential fires annually. These fires caused an estimated annual average of 2,850 civilian deaths
and 13,090 civilian injuries. More than 70% of the reported home fires and 84% of the fatal
home fire injuries occurred in one- or two- family dwellings, with the remainder in apartments or
similar properties. For the 2001-2004 period, there were an estimated annual average 38,500
firefighter fire ground injuries in the U.S.2 The rate for traumatic firefighter deaths when
occurring outside structures or from cardiac arrest has declined, while at the same time,
firefighter deaths occurring inside structures has continued to climb over the past 30 years.3
Ventilation is believed to be one significant factor that is contributing to this continued climb in
firefighter deaths.
Ventilation is frequently used as a firefighting tactic to control and fight fires. In firefighting,
ventilation refers to the tactic of creating a draft with an opening above or opposite the entry
point so that heat and smoke will be released, permitting the firefighters to locate and attack the
fire. If used properly, ventilation improves visibility and reduces the chance of flashover or back
draft. If a fire is not properly ventilated, not only will it be much harder to fight, but it could also
build up enough smoke to create a back draft or smoke explosion, or enough heat to create
flashover. However, poorly placed or timed ventilation may increase the air supply to the fire,
causing it to rapidly grow and spread. Used improperly, ventilation can cause the fire to grow in
intensity and potentially endanger the lives of fire fighters who are between the fire and the
ventilation opening.
While no known studies compile statistics on ventilation induced fire injuries and fatalities, the
following are examples of recent ventilation induced fires that resulted in fire fighter injuries and
fatalities.
1) A NIOSH fatality investigation report, 98-FO7 involved “offensive entry (that) was not
coordinated with ventilation that was complete and effective” that resulted in a firefighter
fatality4;
2) A January 27, 2000 Texas residential fire resulted in one firefighter death as a result of
venting through the front door causing “a thermal heat column”5;
3) A February 29, 2008 duplex fire resulted in 1 firefighter death and 1 resident death as a result
of, among other factors, “lack of coordinated ventilation”. NIOSH report conclusion states “This
contributory factor (tactical ventilation) points to the need for training on the influence of tactical
operations (particularly ventilation) on fire behavior”.6 ;
8
4) A November 20, 2008 residential fire in Prince Georges County, Maryland resulted in “two
firefighters involved in this incident were seriously injured. The crew from the truck company
donned their PPE and SCBA and entered the structure to begin ventilation by removing
windows. As additional arriving firefighters stretched another hoseline into position, flashover
occurred.”7;
5) NIOSH fatality investigation report F2007-29 reports of a fire in a residential structure and
states “…Horizontal and vertical ventilation was conducted and a powered positive pressure
ventilation fan was utilized at the front door but little smoke was pushed out. Minutes later,
heavy dark smoke pushed out of the front door…. Two victims (firefighters) died of smoke
inhalation and thermal injuries.”;
6) While not a residential fire, the Charleston, SC fire on June 18, 2008 that resulted in 9
firefighter deaths reported that misuse of ventilation was one contributing factor. The recent
NIOSH report on this event stated “A vent opening made between the fire fighter or victims and
their path of egress could be fatal if the fire is pulled to their location or cuts off their path of
egress”8;
7) Most recently a residential fire in Homewood, IL claimed the life of a young firefighter and
injured another. The NIOSH fatality investigation report, F2010-10 recommends, “Fire
departments should ensure that fire fighters and officers have a sound understanding of fire
behavior and the ability to recognize indicators of fire development and the potential for extreme
fire behavior, and, Fire departments should ensure that incident commanders and fire fighters
understand the influence of ventilation on fire behavior and effectively coordinate ventilation
with suppression techniques to release smoke and heat.9”
An alliance of the Department of Homeland Security, International Association of Fire Chiefs
and the International Association of Fire Fighters created a website,
www.firefighternearmiss.com, to track fire fighter near miss incidents. The National Fire Fighter
Near-Miss Reporting System is a voluntary, confidential, non-punitive and secure reporting
system with the goal of improving fire fighter safety. Submitted reports are reviewed by fire
service professionals. Identifying descriptions are removed to protect people’s identities. The
report is then posted on the web site for other fire fighters to use as a learning tool. Countless
reports indicate that ventilation, rapid fire progression and flashover are responsible for near miss
situations. Some excerpts of the reports include:

“While progressing further into the living area, the temperature of the room, which was
about 350 degrees F, rapidly climbed to approximately 800 degrees. Smoke conditions
rapidly darkened, and we proceeded to immediately exit the structure. Heat conditions
worsened and I began to feel burning on my arms, legs and neck. I turned around and
noticed a wall of orange flame as the room began to flash. The firefighter and I made it
to the hallway and rapidly exited the structure.10”

“We tracked the sound to a door that was leading to a converted garage with 15 foot
ceilings. The windows were blackened, giving us a clear indication that there were
possible backdraft conditions in that room. I called on the radio for ventilation to be
coordinated with our fire attack. Command sent crews to the wrong set of windows.
9
When we opened the door and began to advance, I noticed that the entire room was
burning around us. Just as I was ordering crews to retreat and regroup, a wall of flame
came rushing toward us and the force of the flame knocked three 225 pound men flat on
their backs. We were fortunate to be retreating when the flashover occurred. Although
we all suffered minor first and second degree burns, it could have been a lot worse.11”

“On arrival at a two-story house fire, we found heavy smoke coming from the 2nd. floor
of the house and no visible fire. We entered with a 1 3/4" line, using the stairway. We
went to the second floor to do a primary search and search for a confined fire. We
advised command that we needed ventilation and a back-up on the second floor.
Suddenly, smoke and heat conditions increased, and we were driven down to the landing
of the stairway. My officer then told me to take the landing window out, which I did
without thinking. Suddenly an explosive event occurred that knocked us down the
stairway to the first floor followed by a large fire ball.12”

“Arrive on scene of a 2 story 3000 square foot residential structure…Ventilation needed
to take place. The ventilation occurred at the rear of the structure. I opened the front door
and the smoke was rapidly being sucked back into the building. I was on my knees and
looking inside the door to see what I could see. I decided to crawl inside to see where the
fire was coming from. As I got to a couch that was about 8 foot inside the door, I stopped
as heavy embers of fire were dropping on the floor. I found the smoke had lightened and
I could see the roof. All I saw was fire. The gas vapor at the highest level of the structure
was burning. I immediately retreated to the exterior of the structure through the doorway.
As I turned from the front porch and looked back at the door, the fire was lapping out of
the front door about 12 feet. The second line was deployed to knock that fire down and
give me a chance to get farther away from the structure. When I regained my position,
both hand lines were deployed at the door and the front window. The entire living room
was on fire from flashover.13”

“We backed out, advised the IC of the situation, and requested ventilation be performed.
Two large windows were broken out behind the wood stove in the same room. The
smoke layer lifted 3-4 feet. We advanced again inside just past our earlier position when
the entire home flashed over. My nozzle man disappeared in flames except for his feet. I
could barely see the doorway we entered but was otherwise surrounded by fire. I began
dragging my partner by the feet back to the door. Initially he was resistant to this due to
the fact he had rolled to his back and opened the nozzle without any apparent effect on
the fire. The backup crew assisted as we exited the door. They saw that the fire had
blown out the windows on our side and was impinging on both hose lines in the
breezeway leading to the door connecting to the garage.14”
As fire grows from the initial ignited item to other objects in the room of fire origin, it may
become ventilation controlled depending on how well the fire compartment (i.e., home) is sealed.
During this incipient stage both the fire growth and power (heat release rate) are limited by
available ventilation. If the compartment is tightly sealed, the fire may ultimately self-extinguish
due to insufficient oxygen. However, if ventilation is increased, either through tactical action of
firefighters or unplanned ventilation resulting from effects of the fire (e.g., failure of a window)
or human action (e.g., door opened) heat release will increase, potentially resulting in ventilation
10
induced flashover conditions. These ventilation induced fire conditions are sometimes
unexpectedly swift providing little time for firefighters to react and respond.
Compounding the problem with ventilation is the changing dynamics of residential fires due to
the changes in contemporary home construction including recently developed building materials
and construction practices, contents, size and geometry of new homes. Many contemporary
homes are larger than older homes built before 1980. Based on United States Census data homes
have increased in average square footage from approximately 1600 ft2 in 1973 to over 2500 ft2 in
200815. Newer homes tend to incorporate open floor plans, with large spaces that can contribute
to rapid fire spread. The challenge of rapid fire spread is exacerbated by the use of building
contents that have changed significantly in recent years, contributing to the decrease in time to
untenable (life threatening) conditions. Changes include: a) the increased use of more flammable
synthetic materials such as plastics and textiles, b) the increased quantity of combustible
materials and c) the use of goods with unknown composition and uncertain flammability
behavior.
2. Objectives and Technical Plan
The objectives of this research study are to:
 Improve firefighter safety by providing an enhanced understanding of ventilation
(naturally induced and as a firefighting tactic) in residential structures.
 Demonstrate the impact on fire behavior of changes in residential construction such as
those created by window types and furnishings.
 Develop tactical considerations based on the experimental results that can be
incorporated into firefighting standard operating guidelines.
The objectives were accomplished through the technical plan depicted in Figure 1. The literature
review was conducted to determine the gaps in research and to develop the details of the panel
furnace window and door experiments, heat release rate experiment and the modern and legacy
room fire experiments. The results of the panel furnace window and door experiments and the
heat release rate experiment were used to develop the timeline and fuel load for the full-scale
house experiments. All of the experiments were documented for the technical report and the
technical report is the basis for the web based outreach program and the dissemination of the
results to the key stakeholders such as the Department of Homeland Security, the fire service and
other organizations in the fire protection community.
11
Figure 1. Project Techn
nical Plan
3. Projject Tech
hnical Pa
anel
A techniccal panel of fire service and research
h experts waas assembledd based on thheir previouss
experiencce with reseaarch studies,, ventilation practices, sccientific knoowledge, praactical
knowledg
ge, professio
onal affiliatio
ons and dissemination too the fire serrvice. They provided
valuable input into alll aspects of this project such as expeerimental deesign and ideentification oof
tactical consideration
c
ns. The paneel made this project relevvant and posssible for thee scientific
results to
o be applicab
ble to firefigh
hters and offficers of all llevels. The panel consissted of:

Charles
C
Baileey, Captain, Montgomery
M
y County Firre Departmeent (MD)

Jo
ohn Ceriello
o, Lieutenantt, Fire Deparrtment of Neew York

Jaames Dalton
n, Coordinato
or of Researcch, Chicago Fire Departtment

Richard
R
Edgeeworth, Director of Fire Training, Chhicago Fire D
Department

Ed
E Hartin, Firre Chief, Ceentral Whidb
bey Island Fiire Rescue D
Department

Otto
O Huber, Fire
F Chief, Loveland
L
– Symmes
S
Firee Departmennt

Dan
D Madrzyk
kowski, Fire Protection Engineer,
E
Naational Instittute of Standdards and
Technology
T

Mark
M
Nolan, Fire Chief, City
C of North
hbrook (IL)

Stefan Svenssson, Researcch and Devellopment Enggineer, Sweddish Civil Coontingenciess
Agency
A
12
4. Previous Literature
Prior to the start of the experimentation three topics were researched for previous studies that
have been conducted, window failure, ventilation research and fire service ventiation
publications.
4.1.
Research on Window Failure
There have been quite a few studies done on the failure of windows. Many of these studies had
very different objectives such as windows exposed to room fires, windows exposed to outside
fires, glass cracking temperatures, glass fall out temperatures, thick glass windows, multi-glazed
windows, radiant exposure of windows, small-scale windows, vinyl, aluminum and wood frame
windows, floating glass experiments, speacial types of glass, etc. An analysis was done by
Vytenis Babrauskas in 200516 that compiled 21 studies on glass breakage in fires. He highlights
the challenges with the lack of repeatability as it pertains to glass fall out. Similar to the house
experiments, glass breakage is not important if there is never glass fallout to provide oxygen to
the ventilation limited fire.
Many of the studies used 4 mm to 6 mm glass which is representative of commercial
applications17,18,19,20,21. This study utilized residential windows with glass thicknesses of 2.2 mm
to 2.9 mm. Another topic that was researched was wildland fire exposure to the outside of the
windows22,23. Two studies examined the impact of frame type24,25. The first study states that
they had vinyl frame failure prior to the falling-out of the glazing which was not witnessed in
these experiments. The only studies that utilized double glazing were also studies that utilized
thick glass so their conclusions provide little importance to our needs.
The Building Research Institute of Japan26 conducted a series of experiments on 3 mm thick
window glass in a large muffle furnace. They concluded that the mean temperature of glass
breaking and falling out was 340 °C (640 °F) with a standard deviation of 50 °C (120 °F).
This review concludes that factors such as window size, frame type, glass thickness, glass
defects and vertical tremperature gradiant may all be expected to have an effect on glass fall-out.
This study will examine many of these variables in Section 0.
Another series of experiments was conducted in 200927 to try to develop inputs for FDS for glass
breakage and fall-out. The experiments utilized 6 mm thick glass in a compartment fire with up
to a 680 kW fire and concluded that glass fall-out temperature was around 450 °C (840 °F).
An article by a fire chief in 199228 examines the impact of “Energy Efficient Windows” to
firefighting. He explains that the negative impacts include that they keep the heat and smoke in
the fire building, they are difficult to break and they severly limit firefighter egress. The author
states that the windows allow for faster flashover times and pose a real problem for the fire
service. A second article by a fire chief in 200829 restates many of the previous articles
concerns. The first concern is the interference with the size-up process. Heat inside the structure
is masked by the windows. The article also identifies that energy efficient windows are harder to
break and harder to clean out for safe passage.
13
4.2.
Research on Ventilation
There has been some research on ventilation but no studies on full-scale houses that examined
horizontal ventilation for the fire service. To date most scientific studies focus on a single room
or a couple rooms. Some studies have been done in full-scale fire training structures or single
fires have been examined in acquired structures. Additional ventilation studies are done with
computer models and have no supporting experiments.
Six studies were found that address fire service ventilation. The first was “Experimental Study
of Fire Ventilation During Fire Fighting Operations,” by Svensson in 200130. This study
compared natural ventilation to positive pressure ventilation in a simulated 3 room apartment in a
concrete fire training faility. Fifteeen tests were conducted using a pan of heptane as the fuel
source. The tests show an increased burning rate with ventilation but all of the conclusions
focused on the use of positive pressure ventilation. It is concluded that coordination of different
measures at the fire scene is crucial.
The second study was ““Exploratory Experiments on Backdraft in a Full Residential Scale
Compartment, “ by Fleischmann in 1995.31 This study utilizes a single room to try to create
backdraft conditions as the result of fire service ventilation operations. The fuel used for the
experiments was methane and 18 experiments were conducted. They conclude that they were
able to replicate small scale experiments but there were no conclusions about ventilation
procedures.
Another study was conducted to examine backdraft conditions titled, “Some Theoretical and
Practical Aspects on Fire-Fighting Tactics in a Backdraft Situation”, by Gojkovic in 2001. No
experiments were conducted but SOFIE computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models were run to
examine underventilated fires and the impact of firefighter operations. Four tactics were
examined, search and rescue, natural ventilation, positive pressure ventilation and use of the
cutting extinguisher. They conclude that the choice of tactic depends on whether or not there are
people left in the building, the risks one is willing to take and what resources are available.
A second study utilizing CFD modeling was conducted by Saber titled, “CFD simulation for
fully-developed fires in a room under different ventilation conditions.”32 This study examined
the impact of different ventilation scenarios on heat release rate, fuel total mass loss,
temperature, airflow distribution, and fire duration in a single room with a sofa. Ventilation was
provided by a door and window. These openings were varied in size and location during the 11
configurations. The study concludes that when the door and window were on the same wall the
window size was not significant but when on opposite walls the window size had a significant
impact on fire behavior. Additionally, the results showed that the location of the fire load in the
room had a significant effect on the fire characteristics. There were no tactical conclusions for
the fire service.
The next study, “Effect of Positive Pressure Ventilation on a Room Fire,” by Kerber completed
in 200533, was a comparison of natural and positive pressure ventilation (PPV) in a bedroom with
attached hallway. Examining the natural experiment only, when the window was ventilated the
heat release rate increased from approximately 2 MW to 12 MW in seconds. After ventilation,
the temperatures rapidly increased from 800 °C (1470 °F) to the maximum temperature of 1050
°C (1890 °F). While most of the conclusions deal with the use of PPV the study does highlight
the rapid change in conditions and the need for firefighting crews to be coordinated.
14
The final study by the same authoras the previous study, “Full-Scale Evaluation of Positive
Pressure Ventilation In a Fire Fighter Training Building” was completed in 200634. This study
also was focused on PPV but half of the experiments were naturally ventilated. The fire training
building the experiments were conducted in was to simulate a two story house. The fuel was
wooden pallets and straw and the fires were all ventilation limited prior to ventilation. Fourteen
different ventilation configurations were examined including, near the seat of the fire, remote
from the seat of the fire and several different fire locations. The data suggested that natural
ventilation created lower temperatures and the low elevations in the rooms. In these tests the fire
did transition back to a fuel limited fire rather quickly because of the heat absorption of the
concrete walls of the fire training building and the wood product fuel load. The study concludes
that the growth of the fire after ventilation was influenced by the path the outside air traveled
to provide oxygen to the fire. When the ventilation window was in proximity of the fire, usually
in the correct ventilation scenarios as defined in the report, the initial fire growth was more rapid
in the naturally ventilated tests. The average rate of temperature increase for the naturally
ventilated tests was 1.91 °C/s (3.44 °F/s).
4.3.
Fire Service Ventilation Publications
There are several fire service training publications and many fire service magaine articles that
address ventilation. Most of the training publications are based on the criteria put forth by NFPA
1001, the standard for “Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications.”35 This standard outlines the
requisite knowledge needed by the firefighter should include: Perform horizontal ventilation on a
structure operating as part of a team, given an assignment, personal protective equipment,
ventilation tools, equipment, and ladders, so that the ventilation openings are free of
obstructions, tools are used as designed, ladders are correctly placed, ventilation devices are
correctly placed, and the structure is cleared of smoke. Additional knowledge is needed on the
principles, advantages, limitations, and effects of horizontal, mechanical, and hydraulic
ventilation; safety considerations when venting a structure; fire behavior in a structure; the
products of combustion found in a structure fire; the signs, causes, effects, and prevention of
backdrafts; and the relationship of oxygen concentration to life safety and fire growth.
There are three main publications that provide firefighters with the requisite knowledge outlined
above. Each of them teaches ventilation differently and each of them has their own definition of
what ventilation is. International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) defines ventilation
as, “Systematic removal of heated air, smoke, and airborne contaminants from a structure and
replacing them with fresh air.” Jones and Bartlett define ventilation as, “The process of
removing smoke, heat, and toxic gases from a burning structure and replacing them with clean
air.” Delmar defines ventilation as, “the planned, methodical, and systematic removal of
pressure, heat, smoke, gases, and in some cases, even flame from an enclosed area through
predetermined paths.” All of these definitions are generally the same, with subtle differences.
One point to highlight is the inclusion of words that hint at coordination such as, systematic,
process, planned, and methodical. The other important point is the mention of fresh air and clean
air in the first two definitions and no mention in the third definition. The ability of air to enter
during ventilation is a significant component of ventilation. Each of these publishers also
generates their own training material based on the opinions, experience and practical knowledge
of the committees or authors that get assembled to write them. Unfortunately, there have not
been a lot of experiments done to answer many of the topics that need to be covered to meet the
NFPA 1001 standard.
15
Of the many fire service magazine articles on ventilation, ten of them will be included in this
literature review because of their relevance to horizontal ventilation and fire behavior. Much like
the training books described above these articles are written based on the experience or opinion
of the author. The difference in this case is that the article is written by a single author and not a
committee of fire fighters.
The first of these magazine articles is Vincent Dunn’s “The Danger of Outside Venting.”36 This
Fire Engineering Magazine article from 1989 is written by a retired Deputy Chief of the Fire
Department of New York. He had 42 years as a member of FDNY with 26 years as a chief
officer. He has written numerous books and countless articles, all based on the knowledge he
gained through his experiences.
In his article he describes a fire where a firefighter assigned to ventilate the rear of a two story
house is met by a mother in the front yard that is panicked saying her baby is in the bedroom
next to the kitchen. The firefighter ventilates the bedroom window, crawls in and saves the
baby. After this dramatic story that ends in heroism Chief Dunn goes on to teach the importance
of ventilation. He says, “outside venting shows that it requires knowledge, skill and
determination.” To prove his point he describes the hazards of operating alone, dangers around
the perimeter of the structure, dangers of working off of ground ladders, dangers of window
removal, the possibility of being cut off from egress by flames such as those on a fire escape and
the hazards of entering the structure to search after ventilating. After these topics he defines
flashover and says that signs of flashover are high temperatures in smoke filled rooms or
intermittent flames at the ceiling of the room. He suggests taking your glove off, raise it to check
for heat and if it is too hot to raise then flashover is possible. Dunn mentions that flashover
creates temperatures of 1000 F to 1500 F and that “tests” show that skin has extreme pain at 280
F to 320 F. He says that due to the speed a firefighter can crawl, he can only be in the structure 5
to 10 feet and safely escape a flashover.
This article is typical of ventilation articles in that it explains a lot about how to ventilate and
what to look out for when doing so but does not talk about why a firefighter would ventilate and
what impact it would have on the conditions in the structure. It mentions flashover but does not
say why flashover could occur. This highlights a significant gap in the knowledge of the US fire
service. As a general rule firefighters are taught practical knowledge with little scientific
foundation to support their training. Another important question that should be asked by the
reader which is often not is, how valid is the knowledge in this article to me? No one would
question that Chief Dunn does not have significant experience or practical knowledge, but how
does his experience relate to the reader as far as available resources, types of structures, or
training level. Very few places have the resources, structures or training of FDNY so is Chief
Dunn’s knowledge always applicable and what hazards does that cause? There are not one set of
tactics or rules of thumb that apply to all fires but all fires do have to follow the rules of physics.
A second article by Comstock and Maxwell, “Firefighters’ 10 Deadly Sins of the Fireground”37
contains a discussion of 3 critical issues which are relevant to this research. “Ignoring Size-up”
is the first issue which discusses the importance of looking at the type of structure, especially
modern construction techniques as they may provide information about fire spread and length of
time a fire has been burning. “Ignoring changing fire conditions” is the next relevant issue. The
authors highlight roll-over and flameover and the importance of understanding that smoke can
ignite when mixing with air. The third issue is “Ventilating late or not at all.” This supports that
16
ventilation needs to be studied and understood. It goes on to say that ventilation helps trapped
occupants and helps advance the hoseline but does not mention the ability of ventilation to
increase the size of the fire. Coordinating ventilation is mentioned as waiting for the hoseline to
be in place.
A Fire Engineering Magazine article titled “First Due Without a Clue: Don’t Let it Happen to
You”38 also discussed construction and horizontal ventilation. The authors say that the use of
thermal pane windows contributes greatly to the development of flashover conditions by not
allowing heat to exit the building. They reference the NFPA code on fire investigation to
highlight the changes in heat release rate of natural material chair (290 to 370 kW) and newer
polyurethane foam padded chair (1350 to 1990 kW). They use this information and relate it to
other contents such as upholstered furniture, mattresses and electronics to make up the
“ingredients for a fire scene disaster.” They go on to say, “proper, well-timed venting techniques
will greatly reduce the chances for flashover and backdraft. By using these, we can aggressively
and more safely perform our interior attack and searches, and any trapped occupants will have
increased survival time.” However they don’t define what proper or well-timed means.
In August 2008, Battalion Chief Ed Hartin had an article, “Flashover Fundamentals”39 published
in Fire Rescue Magazine. This article points out many of the questions we aim to answer with
our study. He states, “For many years firefighters have been taught that ventilation reduces the
potential for flashover…When a fire is ventilation controlled, heat release rate is limited by the
available oxygen. Under ventilation-controlled conditions, increased air supply (ventilation)
results in increased heat release rate and establishes a path for fire travel, which may result in
flashover.” He reviews several case studies that discuss this phenomena and provides guidance
to identify the ventilation profile of the structures. He explains how changes in ventilation will
impact that profile. Chief Hartin advises that controlling the air track will limit the potential for
flashover and that an access point is also a ventilation opening.
The fifth article included in this review is “Getting the Most from Horizontal Ventilation” by
Wolfe, published in Fire Engineering Magazine in 200940. Wolfe compares vertical ventilation
with horizontal ventilation. He argues that without preexisting openings in the roof such as
skylights or scuttles that vertical ventilation takes too long and the focus should be on using
horizontal ventilation to relieve interior crews and save the occupants. The coordination of
crews is highlighted, “knowing when the attack team has a charged hoseline in place and is ready
for ventilation will ease the operation and prevent any premature actions by the attack or
ventilation team.” The author concludes that horizontal ventilation hasn’t been used to its fullest
potential and that operations can be made safer and less destructive if used. There is no mention
in this article about the impact of improper timed or located ventilation. No attention is given to
the air entering the structure in this analysis.
“Gone With the Wind? Ventilation Fundamentals” was an article published in National Fire and
Rescue Magazine in 200141. It highlights the need to understand “systematic” ventilation by
knowing the location of the fire, type of building construction, occupancy and pre-fire plan. The
author, Peltier, emphasizes that for operations to be carried out effectively, there must be a
person specifically in charge of the ventilation crew and the command to vent should be
coordinated and come from the incident commander. Another important point is made in that
“check to make sure there is a charged hoseline in place before the opening operation takes
place.” Peltier describes horizontal ventilation as letting smoke and hot gases out but never talks
about the fresh air allowed into the structure and its potential effects.
17
FDNY Lieutenant Tom Donnely wrote an article, “Primary Ventilation: A Review” in Fire
Engineering Magazine in 200742. He focuses on the hazard that single family dwelling fires pose
and that horizontal ventilation coupled with an aggressive search should be the primary
firefighting tactics. He emphasizes communication and coordination as keys to a safe operation
and that venting is done for 2 reasons:
 Venting for fire is done to “facilitate the movement of the hoseline attack into the fire
area. We do this by releasing the products of combustion – heat and the highly
flammable, toxic gases and smoke – to decrease the flame spread to reduce the possibility
of flashover, backdraft or smoke explosion.”
 Venting for life is defined as, “during an aggressive search effort, we vent to improve
conditions for known life hazard while knowing that we may escalate the fire condition.”
Another Fire Engineering Magazine article by a FDNY firefighter, Tom Brennan, was published
in 200643. The article titled, “Still Talking in the Kitchen…” focuses on the tactics associated
with the most well-trained operations that support aggressive structural firefighting. Brennan
mentions horizontal ventilation and that a mistake that is rarely detected or talked about is
venting without a plan basd on size-up factors and interior aggressive offensive operations. He
also describes two types of ventilation, accounting for human life and ensuring effective
firefighting. “Venting for life is to open anything that will keep the interior search going-or
allow entry and search of areas behind the fire before water or fans start.” “Venting horizontally
for fire control is to open the fire floor methodically depending on the fire location, movement of
the handline, wind conditions and auto-exposure. This usually means, where the fire is going to
be pushed by the nozzle, the flanks of the enclosure that the nozzle is trying to pass through and
at the side that the nozzle entered from, if necessary.”
The ninth fire service article is titled “Ventilation in Wood-Frame Structures” by Buffalo Fire
Department Captain Peter Kertzie44. He shares that putting water on the fire is the most
important task but ventilation makes that easier. He goes on to say that venting too early does
not occur often because hoselines are put in place quickly and venting too late is dangerous and
irresponsible. He adds that random breaking of windows is not right and “systematic”
ventilation is what is needed. This should be based on sound firefighting essentials, fire and
weather conditions, standard operating procedures, and the use of trained and experienced
firefighters. Another point made is that smoke removal gets confused with ventilation and the
two should be thought of as being very different. Kertzie says, “ the goal of ventilation is to
poke a big enough hole in the structure to let out as much heat, smoke and steam as possible.”
He compares ventilation to opening a bag of popcorn. The caveat he provides is that ventilation
must be carried out simultaneously with the advancement of charged hoselines to save life and
property. While the author mentions coordination he does not mention the fact that the fire can
get larger due to the addition of air to the fire.
The final article, “When to Break the Windows” by John Carlin, Volunteer Safety Officer, was
published in Fire Engineering Magazine in 200145. He explains there are many types of
ventilation but horizontal is the most effective on house fires, easiest to perform and least time
consuming. Carlin explains that he had adverse fire conditions in a number of fires because of
lack of ventilation; they were “cooked like lobsters.” They learned that “beginning the
ventilation process by simply breaking the right window at the right time resulted in a much
more positive outcome.” Again the coordination of ventilation is emphasized. He goes on to say
18
that the window closest to the fire or in the fire area should be broken. Further the crew will
have to have a charged hoseline and be ready to advance into the fire area and that premature
ventilation can cause problems that are detrimental to the outcome of the firefight by increasing
the intensity of the fire or pull the fire into uninvolved areas. Carlin advises, “flames can be
drawn to open windows. Therefore, if you break a window in an unburned area, you can pull the
fire to that area, causing greater damage.” He warns, “if the hoseline crew does not have
adequate water or is not advancing into the fire area, do not break the window.” Also,
“remember that a building on fire is not a green light to randomly smash every window in sight.”
From this literature search the following gaps were identified:
 Window failure data for residential windows is lacking.
 The ventilation research fell short on creating experiments that give the fire service the
necessary details to ventilate intelligently.
 The fire service publications provide a lot of practical knowledge about ventilation but
there are many holes to be filled, especially what is the role of the air allowed into the
house during ventilation on fire growth.
 How ventilation differs in different types of houses and different house geometries.
5. Panel Furnace Window and Door Experiments
Fire performance experiments were conducted to identify and quantify the self-ventilation
performance of windows, comparing legacy to modern, in a fire event prior to fire service
arrival. An additional experiment was conducted to examine interior door performance. The
object of this investigation was to evaluate the reaction to fire of six different window assemblies
and three different door assemblies, by means of fire endurance experiments with the furnace
temperatures controlled in accordance with the time-temperature curve presented in the Standard,
"Fire Tests of Window Assemblies," UL 9, 8th Edition dated July 2, 2009 for windows or
“Positive Pressure Fire Tests of Door Assemblies,” UL 10C, 2nd Edition dated January 26, 2009
for doors. Window performance measurements included: extent of and mechanism of failure
indicated by time of initial glass breakage and size of opening; catastrophic frame failure; and
other fire performance characteristics of varying window structures comparing legacy and
modern windows. Each window had thermocouples inside and outside the furnace, in the center
of the panes as well as near the frame. Heat flux was measured at the face of the window inside
the furnace and 1 m (3 ft) back from the window outside the furnace.
Different window construction parameters assessed include: 1) wood frame and vinyl frame
construction; 2) single and multi-pane designs and 3) single and multi-glazed designs. Different
door construction parameters assessed include: 1) Hollow and solid core construction; and 2)
different wood types. This data demonstrates and compares window and interior door
performance parameters between legacy and modern window and door types. Modern windows
are defined as windows that are able to be easily purchased new and that are typically found in
houses constructed post the year 2000. The legacy windows used in these experiments were
purchased used and are meant to be representative of windows that would be found on houses
built between the years 1950 and 1970. These results were used to design specific ventilation
parameters for the full-scale house fire experiments.
19
5.1. Fulll-Scale Verttical Fire Fu
urnace
The full-scale verticaal fire furnacce (panel furrnace) is onee of three maajor furnacess used to evaaluate
the fire endurance
e
ch
haracteristiccs of represeentative buillding sectionns. When thhe fire has sppread
and engu
ulfed an enttire room orr floor, it beecomes neceessary to coontain the fiire. The buiilding
materialss coupled wiith building construction
n techniquess help resistt the long-teerm effects oof the
fire.
Fire testiing of buildiing materialls started in the early 19900s. Prior to that timee, fire separaations
were ach
hieved by alllowing build
ders to use only
o
specificc materials kknown to hoold up undeer fire
condition
ns. Around the turn of
o the centtury, severaal new andd innovativve materialss and
constructtion techniq
ques were developed.
d
As
A a result, it was neccessary to ddevelop a teesting
procedurre that evalu
uated these new
n
innovattions. The saame basic test procedurre has been used
ever sincce.
The paneel furnace (F
Figure 2) waas originally developed tto determinee the fire enddurance rating of
wall asseemblies. A representativ
r
ve section off a wall, 10 by 10-ft, is constructedd. One side oof the
assembly
y is heated to
o temperaturres up to 200
00 F for up to 4 hours. D
During the teest, the wall must
contain th
he fire and limit
l
the tem
mperature risee on the unhheated side oof the assembbly. After thhe fire
test, a water
w
hose strream test is conducted to determinne a wall’s aability to ressist damage from
mechaniccal and therm
mal stresses. Water is fllowed onto tthe wall usinng a hose too apply a uniiform
force to the
t entire waall assembly and to cool the assemblly rapidly. T
The wall mayy not developp any
holes durring this testt.
Figure 2. The Panel Fu
urnace
20
5.2. Exp
perimental Samples
S
Table 1 describes
d
thee designation
ns, descriptio
ons and dimeensions of thhe 6 window
ws and 3 dooor
samples used
u
for the experimentss. Figure 3 through
t
Figuure 11 show the sampless prior to thee
experimeents. Moderrn windows are
a defined as
a windows tthat are ablee to be easilyy purchased nnew
and that are
a typically
y found in ho
ouses constru
ucted post thhe year 20000. The legaccy windows uused
in these experiments
e
were purchaased used an
nd are meantt to be repressentative of w
windows thaat
would bee found on houses built between
b
the years 1950 aand 1970.
Table 1. Sample
S
Descriiptions
Designattion
Description
Legacy (L
L) or
Modern ((M)
A
Wooden Fram
me, Two Panee, Single
Glazzed, Storm
Vin
nyl Clad Woo
od Frame, Two
T Pane,
Doub
ble Glazed
Wood/Metal Frame / Nine Pane
P
over
One Panee, Single Glaazed
Preemium Plastiic Frame, Tw
wo Pane,
Doub
ble Glazed
Pllastic Framee, Two Pane,, Double
Glazed
G
Prem
mium Wood
den Frame, Two
T Pane,
Doub
ble Glazed
(L)
Size
Widdth (in). x Heeight (in.)
/G
Glass thickneess (in)
330 x 46 1/2 / .093
(M)
300 1/2 x 56 7/88 / .087
(L)
25 5/8 x 59 1/22 / .115
(M)
28 x 54 / .0087
(M)
288 1/2 x 54 1/22 / .088
(M)
29 x 57 / .0089
N/A
N/A
N/A
30 x 800
30 x 800
30 x 800
B
C
D
E
F
1
2
3
Door
D
– Flush
h Oak, Hollow
w Core
Doorr – Six Panell Molded, Ho
ollow Core
Do
oor – Six Pan
nel Pine, Solid Core
Figure
F
3. Sam
mple A
Figu
ure 4. Samplee B
21
Figure 55. Sample C
Figure
F
6. Sam
mple D
Figu
ure 7. Samplee E
Figure 88. Sample F
Figure
F
9. Sam
mple 1
Figu
ure 10. Samplle 2
Figure 11. Sample 3
5.3. Con
nstruction off the Experiimental Asssemblies
Three asssemblies were installed into
i
a wood stud and dryywall plug. T
The plug waas then installled
into a maasonry wall. The plug waas 145 3/4 in
n. wide and 885 3/4 in. high; the threee openings fo
for
the windo
ow assembliies were fram
med with 2 by
b 4 dimensiional lumberr, 32 in. wide and 62 1/22 in.
high. Theese openingss were locateed 19 in. apaart and 12 inn. off the botttom edge. A 2 x 6 headeer
was the top
t edge of the opening. Figure 12 prrovides detaails for this aassembly. Thhe exposed
surface was
w covered with 1/2 in. non-rated gy
ypsum wallbboard. The m
masonry walll was
constructted on a 4 in
n. concrete siill with solid
d block and a steel lintel.. The wall haad an openinng
146 in. wide
w and 86 in.
i high with
h two 8 in. wide
w by 16 inn. long colum
mns built fluush with the
exterior of
o the exposeed side. Thee columns serrved to splitt the openingg into thirds. An
experimeental assemb
bly is presentted in Figuree 13.
mples were installed
i
into
o the plug oppening so thaat the samples were flush on
The expeerimental sam
the expossed surface with
w the dryw
wall. A 3 in.. drywall fraame was attaached to prottect any expoosed
lumber needed
n
for th
he custom fitt of each win
ndow. The w
windows werre orientated such that thhe
furnace exposed
e
sidee would be th
he interior siide of the wiindow.
22
After thee completion
n of the window experim
ments, one oof the windoow plugs waas modified to fit
three, 3 ft.
f x 7 ft. pree-hung doorrs with wood
d frames forr the last andd final experiment. The door
openingss were createed by remov
ving portion
ns of each w
window slot that includeed the removval of
the window header and
a vertical supports. The
T pre-hungg doors weree latched cloosed with passage
type lock
ksets and weere hung with
h the hingess provided byy the door aand frame manufacturer. The
wood door frames were
w
secured to the stud wall
w with faasteners throuugh the eachh jamb. Striips of
d gypsum wallboard
w
were then used to simullate the caseement trim around the door
non-rated
opening.
Upon completion, th
he frame waas lifted into
o the masonrry opening. The framee was drilledd and
then secu
ured to the wall
w with scrrews through
h the frame and metal pplates. The m
metal plates were
attached to the mason
nry wall.
Figure
F
12. Un
nexposed Side of Frame
23
Figure 13. Exposed
E
Side oof Frame
5.4. Insttrumentation
Each win
ndow was instrumented with
w eight - 0.5 mm (0.002 in) nominnal diameter type K bare bead
thermoco
ouples and tw
wo Schmidt-Boelter heat flux gaugess. Each winddow pane haad a
thermoco
ouple in the center
c
and in
n the lower left
l corner, oon both sidess of the glasss to measuree the
temperatu
ure differencce between the
t inside an
nd outside off the glass. IIt also measuured the
differencce in temperaature betweeen the centerr of the winddow pane andd near the frame. The
thermoco
ouples were bent so that they touched the glass bbut they weree not glued oor fixed to thhe
glass in any
a way. A heat flux gaauge was insttalled 10 in. below each window succh that the faace
was flush
h with the gy
ypsum board
d on the expo
osed side of the furnace to measure tthe heat fluxx the
windowss or doors weere exposed to. An additional heat fflux gauge w
was placed ceentered on thhe
top pane of the windo
ow, 36 in. baack from thee face of the wood stud w
wall. This ggauge measurred
f
transmittted through
h the upper window
w
panee (Figure 14)).
the heat flux
or was instru
umented with
h 4 - 0.5 mm
m (0.02 in) noominal diam
meter type K bare bead
Each doo
thermoco
ouples and 1 Schmidt-Booelter heat flu
ux gauges. T
Thermocoupples were plaaced in the toop
center off the door and bottom cen
nter of the door,
d
both onn the exposedd and unexposed side. T
The
thermoco
ouples were bent so that they touched the door bbut they weree not glued oor fixed to thhe
door in any
a way. A heat
h flux gau
uge was placced centeredd on the top hhalf of the dooor, 36 in. bback
from the face of the wood
w
stud wall.
w
This gaauge measureed the heat fflux transmittted through the
door at faailure (Figurre 15).
Video caameras were placed with a field of viiew that focuused on eachh window orr door. A theermal
imaging camera was placed to lo
ook at the enttire frame.
24
Exposed Side (Viewed from Outside Furnace)
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
A
C
E
Unexposed Side (Outside Furnace)
5
B
5
F
5
D
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
- Heat Flux Gauge
- Thermocouple
Figure 14. Window Instrumentation locations
25
Figure
F
15. Doo
or Instrumentt Locations
5.5. Exp
perimental Methodolog
M
y
nts were con
nducted with
h samples A, B and C. Inn each experriment, the
The first 3 experimen
f
until eevery windoow was testedd in each
windowss were rotated to the nextt slot in the frame
location (A-B-C,
(
C-A
A-B, B-C-A)). Experimeents 4 througgh 6 were conducted withh samples D
D, E
and F and
d were rotateed just as thee first 3 weree (D-E-F, F--D-E, E-F-D
D).
The furnaace temperattures were controlled in accordance with the tim
me-temperatuure curve
presented
d in the Stan
ndard, "Fire Tests
T
of Win
ndow Assem
mblies," UL 99, 8th Editionn dated July 2,
2009 for windows. The
T furnace temperatures followed ffor the door eexperiment iis presented in
the stand
dard “Positiv
ve Pressure Fire
F Tests of Door Assem
mblies,” UL 10C, 2nd Eddition dated
January 26,
2 2009 for doors. The furnace tem
mperatures w
were measureed with twelvve
thermoco
ouples symm
metrically loccated in the furnace
f
cham
mber positiooned approxiimately 6 in. (152
mm) from
m the exposeed face of th
he assembly.
out the experiments, obsservations were
w made to note the chaaracter of thee fire and itss
Througho
control, the
t condition
n of the expo
osed and uneexposed surffaces and of all developm
ments pertinent
to the firee performance of the asssembly with particular reeference to w
window meltting, crackinng,
breaking and falling out, heat tran
nsmission, passage
p
of fllame and genneration of ssmoke.
26
5.6. Win
ndow and Door Experim
ment Resultts
5.6.1. Experiment
E
1
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 16. The
T assemblly had, from
m right to leftt on the unexxposed side oof the same,
experimeental window
ws A – B – C.
C
m the unexposed
Observattions during Experiment 1 are detaileed in Table 22. Observattions are from
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
17. Wind
dow temperaatures are grraphed in Fig
gure 18 throuugh Figure 220. The heaat flux for alll
three win
ndows is graaphed versus time in Figu
ure 21.
Figure 16. Experiment 1 Setup
27
Table 2. Experiment 1 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
1:00
1:30
1:45
2:00
2:40
4:07
4:24
5:30
6:34
7:10
7:40
9:00
11:49
12:00
12:08
Observations
Gas on
Sample C, the top panes had begun to crack.
Sample C, smoke had begun to emit from the crack.
Sample B, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample B, developed a crack on the top exterior pane.
Samples A and C, developed a hole in the bottom pane.
Sample B, top interior pane had broken out.
Sample B, top exterior pane had broken out.
Sample C, center sash had started to burn on the exterior.
Sample A, the bottom pane had broken out.
Sample B, the top of the exterior frame had ignited.
Sample B, a hole had developed in the bottom pane.
Sample C, the entire exposed surface of the top wood muntins were burning.
Sample C, top sash had slid down to the bottom of the window assembly.
Gas off.
Sample C, the top sash, which had slid to the bottom, had fallen out of the
assembly
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
Avg. Furnace
200
UL 9 Curve
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 17. Average Furnace Temperature
28
600
700
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7
A-8
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-5
B-6
B-7
B-8
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 18. Window A Temperatures
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 19. Window B Temperatures
29
800
900
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 20. Window C Temperatures
80
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
40
20
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 21. Experiment 1 Heat Flux
30
1000
A-A
A-B
B-C
B-D
C-E
C-F
5.6.2. Experiment
E
2
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 22. The assemb
bly had, from
m right to lefft from lookiing from the unexposed side
of the sam
me, experim
mental windows C – A – B.
Observattions during Experiment 2 are detaileed in Table 33. Observattions are from
m the unexposed
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
23. Wind
dow temperaatures are grraphed in Fig
gure 24 throuugh Figure 226. The heaat flux for alll
three win
ndows is graaphed versus time in Figu
ure 27.
.
Figure 22. Experiment 2 Setup
31
Table 3. Experiment 2 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
0:45
1:14
1:33
1:47
1:51
4:38
6:41
8:00
10:06
10:46
12:15
14:00
15:00
Observations
Gas on
Sample B, had begun to smoke.
Samples A and C, had begun to crack on the top panes.
Sample B, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample B, interior top pane had fallen into the furnace.
Sample B, interior bottom pane had fallen into the furnace.
Sample B, top exterior pane had broken out.
Sample B, bottom exterior pane had broken out.
Sample A, entire circumference of the frame had begun to burn.
Sample A, the top pane had broken out.
Sample C, top sash had stated to slip downwards.
Sample A, the bottom pane had broken out.
Sample C, the top sash had slid down approximately 25%.
Gas off.
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
Avg. Furnace
200
UL 9 Curve
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 23. Average Furnace Temperature
32
600
700
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7
A-8
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-5
B-6
B-7
B-8
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Time (s)
Figure 24. Window A Temperatures
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 25. Window B Temperatures
33
1000
900
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Time (s)
Figure 26. Window C Temperatures
80
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
40
20
0
0
240
480
720
Time (s)
Figure 27. Expriment 2 Heat Flux
34
960
1200
C-A
C-B
A-C
A-D
B-E
B-F
5.6.3. Experiment
E
3
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 28. The assemb
bly had, from
m right to lefft from lookiing from the unexposed side
of the sam
me, experim
mental windows B – C – A.
A
Observattions during Experiment 3 are detaileed in Table 44. Observattions are from
m the unexposed
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
29. Wind
dow temperaatures are grraphed in Fig
gure 30 throuugh Figure 332. The heaat flux for alll
three win
ndows is graaphed versus time in Figu
ure 33.
Figure 28.. Experiment 3 Setup
35
Table 4. Experiment 3 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
1:00
1:22
1:44
1:48
3:56
4:07
4:24
7:00
7:46
10:25
10:46
11:42
12:04
12:11
14:19
15:00
Observations
Gas on
Samples A and C, had begun to crack.
Sample B, had begun to crack.
Sample B, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample B, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample B, top external pane had broken out.
Sample B, top interior had pane broken out.
Sample B, top exterior had pane broken out.
Sample B, top sash had started to slide downwards.
Sample B, the bottom pane had developed openings.
Sample A, the top panel had developed an opening
Sample B, the bottom pane had broken out.
Sample A, the unexposed, exterior frame had ignited.
Sample C, the unexposed, exterior frame had ignited.
Sample A, the top pane had broken out.
Sample A, the bottom pane had broken out.
Gas off.
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
Avg. Furnace
200
UL 9 Curve
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Time (s)
Figure 29. Average Furnace Temperature
36
700
800
900
600
A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7
A-8
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-5
B-6
B-7
B-8
o
Temperature ( C)
750
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Time (s)
Figure 30. Window A Temperatures
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 31. Window B Temperatures
37
1000
900
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
450
300
150
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Time (s)
Figure 32. Window C Temperatures
80
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
40
20
0
0
240
480
720
960
Time (s)
Figure 33. Experiment 3 Heat flux
38
1200
B-A
B-B
C-C
C-D
A-E
A- F
5.6.4. Experiment
E
4
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 34. The assemb
bly had, from
m right to lefft from lookiing from the unexposed side
of the sam
me, experim
mental windows D – E – F.
F
Observattions during Experiment 4 are detaileed in Table 55. Observattions are from
m the unexposed
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
35. Wind
dow temperaatures are grraphed in Fig
gure 36 throuugh Figure 338. The heaat flux for alll
three win
ndows is graaphed versus time in Figu
ure 39.
Figure 34. Experiment 4 Setup
39
Table 5. Experiment 4 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
0:57
1:10
1:15
1:35
2:12
2:39
3:39
3:58
5:10
5:15
5:16
5:25
5:26
5:47
Observations
Gas on
Sample F, had begun to crack.
Sample E, had begun to crack.
Sample D, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample F, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample D, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample E, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample F, bottom external pane had broken out.
Sample D, top external pane had broken.
Sample F, top sash had started to slide downwards.
Sample D, top sash had started to slide downwards.
Sample E, bottom external pane had broken out.
Sample D, the top sash had fallen out of the track.
Sample E, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample E, top external pane had broken out. Sample D, bottom exterior
pane had broken out.
Sample D, the bottom pane had broken out.
Gas off.
6:23
8:30
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
Avg. Furnace
200
UL 9 Curve
100
0
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
Figure 35. Average Furnace Temperature
40
400
500
900
600
D-1
D-2
D-3
D-4
D-5
D-6
D-7
D-8
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
E-7
E-8
o
Temperature ( C)
750
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Time (s)
Figure 36. Window D Temperature
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 37. Window E Temperature
41
600
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
F-1
F-2
F-3
F-4
F-5
F-6
F-7
F-8
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Time (s)
Figure 38. Window F Temperature
80
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
40
20
0
0
160
320
480
640
Time (s)
Figure 39. Experiment 4 Heat Flux
42
800
D-A
D-B
E-C
E-D
F-E
F-F
5.6.5. Experiment
E
5
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 40. The assemb
bly had, from
m right to lefft from lookiing from the unexposed side
of the sam
me, experim
mental windows F – D – E.
E
Observattions during Experiment 5 are detaileed in Table 66. Observattions are from
m the unexposed
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
41. Wind
dow temperaatures are grraphed in Fig
gure 42 throuugh Figure 444. The heaat flux for alll
three win
ndows is graaphed versus time in Figu
ure 45.
Figure 40. Experiment 5 Setup
43
Table 6. Experiment 5 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
1:00
1:27
2:00
2:30
2:39
3:39
Observations
Gas on
Sample F, D, E, had begun to crack.
Sample F, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample F, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample D, top sash had started to slide downwards.
Sample E, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample D, top sash had slid all the way down. Some internal pane breakage
had occurred.
Sample E, top external pane and bottom exterior pane had broken out.
Sample D, bottom external pane had broken out.
Sample E, top external pane had broken out.
Sample F, bottom external pane had broken out.
Gas off.
4:26
4:36
5:45
5:49
7:00
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
Avg. Furnace
200
UL 9 Curve
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Time (s)
Figure 41. Average Furnace Temperatures
44
350
400
900
600
D-1
D-2
D-3
D-4
D-5
D-6
D-7
D-8
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
E-7
E-8
o
Temperature ( C)
750
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 42. Window D Temperatures
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
Time (s)
Figure 43. Window E Temperatures
45
500
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
900
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
F-1
F-2
F-3
F-4
F-5
F-6
F-7
F-8
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 44. Window F Temperatures
80
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
40
20
0
0
120
240
360
480
Time (s)
Figure 45. Experiment 5 Heat Flux
46
600
F-A
F-B
D-C
D-D
E-E
E-F
E
6
5.6.6. Experiment
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 46. The assemb
bly had, from
m right to lefft from lookiing from the unexposed side
of the sam
me, experim
mental windows E – F – D.
D
m the unexposed
Observattions during Experiment 6 are detaileed in Table 77. Observattions are from
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
47. Wind
dow temperaatures are grraphed in Fig
gure 48 throuugh Figure 550. The heaat flux for alll
three win
ndows is graaphed versus time in Figu
ure 51.
Figure 46. Experiment 6 Setup
47
Table 7. Experiment 6 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
1:05
1:40
2:12
2:20
3:51
4:02
4:22
5:05
5:12
5:22
5:55
6:01
6:27
7:00
Observations
Gas on
Sample F, D, E, had begun to crack.
Sample F, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample D, top exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample F, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample E, bottom exposed internal pane had broken out.
Sample F, bottom external pane had broken out.
Sample F, top external pane had broke and had created an opening.
Sample D, top sash had slid all the way down.
Sample D, bottom external pane had broken out.
Sample D, top external pane had started to break out.
Sample E, bottom external pane had broken out.
Sample F, top external pane had fallen from the sash.
Sample E, top external pane had broken out.
Gas off.
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
Avg. Furnace
100
UL 9 Curve
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Time (s)
Figure 47. Average Furnace Temperatures
48
350
400
900
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
D-1
D-2
D-3
D-4
D-5
D-6
D-7
D-8
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 48. Window D Temperatures
900
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
Time (s)
Figure 49. Window E Temperatures
49
500
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
E-7
E-8
900
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
F-1
F-2
F-3
F-4
F-5
F-6
F-7
F-8
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 50. Window F Temperatures
80
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
Window
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
40
20
0
0
120
240
360
480
Time (s)
Figure 51. Experiment 6 Heat Flux
50
600
E-A
E-B
F-C
F-D
D-E
D-F
5.6.7. Experiment
E
7
The appeearance of th
he unexposed
d surface of the assemblyy before the fire endurannce experiment is
shown in
n Figure 52. The assemb
bly had, from
m right to lefft from lookiing from the unexposed side
of the sam
me, experim
mental doors 1 – 2 – 3.
Observattions during Experiment 7 are detaileed in Table 88. Observattions are from
m the unexposed
side unleess otherwisee noted. Thee average furrnace temperrature is graaphed versus time in Figuure
53. Doorr temperaturres are graph
hed in Figuree 54 throughh Figure 56. The heat fluux for all thrree
doors is graphed
g
verssus time in Figure
F
57.
Figure 52. Experiment 7 Setup
51
Table 8. Experiment 7 Observations
Time (min:sec)
0:00
1:00
2:00
2:20
2:26
3:00
3:28
3:41 and 4:36
3:47
5:02
5:12
5:15
5:20
5:45
5:51
6:07
7:05
Observations
Gas on
All three assemblies had emitted light smoke from the top.
All three assemblies had emitted heavy smoke from the top.
Door 1, had developed a bubble on the unexposed surface.
Door 3, flaming had occurred along the leading edge.
All three assemblies had bowed outwards from the furnace.
Door 3, flaming had occurred along the top of the frame.
Door 3, flaming had re-occurred along the leading edge.
Door 2, flash of flame occurred along the hinge edge.
Door 3, the unexposed surface of the door had begun to burn.
Door 1, the unexposed surface of the door had begun to burn.
Door 2, the unexposed surface of the door had begun to burn.
Doors 1 and 2, entire surface of doors had ignited.
Door 1, had been consumed.
Door 2, had been consumed.
Door 3, the door had burned through at the six panel locations.
Gas off.
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
Avg. Furnace
100
UL 10C Curve
0
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
Figure 53. Average Furnace Temperature
52
400
900
Door 1 - 1
Door 1 - 2
Door 1 - 3
Door 1 - 4
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 54. Door 1 Temperatures
1000
Door 2 - 1
Door 2 - 2
Door 2 - 3
Door 2 - 4
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
Time (s)
Figure 55. Door 2 Temperatures
53
500
900
Door 3 - 1
Door 3 - 2
Door 3 - 3
Door 3 - 4
600
o
Temperature ( C)
750
450
300
150
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
Figure 56. Door 3 Temperatures
40
Door 1 - B
Door 2 - D
Door 3 - F
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
30
20
10
0
0
120
240
360
480
Time (s)
Figure 57. Experiment 7 Heat Flux
54
600
5.7. Window and Door Experiment Discussion
5.7.1. Window Furnace Exposure Repeatability
It was not possible to perform a large number of experiments and to optimize resources, 3
windows were tested at once. To improve repeatability the windows were rotated between bays
in the frame so that each window was in each location once. Pillars were built into the furnace
between windows to decrease the impact of one window failing on the exposure of the other
windows. Figure 58 shows the furnace temperature for each window experiment versus time.
The average furnace temperatures were within 20% for the first 3 minutes, 10% from minute 3 to
5 and 6% for the remainder.
Another measure of repeatability used was the heat flux to the window assemblies. Figure 59
through Figure 61 show the heat flux for the gauges that were located 10 inches below the
windows for every experiment. These graphs show good repeatability between experiments.
Figure 62 shows the average heat flux for the same 3 gauges. Heat flux gauge A had the highest
average while heat flux gauges C and E had very similar fluxes. The heat fluxes for all of the
gauges for every experiment are within 20%.
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Experiment 6
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 58. Furnace Temperature Comparison
55
800
80
70
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
50
40
30
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Experiment 6
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Time
Figure 59. Heat Flux Gauge A
80
70
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
50
40
30
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Experiment 6
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time
Figure 60. Heat Flux Gauge C
56
300
350
400
80
70
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
50
40
30
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Experiment 6
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Time
Figure 61. Heat Flux Gauge E
80
70
2
Heat Flux (kW/m )
60
50
40
30
20
Heat Flux A Average
Heat Flux C Average
Heat Flux E Average
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Time
Figure 62. Average Heat Flux for Experimental Series
57
400
5.7.2. Window Failure
There were a number of different window failure mechanisms and degrees of failure observed
during the experiments. In order to have an impact on the fire growth there has to be a passage
for air to enter the structure, therefore the failure of interest was the breaking out of the glass as
opposed to the cracking of the glass. Failure is defined as a passage through the window of 25%
or more of the total glass area. In most cases this was the failure of the top or bottom pane(s) of
the window but in some cases the top window sash moved downward, opening the window 25%
or more. The two legacy windows with single glazing failed later than the four modern windows
with double glazing. The two legacy windows failed at 577 s and 846 s respectively while the
modern windows failed at 259 s, 254 s, 312 s, and 270 s respectively. Images of the
experimental assemblies showing post-experiment damage are in Figure 63 through Figure 74.
In addition to time, the temperatures at which failure occurred were analyzed. Table 10 shows
the average gas temperatures just inside and just outside the upper pane of each window just
prior to failure. Similar to time, the temperatures for the legacy windows were higher than those
of the modern windows. The legacy windows failed when the furnace side temperature was
between 650 °C (1200 °F) and 790 °C (1450 °F), while the modern windows failed between 540
°C (1000 °F) and 650 °C (1200 °F). The corresponding outside of the glass temperature was
between 370 °C (700 °F) and 380 °C (720 °F) for the legacy window and between 80 °C (180
°F) and 205 °C (400 °F) for the modern windows.
Table 9. Window Failure Times
Experiment
1
2
3
Average
4
5
6
Average
A (L)
6:34 (394)
10:06 (606)
12:11 (731)
9:37 (577)
D (M)
3:58 (238)
3:39 (219)
5:05 (305)
4:14 (254)
Window [mm:ss (sec)]
B (M)
4:24 (264)
4:38 (278)
3:56 (236)
4:19 (259)
E (M)
5:16 (316)
4:26 (266)
5:55 (355)
5:12 (312)
58
C (L)
11:49 (709)
14:30 (870)
16:00 (960)
14:06 (846)
F (M)
3:39 (219)
5:49 (349)
4:02 (242)
4:30 (270)
Figure 63.. Exp. 1 Post experiment,
e
Unexposed
U
sidee
Figure 664. Exp. 1 Poost experimentt, Exposed sid
de
Figure 65.. Exp. 2 Post experiment,
e
Unexposed
U
sidee
Figure 666. Exp. 2 Poost experimentt, Exposed sid
de
Figure 67.. Exp. 3 Post experiment,
e
Unexposed
U
sidee
Figure 668. Exp. 3 Poost experimentt, Exposed sid
de
59
Figure 69.. Exp. 4 Post experiment,
e
Unexposed
U
sidee
Figure 770. Exp. 4 Poost experimentt, Exposed sid
de
Figure 71.. Exp. 5 Post experiment,
e
Unexposed
U
sidee
Figure 772. Exp. 5 Poost experimentt, Exposed sid
de
Figure 73.. Exp. 6 Post experiment,
e
Unexposed
U
sidee
Figure 774. Exp. 6 Poost experimentt, Exposed sid
de
60
Table 10. Top Pane Faiilure Tempera
atures
Averrage Inner
Tem
mperature
Avera
age Outer
Tem
mperature
Averrage Inner
Tem
mperature
Avera
age Outer
Tem
mperature
A (L)
650 °C
° (1200 °F))
Window
B (M)
540 °C (1000 °F
F)
C (L)
7900 °C (1450 °°F)
370 °C (700 °F)
1500 °C (300 °F
F)
3880 °C (720 °F
F)
D (M)
650 °C
° (1200 °F))
E (M)
565 °C (1050 °F
F)
F (M)
6500 °C (1200 °°F)
140 °C (280 °F)
2055 °C (400 °F
F)
800 °C (180 °F
F)
D
failure
5.7.3. Door
d
failure experiment conducted
c
aand the failurre times are shown in Taable
There waas only one door
11. Failu
ure was defin
ned to have occurred wh
hen the unexxposed surfacce of the dooor sustained
burning. All of the doors
d
failed at
a approximaately 300 s. There was vvery little difference between
the two hollow
h
core doors
d
(1 and
d 2). The firee ignited thee unexposed side and quickly consum
med
what wass left of the door.
d
The so
olid core doo
or (3) had a similar failuure time but tthe mechanism
was diffeerent. Door 3 was a six panel
p
door so where the panels weree located on the door burrned
through because
b
of itts reduced th
hickness. Th
he thicker poortions of thee door remaiined intact att the
terminatiion of the ex
xperiment (Figure 75). This
T experim
ment shows thhe fire contaainment abiliity of
interior doors
d
during a well ventiilated compaartment fire iis approximaately 5 minuutes. For thee
doors evaaluated in th
his experimen
nt it can also
o be concludded that the ttype of woodd had no
noticeablle impact on
n failure timee.
Table 11. Door Failure Times
Exp
periment
7
Door
2
55:15 (315)
1
5:12 (312)
Figurre 75. Post experiment phooto of the doorrs
61
3
5:02 (302)
5.8. Window and Door Experiment Conclusions
These experiments demonstrated a significant difference in legacy and modern windows exposed
to fire conditions. In this series of experiments the legacy single glazed windows outperformed
the modern double glazed windows in terms of longer failure times. It is proposed that this
occurred for two reasons. First the legacy windows had thicker glazing than the modern
windows. The legacy windows had glass thicknesses of 0.093 in and 0.11 in., while the modern
window thicknesses were 0.087 in. Second, the method the glass was fixed into the frame
differed greatly between the two eras. The legacy window glass was held in place with putty like
substance and there was room in the frame for expansion of the glass. The modern glass was
fixed very tightly into the frame with an air tight gasket and metal band, to provide better thermal
insulation. This configuration did not allow for much expansion and therefore stressed the glass
as it heated and expanded.
The doors evaluated in this experiment demonstrated that the type of wood had no noticeable
impact on failure time. The failure time was dictated by the thickness of the door. The hollow
core doors had the same overall wood thickness as the panels of the solid core door and therefore
the fire breached them at very similar times.
5.9. Future Research Needed
Future research is needed to examine the impact of uneven heating and the impact of soot
deposited on the glass. The furnace exposes the windows to a uniform temperature and flux
exposure while windows exposed to actual fire conditions most likely would be heated on a
gradient as the hot gas layer moves toward the floor as the fire increases in intensity. The
furnace also utilizes a fire condition that has minimal soot production. It has been observed in
other experiments that the soot deposited on the glass of a window will protect it from fire
exposure for a period of time.
Additional door experiments would also be insightful, especially for a solid core door with no
panels. Additional experiments could also examine failure mechanisms such as fire breaching
around or under the door assembly as opposed to burn through and total containment failure.
5.10.
Fire Service Tactical Consideration
During window experiments 1-3 it was noticed in the thermal imaging camera view that the
modern window hid the fact that there was a fire behind it for a significant period of time as
compared to the legacy windows. This is anticipated due to the energy efficient design of the
modern window. Figure 76 shows the thermal imaging view of the three windows 7 seconds
after ignition. The heat from the furnace immediately is conducted to the exterior of the legacy
windows but is not visible in the modern window. The image at one minute and 30 seconds
shows that the modern window allows as much heat through as the gypsum board on the inside
of the assembly, while temperatures above 150 °C (300 °F) are detected on the legacy windows
(Figure 77). Figure 78 shows that heat is now visible through the window and the first crack has
developed through the outer, upper pane. At 4 minutes and 27 seconds the modern window
upper pane has failed and the temperature registers the same as that of the still intact legacy
windows (Figure 79).
62
The temp
perature inside the modeern window at
a 1 minute aand 30 seconnds is in exccess of 315°C
C
(600 °F) but is not deetectible on the
t outside with
w a therm
mal imaging ccamera. Thiis is importannt to
understan
nd for therm
mal imaging cameras
c
bein
ng used for ““size-up” off structure firres. The firsst
elevated temperaturee (red in the images)
i
deteected by the thermal imaaging cameraa came after
window failure.
f
Eveen slight tem
mperature diff
fferentials nooticed with thhe camera w
when lookingg at
modern windows
w
maay be indicative of elevatted temperattures in the sstructure.
Figure 76.. 7 seconds affter ignition
Figure 777. 1 minute 330 seconds aftter ignition
Figure 78.. 4 minutes 7 seconds after ignition
Figure 779. 4 minutess 27 seconds affter ignition
63
6. Modern vs. Legacy Room Furnishings Fire Comparisons
Two experiments were conducted to examine the changes in fire development in modern room’s
contents versus that that may have been found in a house in the mid-20th century. The modern
rooms utilized synthetic contents that were readily available new at various retail outlets, and the
legacy rooms utilized contents that were purchased used from a number of second hand outlets.
6.1. Experiment 1
An experiment was conducted with two side by side living room fires. The purpose was to
develop comparative data on modern and legacy furnishings. The rooms measured 12 by 12 ft,
with an 8 ft ceiling and had an 8 ft wide by 7 ft tall opening on the front wall. Both rooms
contained similar types and amounts of like furnishings.
6.1.1. Experimental Set-up and Furnishings
The modern room (Figure 80 through Figure 85) was lined with a layer of ½ inch painted
gypsum board and the floor was covered with carpet and padding. The furnishings included a
polyester microfiber covered polyurethane foam filled sectional sofa, engineered wood coffee
table, end table, television stand and book case. The sofa had a polyester throw placed on its
right side. The end table had a lamp with polyester shade on top of it and a wicker basket on its
lower shelf. The coffee table had six color magazines, a television remote and a synthetic plant
on it. The television stand had a color magazine and a 37 inch flat panel television. The book
case had two small plastic bins, two picture frames and two glass vases on it. The right rear
corner of the room had a plastic toy bin, a plastic toy tub and four stuffed toys. The rear wall had
polyester curtains hanging from a metal rod and the side walls had wood framed pictures hung
on them.
The legacy room (Figure 86 through Figure 91) was lined with a layer of ½ inch painted cement
board and the floor was covered with unfinished hardwood flooring. The furnishings included a
cotton covered, cotton batting filled sectional sofa, solid wood coffee table, two end tables, and
television stand. The sofa had a cotton throw placed on its right side. Both end tables had a
lamp with polyester shade on top of them. The one on the left side of the sofa had two
paperback books on it. A wicker basket was located on the floor in front of the right side of the
sofa at the floor level. The coffee table had three hard-covered books, a television remote and a
synthetic plant on it. The television stand had a 27 inch tube television. The right front corner of
the room had a wood toy bin, and multiple wood toys. The rear wall had cotton curtains hanging
from a metal rod and the side walls had wood framed pictures hung on them.
64
Figure 80. Modern
M
room corner
c
Figure 81. Modern rooom front
Figure 82.. Modern sofa
a and coffee ta
able
Figure 883. Modern eend table and toys
Figure 84.. Modern LCD
D television an
nd stand
Figure 885. Modern b
book case
Figure 86.. Legacy corn
ner view
Figure 887. Legacy frront view
65
Figure 88.. Legacy end table
Figure 889. Legacy soofa and coffee table
Figure 90.. Legacy telev
vision and stan
nd
Figure 991. Legacy tooys
6.1.2. Ex
xperimental Procedure
Both rooms were ign
nited simultaaneously by placing
p
a lit candle on thhe right side of the sofa. The
fires werre allowed to
o grow until flashover an
nd maintain fflashover forr a short period of time. The
fire was then
t
extingu
uished.
6.1.3. In
nstrumentatio
on
m
witth an inconeel thermocouuple array plaaced two feeet out of the right
Temperaatures were measured
rear corn
ner of the roo
om. Measureements locattions were evvery foot in elevation frrom the floorr to
the ceilin
ng.
6.1.4. Reesults
The fire in
i the moderrn room grew
w slowly forr the first minnute as the ccandle flamee extended too the
polyesterr throw blank
ket and sofa cushion. At
A two minutees the fire haad spread to the back cushion
of the soffa and a blacck smoke lay
yer developeed in the top two to threee feet of the room. At thhree
minutes approximate
a
ely one half of
o the sofa iss involved inn the fire, thee carpet has begun to buurn
and the hot
h gas layer is thickenin
ng and flowin
ng out of thee top third off the room oopening. Thee
modern room
r
transitiioned to flasshover in 3 minutes
m
and 330 seconds ((Figure 92 thhrough Figurre 96).
i the legacy
y room also grew
g
slowly
y in the first m
minute as thhe candle flam
me spread too the
The fire in
cotton throw blanket and sofa cushion. At five minutes tthe fire involved the arm
m of the sofa and
extended
d to the curtaains behind th
he sofa. Att ten minutess the fire hass spread to appproximatelly
one-third
d of the sofa.. From ten minutes
m
to tw
wenty minutees the picturres are darkeened becausee the
66
smoke from the modern room haas obscured the
t lights in the laboratoory that are tw
weny feet abbove
the floor,, however th
he fire contin
nued to spreaad across thee sofa and beegin to devellop a hot gass
layer in the
t room. Th
he legacy room transitio
oned to flash over at 29 m
minutes and 330 seconds aafter
ignition (Figure
(
97 th
hrough Figurre 103).
The mod
dern room tem
mperature peeaked at app
proximately 1300 °C (23370 °F) whilee the legacy
room tem
mperature peaked at apprroximately 1200 °C (21990 °F) (Figurre 104 and F
Figure 105).
Figure 92.. 1 minute aftter ignition
Figure 993. 2 minutess after ignition
n
Figure 94.. 3 minutes affter ignition
Figure 995. 3 minutess 30 seconds affter ignition
Figure 96.. 4 minutes affter ignition
67
Figure 97.. 1 minute aftter ignition
Figure 998. 5 minutess after ignition
n
Figure 99.. 10 minutes after
a
ignition
Figure 1100. 15 minuttes after ignitiion
Figure 101
1. 20 minutes after ignition
n
Figure 1102. 25 minuttes after ignitiion
Figure 103
3. 29 minutes 30 seconds affter ignition
68
1400
1 ft above floor
2 ft above floor
1200
3 ft above floor
4 ft above floor
5 ft above floor
6 ft above floor
7 ft above floor
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Time (s)
Figure 104. Modern room temperatures
1200
1 ft above floor
2 ft above floor
1000
3 ft above floor
4 ft above floor
6 ft above floor
7 ft above floor
800
o
Temperature ( C)
5 ft above floor
600
400
200
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 105. Legacy room temperatures
69
2000
2500
6.2. Experiment 2
A second experiment was conducted with two side by side living room fires. The purpose was
the same, to gain knowledge on the difference between modern and legacy furnishings.
Additionally the room size was increased to examine that impact. The rooms measured 13 ft by
18 ft, with an 8 ft ceiling and had a 10 ft wide by 7 ft tall opening on the front wall. Both rooms
contained similar amounts of like furnishings (Figure 106 through Figure 113). All furnishings
were weighed before being placed in the rooms. Both the modern room and legacy room had a
fuel loading of approximately 2.3 lb/ft2.
6.2.1. Experimental Set-up and Furnishings
The modern room was lined with a layer of ½ inch painted gypsum board and the floor was
covered with nylon carpet and polyurethane padding. The furnishings included a polyester
microfiber covered polyurethane foam filled sofa, two matching chairs, engineered wood coffee
table, end table, television stand and book case. The sofa had a polyester throw placed on its left
side and two polyfill pillows, one on each side. The end table had a lamp with polyester shade
on top of it. The coffee table had three color magazines, a wicker basket and a synthetic plant on
it. The television stand had two picture frames and a 32 inch flat panel television. The book
case had a plastic basket on it. The right rear corner of the room had a plastic toy bin, a plastic
toy tub and four stuffed toys. The rear wall had polyester curtains hanging from a metal rod and
the side walls had wood framed pictures hung on them.
The legacy room was lined with a layer of ½ inch painted gypsum board and the floor was
covered with finished hardwood flooring. The furnishings included a cotton covered, cotton
batting filled sofa, two matching chairs, solid wood coffee table, two end tables, and television
stand. The sofa had a cotton throw placed on its left side. Both end tables had a lamp with glass
shade on top of them and a wicker basket. The coffee table had a wicker basket filled with five
books and two glass vases. The television stand had a 13 inch tube television with a plant on top
of it. The right rear corner of the room had a wood/wicker toy bin, and multiple wood toys. The
rear wall had cotton curtains hanging from a metal rod and the side walls had wood framed
pictures hung on them.
70
Figure 106
6. Front of Modern
M
Room
Figure 1107. Left walll of modern rooom
Figure 108
8. Back wall of
o modern roo
om
Figure 1109. Right waall of modern room
Figure 110
0. Front of leg
gacy room
Figure 1111. Left walll of legacy rooom
71
Figure 112
2. Back wall of
o legacy room
m
Figure 1113. Right waall of legacy rooom
6.2.2.Exp
perimental Procedure
P
nited simultaaneously by placing
p
a lit candle on thhe left side oof the sofa. T
The
Both rooms were ign
o grow until flashover an
nd maintain fflashover forr a short period of time. The
fires werre allowed to
fire was then
t
extingu
uished.
6.2.3.Ressults
The mod
dern room waas ignited an
nd the fire sp
pread to the ssofa cushionn and pillow by the one
minute mark.
m
By two
o minutes th
he fire involv
ved approxim
mately one thhird of the toop of the soffa
and spreaad to the lam
mp shade. Att three minu
utes the top oof the entire sofa was on fire and the
carpet beegan to burn adjacent to the
t sofa. Th
he modern rooom transitiooned to flashhover in 3
minutes and
a 20 secon
nds (Figure 114 through Figure 117)). The legaccy room sofaa was also iggnited
on the lefft side and itt spread to th
he throw blan
nket and soffa cushion byy one minutee. By five
minutes the
t fire involved the leftt side of the sofa
s
and sprread to the cuurtains burniing the left ppanel
away. At
A ten minutees the entire surface
s
of th
he sofa was bburning and by fifteen m
minutes the fi
fire
involved the entire so
ofa including
g the underside. The flaames reachedd the ceiling but did not
extend to
o the adjacen
nt furnishing
gs. The fire burned
b
downn and never transitioned to flashoverr so
it was ex
xtinguished at
a thirty minu
utes after ign
nition (Figurre 118 througgh Figure 1224).
72
Figure 114
4. 1 minute affter ignition
Figure 1115. 2 minutees after ignitioon
Figure 116
6. 3 minutes after
a
ignition
Figure 1117. 3 minutees 30 seconds aafter ignition
Figure 118
8. 1 minute affter ignition
Figure 1119. 5 minutees after ignitioon
73
Figure 120
0. 10 minutes after ignition
n
Figure 1121. 15 minuttes after ignitiion
Figure 122
2. 20 minutes after ignition
n
Figure 1123. 25 minuttes after ignitiion
Figure 124
4. 30 minutes after ignition
n
74
6.3. Discussion
Comparing the two experiments, the times to flashover are very similar even though the room
size and front opening was varied (Table 12). Even though the second modern room was 90 ft2
larger and had a 14 ft2 larger front opening a similar fuel load was able to flash the room over in
the same time. The second legacy experiment did not transition to flashover because it did not
have enough fuel burning at the same time to create significant heat in the upper gas layer to
ignite items not adjacent to the sofa. The chairs on the left side of the room and the television
and bookcase of the right side of the room were never heated to their ignition temperatures. The
legacy sectional sofa in the first experiment was able to accomplish this heat generation because
of its additional surface area as compared to the second experiments regular sofa. The chairs’
being a few feet away was enough to not allow them to ignite.
Table 12. Comparison flashover times
Experiment
1
2
Modern
3:30
3:20
Legacy
29:30
Not Achieved
6.4. Conclusion
The modern rooms and the legacy rooms demonstrated very different fire behavior. It was very
clear that the natural materials in the legacy room burned slower and produced less energy and
smoke than the fast burning synthetic furnished modern room. The times to flashover show that
the a flaming fire in a room with modern furnishings leaves significantly less time for occupants
to escape the fire. It also demonstrates to the fire service that in most cases the fire has either
transitioned to flashover prior to their arrival or became ventilation limited and is waiting for a
ventilation opening to increase in burning rate.
75
7. Heat Release Rate Experiment
Prior to conducting the full-scale house experiments a fuel load needed to be determined. In
order to achieve ventilation limited fire conditions during the experiments, the fuel load must
consume more oxygen than is available in the houses. To measure this an 18 ft by 13 ft room
was constructed in UL’s large fire test building (Figure 125).
7.1. Experimental Set-up and Furnishings
The experimental room dimensions, 18 ft wide by 13 ft deep by 8 ft tall, were similar to those of
the living rooms in the experimental houses. The opening on the front of the room measured 12
ft wide by 7 ft tall. This opening was meant to simulate multiple openings to adjacent rooms
such as in the one-story house. The furniture was chosen to represent a common compliment of
furnishings including two sofas, end table, lamp, stuffed chair, armoire, television, carpet and
carpet padding. All furnishings in the room were positioned similar to that of the rooms in the
houses. For more details on the furniture and their positioning refer to Section 7.3.
7.2. Experimental Procedure
Ignition took place remotely using stick matches on the left side of the sofa facing the opening of
the room. The fire was allowed to grow unimpeded through flashover and the decay stages of
the fire. The fire was suppressed once the furnishings burned to a pile of glowing embers.
7.3. Instrumentation
The room was positioned in the nominal 50 by 50-ft. fire test cell equipped with a 25-ft. diameter
heat release rate measurement hood (Figure 126). Four inlet ducts provide make up air in the
test facility and are located at the walls 5 ft. above the test floor to minimize any induced drafts
during the fire tests.
The heat release calorimeter is equipped with convective and total heat release instrumentation.
The convective instrumentation calculates the heat release rate from the energy rise of the
products of combustion entering the calorimeter. The total heat release instrumentation calculates
fire size using oxygen consumption techniques. The heat release calorimeter is calibrated up to a
10 MW fire size. Heat release rate data beyond the calibrated value may reflect inaccuracies
which are resultant from products of combustion overflowing the collection hood.
Temperatures were measured with an inconel thermocouple array placed two feet out of the left
rear corner of the room. Measurements locations were every foot in elevation from the floor to
the ceiling.
7.4. Results
Figure 127 through Figure 136 show each minute for the first ten minutes of the experiment.
Flashover occurred at approximately five minutes after ignition. The peak heat release rate was
11.5 MW at approximately six minutes after ignition (Figure 137). The peak temperature
measured 1 ft from the ceiling was approximately 1100 °C (2010 °F) eight minutes after ignition
(Figure 138).
76
7.5. Discussion
To determine the ability to achieve ventilation limited conditions in both houses with this fuel
package, the available oxygen needed to be compared to the oxygen consumed during the heat
release rate experiment. First the interior volume of the houses was calculated and the volume of
interior walls, stairs and floors was subtracted. The volume of the furnishings was disregarded to
remain conservative. The percentage of oxygen (21%) was multiplied by the resulting volume to
calculate the volume of oxygen.
One-Story: 7,600 ft3 x 0.21 = 1,596 ft3 O2
Two-Story: 20,350 ft3 x 0.21 = 4,273 ft3 O2
The volume of oxygen above was converted to mass and multiplied by the mass of oxygen in
each house and the theoretical value of 13.1 kJ/g. Using this theoretical value of energy
produced by the consumption of oxygen46, a theoretical amount of maximum energy produced
can be calculated for each house.
0.001429 g/cm3 x 3.5315×10-5 cm3/ft3 = 40.46 g/ft3 of oxygen
One-Story: 40.46 g/ft3 x 1596 ft3 = 64,582 g
Two-Story: 40.46 g/ft3 x 4273 ft3 =172,886 g
One-Story: 64,582 g x 13.1 kJ/g = 846,204 kJ
Two-Story: 172,886 g x 13.1 kJ/g = 2,264,801 kJ
The amount of energy produced during the heat release rate experiment was calculated by
integrating the area under the curve of the heat release rate versus time plot. This value was
3,647,010 kJ over the 19 minute experiment. Focusing on the time before ventilation in the
house experiments the energy released during the first 10 minutes was calculated to be 2,268,436
kJ. This value is greater than that for both houses, so in theory the fire can consume all of the
oxygen in the houses prior to ventilation.
7.6. Conclusion
The heat release measurement confirms that the fuel package selected is sufficient to generate
ventilation limited conditions in both houses. This fuel package and fuel layout will be utilized
for the full-scale house experiments in the following section.
77
Figure 125
5. UL's Largee-Scale Fire Test Building
Figure 126
6. Heat Relea
ase Rate Experrimental Set-u
up
78
Figure 127
7. 1 minute affter ignition
Figure 1228. 2 minutess after ignition
n
9. 3 minutes after
a
ignition
Figure 129
Figure 1330. 4 minutess after ignition
n
Figure 131
1. 5 minutes after
a
ignition
Figure 1332. 6 minutess after ignition
n
79
Figure 133
3. 7 minutes after
a
ignition
Figure 1334. 8 minutess after ignition
n
Figure 135
5. 9 minutes after
a
ignition
Figure 1336. 10 minutees after ignitioon
12000
Heat Release Rate (kW)
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
200
400
600
0
800
Time
e (s)
Figure 137
7. Heat releasse rate versus time
80
1000
1200
1200
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 138. HRR Experiment room temperatures
81
1000
1200
8. Full-Scale House Experiments
To examine ventilation practices as well as the impact of changes in modern house geometries,
two houses were constructed in the large fire facility of Underwriters Laboratories in
Northbrook, IL. Fifteen experiments were conducted varying the ventilation locations and the
number of ventilation openings (Table 13). Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the front
door only, opening the front door and a window near and remote from the seat of the fire,
opening a window only and ventilating a higher opening in the two-story house. One scenario,
each for the one-story and two-story structures were conducted in triplicate to examine
repeatability. Details of the structures, instrumentation, fuel load and results follow in this
section. To assist with understanding the results, Appendix A contains firefighter reference
scales for temperature and carbon monoxide levels.
Table 13. Experimental Series
Experiment
#
Structure
Location of
Ignition
Ventilation Parameters
1
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door
2
2-Story
Family Room
3
1-Story
Living Room
4
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door
Front Door + Living Room Window (Window near
seat of the fire)
Front Door + Family Room Window (Window near
seat of the fire)
5
1-Story
Living Room
Living Room Window Only
6
2-Story
Family Room
7
1-Story
Living Room
8
2-Story
Family Room
Family Room Window Only
Front Door + Bedroom 2 Window (Window remote
from fire)
Front Door + Bedroom 3 Window (Window remote
from fire)
9
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door + Living Room Window (Repeat Exp. 3)
10
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + Family Room Window (Repeat Exp. 4)
11
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + Family Room Window (Repeat Exp. 4)
12
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door + Living Room Window (Repeat Exp. 3)
13
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + Upper Family Room Window
14
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door + 4 Windows (LR, BR1, BR2, BR3)
15
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + 4 Windows (LR, Den, FR1, FR2)
8.1. One-Story Structure
Seven of the experiments took place in the one-story house. The house was designed by a
residential architectural company to be representative of a home constructed in the mid-twentieth
century with walls and doorways separating all of the rooms and 8 ft ceilings. The experiments
aim to examine the fire dynamics in a structure of this type and to further understand the impact
of different types of ventilation on tenability throughout the structure.
The one-story house had an area of 1200 ft2, with 3 bedrooms, 1 bathroom and 8 total rooms
(Figure 139 through Figure 141). The home was a wood frame, type 5 structure lined with two
82
layers off gypsum boaard (Base lay
yer 5/8 in, Su
urface layer ½ in.) The roof was truuss constructtion
but not sh
heathed becaause the fires were conteent fires onlyy and not strructure fires. The front aand
rear of th
he structure were
w covered
d with cement board to llimit exterior fire spreadd. Figure 1422 is a
3D rendeering of the house
h
with th
he roof cut away
a
to show
w the interioor layout withh furniture aand
floor cov
verings. Thee tan floor sh
hows the carp
pet placemennt and the grrey shows thhe cement flooor
or simulaated tile locaations.
Figure 139
9. One-story front
f
Figuree 140. One-stoory rear
Figure 141
1. One-Story House Floor Plan
P
83
Figure 142
2. 3D Rendering of the Onee-Story Housee from the Froont
8.2. Two-Story
T
Structure
S
The two--story house had an area of 3200 ft2, with 4 bedrrooms, 2.5 baathrooms hoouse and 12 ttotal
rooms (F
Figure 143 th
hrough Figurre 148). Thee home was also a woodd frame, typee 5 structure lined
with two layers of gy
ypsum board
d (Base layerr 5/8 in, Surfface layer ½ in.) The roof was truss
constructtion but not sheathed beccause the fires were conttent fires only and not sttructure firess.
The frontt and rear off the structurre were coveered with cem
ment board tto limit exterrior fire spreead.
Figure 143
3. Two-Story front
Figure 1144. Two-Stoory Rear
84
Figure 145
5. 3D Rendering of the 2-Sttory House fro
om the Front
Figure 146
6. 3D Rendering of the 2-Sttory House fro
om the Back
85
Figure 147
7. Two-Story House First Floor
F
Plan
Figure 148
8. Two-Story House Second
d Floor Plan
86
8.3. Fuel Load
Furniture was acquired for the experiments such that each room of furniture was the same from
experiment to experiment. Descriptions, dimensions and weights for all of the furniture are in
Table 14. The living room in the one-story house, the family room and the living room in the
two-story house were furnished similarly with two sofas, armoire, television, end table, coffee
table, chair, two pictures, lamp with shade and two curtains (Figure 149 through Figure 151).
The floor was covered with polyurethane foam padding and polyester carpet. These were also
the same furnishings used in the heat release rate experiment in Section 7.
The master bedroom in both houses was furnished with a queen bed comprised of a mattress, box
spring, wood frame, two pillows and comforter. The rest of the room had a dark brown dresser,
armoire and television. The floor was covered with polyurethane foam padding and polyester
carpet (Figure 152 and Figure 153). The remainder of the bedrooms in both houses was
furnished with the same bed, armoire, television and flooring compliment as well as a light
brown dresser, headboard, framed mirror (Figure 154 and Figure 155).
The dining room of both houses was furnished with a solid wood table and four upholstered
chairs (Figure 156). The kitchens were furnished with the same table and chairs as the dining
room, a dishwasher, stove, refrigerator and simulated OSB base cabinets with cement board
counters. The floors of both rooms were also cement board to simulate a tile floor (Figure 157
and Figure 158). The two-story house also had a den on the first floor in which a tan stuffed
chair was placed as a target fuel.
Table 14. Furnishings
Item
Armoire
Sofa
Chair
End Table
Coffee Table
Television
Picture
Picture
Lamp Shade
Curtains
Mattress
Box Spring
Dresser
Dresser
Mirror
Headboard
Dining Room Table
Dining Room Chair
General Description
Medium brown, with TV
Patterned sleeper sofa
Solid light tan patterened
chair with padded arms
Solid wood
Solid wood
25 in. screen, tube
brass wood frame
blue wood frame
Plastic cloth
weighed as a pair
queen
queen
Light brown, mainly
particle board
Dark brown, mostly solid
wood
Particle board frame
Particle board
Solid wood
Upholstered
87
Depth (in)
Width (in)
Height (in)
Weight (lb)
28
36
41
72.5
79
33
285
171
35
24
20
24
30
38.5
32.5
27
36
27
1
1
32.5
24.25
19.5
24
26
21.5
60
23
30
72
8.6
9.4
20
10
9.5
60
60
78
78
7.5
7.5
0.6
6.5
65.5
63
19
71.5
23.25
140
20
28
1.25
44
20
71.75
1
60.5
60
22.5
24
46.5
20
30.5
36
131
25
35
147
24.3
Item
I
Refrigerrator
Oven
Dishwas
sher
Refrigerrator
Oven
Dishwas
sher
Island
Counterr
Chair
Comfortter
Pillows
Generall Description
n
White – 1 story
s
White – 1 story
s
White – 1 story
s
Stainless Steel
S
- 2 story
White - 2 Story
S
Stainless Steel
S
- 2 story
2 Story only
Both ranch and 2 story
Light brown
n, slight pattern
with padded arms
Full/queen
Twin size
Depth (in)
29
27
Width (in)
36
30
Height (in)
70
0
46.7
75
27.5
5
26.5
5
27
24
24
36.2
25
30
24
96
96
70.2
25
46..5
34
4
36
6
36
6
Weig
ght (lb)
N
NA
N
NA
N
NA
N
NA
N
NA
N
NA
16
60.2
10
02.4
34
2
6
29
86
20
34
4
92
2
26
6
63
3.2
5
5.1
1
1.1
Figure 149
9. One-Story Living Room
Figure 1150. Two-Stoory Family Rooom
Figure 151
1. Two-Story Living Room
m
Figure 1152. Two-Stoory Master Bedroom
88
Figure 153
3. One-Story Master Bedro
oom
Figure 1154. Two-Stoory Bedroom 2
Figure 155
5. Bedroom Fuel
F
Load
Figure 1156. Dining R
Room Fuel Load
Figure 157
7. One-Story Kitchen
Figure 1158. Two-Stoory Kitchen
8.4. Instrumenta
I
ation
t experimeents include d gas tempeerature, gas vvelocity, gas
The meassurements taaken during the
concentraations and video recording. Detailed
d measuremeent locationss can be founnd in Appenddix
A and B. Gas temperature was measured
m
witth bare-beadd, Chromel-A
Alumel (typee K)
thermoco
ouples, with a 0.5 mm (0
0.02 in) nom
minal diameteer. Thermocoouple arrayss were locateed in
every roo
om. The theermocouple locations
l
in the
t living rooom and halllway had an array of
thermoco
ouples with measuremen
m
nt locations of
o 0.03 m, 0..3 m, 0.6 m, 0.9 m, 1.2 m
m,1.5 m, 1.8 m
and 2.1 m (1 in, 1 ft, 2 ft, 3 ft, 4 ft,
f 5 ft, 6 ft and
a 7 ft) beloow the ceilinng (Figure 1159). The
89
thermoco
ouple locatio
ons in the din
ning room, kitchen,
k
and bedrooms hhad an array oof
thermoco
ouples with measuremen
m
nt locations of
o 0.3 m, 0.99 m, 1.5 m, aand 2.1 m (1 ft, 3 ft, 5 ft,, and
7 ft) belo
ow the ceilin
ng.
Gas velocity was measured utilizzing differen
ntial pressuree transducerss connected to bidirectioonal
velocity probes
p
(Figu
ure 160 throu
ugh Figure 162).
1
These probes weree located in tthe front
doorway and the win
ndow used fo
or ventilation
n. There weere five probes on the verrtical centerlline
of each doorway
d
locaated at 0.3 m (1 ft) from the top of thhe doorway, the center oof the doorway
and 0.3 m (1 ft) from
m the bottom of the doorw
way. Therm
mocouples weere co-locateed with the
bidirectio
onal probes to
t complete the gas velo
ocity measurrement. Posiitive measurrements are fflows
out of thee houses while negative velocity measurements are into the houses.
Gas conccentrations of
o oxygen, caarbon monox
xide and carbbon dioxide were measuured in 4
locationss in the structure. Conceentrations weere measuredd at 1 ft and 5 ft from thee floor in thee
living roo
om and at 5 ft from the floor
f
in bedrrooms 2 and 3 (Figure 1663 and Figurre 164). Gass
concentraation measurrements afteer water flow
w into the stru
ructure may nnot be accurrate due to thhe
impact off moisture on the gas meeasurement equipment.
e
Video caameras were placed insid
de and outsid
de the buildinng to monitoor both smokke and fire
condition
ns throughou
ut each experriment (Figu
ure 165). Eigght video cam
mera views w
were recordeed
during eaach experimeent. The vieews recorded
d are detailedd in Table 155.
Table 15. Video camera
a views
One-Storry
Outside front
f
Outside rear
r
Inside fro
ont door
From din
ning room lo
ooking into th
he living roo
om
From kitcchen looking
g into the liv
ving room
Bedroom
m 3 looking at
a closed doo
or
Bedroom
m 2 looking toward
t
hallw
way
Master bedroom look
king toward hallway
Two-S
Story
Outsidde front
Outsidde rear
Insidee front door
From hallway loooking down into the fam
mily room
From kitchen lookking into thee family room
m
From living room
m looking tow
ward family rroom
Bedrooom 2 lookinng toward haallway
From master bedrroom lookingg toward halllway
Figure 159
9. Thermocou
uple Array
Figuree 160. Doorwaay Velocity Prrobes
90
Figuree 162. Pressurre Transducerrs
Figure 161
1. Window Velocity Probess
Figuree 164. Gas Sam
mpling Instru
uments
Figure 163
3. Gas Sampling Tubes
Figure 165
5. Interior Viideo Camera
91
8.5. Experimental Methodology
All of the experiments began with all of the exterior doors and windows closed and all of the
interior doors in the same locations, either open or closed, for every experiment. The fire was
ignited in a sofa in the living room of the one story house (Figure 166) and in a sofa in the family
room for the two story house (Figure 167) using a remote ignition device comprised of three
stick matches (Figure 168). This ignition device used a thin wire which was energized to heat
the match heads to create a small flaming ignition.
The flaming fire was allowed to grow until ventilation operations were simulated by making
openings. The one story house was ventilated at 8 minutes after ignition. This was determined
based on three factors, time to achieve ventilation limited conditions in the house, potential
response and intervention times of the fire service and window failure times from the window
experiments. The ventilation time for the two story house was 10 minutes for the same reasons
as the one story house and the additional time enabled ventilation limited conditions, as the
larger volume needed a longer time to consume the oxygen.
Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the front door only, opening the front door and a
window near and remote from the seat of the fire, opening a window only and ventilating a
higher opening in the two-story house. When more than one ventilation opening was created in
an experiment, such as opening the door and a window, the subsequent openings were made in
15 second intervals. This time was arrived at by assuming well timed and efficient ventilation
independent of the ventilation scenario.
After ventilation the fire was allowed to grow until flashover or perceived maximum burning rate
based on the temperatures, observation of exterior conditions and monitoring of the internal
video. Once the fire maintained a peak for a period of time, with respect given to wall lining
integrity, a hose stream was flowed in through an external opening.
At the conclusion of every experiment a stream of water was directed into a ventilation opening
for 10 seconds. The hose line used was a 1 ¾ inch with a combination nozzle with
approximately 100 psi nozzle pressure (Figure 169). Two types of flow patterns were used
during the experiments, straight stream and fog. During straight stream application the nozzle
was adjusted to a straight stream pattern and directed toward the ceiling through the opening at
about a 30 to 45 degree angle (Figure 170). During the fog stream application the nozzle was
adjusted to create an approximate 30 degree fog pattern and also direct the stream 30 to 45
degrees above parallel to the ground (Figure 171). The flow rate of the nozzle was 100 gpm
which means that approximately 17 gallons of water were delivered through the opening into the
house during the 10 second flow. The purpose of this flow was not to extinguish the fire but to
suppress the burning gases and to see if there was an impact to the surrounding rooms as it
pertains to “pushing fire”, which will be addressed in the tactical considerations section. This
would allow the potential fire attack crew to slow the fire down prior to making entry and
therefore make entry into a safer environment. The experiment was terminated approximately
one minute after the hose stream, and suppression was completed by a deluge sprinkler system
and the firefighting crew.
92
Ignittion Locatioons
Figure 166
6. One Story House Ignition Location
Figure 1167. Two Story House Igniition Location
n
Figure 168
8. Remote Ign
nition Device
Figure 1169. Suppression Nozzle
Figure 170
0. Straight strream applicattion
Figure 1171. Fog streaam applicatioon
93
8.6. One-Story Experimental Results
Seven experiments were conducted in the one story structure (Table 16). Each experiment’s
purpose will be described and a figure is provided to show the fire and ventilation locations. The
experimental timeline is developed to show the time of ventilation and suppression changes.
Data graphs are provided for temperatures throughout the structure at multiple elevations, gas
concentrations at four locations and gas velocities at the opening(s) for each experiment. Each
graph has the events labeled on the top with a vertical line indicating when they occurred.
Table 16. One-Story Experimental Outline
Experiment
Location of
#
Structure
Ignition
Ventilation Parameters
1
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door
Front Door + Living Room Window (Window near
seat of the fire)
3
1-Story
Living Room
5
1-Story
Living Room
7
1-Story
Living Room
Living Room Window Only
Front Door + Bedroom 2 Window (Window remote
from fire)
9
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door + Living Room Window (Repeat Exp. 3)
12
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door + Living Room Window (Repeat Exp. 3)
14
1-Story
Living Room
Front Door + 4 Windows (LR, BR1, BR2, BR3)
94
8.6.1. Experriment 1
mulate a crew making enntry by openning the fronnt door. Igniition
Experimeent 1 was deesigned to sim
took placce in the livin
ng room on the sofa with
h a remote ddevice ignitinng matches. The fire greew
without intervention
i
until 8 minu
utes after ign
nition at whicch time the ffront door w
was opened
(Table 17
7). The fire again was allowed to grrow until 12::30, post-flasshover conddition, when 10
seconds of
o water werre flowed intto the front door
d
with a ccombinationn nozzle posiitioned in a
straight stream
s
patterrn. At 13:30
0 another 10 seconds of w
water was fllowed out off the same noozzle
in a fog pattern.
p
At 14:15
1
the lefft half of the living room
m window waas opened allowing moree air
into the living
l
room. The experim
ment was terrminated at 15:30 and w
was extinguisshed by the
suppressiion crew. Fiigure 173 thrrough Figure 180 show the front of the house duuring the
experimeent.
Table 17. Experiment 1 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Straight Stream
S
into Front Door
Fog Streaam into Fron
nt Door
Left Halff of Living Room
R
Windo
ow Opened
End of Experiment
1
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
8:00
12:30-12::40
13:30-13::40
14:15
15:30
SIDE A
SIDE C
Figure 172
2. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
location
95
Figure 173
3. Experimen
nt 1 - 0:00
Figure 174. Experim
ment 1 - 5:00
Figure 175
5. Experimen
nt 1 - 8:05
ment 1 - 10:48
Figure 176. Experim
Figure 177
7. Experimen
nt 1 - 12:36
ment 1 - 13:33
Figure 178. Experim
Figure 179
9. Experimen
nt 1 - 14:15
ment 1 - 15:00
Figure 180. Experim
96
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
1200
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 181. Experiment 1- 7ft. Temperatures
97
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
1200
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 182. Experiment 1- 5ft. Temperatures
98
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
1400
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 183. Experiment 1- 3ft. Temperatures
99
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
1400
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 184. Experiment 1- 1ft. Temperatures
100
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
25
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Living Room
20
1 ft. Living Room
Oxygen (%)
NOTE:LR gas sampling did not function
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 185. Experiment 1- Oxygen Concentrations
101
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
1
Carbon Monoxide (%)
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
0.8
NOTE:LR gas sampling did not function
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 186. Experiment 1 - CO Concentrations
102
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
10
Carbon Dioxide (%)
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
8
NOTE:LR gas sampling did not function
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 187. Experiment 1 - CO2 Concentrations
103
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
8
6
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 188. Experiment 1 – Front Door Velocities
104
1000
1200
1400
8.6.2. Experriment 3
onducted in the
t one-story
y house. Thiis experimennt was desiggned to simullate a
Experimeent 3 was co
crew mak
king entry th
hrough the frront door and
d having a vventilation oppening madee shortly afteer
near the seat
s of the fiire. Ignition
n took place in
i the living room on thee sofa with a remote devvice
igniting matches.
m
Th
he fire grew without inteervention unttil 8 minutess after ignitioon at which ttime
the front door was op
pened. Fifteen seconds later
l
the fronnt window too the living rroom was oppened
(Table 18
8). The fire again was allowed to grrow until 10::22 when 100 seconds of water were
flowed in
nto the front door with a combination
n nozzle possitioned in a straight streeam pattern. The
experimeent was term
minated at 11:30 and was extinguisheed by the supppression creew. Figure 1190
through Figure
F
196 show
s
the fron
nt of the hou
use during thhe experimennt.
Table 18. Experiment 3 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Open
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (m
mm:ss)
0:00
8:00
8:15
10:22-1 0:32
11:30
2
1
SIDE A
S
SIDE C
Figure 189
9. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
105
Figure 190
0. Experimen
nt 3 - 0:00
Figure 1191. Experim
ment 3 - 5:00
Figure 192
2. Experimen
nt 3 - 8:05
Figure 1193. Experim
ment 3 - 8:17
Figure 194
4. Experimen
nt 3 - 10:00
Figure 1195. Experim
ment 3 - 10:25
Figure 196
6. Experimen
nt 3 - 11:00
106
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 197. Experiment 3- 7ft. Temperatures
107
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 198. Experiment 3- 5ft. Temperatures
108
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 199. Experiment 3- 3ft. Temperatures
109
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 200. Experiment 3- 1ft. Temperatures
110
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
25
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 201. Experiment 3 - Oxygen Concentrations
111
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 202. Experiment 3 - CO Concentrations
112
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Dioxide (%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 203. Experiment 3 - CO2 Concentrations
113
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
8
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 204. Experiment 3 - Front Door Velocity
114
800
1000
8.6.3. Experriment 5
ucted in the one-story hoouse. This eexperiment w
was
Experimeent 5 was thee third experriment condu
designed
d to simulate a crew mak
king a ventilaation openingg near the seeat of the firee prior to enntry.
Ignition took
t
place in
n the living room
r
on the sofa with a remote deviice igniting m
matches. Thhe
fire grew
w without inteervention un
ntil 8 minutees after ignitiion at whichh time the livving room
window was
w opened (Table 19). The fire agaain was allow
wed to grow
w until 11:322 when 10
seconds of
o water werre flowed intto the living room windoow with a coombination nnozzle positiioned
in a straig
ght stream pattern.
p
The experiment was terminaated at 12:455 and was exxtinguished bby
the supprression crew
w. Figure 206
6 through Fiigure 213 shhow the frontt of the housse during thee
experimeent.
Table 19. Experiment 5 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Living Room
R
Window Open
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
8:00
11:32-11::42
12:45
1
SIDE A
S
SIDE C
Figure 205
5. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
location
115
Figure 206
6. Experimen
nt 5 - 0:00
Figure 2207. Experim
ment 5 - 5:00
Figure 208
8. Experimen
nt 5 - 8:05
Figure 2209. Experim
ment 5 - 10:00
Figure 210
0. Experimen
nt 5 - 10:30
Figure 2211. Experim
ment 5 - 11:25
Figure 212
2. Experimen
nt 5 - 11:40
Figure 2213. Experim
ment 5 - 12:40
116
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
1400
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 214. Experiment 5- 7ft. Temperatures
117
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
1400
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 215. Experiment 5- 5ft. Temperatures
118
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
1400
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 216. Experiment 5- 3ft. Temperatures
119
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
1400
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 217. Experiment 5- 1ft. Temperatures
120
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
25
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
20
5 ft. Living Room
Oxygen (%)
1 ft. Living Room
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 218. Experiment 5- Oxygen Concentrations
121
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 219. Experiment 5- CO Concentrations
122
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
10
5 ft. Bedroom 2
Carbon Dioxide (%)
5 ft. Bedroom 3
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 220. Experiment 5- CO2 Concentrations
123
800
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
8
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 221. Experiment 5- Ventilation Window Velocities
124
800
1000
8.6.4. Experriment 7
onducted in the
t one-story
y house as w
well. This exxperiment waas designed to
Experimeent 7 was co
simulate a crew makiing entry thrrough the fro
ont door andd having a veentilation opening made
shortly affter remote from
f
the seaat of the fire. Ignition toook place in tthe living rooom on the soofa
with a rem
mote devicee igniting maatches. The fire
f grew wiithout intervention until 8 minutes affter
ignition at
a which tim
me the front door
d
was opeened followeed 15 s later by the openning of the reear
bedroom
m window (Taable 20). Th
he fire again was allowedd to grow unntil 15:46 whhen 10 seconnds
of water were flowed
d into the fro
ont door with
h a combinattion nozzle ppositioned inn a straight
stream paattern. The experiment
e
was
w terminaated at 16:40 and was exttinguished bby the
suppressiion crew. Fiigure 223 thrrough Figure 230 show the front andd rear of the structure duuring
the experriment.
Table 20. Experiment 7 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Bedroom
m Window Open
O
Straight Stream
S
into Front Door
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
8:00
8:16
15:46-15::56
16:40
2
1
SIDE A
S
SIDE C
Figure 222
2. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
125
Figure 223
3. Experimentt 7 - 0:00
Figure 2224. Experimeent 7 - 0:00
Figure 225
5. Experimentt 7 - 8:05
Figure 2226. Experimeent 7 - 8:17
Figure 227
7. Experimentt 7 - 10:30
Figure 2228. Experimeent 7 - 11:30
Figure 229
9. Experimentt 7 - 15:50
Figure 2230. Experimeent 7 - 15:50
126
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
SS into Front Door
Front Door Open
1000
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 231. Experiment 7- 7ft. Temperatures
127
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
SS into Front Door
Front Door Open
1000
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 232. Experiment 7- 5ft. Temperatures
128
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
SS into Front Door
Front Door Open
1000
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 233. Experiment 7- 3ft. Temperatures
129
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
SS into Front Door
Front Door Open
1000
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 234. Experiment 7- 1ft. Temperatures
130
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
25
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 235. Experiment 7- Oxygen Concentrations
131
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 236. Experiment 7- CO Concentrations
132
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Dioxide (%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 237. Experiment 7- CO2 Concentrations
133
800
1000
1200
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
4
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
3
Velocity (m/s)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 238. Experiment 7- Front Door Velocities
134
1500
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
4
3
Velocity (m/s)
2
1
0
-1
-2
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
-3
-4
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 239. Experiment 7- Ventilation Window Velocities
135
800
1000
1200
8.6.5. Experriment 9
ucted in the oone-story hoouse. This experiment w
was
Experimeent 9 was thee fifth experriment condu
the secon
nd of three reeplicate expeeriments to examine
e
repeatability. IIgnition tookk place in thee
living roo
om on the so
ofa with a remote devicee igniting maatches. The fire grew wiithout
interventtion until 8 minutes
m
afterr ignition at which
w
time tthe front dooor was openeed. Fifteen
seconds after
a
the fron
nt door was opened the living
l
room window wass opened (Taable 21). Thhe
fire again
n was alloweed to grow until
u
11:12 when
w
10 secoonds of waterr were floweed into the frront
door with
h a combinattion nozzle positioned
p
in
n a straight sstream patterrn. The expeeriment was
terminateed at 12:20 and
a was extin
nguished by
y the suppresssion crew. F
Figure 241 tthrough Figuure
247 show
w the front of the house during
d
the ex
xperiment.
Table 21. Experiment 9 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Open
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
8:00
8:15
11:12-11::22
12:20
2
1
SIDE A
SIDE C
Figure 240
0. House grap
phics highlighting ventilatio
on
locations
136
Figure 241
1. Experimentt 9 - 0:00
Figure 2242. Experimeent 9 - 5:00
Figure 243
3. Experimentt 9 - 8:05
Figure 2244. Experimeent 9 - 8:20
Figure 245
5. Experimentt 9 - 10:00
Figure 2246. Experimeent 9 - 11:15
Figure 247
7. Experimentt 9 - 12:15
137
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 248. Experiment 9- 7ft. Temperatures
138
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 249. Experiment 9- 5ft. Temperatures
139
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
Front Door Open
1400
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 250. Experiment 9- 3ft. Temperatures
140
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
Front Door Open
1400
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 251. Experiment 9- 1ft. Temperatures
141
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
25
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 252. Experiment 9- Oxygen Concentrations
142
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 253. Experiment 9 - CO Concentrations
143
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Dioxide (%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 254. Experiment 9- CO2 Concentrations
144
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
8
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 255. Experiment 9- Front Door Velocities
145
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
8
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 256. Experiment 9- Ventilation Window Velocities
146
800
1000
1200
8.6.6. Experriment 12
he sixth experiment conducted in thee one-story hhouse. Thiss experimentt was
Experimeent 12 was th
the third of three repllicate experiiments to exaamine repeaatability. Ignnition took pplace in the liiving
room on the sofa with
h a remote device
d
ignitin
ng matches. The fire greew without iintervention until
8 minutes after ignitiion at which time the fro
ont door was opened. Fifteen secondds after the ffront
door wass opened the living room
m window waas opened (T
Table 22). T
The fire againn was alloweed to
grow unttil 11:09 wheen 10 second
ds of water were
w flowed into the fronnt door withh a combinatiion
nozzle po
ositioned in a straight strream pattern
n. The experriment was terminated att 12:20 and w
was
extinguisshed by the suppression
s
crew. Figurre 258 througgh Figure 2664 show the front of the
house du
uring the exp
periments.
Table 22. Experiment 12 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Open
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
8:00
8:15
11:09:11: 19
12:20
2
1
SIDE A
SIDE C
Figure 257
7. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
147
Figure 258
8. Experimen
nt 12 - 0:00
Figure 2259. Experim
ment 12 - 5:00
Figure 260
0. Experimen
nt 12 - 8:05
Figure 2261. Experim
ment 12 - 8:20
Figure 262
2. Experimen
nt 12 - 10:00
Figure 2263. Experim
ment 12 - 11:200
Figure 264
4. Experimen
nt 12 - 12:00
148
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1400
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 265. Experiment 12- 7ft. Temperatures
149
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
Front Door Open
1400
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 266. Experiment 12- 5ft. Temperatures
150
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 267. Experiment 12- 3ft. Temperatures
151
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 268. Experiment 12- 1ft. Temperatures
152
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
25
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 269. Experiment 12- Oxygen Concentration
153
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Monoxide ( %)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 270. Experiment 12- CO Concentration
154
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
10
5 ft. Bedroom 2
Carbon Dioxide (%)
5 ft. Bedroom 3
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 271. Experiment 12- CO2 Concentration
155
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
8
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 272. Experiment 12- Front Door Velocities
156
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
8
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 273. Experiment 12- Ventilation Window Velocities
157
800
1000
1200
8.6.7. Experriment 14
he final expeeriment cond
ducted in thee one-story hhouse. This experiment was
Experimeent 14 was th
designed
d to examine the impact of
o ventilating
g with severral openings.. Ignition toook place in tthe
living roo
om on the so
ofa with a remote devicee igniting maatches. The fire grew wiithout
interventtion until 8 minutes
m
afterr ignition at which
w
time tthe front dooor was openeed. Fifteen
seconds after
a
the fron
nt door was opened the living
l
room window wass opened. Inn fifteen secoond
intervals the master bedroom
b
win
ndow, bedro
oom 2 windoow and bedrooom 3 windoow were opeened
(Table 23
3). The fire again was allowed to grrow until 13::02 when 100 seconds of water were
flowed in
nto the front door with a combination
n nozzle possitioned in a fog stream ppattern. Thee
experimeent was term
minated at 14:10 and was extinguisheed by the supppression creew. Figure 2275
through Figure
F
282 show
s
the fron
nt and rear of
o the house during the eexperiment.
Table 23. Experiment 14
1 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Opened
Master Bedroom
B
Win
ndow Openeed
Bedroom
m 2 Window Opened
Bedroom
m 3 Window Opened
Fog Streaam into Liviing Room Window
W
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
8:00
8:15
8:30
8:45
9:00
13:02-13: 12
14:10
4
5
3
2
1
SIDE A
SIDE C
Figure 274
4. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
158
Figure 275
5. Experimen
nt 14 - 0:00
Figure 2276. Experim
ment 14 - 0:00
Figure 277
7. Experimen
nt 14 - 8:05
Figure 2278. Experim
ment 14 - 8:20
Figure 279
9. Experimen
nt 14 - 8:35
Figure 2280. Experim
ment 14 - 10:000
Figure 281
1. Experimen
nt 14 - 10:00
Figure 2282. Experim
ment 14 – 13:055
159
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1200
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 283. Experiment 14- 7ft. Temperatures
160
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1200
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 284. Experiment 14- 5ft. Temperatures
161
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1200
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 285. Experiment 14- 3ft. Temperatures
162
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1400
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 286. Experiment 14- 1ft. Temperatures
163
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
LR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
25
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 287. Experiment 14- Oxygen Concentration
164
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1.2
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 288. Experiment 14- CO Concentration
165
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
LR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
12
5 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
Carbon Dioxide (%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 289. Experiment 14- CO2 Concentration
166
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
10
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
Velocity (m/s)
5
0
-5
-10
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 290. Experiment 14- Front Door Velocities
167
800
1000
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
30
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
Velocity (m/s)
20
10
0
-10
-20
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 291. Experiment 14- Ventilation Window Velocities (Living Room Window)
168
1200
8.7. Two-Story Experimental Results
Eight experiments were conducted in the two story structure (Table 24). Each experiments
purpose will be described and a figure will show the fire and ventilation locations. The
experimental timeline will show the time of ventilation and suppression changes. Data graphs
are provided for temperatures throughout the structure at multiple elevations, gas concentrations
at four locations and gas velocities at the opening(s) for each experiment. Each graph has the
events labeled on the top with a vertical line indicating when they occurred.
Table 24. Two-Story Experimental Outline
Experiment
Location of
#
Structure
Ignition
Ventilation Parameters
2
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door
Front Door + Family Room Window (Window near
seat of the fire)
4
2-Story
Family Room
6
2-Story
Family Room
8
2-Story
Family Room
Family Room Window Only
Front Door + Bedroom 3 Window (Window remote
from fire)
10
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + Family Room Window (Repeat Exp. 4)
11
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + Family Room Window (Repeat Exp. 4)
13
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + Upper Family Room Window
15
2-Story
Family Room
Front Door + 4 Windows (LR, Den, FR1, FR2)
169
8.7.1. Experriment 2
onducted in the
t two-story
y house. Thhis experimennt was desiggned to simuulate a
Experimeent 2 was co
crew mak
king entry by
y opening th
he front doorr. Ignition toook place in the family rroom on the sofa
with a rem
mote devicee igniting maatches. The fire
f grew wiithout intervention until 10 minutes after
ignition at
a which tim
me the front door
d
was opeened (Table 25). The firre again was allowed to ggrow
until 16:0
05 when 10 seconds of water
w
were flowed
fl
into thhe front dooor with a com
mbination noozzle
positioneed in a straig
ght stream paattern. The experiment
e
w
was terminatted at 18:00 and was
extinguisshed by the suppression
s
crew. Figurre 293 througgh Figure 2998 shows thee front of thee
house du
uring the exp
periment.
Table 25. Experiment 2 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Straight Stream
S
into Front Door
End of Experiment
SIDE A
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
16:05-16::15
18:00
1
SIDE C
Figure 292
2. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
location
170
Figure 293
3. Experimen
nt 2 - 0:00
Figure 2294. Experim
ment 2 - 5:00
Figure 295
5. Experimen
nt 2 - 10:05
Figure 2296. Experim
ment 2 - 13:00
Figure 297
7. Experimen
nt 2 - 16:10
Figure 2298. Experim
ment 2 - 17:10
171
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
600
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 299. Experiment 2- 7ft. Temperatures
172
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
600
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 300. Experiment 2- 5ft. Temperatures
173
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
400
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 301. Experiment 2- 3ft. Temperatures
174
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
700
600
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 302. Experiment 2- 1ft. Temperatures
175
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
25
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Family Room
20
Oxygen (%)
1 ft. Family Room
15
10
5
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 303. Experiment 2- Oxygen Concentration
176
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
1.2
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
1
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 304. Experiment 2 - CO Concentration
177
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
12
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Dioxide (%)
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
8
6
4
2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 305. Experiment 2 - CO2 Concentration
178
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
0.6
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
0.4
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Velocity (m/s)
0.2
Bottom Door
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 306. Experiment 2 - Front Door Velocites
179
1500
8.7.2. Experriment 4
onducted in the
t two-story
y house. Thhis experimennt was desiggned to simuulate a
Experimeent 4 was co
crew mak
king entry th
hrough the frront door and
d having a vventilation oppening madee shortly afteer
near the seat
s of the fiire. Ignition
n took place in
i the living room on thee sofa with a remote devvice
igniting matches.
m
Th
he fire grew without inteervention unttil 10 minutees after ignittion at whichh
time the front door was
w opened. Fifteen seco
onds later thee first floor ffamily room
m window waas
opened (T
Table 26). The
T fire agaiin was allow
wed to grow uuntil 17:31 w
when 10 secoonds of wateer
were flow
wed into the front door with
w a combiination nozzzle positionedd in a straighht stream paattern.
The expeeriment was terminated at
a 18:30 and was extinguuished by thee suppressioon crew. Figgure
308 throu
ugh Figure 315
3 show thee front and reear of the hoouse during tthe experimeent.
Table 26. Experiment 4 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Family Room
R
Windo
ow Open
Straight Stream
S
into Family Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
10:15
17:31-17::41
18:30
2
SIDE A
1
SIDE C
Figure 307
7. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
180
Figure 308
8. Experimen
nt 4 - 0:00
Figure 3309. Experim
ment 4 - 0:00
Figure 310
0. Experimen
nt 4 - 5:00
Figure 3311. Experim
ment 4 - 10:05
Figure 312
2. Experimen
nt 4 - 10:20
Figure 3313. Experim
ment 4 - 15:00
Figure 314
4. Experimen
nt 4 - 17:05
Figure 3315. Experim
ment 4 - 17:35
181
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 316. Experiment 4- 7ft. Temperatures
182
1500
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 317. Experiment 4- 5ft. Temperatures
183
1500
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 318. Experiment 4- 3ft. Temperatures
184
1500
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 319. Experiment 4- 1ft. Temperatures
185
1500
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 320. Experiment 4- Oxygen Concentration
186
1500
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1.2
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
1
Carbon Monoxide(%)
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 321. Experiment 4- CO Concentration
187
1500
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
12
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
10
Carbon Dioxide(%)
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
8
6
4
2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 322. Experiment 4- CO2 Concentration
188
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
1
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
Velocity (m/s)
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 323. Experiment 4- Front Door Velocities
189
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
4
Velocity (m/s)
2
0
-2
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
-4
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 324. Experiment 4- Ventilation Window Velocities
190
1500
8.7.3. Experriment 6
ucted in the two-story hoouse. This eexperiment w
was
Experimeent 6 was thee third experriment condu
designed
d to simulate a crew mak
king a ventilaation openingg near the seeat of the firee prior to enntry.
Ignition took
t
place in
n the family room on thee sofa with a remote devvice igniting matches. Thhe
fire grew
w without inteervention un
ntil 10 minuttes after igniition at whicch time the fiirst floor fam
mily
room win
ndow was op
pened (Tablee 27). The fire
f again waas allowed too grow until 16:32 whenn 10
seconds of
o water werre flowed intto the family
y room winddow with a combination nozzle
positioneed in a straig
ght stream paattern. The experiment
e
w
was terminatted at 17:30 and was
extinguisshed by the suppression
s
crew. Figurre 326 througgh Figure 3331 show the front and rear of
the housee during the experiment.
Table 27. Experiment 6 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Family Room
R
Windo
ow Open
Straight Stream
S
into Family Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:02
16:32-16::42
17:30
1
SIDE A
SIDE C
Figure 325
5. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
location
191
Figure 326
6. Experimen
nt 6 - 0:00
Figure 327. Experim
ment 6 - 0:00
Figure 328
8. Experimen
nt 6 - 5:00
Figure 329. Experim
ment 6 - 10:05
Figure 330
0. Experimen
nt 6 - 14:45
Figure 331. Experim
ment 6 - 16:35
192
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
500
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 332. Experiment 6- 7ft. Temperatures
193
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
400
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 333. Experiment 6 - 5ft. Temperatures
194
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
300
200
o
Temperature ( C)
250
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 334. Experiment 6- 3ft. Temperatures
195
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
160
140
o
Temperature ( C)
120
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 335. Experiment 6- 1ft. Temperatures
196
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR W indow Open
SS into LR Window
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 336. Experiment 6- Oxygen Concentration
197
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
0.2
Carbon Monoxide (%)
0.15
0.1
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
0.05
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 337. Experiment 6- CO Concentration
198
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
8
7
Carbon Dioxide (%)
6
5
4
3
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
2
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 338. Experiment 6- CO2 Concentration
199
800
1000
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
4
3
Velocity (m/s)
2
1
0
-1
Top Right Window
-2
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
-3
Bottom Left Window
-4
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 339. Experiment 6- Ventilation Window Velocities
200
800
1000
1200
8.7.4. Experriment 8
onducted in the
t two-story
y house as w
well. This exxperiment waas designed to
Experimeent 8 was co
simulate a crew makiing entry thrrough the fro
ont door andd having a veentilation opening made
shortly affter remote from
f
the seaat of the fire. Ignition toook place in tthe family rooom on the ssofa
with a rem
mote devicee igniting maatches. The fire
f grew wiithout intervention until 10 minutes after
ignition at
a which tim
me the front door
d
was opeened followeed 15 s later by the openning of the seecond
floor fron
nt bedroom window
w
(Tab
ble 28). Thee fire again w
was allowedd to grow unttil 17:32 whhen
10 seconds of water were
w flowed
d into the bed
droom windoow with a coombination nnozzle positiioned
in a straig
ght stream pattern.
p
The experiment was terminaated at 18:300 and was exxtinguished bby
the supprression crew
w. Figure 341 through Fiigure 348 shhow the frontt of the housse during thee
experimeent.
Table 28. Experiment 8 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Bedroom
m Window Open
O
Straight Stream
S
into Bedroom Window
W
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
10:15
17:32-17::42
18:30
2
SIDE A
1
SIDE C
Figure 340
0. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
201
Figure 341
1. Experimen
nt 8 - 0:00
Figure 3342. Experim
ment 8 - 5:00
Figure 343
3. Experimen
nt 8 - 10:05
Figure 3344. Experim
ment 8 - 10:20
Figure 345
5. Experimen
nt 8 - 13:00
Figure 3346. Experim
ment 8 - 17:00
Figure 347
7. Experimen
nt 8 - 17:40
Figure 3348. Experim
ment 8 - 18:40
202
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
1000
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 349. Experiment 8- 7ft. Temperatures
203
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
700
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 350. Experiment 8- 5ft. Temperatures
204
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
700
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 351. Experiment 8- 3ft. Temperatures
205
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
500
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 352. Experiment 8 - 1ft. Temperatures
206
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
25
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Family Room
20
Oxygen (%)
1 ft. Family Room
15
10
5
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 353. Experiment 8- Oxygen Concentration
207
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
1.2
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Monoxide (%)
1
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 354. Experiment 8- CO Concentration
208
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
12
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Dioxide (%)
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
8
6
4
2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 355. Experiment 8- CO2 Concentration
209
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
4
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
3
Velocity (m/s)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 356. Experiment 8- Front Door Velocities
210
1500
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
8
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 357. Experiment 8- Ventilation Window Velocities
211
1500
8.7.5. Experriment 10
he fifth expeeriment cond
ducted in thee two-story hhouse. This experiment was
Experimeent 10 was th
the secon
nd of three reeplicate expeeriments to examine
e
repeatability. IIgnition tookk place in thee
family ro
oom on the sofa with a reemote devicee igniting m
matches. Thee fire grew w
without
interventtion until 10 minutes afteer ignition att which timee the front dooor was openned. Fifteenn
seconds after
a
the fron
nt door was opened the first
f
floor fam
mily room w
window was opened (Tabble
29). Thee fire again was
w allowed to grow untiil 24:16 wheen 10 secondds of water w
were flowed into
the familly room wind
dow with a combination
c
n nozzle posiitioned in a sstraight streaam pattern. The
experimeent was term
minated at 25:30 and was extinguisheed by the supppression creew. Figure 3359
through Figure
F
365 show
s
the fron
nt and rear of
o the house during the eexperiment.
Table 29. Experiment 10
1 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Open
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
10:15
24:16-24::26
25:30
2
SIDE A
1
SIDE C
Figure 358
8. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
212
Figure 359
9. Experimen
nt 10 - 0:00
Figure 3360. Experim
ment 10 - 0:00
Figure 361
1. Experimen
nt 10 - 5:00
Figure 3362. Experim
ment 10 - 10:055
Figure 363
3. Experimen
nt 10 - 10:20
Figure 3364. Experim
ment 10 - 22:155
Figure 365
5. Experimen
nt 10 - 24:50
213
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
700
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 366. Experiment 10- 7ft. Temperatures
214
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
600
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 367. Experiment 10- 5ft. Temperatures
215
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 368. Experiment 10- 3ft. Temperatures
216
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
250
o
Temperature ( C)
200
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 369. Experiment 10- 1ft. Temperatures
217
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 370. Experiment 10- Oxygen Concentration
218
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
0.4
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0.35
Carbon Monoxide (%)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 371. Experiment 10- CO Concentration
219
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
10
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Dioxide (%)
8
6
4
2
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 372. Experiment 10- CO2 Concentration
220
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
3
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
2
Velocity (m/s)
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 373. Experiment 10- Front Door Velocities
221
1500
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
8
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
Velocity (m/s)
6
4
2
0
-2
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 374. Experiment 10- Ventilation Window Velocities
222
1500
2000
8.7.6. Experriment 11
he sixth experiment conducted in thee two-story hhouse. Thiss experimentt was
Experimeent 11 was th
the third of three repllicate experiiments to exaamine repeaatability. Ignnition took pplace in the
family ro
oom on the sofa with a reemote devicee igniting m
matches. Thee fire grew w
without
interventtion until 10 minutes afteer ignition att which timee the front dooor was openned. Fifteenn
seconds after
a
the fron
nt door was opened the first
f
floor fam
mily room w
window was opened (Tabble
30). Thee fire again was
w allowed to grow untiil 15:17 wheen 10 secondds of water w
were flowed into
the front door with a combination
n nozzle possitioned in a straight streeam pattern. The experim
ment
was term
minated at 16:30 and was extinguisheed by the supppression creew. Figure 3376 through
Figure 38
83 show the front and reear of the hou
use during thhe experimennt.
Table 30. Experiment 11
1 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Open
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
10:15
15:17-15::27
16:30
2
SIDE A
1
SIDE C
Figure 375
5. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
223
Figure 376
6. Experimen
nt 11 - 0:00
Figure 3377. Experim
ment 11 - 0:00
Figure 378
8. Experimen
nt 11 - 5:00
Figure 3379. Experim
ment 11 - 10:055
Figure 380
0. Experimen
nt 11 - 10:20
Figure 3381. Experim
ment 11 - 14:255
Figure 382
2. Experimen
nt 11 - 14:25
Figure 3383. Experim
ment 11 - 15:200
224
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
800
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 384. Experiment 11- 7ft. Temperatures
225
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
600
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 385. Experiment 11- 5ft. Temperatures
226
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
600
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 386. Experiment 11- 3ft. Temperatures
227
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
600
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 387. Experiment 11- 1ft. Temperatures
228
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 388. Experiment 11- Oxygen Concentration
229
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
0.5
Carbon Monoxide (%)
0.4
0.3
0.2
5 ft. Family Room
0.1
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 389. Experiment 11- CO Concentration
230
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
12
Carbon Dioxide (%)
10
8
6
4
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 390. Experiment 11- CO2 Concentration
231
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
6
4
Velocity (m/s)
2
0
-2
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 391. Experiment 11- Front Door Velocities
232
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
4
Velocity (m/s)
2
0
-2
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 392. Experiment 11- Ventilation Window Velocities
233
800
1000
1200
8.7.7. Experriment 13
he seventh experiment
e
conducted
c
inn the two-story house. T
This experiment
Experimeent 13 was th
was desig
gned to exam
mine the imp
pact of ventillation horizoontally as higgh as possibble near the sseat
of the fire. Ignition took
t
place in
n the family room on thee sofa with a remote deviice igniting
matches. The fire grrew without intervention
i
n until 10 minnutes after iggnition at whhich time thee
front doo
or was openeed. Fifteen seconds
s
afterr the front dooor was openned the secoond floor fam
mily
room win
ndow was op
pened (Tablee 31). The fire
f again waas allowed too grow until 12:28 whenn 10
seconds of
o water werre flowed intto the second
d floor familly room winndow with a combinationn
nozzle po
ositioned in a straight strream pattern
n. A second 10 s burst of water was directed intoo the
same win
ndow at 14:2
28 with the same
s
nozzle positioned iin a fog patteern. The expperiment waas
terminateed at 15:30 and
a was extin
nguished by
y the suppresssion crew. F
Figure 394 tthrough Figuure
401 show
w the front an
nd rear of th
he house duriing the expeeriment.
Table 31. Experiment 13
1 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Upper Liiving Room Window Op
pen
Straight Stream
S
into Living Room
m Window
Fog Streaam into Liviing Room Window
W
End of Experiment
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
10:15
12:28-12::38
14:28-14::38
15:30
2
1
SIDE A
SIDE C
Figure 393
3. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
234
Figure 394
4. Experimen
nt 13 - 0:00
Figure 3395. Experim
ment 13 - 0:00
Figure 396
6. Experimen
nt 13 - 5:00
Figure 3397. Experim
ment 13 - 10:055
Figure 398
8. Experimen
nt 13 - 10:20
Figure 3399. Experim
ment 13 - 11:455
Figure 400
0. Experimen
nt 13 - 12:35
Figure 4401. Experim
ment 13 - 14:355
235
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
1000
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 402. Experiment 13- 7ft. Temperatures
236
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
600
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 403. Experiment 13- 5ft. Temperatures
237
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
800
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 404. Experiment 13- 3ft. Temperatures
238
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
700
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 405. Experiment 13- 1ft. Temperatures
239
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 406. Experiment 13- Oxygen Concentration
240
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
1
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Monoxide (%)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 407. Experiment 13- CO Concentration
241
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
12
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Dioxide ( %)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 408. Experiment 13- CO2 Concentration
242
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
4
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
3
Velocity (m/s)
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 409. Experiment 13 - Front Door Velocities
243
800
1000
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
20
15
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
Velocity (m/s)
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 410. Experiment 13 - Ventilation Window Velocities
244
800
1000
1200
8.7.8. Experriment 15
he final expeeriment cond
ducted in thee two-story hhouse. This experiment was
Experimeent 15 was th
designed
d to examine the impact of
o ventilating
g with severral openings.. Ignition toook place in tthe
family ro
oom on the sofa with a reemote devicee igniting m
matches. Thee fire grew w
without
interventtion until 10 minutes afteer ignition att which timee the front dooor was openned. Fifteenn
seconds after
a
the fron
nt door was opened the living
l
room window wass opened. Inn fifteen secoond
intervals the den win
ndow, first floor right fam
mily room w
window and ffirst floor lefft family rooom
window were
w opened
d (Table 32). The fire ag
gain was alloowed to grow
w until 14:333 when 10
seconds of
o water werre flowed intto the first flloor right fam
mily room w
window withh a combinatiion
nozzle po
ositioned in a fog stream
m pattern. Th
he experimennt was termiinated at 16:00 and was
extinguisshed by the suppression
s
crew. Figurre 412 througgh Figure 4119 show the front and rear of
the housee during the experiment.
Table 32. Experiment 15
1 Timeline
Event
Ignition
Front Do
oor Open
Living Room
R
Window Open
Den Win
ndow Open
Family Room
R
Windo
ow Open
Second Family
F
Room
m Window Open
O
Fog Streaam into Fam
mily Room Window
W
End of Experiment
5
SIDE A
Time (mm
m:ss)
0:00
10:00
10:15
10:30
10:45
11:00
14:33-14:443
16:00
4
1
2
3
Figure 411
1. House grap
phic highlightiing ventilation
n
locations
245
SIDE C
Figure 412
2. Experimen
nt 15 - 0:00
Figure 4413. Experim
ment 15 - 0:00
Figure 414
4. Experimen
nt 15 - 10:05
Figure 4415. Experim
ment 15 - 10:200
Figure 416
6. Experimen
nt 15 - 10:35
Figure 4417. Experim
ment 15 - 11:055
Figure 418
8. Experimen
nt 15 - 14:00
Figure 4419. Experim
ment 15 - 14:400
246
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
1200
16 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 1
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
7 ft. Bedroom 4
7 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Den
7 ft. Kitchen
7 ft. Dining Room
7 ft. Foyer
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 420. Experiment 15- 7ft. Temperatures
247
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
1000
5 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Den
5 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 421. Experiment 15- 5ft. Temperatures
248
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
1000
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 422. Experiment 15- 3ft. Temperatures
249
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
1000
1 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Den
1 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 423. Experiment 15- 1ft. Temperatures
250
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
25
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
20
5 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
Oxygen (%)
NOTE: Instrument malfunction
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 424. Experiment 15- Oxygen Concentration
251
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
0.14
5 ft. Family Room
0.12
1 ft. Family Room
Carbon Monoxide (%)
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
0.1
NOTE: Instrument malfunction
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 425. Experiment 15- CO Concentration
252
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
8
5 ft. Family Room
7
1 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
Carbon Dioxide ( %)
6
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 426. Experiment 15- CO2 Concentration
253
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
8
6
Velocity (m/s)
4
2
0
-2
Top Door
Top/Middle Door
Middle Door
Middle/Bottom Door
Bottom Door
-4
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 427. Experiment 15- Front Door Velocities
254
800
1000
1200
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
4
Velocity (m/s)
2
0
-2
-4
Top Right Window
Top Left Window
Center Window
Bottom Right Window
Bottom Left Window
-6
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 428. Experiment 15- Ventilation Window Velocities (Family Room Window)
255
1200
8.8. Discussion
The overall objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of horizontal ventilation
performed by initial arriving companies at two common types of structures, a one story, 1200 ft2
house with compartmentation and a two story, 3200 ft2 house with an open floor plan and high
ceilings. All of the fires started in the same location and were allowed to grow for the same
amount of time prior to ventilation. The repeatability of these experiments was examined by
comparing the first 8 minutes of the one story experiments and the first 10 minutes of the two
story experiments. Additionally two scenarios were run in triplicate for each structure in order to
compare repeatability of the entire experimental series. Another important factor in these
experiments is tenability of potential occupants in the structures prior to fire department
intervention as well as after fire department intervention. Tenability will also be examined for
the firefighters that could be operating in the structure during ventilation operations. A
significant factor in this tenability is the rate of change of hazardous conditions and how this
varies with different ventilation practices.
8.8.1.
One Story Repeatability
In order to compare the ventilation practices a large amount of attention was placed into making
sure pre-ignition conditions were as close to identical as possible. All of the furniture was
purchased to be the same and the positioning of the furniture was the same between experiments.
Ignition was initiated in the same location and the amount of air leakage area was controlled by
filling cracks around the doors and windows with fiberglass insulation. Figure 429 through
Figure 435 compare temperatures and oxygen concentrations across all of the experiments in the
one story house. Of the seven experiments, Experiment 3 had a slower growing fire and
Experiment 14 had a faster growing fire. The other 5 experiments grew similarly for the first 8
minutes before ventilation.
Temperatures near the ceiling in the living room of the 5 similar experiments reached
approximately 700 °C (1290 °F) at around 320 s and quickly decreased to 175 °C (350 °F) at
480 s as the oxygen was consumed in the house (Figure 429). The temperatures at the same
elevation in Bedroom 2 (most remote from the living room) reached 350 °C (660 °F) before
decreasing to an average of 150 °C (300 °F) as the fire became ventilation limited (Figure 430).
As a further comparison the temperatures at 1 ft above the floor in both the living room and rear
bedroom were plotted together. Living room temperatures reached 325 °C (620 °F) and the
Bedroom 2 temperatures reached an average of 80 °C (180 °F) before declining to 100 °C (210
°F) and 60 °C (140 °F) respectively (Figure 431 and Figure 432).
Oxygen levels in the living room and the bedroom at 5 ft above the floor were between 10% and
14% at the time of ventilation. However, they did drop as low as 2 to 5% at 6 minutes after
ignition (Figure 433 and Figure 435). At the 1 ft level in the living room the oxygen level
declined to 11 to 14% at 360 s and remained there until ventilation (Figure 434). The oxygen
probes in the living room for Experiment 3 were not functioning properly so that data can be
ignored.
As a whole, the set of experiments in the one-story structure showed good repeatability prior to
ventilation. The two experiments which showed different growth rates from the others, 3 and 14,
still had similar temperatures and oxygen concentrations at the time of ventilation. Every
256
experiment was within 50 °C (120 °F) at the time of ventilation at the 4 measurement locations
chosen, which were remote from each other. Oxygen concentrations were also similar, within
4% of each other, at the time of ventilation.
800
800
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
500
600
o
o
Temperature ( C)
600
400
300
400
300
200
100
100
0
0
80
160
240
Time (s)
320
400
480
0
80
160
240
Time (s)
320
400
480
Figure 430. 7 ft. Bedroom 2 Temperatures
Figure 429. 7 ft. Living Room Temperatures
800
800
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
500
600
o
600
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
700
Temperature ( C)
700
o
500
200
0
Temperature ( C)
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
700
Temperature ( C)
700
400
300
500
400
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
0
80
160
240
Time (s)
320
Figure 431. 1 ft. Living Room Temperatures
400
0
480
80
160
240
Time (s)
320
Figure 432. 1 ft. Bedroom 2 Temperatures
257
400
480
25
20
20
Oxygen (%)
Oxygen (%)
25
15
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
10
5
15
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
10
5
0
0
0
80
160
240
Time (s)
320
400
0
480
Figure 433. 5 ft. Living Room Oxygen Concentrations
80
160
240
Time (s)
320
400
Figure 434. 1 ft. Living Room Oxygen Concentrations
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 15
10
5
0
0
80
160
240
320
400
480
Time (s)
Figure 435. 5 ft. Bedroom 2 Oxygen Concentrations
Experiments 3, 9 and 12 followed the same timeline to examine repeatability through the entire
experiment. In all three experiments the front door was opened at 8 minutes and the living room
window was opened 15 seconds later. The fire was allowed to burn until a post flashover
condition was reached. Figure 436 and Figure 437 show the temperature versus time at 7 ft. and
1 ft. above the floor in the living room and bedroom 2. Experiments 9 and 12 were very similar
throughout the entire timeline. Experiment 3 develops slower prior to ventilation but responds
faster to the window being ventilated. After ventilation all of the experiments have similar
temperature rates of change as well as peaks.
258
480
1400
1400
Exp. 3 - LR 7 ft.
Exp. 9 - LR 7 ft.
Exp. 12 - LR 7 ft.
Exp. 3 - BR2 7 ft.
Exp. 9 - BR2 7 ft.
Exp. 12 - BR2 7 ft.
1000
o
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
Exp. 3 - LR 1 ft.
Exp. 9 - LR 1 ft.
Exp. 12 - LR 1 ft.
Exp. 3 - BR2 1 ft.
Exp. 9 - BR2 1 ft.
Exp. 12 - BR2 1 ft.
1200
Temperature ( C)
1200
800
600
800
600
400
400
200
200
0
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 436. Exp. 3, 9, 12 Repeatability -7 ft. Temperatures
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
Figure 437. Exp. 3, 9, 12 Repeatability -1 ft. Temperatures
8.8.2. Two Story Repeatability
The two story house had the same furniture layout and ignition location as the one story house.
The only difference in the family room was the geometry of the room. To examine repeatability
in all 8 two story house experiments the first 10 minutes of each experiment was compared.
Ventilation took place at 10 minutes after ventilation in every experiment. Figure 438 through
Figure 444 compare temperatures at various elevations in two locations remote from each other.
Oxygen concentrations were also compared at two different locations in the house.
Three different elevations were examined in the 17 ft tall family room. The first was 16 ft from
the floor. Temperatures at this elevation peak between 325 °C (620 °F) and 450 °C (840 °F) at
between 450 s and 550 s. Just before ventilation the temperatures at this elevation are all
between 240 °C (460 °F) and 310 °C (590 °F) (Figure 438). Experiments 13 and 15 grew
slower than the other 6 experiments, but every experiment peaked and declined in temperature
prior to ventilation which is consistent with a ventilation limited fire. The second elevation was
7 ft above the floor. These temperatures were a little more varied as the fire grew but converged
at between 180 °C (360 °F) and 230 °C (450 °F) just prior to ventilation (Figure 439). The
temperatures at 1 ft above the floor behave similarly to the two other elevations and converge at
between 110 °C (230 °F) and 150 °C (300 °F) just prior to ventilation (Figure 440).
Temperatures in Bedroom 3 were also compared between the 8 experiments. Bedroom 3 was
remote from the family room and is a good indication of heat flow to the second floor of the
house. At 7 ft. above the floor in Bedroom 3 all of the temperatures peaked around 200 °C (390
°F) and leveled off or slightly decreased up to the ventilation time. At 1 ft above the floor in
Bedroom 3 the temperature followed the same trend but peaked at approximately 100 °C (210
°F).
Oxygen concentrations were compared at 5 ft in the family room and at 5 ft in the hallway on the
second floor. In the family room oxygen concentrations steadily decrease from ignition to
ventilation. Just prior to ventilation concentrations range from 13 to 16 % for the 8 experiments.
259
1000
On the second floor hallway the oxygen concentrations decrease to 14 % to 18% just prior to
ventilation. Experiment 2 was the only experiment that decreased to a minimum of 13% and
increased slightly to 14% prior to ventilation, all others steadily declined from ignition.
600
600
o
Temperature ( C)
400
500
300
200
100
400
2
4
6
8
10
11
13
15
300
200
100
0
0
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
500
600
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
500
600
Figure 439. 7 ft. Family Room Temperatures
Figure 438. 16 ft. Family Room Temperatures
600
600
Exp. 2
Exp. 4
Exp. 6
Exp. 8
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
Exp. 13
Exp. 15
400
o
o
400
Exp. 2
Exp. 4
Exp. 6
Exp. 8
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
Exp. 13
Exp. 15
500
Temperature ( C)
500
Temperature ( C)
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
o
500
2
4
6
8
10
11
13
15
Temperature ( C)
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
Exp.
300
200
100
300
200
100
0
0
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
500
600
Figure 440. 1 ft. Family Room Temperatures
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
Figure 441. 7 ft. Bedroom 3 Temperatures
260
500
600
25
600
Exp. 2
Exp. 4
Exp. 6
Exp. 8
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
Exp. 13
Exp. 15
20
Oxygen (%)
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
Exp. 2
Exp. 4
Exp. 6
Exp. 8
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
Exp. 13
Exp. 15
10
200
5
100
0
0
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
500
600
Figure 442. 1 ft. Bedroom 3 Temperatures
20
15
Exp. 2
Exp. 4
Exp. 6
Exp. 8
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
Exp. 13
Exp. 15
10
5
0
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
0
100
200
300
Time (s)
400
500
Figure 443. 5 ft. Family Room Oxygen Concentrations
25
Oxygen (%)
15
500
600
Figure 444. 5 ft. Upper Hallway Oxygen Concentrations
261
600
1000
1000
Exp. 4
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
800
o
Temperature ( C)
o
Temperature ( C)
800
Exp. 4
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
600
400
600
400
200
200
0
0
0
400
800
Time (s)
1200
1600
Figure 445. Exp. 4, 10, 11 Repeatability -16 ft. LR Temps.
0
400
800
Time (s)
1200
Figure 446. Exp. 4, 10, 11 Repeatability -7 ft. BR Temps.
25
Oxygen (%)
20
15
10
Exp. 4
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
5
0
0
400
800
Time (s)
1200
1600
Figure 447. Exp. 4, 10, 11 Repeatability - 5 ft. FR Oxygen
8.8.3. Tenability
A core mission of the fire service is life safety, both their own and that of occupants. These
experiments allow for the assessment of tenability prior to fire department intervention and after
fire department intervention. Ventilation is viewed as a tactic that if use properly increases
tenability for the fire service and occupants. However when not used properly can decrease
tenability. Two measures of tenability were used during these experiments, temperature and gas
concentration.
Temperature measurements taken throughout the houses allowed for the analysis of
occupant tenability. Research by Montgomery47 in 1975 indicated that in humid air, rapid skin
burns would occur at 100 °C (210 °F), and 150 °C (300 °F) was the exposure temperature at
262
1600
which escape was not likely. In 1947, Moritz48 conducted experiments on large animals and
found that 100 °C (210 °F) represented the threshold for local burning and hyperemia (general
burning). For this analysis, a temperature value of 150 °C (300 °F) was considered the
temperature at which victims would be incapacitated. The measurements at 1 ft above the floor
were used, assuming that the victim was lying on the floor where the lowest temperatures are
typically found. Temperatures and oxygen concentrations at 5 ft above the floor were also used
to examine a walking person.
Firefighters operating in structures are also susceptible to harm from exposure to elevated
temperatures. Firefighter protective clothing standards such as NFPA 1971 require that
protective clothing withstand exposure to 260 °C (500 °F) for five minutes without substantial
damage49. Other data indicate that a fire fighter can survive flashover conditions of 816 °C (1500
°F) for up to 15 seconds depending on the conditions. For this analysis, a temperature value of
260 °C (500 °F) was considered the upper limit for a fire fighter to remain in the environment for
a short period of time. The temperatures were evaluated at 3 ft above the floor assuming that fire
fighters would be crawling in an attempt to operate in the lowest temperature region of the room.
This analysis is based on temperature alone and does not factor in heat flux which would further
reduce the firefighters ability to operate in a location. Another important factor not accounted
for is the time the firefighter is in an elevated temperature environment. Turnout gear protects
the firefighter inside by absorbing energy and keeping it from reaching the firefighter inside. A
firefighter could be operating in lower temperatures than the 260 °C (500 °F) threshold for a
period of time and their gear could become saturated with energy. The energy would then be
passed onto the firefighter inside causing burn injuries.
According to Purser a room becomes untenable for people when the oxygen volume fraction
drops below 12%50. This level is generally accepted by the fire protection engineering
profession as leading to incapacitation, but may be tolerated for a short (unspecified) time. A
lethal concentration of carbon monoxide in humans has been reported to be as low as 0.5% for 5
minutes51.
The temperatures, oxygen concentrations and carbon monoxide concentrations were examined in
the Living Room (LR) and Bedroom 2 (BR2) of the one-story house to determine the time at
which the tenability thresholds were exceeded. Table 33 shows the results for the one-story
experiments. Temperature was the tenability criteria exceeded first in every experiment. In
every experiment tenability was exceeded in at least one location prior to ventilation taking place
(before the simulated fire department arrival). The average time to untenability in the living
room, 1 ft above the floor was 336 seconds, and 292 seconds 5 ft above the floor in the bedroom.
The elevation of the measurement in the living room assumes someone lying on the floor, while
the elevation in the bedroom assumes someone sitting up out of bed or walking to escape.
Figure 448 through Figure 454 show the peak temperatures throughout the house prior to
simulated fire department arrival (480 seconds). Temperatures in red are above the tenability
threshold and temperatures in blue are below that threshold. These figures show the potentially
survivable locations within the house. These locations are very close to the floor (1 ft in most
locations but 3 ft in some locations) and not near the fire and in the bedroom behind a closed
door (Bedroom 3). With the door closed to the bedroom the temperatures remained at less than
63 °C (150 °F) in every experiment.
263
Table 33. Time to occupant untenabiility in one-sto
ory house
Experimeent
1
3
5
7
9
12
14
NOTE:
Tem
mp Untenabillity
LR @ 1 ft BR2 @ 5 ft
308
29
96
570
0
35
57
296
6
28
86
292
2
27
70
320
0
30
02
294
4
27
78
274
4
25
52
NA
N = Not Achieved
A
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 313 °C
5 ft. – 263 °C
3 ft. – 205 °C
1 ft. – 133 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 52 °C
5 ftt. – 32 °C
3 ftt. – 24 °C
1 ftt. – 22 °C
Ox
xygen Untennability
LR @ 1ft BR
R2 @ 5ft
NA*
N
350
640
6
610
380
3
340
700
7
310
680
6
350
400
4
340
700
7
320
CO Untennability
L
LR @ 1ft BR2 @ 5ft
NA*
380
NA
NA
380
380
380
380
400
380
650
350
650
650
Hallw
way
7 ft. – 64
46 °C
5 ft. – 53
31 °C
3 ft. – 25
57 °C
1 ft. – 10
04 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 349 °C
5 ftt. – 309 °C
3 ftt. – 264 °C
1 ftt. – 145 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 347 °C
C
5 ft. – 246 °C
C
3 ft. – 167 °C
C
1 ft. – 77 °C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 7703 °C
5 ft. – 6623 °C
3 ft. – 5575 °C
1 ft. – 3331 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 279 °°C
5 ft. – 193 °°C
3 ft. – 144 °°C
1 ft. – 78 °°C
Figure 448
8. Experimen
nt 1 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
264
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 222 °C
5 ft. – 179 °C
3 ft. – 145 °C
1 ft. – 93 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 35 °C
5 ftt. – 31 °C
3 ftt. – 29 °C
1 ftt. – 28 °C
Hallway
7 ft. – 51
19 °C
5 ft. – 30
02 °C
3 ft. – 14
48 °C
1 ft. – 66 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 230 °C
5 ftt. – 190 °C
3 ftt. – 144 °C
1 ftt. – 79 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 213 °C
C
5 ft. – 160 °C
C
C
3 ft. – 113 °C
1 ft. – 65 °C
C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 4411 °C
5 ft. – 3318 °C
3 ft. – 2223 °C
1 ft. – 1107 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 190 °°C
5 ft. – 139 °°C
3 ft. – 102 °°C
1 ft. – 66 °°C
Figure 449
9. Experimen
nt 3 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 359 °C
5 ft. – 278 °C
3 ft. – 237 °C
1 ft. – 167 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 46 °C
5 ftt. – 38 °C
3 ftt. – 33 °C
1 ftt. – 30 °C
Hallw
way
7 ft. – 68
84 °C
5 ft. – 41
12 °C
3 ft. – 25
58 °C
1 ft. – 99
9 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 378 °C
5 ftt. – 334 °C
3 ftt. – 289 °C
1 ftt. – 147 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 354 °C
C
5 ft. – 261 °C
C
C
3 ft. – 177 °C
1 ft. – 96 °C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 6686 °C
5 ft. – 6639 °C
3 ft. – 5519 °C
1 ft. – 3308 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 305 °°C
5 ft. – 214 °°C
3 ft. – 155 °°C
1 ft. – 98 °°C
Figure 450
0. Experimen
nt 5 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
265
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 313 °C
5 ft. – 253 °C
3 ft. – 215 °C
1 ft. – 157 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 45 °C
5 ftt. – 37 °C
3 ftt. – 31 °C
1 ftt. – 28 °C
Hallway
7 ft. – 63
35 °C
5 ft. – 53
37 °C
3 ft. – 25
52 °C
1 ft. – 90
9 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 395 °C
5 ftt. – 316 °C
3 ftt. – 254 °C
1 ftt. – 139 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 336 °C
C
5 ft. – 236 °C
C
3 ft. – 167 °C
C
1 ft. – 89 °C
C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 6651 °C
5 ft. – 5542 °C
3 ft. – 4482 °C
1 ft. – 2290 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 293 °°C
5 ft. – 203 °°C
3 ft. – 148 °°C
1 ft. – 93 °°C
Figure 451
1. Experimen
nt 7 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 302 °C
5 ft. – 258 °C
3 ft. – 220 °C
1 ft. – 124 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 63 °C
5 ftt. – 42 °C
3 ftt. – 31 °C
1 ftt. – 28 °C
Hallw
way
7 ft. – 57
75 °C
5 ft. – 44
49 °C
3 ft. – 20
09 °C
1 ft. – 98
9 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 329 °C
5 ftt. – 290 °C
3 ftt. – 242 °C
1 ftt. – 133 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 303 °C
C
5 ft. – 213 °C
C
3 ft. – 152 °C
C
1 ft. – 77 °C
C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 6687 °C
5 ft. – 5580 °C
3 ft. – 4410 °C
1 ft. – 2260 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 261 °°C
5 ft. – 176 °°C
3 ft. – 137 °°C
1 ft. – 77 °°C
Figure 452
2. Experimen
nt 9 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
266
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 298 °C
5 ft. – 262 °C
3 ft. – 204 °C
1 ft. – 124 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 62 °C
5 ftt. – 41 °C
3 ftt. – 28 °C
1 ftt. – 25 °C
Hallway
7 ft. – 62
29 °C
5 ft. – 52
25 °C
3 ft. – 26
69 °C
1 ft. – 10
09 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 360 °C
5 ftt. – 314 °C
3 ftt. – 266 °C
1 ftt. – 143 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 336 °C
C
C
5 ft. – 230 °C
C
3 ft. – 165 °C
1 ft. – 80 °C
C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 6688 °C
5 ft. – 5564 °C
3 ft. – 4498 °C
1 ft. – 3329 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 290 °°C
5 ft. – 191 °°C
3 ft. – 146 °°C
1 ft. – 80 °°C
Figure 453
3. Experimen
nt 12 - Peak tem
mperatures beefore ventilatiion (Red = untenable for occcupants)
Kitchen
n
7 ft. – 269 °C
5 ft. – 236 °C
3 ft. – 195 °C
1 ft. – 122 °C
Beedroom 3
7 ftt. – 51 °C
5 ftt. – 35 °C
3 ftt. – 30 °C
1 ftt. – 27 °C
Hallw
way
7 ft. – 58
84 °C
5 ft. – 42
23 °C
3 ft. – 20
03 °C
1 ft. – 95
9 °C
Din
ning Room
7 ftt. – 306 °C
5 ftt. – 260 °C
3 ftt. – 204 °C
1 ftt. – 111 °C
B
Bedroom 2
7 ft. – 276 °C
C
5 ft. – 206 °C
C
C
3 ft. – 145 °C
1 ft. – 75 °C
Living R
Room
7 ft. – 4475 °C
5 ft. – 3391 °C
3 ft. – 3312 °C
1 ft. – 1172 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 236 °°C
5 ft. – 167 °°C
3 ft. – 126 °°C
1 ft. – 75 °°C
Figure 454
4. Experimen
nt 14 - Peak tem
mperatures beefore ventilatiion (Red = untenable for occcupants)
267
The temperatures, oxygen concentrations and carbon monoxide concentrations were also
examined in the Family Room (FR) and Second Floor Hallway (Hall) of the two-story house to
determine the time at which the tenability thresholds were exceeded. Table 34 shows the results
for the two-story experiments. Temperature was the tenability criteria exceeded first in every
experiment in this house as well. In every experiment tenability was exceeded in at least one
location prior to ventilation taking place (before the simulated fire department arrival). The
average time to untenability in the family room, 1 ft above the floor was 558 seconds, and 423
seconds 5 ft above the floor in the second floor hallway. The elevation of the measurement in
the family room assumes someone lying on the floor, while the elevation in the second floor
hallway assumes someone walking to escape the bedrooms.
Figure 455 through Figure 462 show the peak temperatures throughout the house prior to
simulated fire department arrival (600 seconds). Temperatures in red are above the tenability
threshold and temperatures in blue are below that threshold. These figures show the potentially
survivable locations within the house. Remote from the fire, below 3 ft throughout the house
was usually tenable. The Den and Bedroom 2 were the most tenable rooms. The den door was
open and the door to Bedroom 2 was closed. With the door closed to the bedroom the
temperatures remained at less than 32 °C (100 °F) in every experiment. The two-story house had
more tenable locations due to the larger volume at the same fuel package.
Table 34. Time to occupant untenability in two-story house
Experiment
Temp Untenability (s)
Oxygen Untenability
FR @ 1 ft Hall @ 5ft FR @ 1ft Hall @ 5ft
2
252
402
NA
850
4
282
432
NA
1000
6
252
402
NA
NA
8
784
364
900
820
10
1444
424
NA
1400
11
424
364
NA
850
13
514
484
NA
740
15
754
514
NA*
NA*
*- Instrumentation Malfunction, NOTE: NA = Not Achieved
268
CO Untenability
FR @ 1 ft Hall @ 5ft
NA
820
NA
NA
NA
NA
900
850
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA*
NA*
Hallway
7 ft. – 400 °C
C
5 ft. – 380 °C
C
3 ft. – 235 °C
C
1 ft. – 110 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 238 °C
C
5 ft. – 207 °C
C
3 ft. – 167 °C
C
1 ft. – 101 °C
C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 482 °C
5 ft. – 475 °C
3 ft. – 468 °C
1 ft. – 448 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 183 °C
5 ft. – 146 °C
3 ft. – 119 °C
1 ft. – 81 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1155 °C
5 ft. – 1132 °C
3 ft. – 1108 °C
1 ft. – 83 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 24
40 °C
5 ft. – 19
94 °C
3 ft. – 16
61 °C
1 ft. – 98
9 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 248 °C
5 ft. – 233 °C
3 ft. – 202 °C
1 ft. – 115 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 32 °C
5 ft. – 26 °C
3 ft. – 24 °C
1 ft. – 22 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 2433 °C
5 ft. – 1800 °C
3 ft. – 1577 °C
1 ft. – 1077 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 226 °C
5 ftt. – 197 °C
3 ftt. – 162 °C
1 ftt. – 104 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 300
3 °C
5 ft. – 260
2 °C
3 ft. – 175
1 °C
1 ft. – 125
1 °C
Figure 455
5. Experimen
nt 2 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
Hallway
7 ft. – 300 °C
C
5 ft. – 240 °C
C
3 ft. – 160 °C
C
1 ft. – 95 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 165 °C
C
5 ft. – 143 °C
C
3 ft. – 106 °C
C
1 ft. – 69 °C
C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 156 °C
5 ft. – 124 °C
3 ft. – 104 °C
1 ft. – 76 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 31 °C
5 ft. – 26 °C
3 ft. – 24 °C
1 ft. – 22 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1111 °C
5 ft. – 96 °C
3 ft. – 81 °C
1 ft. – 64 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 18
84 °C
5 ft. – 14
48 °C
3 ft. – 11
19 °C
1 ft. – 80 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 162 °C
5 ft. – 150 °C
3 ft. – 114 °C
1 ft. – 71 °C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 279 °C
5 ft. – 286 °C
3 ft. – 293 °C
1 ft. – 318 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 1955 °C
5 ft. – 1544 °C
3 ft. – 1333 °C
1 ft. – 96 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 154 °C
5 ftt. – 138 °C
3 ftt. – 111 °C
1 ftt. – 75 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 205
2 °C
5 ft. – 165
1 °C
3 ft. – 120
1 °C
1 ft. – 95 °C
Figure 456
6. Experimen
nt 4 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
269
Hallway
7 ft. – 310 °C
C
5 ft. – 260 °C
C
3 ft. – 170 °C
C
1 ft. – 100 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 182 °C
C
5 ft. – 160 °C
C
3 ft. – 120 °C
C
1 ft. – 69 °C
C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 304 °C
5 ft. – 318 °C
3 ft. – 332 °C
1 ft. – 355 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 163 °C
5 ft. – 131 °C
3 ft. – 108 °C
1 ft. – 76 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1127 °C
5 ft. – 1107 °C
3 ft. – 86 °C
1 ft. – 68 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 19
93 °C
5 ft. – 16
61 °C
3 ft. – 12
28 °C
1 ft. – 84
8 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 174 °C
5 ft. – 162 °C
3 ft. – 131 °C
1 ft. – 69 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 27 °C
5 ft. – 23 °C
3 ft. – 22 °C
1 ft. – 20 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 2044 °C
5 ft. – 1600 °C
3 ft. – 1422 °C
1 ft. – 999 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 169 °C
5 ftt. – 150 °C
3 ftt. – 122 °C
1 ftt. – 85 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 215
2 °C
5 ft. – 175
1 °C
3 ft. – 145
1 °C
1 ft. – 95 °C
Figure 457
7. Experimen
nt 6 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
Hallway
7 ft. – 310 °C
C
5 ft. – 250 °C
C
3 ft. – 160 °C
C
1 ft. – 100 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 180 °C
C
5 ft. – 160 °C
C
3 ft. – 124 °C
C
1 ft. – 74 °C
C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 155 °C
5 ft. – 127 °C
3 ft. – 107 °C
1 ft. – 77 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 27 °C
5 ft. – 22 °C
3 ft. – 21 °C
1 ft. – 19 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1128 °C
5 ft. – 1109 °C
3 ft. – 87 °C
1 ft. – 78 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 18
88 °C
5 ft. – 15
59 °C
3 ft. – 13
32 °C
1 ft. – 85
8 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 177 °C
5 ft. – 166 °C
3 ft. – 109 °C
1 ft. – 75 °C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 315 °C
5 ft. – 210 °C
3 ft. – 181 °C
1 ft. – 144 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 1911 °C
5 ft. – 1577 °C
3 ft. – 1388 °C
1 ft. – 944 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 168 °C
5 ftt. – 152 °C
3 ftt. – 126 °C
1 ftt. – 83 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 205
2 °C
5 ft. – 190
1 °C
3 ft. – 155
1 °C
1 ft. – 95 °C
Figure 458
8. Experimen
nt 8 - Peak tem
mperatures beffore ventilatioon (Red = unteenable for occcupants)
270
Hallway
7 ft. – 290 °C
C
5 ft. – 235 °C
C
3 ft. – 140 °C
C
1 ft. – 90 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 167 °C
C
5 ft. – 150 °C
C
3 ft. – 103 °C
C
1 ft. – 66 °C
C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 253 °C
5 ft. – 200 °C
3 ft. – 162 °C
1 ft. – 138 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 153 °C
5 ft. – 123 °C
3 ft. – 103 °C
1 ft. – 72 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1118 °C
5 ft. – 99 °C
3 ft. – 82 °C
1 ft. – 65 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 18
80 °C
5 ft. – 14
48 °C
3 ft. – 12
23 °C
1 ft. – 78 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 163 °C
5 ft. – 150 °C
3 ft. – 119 °C
1 ft. – 70 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 28 °C
5 ft. – 23 °C
3 ft. – 21 °C
1 ft. – 20 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 2011 °C
5 ft. – 1566 °C
3 ft. – 1366 °C
1 ft. – 1133 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 155 °C
5 ftt. – 140 °C
3 ftt. – 115 °C
1 ftt. – 77 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 205
2 °C
5 ft. – 160
1 °C
3 ft. – 135
1 °C
1 ft. – 80 °C
Figure 459
9. Experimen
nt 10 - Peak tem
mperatures beefore ventilatiion (Red = untenable for occcupants)
Hallway
7 ft. – 340 °C
C
5 ft. – 290 °C
C
3 ft. – 175 °C
C
1 ft. – 120 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 225 °C
C
5 ft. – 195 °C
C
3 ft. – 154 °C
C
1 ft. – 89 °C
C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 180 °C
5 ft. – 141 °C
3 ft. – 119 °C
1 ft. – 87 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 32 °C
5 ft. – 27 °C
3 ft. – 24 °C
1 ft. – 23 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1155 °C
5 ft. – 1130 °C
3 ft. – 1105 °C
1 ft. – 85 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 20
03 °C
5 ft. – 16
64 °C
3 ft. – 15
53 °C
1 ft. – 97 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 221 °C
5 ft. – 213 °C
3 ft. – 188 °C
1 ft. – 102 °C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 426 °C
5 ft. – 458 °C
3 ft. – 375 °C
1 ft. – 205 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 2033 °C
5 ft. – 1644 °C
3 ft. – 1466 °C
1 ft. – 1144 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 204 °C
5 ftt. – 185 °C
3 ftt. – 153 °C
1 ftt. – 101 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 265
2 °C
5 ft. – 240
2 °C
3 ft. – 175
1 °C
1 ft. – 120
1 °C
Figure 460
0. Experimen
nt 11 - Peak tem
mperatures beefore ventilatiion (Red = untenable for occcupants)
271
Hallway
7 ft. – 290 °C
C
5 ft. – 250 °C
C
3 ft. – 153 °C
C
1 ft. – 102 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 176 °C
C
5 ft. – 152 °C
C
3 ft. – 109 °C
C
1 ft. – 67 °C
C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 240 °C
5 ft. – 213 °C
3 ft. – 176 °C
1 ft. – 150 °C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 152 °C
5 ft. – 124 °C
3 ft. – 105 °C
1 ft. – 73 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1122 °C
5 ft. – 1101 °C
3 ft. – 84 °C
1 ft. – 67 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 17
78 °C
5 ft. – 14
48 °C
3 ft. – 12
23 °C
1 ft. – 81 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 165 °C
5 ft. – 160 °C
3 ft. – 124 °C
1 ft. – 71 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 28 °C
5 ft. – 24 °C
3 ft. – 22 °C
1 ft. – 21 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 1899 °C
5 ft. – 1522 °C
3 ft. – 1366 °C
1 ft. – NA
A °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 161 °C
5 ftt. – 143 °C
3 ftt. – 118 °C
1 ft
ft. – 77 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 205
2 °C
5 ft. – 160
1 °C
3 ft. – 140
1 °C
1 ft. – 80 °C
Figure 461
1. Experimen
nt 13 - Peak tem
mperatures beefore ventilatiion (Red = untenable for occcupants)
Hallway
7 ft. – 300 °C
C
5 ft. – 240 °C
C
3 ft. – 160 °C
C
1 ft. – 100 °C
C
Kitchen
7 ft. – 175 °C
C
5 ft. – 152 °C
C
3 ft. – 113 °C
C
1 ft. – 69 °C
C
Bedroom 1
7 ft. – 160 °C
5 ft. – 130 °C
3 ft. – 109 °C
1 ft. – 75 °C
Bedroom
m2
7 ft. – 27 °C
5 ft. – 23 °C
3 ft. – 22 °C
1 ft. – 21 °C
Deen
7 ft. – 1126 °C
5 ft. – 1102 °C
3 ft. – 83 °C
1 ft. – 64 °C
Bedroo
om 4
7 ft. – 18
86 °C
5 ft. – 15
53 °C
3 ft. – 12
28 °C
1 ft. – 82 °C
Diining Room
7 ft. – 169 °C
5 ft. – 162 °C
3 ft. – 125 °C
1 ft. – 68 °C
Familly Room
7 ft. – 235 °C
5 ft. – 204 °C
3 ft. – 168 °C
1 ft. – 147 °C
Bedroom
m3
7 ft. – 1966 °C
5 ft. – 1633 °C
3 ft. – 1433 °C
1 ft. – 1144 °C
Livving Room
7 ftt. – 162 °C
5 ftt. – 144 °C
3 ftt. – 118 °C
1 ft
ft. – 77 °C
Foy
yer
7 ft. – 220
2 °C
5 ft. – 170
1 °C
3 ft. – 160
1 °C
1 ft. – 90 °C
Figure 462
2. Experimen
nt 15 - Peak tem
mperatures beefore ventilatiion (Red = untenable for occcupants)
272
The previous section identified a high hazard for occupants during a fire in either of the two
houses. While most of the houses would be untenable there were locations in which occupants
could need to be rescued from. Firefighters are going to need to make ventilation openings in
order to gain access to search for occupants. This section examines the time that the firefighters
have before the fire responds to the additional oxygen and conditions become untenable for
them.
Table 35 and Table 36 show the time from ignition to untenability for potential firefighters that
may be inside during the time following ventilation for the one-story and two-story houses
respectively. Temperatures are reported at the elevation of 3 ft above the floor. This represents
a firefighter crawling close to the ground in an attempt to stay as cool as possible. This analysis
also assumes that no water is being applied to the fire. Practical examples of this could be
searching ahead of a hoseline or searching and something goes wrong with the hoseline.
In the one-story house, during Experiment 1, only the front door was opened which limited the
amount of oxygen made available to the fire so only the living room and dining room became
untenable. During all of the other experiments the entire house became untenable with the
exception of the bedrooms. The two experiments that included the ventilation of the bedrooms
had upper layer temperatures greatly increase but the lower layer, below 3 ft remained below 260
°C (500 °F) because the outside air was being pulled in through the windows to grow the fire in
the living room and hallway. Minimum time from ventilation to firefighter untenability in the
one-story house averaged 100 seconds (87 seconds minimum and 113 seconds maximum).
During this time the firefighters would have to suppress the fire or evacuate to remain safe.
Table 35. Time and location of firefighter untenability (One-story)
Experiment
1
3
5
7
9
12
14
NOTE:
LR
595
567
613
599
601
581
566
NA = Not Achieved
Time of Firefighter Temperature Untenability @ 3 ft (s)
DR
Kit
Hall
BR1
BR2
651
NA
NA
NA
NA
606
618
597
NA
NA
641
651
645
NA
NA
645
655
635
NA
NA
625
634
633
NA
NA
606
622
604
NA
NA
593
601
581
NA
NA
BR3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
In the two-story house there were few locations that were untenable for firefighters. In every
experiment but Experiment 6 both the family room and second floor hallway became untenable
after ventilation. Depending upon the ventilation location(s) additional room became untenable
for firefighters. In Experiment 2, only the front door was opened, which limited the air to the
fire and no other rooms became untenable. Experiment 6 was similar in that only the window
was opened, therefore only the family room became untenable. Experiments 4, 10 and 11 all
opened the front door and window in the family room. This additional air created additional heat
generation and the dining room and foyer also became untenable. Experiment 4 and 11 were
similar and Experiment 10 behaved differently because the second sofa did not ignite until after
the first sofa was completely consumed by fire. This caused slow fire growth and is not similar
to the other 7 experiments. Experiment 13 was similar to Experiments 4 and 11 except the upper
family room window was ventilated. This caused untenability faster but localized the
273
untenability to just the family room and second floor hallway. Ventilating the front door and a
window remote from the fire (upstairs bedroom) caused the living room, foyer and two upstairs
bedrooms to become untenable. Ventilating the from door and 4 additional first floor window
allowed the most air into the fire and created untenability for firefighters in most of the house.
Due to the very different fire growth in Experiment 10 a median time to untenability is more
appropriate than the average. The median time from ventilation to firefighter untenability in the
two-story house was 200 seconds. During this time the firefighters would have to suppress the
fire or evacuate to remain safe.
Table 36. Time and location of firefighter untenability (Two-story)
Experiment
FR
Den
2
672
NA
4
942
NA
6
822
NA
8
784
NA
10
1414 NA
11
814
NA
13
694
NA
15
724
NA
NOTE: NA = Not Achieved
Time of Firefighter Temperature Untenability @ 3 ft (s)
LR
DR
Kit Foyer Hall BR1
BR2
BR3
NA
NA
NA
NA
825
NA
NA
NA
NA 1032 NA 1050 1000 NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
904
NA
NA
844
784
NA
NA
784
NA
NA
NA
NA 1414 NA
NA
NA
NA
842
NA
874
844
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
775
NA
NA
NA
814
752
814
752
752
NA
NA
874
BR4
NA
NA
NA
844
NA
NA
NA
784
There are a number of variables beyond the two measurements described above that could lead
to incapacitation or death in a fire scenario. Some of them are the exposure time, the rate of
change of the exposure, the susceptibility of a particular individual, or any preexisting
antagonistic conditions. It has also been well studied that these measures have additive effects.
For example an oxygen deficient environment could cause an individual to breath faster which
would increase the intake of CO and hot gases.
8.8.4. Rate of Change
An important factor when analyzing ventilation is how long it takes for the fire to respond to the
air provided by the ventilation event and when the environment becomes untenable for
firefighters operating in the structure. To examine this for each experiment the time of
ventilation was subtracted from the time of untenability. Looking closer at this time window you
can see when the temperature begins to rise and at what rate. This could be the time firefighters
notice there is a problem and how long they have to evacuate.
Figure 463 shows the temperatures at 1 ft above the floor in the living room of the one-story
house from time of ventilation until post flashover. This shows the exponential growth of the
fire once it responds to the air provided by the ventilation. From the time the temperatures begin
to increase until firefighter untenability and further to flashover is a very short period of time
(Table 37). Experiments 3, 9 and 14 have temperatures that increase from 260 °C (500 °F) to
over 600 °C (1110 °F) in less than 10 seconds. This requires the firefighter to make it to an exit
very quickly when conditions begin to deteriorate.
274
1600
1400
o
Temperature ( C)
1200
1000
Exp. 1
Exp. 3
Exp. 5
Exp. 7
Exp. 9
Exp. 12
Exp. 14
800
600
400
200
0
480
520
560
Time (s)
600
640
Figure 463. One-story LR 1 ft. Rate of Change
Figure 464 shows the temperatures at 1 ft above the floor in the family room of the two-story
house from time of ventilation until post flashover. There were fewer experiments that
transitioned to flashover in the two story house but the three experiments that did were
Experiments 4, 13 and 15. Due to the larger volume they took a little longer than the one-story
house to have dramatic temperature increases but they still occurred. Experiments 13 and 15 had
temperatures that went from 260 °C (500 °F) to 600 °C (1110 °F) in less than 20 seconds and 36
seconds respectively. This is also very little time for firefighters to react to the changing
conditions.
275
1600
Exp. 2
Exp. 4
Exp. 6
Exp. 8
Exp. 10
Exp. 11
Exp. 13
Exp. 15
1400
o
Temperature ( C)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
600
700
800
900
1000
Time (s)
1100
1200
1300
Figure 464. Two-story FR 1 ft. Rate of Change
Table 37. Time to untenability and flashover after ventilation
Experiment
Time from Ventilation Until FF
Untenability (seconds)
Time from FF Untenability Until
Flashover (600 °C)
(seconds)
NA
NA
8
86
17
NA
21
NA
9
NA
NA
14
20
7
36
1
115
2
72
3
85
4
342
5
133
6
220
7
119
8
184
9
119
10
814
11
214
12
101
13
94
14
86
15
124
NOTE: NA = Not Achieved
276
8.8.5. Comparison of Tactical Ventilation Methods
Fifteen experiments were conducted varying the ventilation locations and the number of
ventilation openings. Ventilation scenarios included ventilating the front door only, opening the
front door and a window near and remote from the seat of the fire, opening a window only and
ventilating a higher opening in the two-story house. The temperature data will be compared to
examine the conditions in the houses dependent upon which ventilation openings are made.
Firefighters are taught to ventilate based on the location of the fire and in coordination with the
operation that is being implemented. These comparisons provide a way to examine why they are
taught those ideas and what those ideas mean for the tenability and fire dynamics within the
houses.
8.8.5.1.
Influence of Creating Additional Ventilation Openings
The amount of air and the location that the air supplied to an oxygen limited fire changes how
much energy a fire generates and how fast it generates it. Figure 465 shows the living room
temperatures 5 ft above the floor in each of the one-story ventilation scenarios. This figure
shows how fast the temperatures in the living room increase and to what magnitude. When only
the door was opened (RED), the fire was not getting all the air it needed to burn to its potential
so it reached a peak temperature of approximately 700 °C (1290 °F) and did so the slowest of the
5 scenarios. Opening the bedroom window (ORANGE) in addition to the door allowed the fire
to peak at 825 °C (1520 °F) about 30 seconds faster. Opening the living room window only
(BLUE) allowed the fire to reach a peak of over 1200 °C (2190 °F) and it reached the
temperature of the previous two scenarios faster. When the door and the living room window
(GREEN) were opened the fire also reached in excess of 1200 °C (2190 °F), but did it even
faster. The final scenario of opening the door and 4 windows (GREY) including the living room
window and bedroom windows the fire reached close to 1200 °C (2190 °F) and did so 20
seconds faster than the next closest scenario and 75 seconds faster than just opening the door.
Figure 466 shows the family room temperatures 5 ft above the floor in four of the two-story
ventilation scenarios. When only the door was opened (RED) the fire approached flashover but
did not have enough air to achieve it. Opening only the window (BLUE) did not allow for
flashover and the maximum temperature remained below approximately 450 °C (840 °F) and
was the slowest developing of the scenarios. When the door and window were opened (GREEN)
the fire grew faster and peaked at 550 °C (1020 °F). The final scenario where the front door and
4 windows (ORANGE) were opened the fire transitioned to flashover the fastest of any of the
scenarios and peaked at 950 °C (1740 °F).
277
Ignition
Ventilation Window Open
Front Door Open
1400
Door Only
Window Only
Door and Window
Door and BR Window
Door and 4 Windows
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
400
500
600
700
Time (s)
Figure 465. One-Story House Living Room Temperatures 5 ft above the floor
Ignition
200
300
800
Ventilation W indow Open
Front Door O pen
1000
Door O nly
W indow Only
Door and W indow
Door and 4 W indow s
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Tim e (s)
Figure 466. Two-Story House Family Room Temperatures 5 ft above the floor
278
8.8.5.2.
Near the Seat
S of Fire and
a Remote From the Seeat of Fire
n guidance firefighters
fi
arre given in their
t
basic veentilation traaining is to vventilate as cclose
The main
to the seaat of the fire as possible. This is meaant to localizze the growtth of the firee to the area oof
origin. Ventilating
V
reemote from the seat of th
he fire createes the potenttial to spreadd the fire to
uninvolv
ved parts of the
t house by
y creating a flow
f
path andd source of ooxygen from
m that uninvoolved
area.
Experimeent 12 (Figu
ure 467) and Experiment 7 (Figure 4668) in the onne-story houuse are compared
in Figuree 469. The RED
R
lines reepresent the temperatures
t
s 5 ft above the floor durring the
experimeent when thee front door was
w opened, followed byy opening thhe living room
m window. This
scenario represents ventilating
v
neear the seat of
o the fire whhich is consiistent with a correct
ventilatio
on action bassed on firefig
ghter trainin
ng. The BLU
UE lines are measuremennts in the sam
me
locationss but from th
he experimen
nt where the front door w
was opened ffollowed by the openingg of
the windo
ow in Bedro
oom 2. The graph
g
showss a slightly fa
faster growinng fire when ventilated nnear
the seat of
o the fire. This
T can be expected
e
beccause the souurce of oxyggen is in the fire room annd the
fire can react
r
to this and
a increasee its heat releease rate. Thhe bedroomss also increaase in temperrature
but Bedro
oom 2 only peaks
p
at app
proximately 250
2 °C (4800 °F) and Beddroom 1 peaaks at 210 °C
C
(410 °F).. Then they begin to deccrease in tem
mperature because of thee lack of oxyygen availablle to
burn at th
hat side of th
he house. When
W
ventilatted remote fr
from the seatt of the fire tthe living rooom
temperatu
ure does nott peak as hig
gh because itt has less oxyygen supplieed to it. Thee difference iis in
the bedro
ooms. An arrea that was previously limited in tem
mperature beecause it waas out of the flow
path has now becomee part of the flow path. This
T increasses the tempeeratures to close to 500 °°C
(930 °F) in Bedroom
m 2 and up to 300 °C (570
0 °F) in Beddroom 1. If tthe fire had nnot been
t save the sttructure for subsequent
s
eexperiments both bedroooms would hhave
suppresseed in order to
become involved
i
in fire
f creating an undesired situation fr
from a ventillation choicee. Bedroom 3
was unafffected by eitther ventilation scenario
o because thee door was cclosed.
Figure 467
7. Near Seat of
o the Fire Flo
ow Path
Figurre 468. Remote from Seat oof the Fire Floow Path
279
Ignition
Ventilation Window Open
Front Door Open
1400
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 469. Comparison of Living Room and Bedroom Temperatures at 5 ft above the floor
Experiment 4 (Figure 470) and Experiment 8 (Figure 471) in the two-story house are compared
in Figure 472. The RED lines represent the temperatures 5 ft above the floor during the
experiment where the front door was opened, followed by opening the family room window.
This scenario represents ventilating near the seat of the fire which is consistent with a correct
ventilation action based on firefighter training. The BLUE lines are measurements in the same
locations but from the experiment where the front door was opened followed by the opening of
the window in Bedroom 3. Ventilating near the seat of the fire localizes the temperatures and the
combustion. This also creates the highest peak temperature (775 °C [1430 °F]) in the family
room because all of the available oxygen is coming right into the family room. Unlike the ranch
house ventilating near the seat of the fire peaked later than ventilating remote from the seat of the
fire because the remote vent location was on the second floor which allowed more air to enter
from the front door and grow the fire. This air was limited which did not allow for temperatures
to peak as high as the two ventilation points of the near the seat of the fire experiment.
Comparing the bedroom temperatures highlights the impact of creating a flow path through the
bedroom. When Bedroom 3 was not in the flow path, its peak temperature was 250 °C (480 °F).
However, when it was in the flow path, temperatures increased to 575 °C (1070 °F).
280
Figure 47
70. Two-story
y Near Seat off the Fire Flow
w Path
Ignition
Figgure 471. Two-story Remoote from the Seeat of the
Firre Flow Path
entilation Window Open
Ve
Front Door Open
800
0
5 ft. Fam
mily Room
5 ft. Bed
droom 1
5 ft. Bed
droom 3
5 ft. Bed
droom 4
5 ft. Fam
mily Room
5 ft. Bed
droom 1
5 ft. Bed
droom 3
5 ft. Bed
droom 4
700
0
o
Temperature ( C)
600
0
500
0
400
0
300
0
200
0
100
0
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
1500
200
00
Figure 472
2. Compariso
on of Family Room
R
and Bed
droom Temperratures at 5 ftt above the flooor
8.8.5.3.
Ventilating
g High and Ventilating
V
L
Low
When deetermining ho
ow to most effectively
e
ventilate
v
a rooom it wouldd be intuitivee to ventilatee near
the top of the room since that is where
w
the ho
ot gases from
m a fire deveelop a layer. One must aalso
ol air enters the
t room as the hot gasees are leavingg the room. If the cool aair
consider how the coo
entering the room is needed
n
by th
he available fuel, then thhe room willl transition too flashover aand
281
the burniing will take place at thee ventilation locations, leeaving the rooom fully invvolved in flaames.
Clearly, in
i this scenaario ventilatin
ng the top off the room ddid not proviide the relieff that was
intended.
Figure 47
73 and Figurre 474 show renderings of
o the windoows that werre opened to ventilate low
w
and high in the familly room. The temperaturres at 1 ft abbove the flooor and 16 ft aabove the flooor
are plotteed in Figure 475. In both
h experimen
nts, the fire ggrew, becam
me ventilationn limited andd
then the temperatures
t
s decreased. Once the door
d
and winndow were oppened, the hhigh ventilatiion
window caused
c
temp
peratures to increase
i
mucch faster thann the low veentilation winndow. The high
window experiment
e
reached
r
950 °C (1740 °F
F) at the ceilling and 6500 °C (1200 °F
F) at the flooor at
approxim
mately 720 seeconds. A floor
fl
temperaature above 6600 °C (1110 °F) indicaates that the
family ro
oom transitio
oned to flash
hover. The lo
ow window experiment reached 8000 °C (1470 °F) at
the ceilin
ng and 500 °C (930 °F) at
a the floor at
a approximaately 870 secconds.
This is a dramatic diffference in fire
f growth. A comparisoon can be m
made to a woood burning sstove
when fresh air is allo
owed to flow
w in low and the hot comb
mbustion prodducts are alloowed to flow
w out
high. Allowing air in
nto a ventilaation limited fire low andd letting the hhot gases ouut high can ccreate
prime conditions for a flashover, even in a laarge volume like the twoo story familyy room. Another
point illu
ustrated by th
his graph is that
t the famiily room didd not cool muuch, if at all,, when the high
window was
w ventilated. The tem
mperature 1 ft
f above the ffloor did nott decrease frrom 125 °C ((260
°F) beforre it increaseed exponentiially to 650 °C
° (1200 °F)). This is coounterintuitivve to the reason a
ventilatio
on opening would
w
be maade in the first place. In this case thee ventilation limited fire
respondeed so quickly
y to the addittional/needed air that it ddid not cool the family rroom.
Figure 473
3. Ventilating
g the Family Room
R
Low
Figurre 474. Ventillating the Fam
mily Room Higgh
282
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
1000
16 ft. Family Room (Vent Low)
1 ft. Family Room (Vent Low)
16 ft. Family Room (Vent High)
1 ft. Family Room (Vent High)
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 475. Comparison of ventilating high and low
283
1000
1200
9. Tactical Considerations
Bringing together the results of these experiments or all experiments for the fire service, to
understand how they may impact tactics on the fire ground is crucial to the safety of the fire
service. All of the changes to the fire environment that have occurred over the past few decades
make it essential for the fire service to reevaluate their tactics on a regular basis. This section
will attempt to bring the science to the street. Many of the topics examined in this section can be
attributed to the projects technical panel which consisted of fire service leaders from around the
world.
Before you read this section it is very important to understand this information and these
considerations as they pertain to the types of structures used in these experiments. Another
important factor to keep in your mind is the capabilities and resources available to your
particular department. If your department has 3 person staffing on an engine and your mutual
aid is 20 minutes away you should look at these considerations differently that if your
department has 6 person staffing and you expect 4 engines and 2 trucks on the scene in 10
minutes. There are no two fires that are the same and not every scenario has one answer that is
correct every time, most of the time it depends on a number of variables. Even in these
controlled experiments with the same house and fuel load there are differences in how the fire
develops. These tactical considerations are not meant to be rules but to be concepts to think
about, and if they pertain to you by all means adapt them to your operations.
9.1. Stages of fire development
A key element to fire behavior training is the fire growth curve that is used to demonstrate where
the different stages occur in relation to each other. The basic fire growth curve shows fire
ignition followed by the growth stage, flashover, fully developed stage and finally the decay
stage (Figure 476). This curve can be misleading. If an item like a sofa was placed in a large
room or outside, where plenty of oxygen is available, then the growth curve will look like Figure
476. A more realistic explanation of the modern fire environment where there is usually not
enough oxygen available would be ignition followed by a growth stage, decay stage, ventilation
(either by the fire service or by an opening created by the fire like window failure), a second
growth stage, flashover, fully developed stage and finally the decay stage. Figure 477 depicts
what this would look like. Taking an average of all of the fire room ceiling temperatures for
both houses shows the shape of the time-temperature curve for all of the ventilation scenarios
(Figure 478).
284
Figure 476
6. Basic fire growth
g
curve
Figurre 477. Compaartment fire ggrowth curve
1200
0
One-S
Story Averrage
Two-S
Story Averrage
800
0
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
0
600
0
400
0
200
0
0
0
2
200
40
00
600
0
Time
e (s)
800
0
1000
1200
Figure 478
8. Average firre room ceiling temperaturee for each hou
use
9.2. Forcing
F
the front door is ventilatio
on
In most cases,
c
when ventilation is
i taught to new
n firefightters it is defiined by the rremoval of hheat
and smok
ke from a strructure. Inteernational Fiire Service T
Training Association (IFSTA) definees
ventilatio
on as, “Systeematic remov
val of heated
d air, smoke , and airbornne contaminants from a
5
structure and replacin
ng them with
h fresh air.”52
The probllem is that pproper respecct is not giveen to
the fact th
hat as an opeening is mad
de, air is ablee to enter thee structure aand provide tthe missing ppiece
of the fire triangle to a ventilation
n limited firee. Many fireefighters do not think off opening thee
front doo
or as ventilattion, but rath
her as forced
d entry for acccess to searcch and attackk the fire. W
While
285
entry is necessary, one must also realize that air is being feeding the fire and there is little time
before either the fire gets extinguished or it grows until a untenable condition exists, jeopardizing
the safety of everyone in the structure.
Examining fire room temperatures at 5 ft above the floor in both houses during the experiments
where only the front door was opened shows the increase in temperature following ventilation
(Figure 479). In the one story experiment (Experiment 1) the temperature was 180 °C (360 °F)
at ventilation (480 s), exceeded the firefighter tenability threshold of 260 °C (500 °F) at 550 s
and reached 600 °C (1110 °F) at 650 s. In the two story experiment (Experiment 2) the
temperature was 220 °C (430 °F) at ventilation (600 s), exceeded the firefighter tenability
threshold of 260 °C (500 °F) at 680 s and reached 600 °C (1110 °F) at 780 s. Both of these
experiments show that opening the front door needs to be thought of as ventilation as well as an
access point. This necessary tactic also needs to be coordinated with the rest of the operations on
the fireground. A simple action of pulling the front door closed after forcing entry until access is
ready to be made as part of the coordinated attack will limit the air to the fire and slow the
potential rapid fire progression.
1000
5 ft. Living Room (One-Story)
5 ft. Family Room (Two-Story)
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
Front Door Opened
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 479. Living/Family room temperatures during front door only ventilation experiments
9.3. No smoke showing
During the experiments it was observed that prior to ventilation smoke stopped coming out of the
gaps in the structures. As the fire became ventilation limited the temperatures decreased rapidly
and significantly. While this drop was occurring the pressure in the structure would also be
286
decreasing as temperature and pressure created by the fire are dependent on each other. While
the pressure was decreasing, smoke would completely stop coming out of the cracks in the
structure. Figure 480 shows the temperature in the living room prior to ventilation. As the fire
grows, smoke is visible coming from around the windows and the door. As the temperature
peaks and then declines, there is no longer smoke visible from the front of the one-story house.
The same phenomenon was seen in the two-story house. Figure 481 shows the temperature in
the family room and images of the rear of the two-story house during the growth of the fire until
it became ventilation limited and decayed. Smoke is visible coming from the windows at 390
seconds but no smoke is visible at 510 seconds.
Tactically, this could be very important for the initial crews sizing up a fire. With no smoke
showing from the structure complacency could easily set in. It is important to consider that little
or no smoke showing does not mean that conditions are safer than having fire showing. Smoke
conditions need to be used to try to determine the conditions inside the structure but this should
be done with extreme caution because smoke is not always an indicator of what is happening in
the structure. With the modern fire environment and response times being what they are,
consider that the fire is most likely in the initial decay stage of the fire growth curve and not the
incipient stage.
287
288
9.4. Coordinatio
C
on
There aree many fire service
s
publiications thatt say that firee attack shouuld be coorddinated and thhere
is a very good reason
n for that. Ass shown in previous
p
secttions, if air iss added to thhe fire and w
water
plied in the appropriate
a
time
t
frame th
he fire gets llarger and thhe hazard to firefighters
is not app
increasess. Examining the times to
t untenabiliity provides the best casee scenario of how
coordinatted the attack needs to be.
b Taking th
he average tiime for everry experimennt from the time
of ventilaation to the time
t
of the onset
o
of fireffighter untennability condditions yieldss 100 secondds for
the one-sstory house and
a 200 seco
onds for the two-story
t
hoouse. In manny of the expperiments frrom
the onsett of firefighteer untenabiliity until flash
hover was leess than 10 sseconds. Thhese times shhould
be treated
d as being veery conservaative. If a veent location already exissts because thhe homeownner
left a win
ndow or door open then the fire is go
oing to respoond faster to additional vventilation
289
openingss because thee temperaturres in the hou
use are goingg to be higheer at the timee of the
additionaal openings.
When to make the veentilation opening is ano
other consideeration for a coordinatedd fire attack.
This question will bee answered in
ndependently on every ffire because no two firess are the sam
me.
Respect needs
n
to be given
g
to the time it is go
oing to take tthe hoseline to get to thee seat of the ffire.
If it is a ranch
r
house like the one used in thesse experimennts then it prrobably wonn’t take long to
get to thee seat of the fire. This means
m
you may want to vventilate oncce the attack line is chargged at
the front door. In larrger structurees like the 2--story housee or a commeercial structuure it may bee
safer to delay
d
ventilaation until thee engine adv
vises they arre prepared too put water oon the fire.
Making ventilation
v
openings
o
befo
fore water caan be appliedd to the seat of the fire coould lead to
rapid firee progression
n and life thrreatening situ
uations.
Figure 48
82 through Figure
F
489 describe
d
a hy
ypothetical seearch operattion during a fire in the oonestory hou
use. The red
d line in Figu
ure 482 show
ws their searcch pattern annd timeline oof the searchh.
The searcch team forcces open the front door at
a 8:00 (See F
Figure 483 aand Figure 4484 for
condition
ns). They seee the amoun
nt of smoke coming
c
out oof the doorw
way and theyy put on theirr
SCBA faace pieces. While
W
they are
a doing thiss the ventilattion team veents the frontt window at
8:15. Th
he search team then makees entry and
d begins to seearch the living room. T
They see firee on
the sofas in the midd
dle of the roo
om but condiitions are stilll tenable for them. Theey skip the
bedroom
ms and decidee to search th
he left side of
o the house. They enterr the kitchenn at 9:00 (Seee
Figure 48
85 and Figurre 486 for co
onditions) an
nd search it qquickly and m
move into thhe dining rooom at
9:30. Th
hey make theeir way aroun
nd the dining
g room and make it backk to the entraance to the lliving
room at 10:00
1
(See Figure
F
487 an
nd Figure 48
88 for condittions). This shows that 2 minutes is not
a lot of tiime to operaate inside a sttructure and
d those condiitions can goo from tenabble for a search to
untenablee very quick
kly. Figure 489
4 shows th
he temperatuures at crawlling height (33 ft above thhe
floor) forr the rooms being
b
search
hed. This depicts that thee rooms werre tenable whhile they weere
being seaarched but on
nce the fireffighters circle back towaard the livingg room it is uuntenable annd
they musst find anotheer way out, which
w
at thaat point the ddining room and kitchen become
untenablee so the only
y option is to
o bail out of a window.
Hyypothetical S
Search Team
m Operation
8: 00 – Team fforces front ddoor
8: 00 – 8:20 - Team puts oon SCBA maasks
8: 15 – Ventilaation team vents the fronnt window
Team enterss to start searrch
8: 20 – 8:30 - T
8: 30 – 9:00 – Team searchhes living rooom
9: 00 – 9:30 – Team searchhes kitchen
9: 30 – 10:00 – Team searcches dining room
Figure 482
2. Search team
m path
290
Figure 483
3. Front of ho
ouse at 8:00
Figgure 484. Insside view of hoouse at 8:00
Figure 485
5. Front of ho
ouse at 9:00
Figgure 486. Insside view of hoouse at 9:00
Figure 487
7. Fornt of ho
ouse at 10:00
Figgure 488. Insside view of hoouse at 10:00
291
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
3 ft. Living Room
1200
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
Search Dining Room
Search Kitchen
400
Make Entry
Mask Up
600
Search Living Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
FF Tenability
200
0
480
520
560
Time (s)
600
640
Figure 489. Search Room Temperatures at 3 ft.
9.5. Smoke tunneling and rapid air movement in through front door
In today’s fire environment there is more smoke generated due to the increased usage of
synthetic materials53. In all of these experiments the smoke layer reached the floor prior to
ventilation leaving zero visibility in the houses. After ventilation this smoke layer did not
repeatedly lift above the floor throughout the house. A better way of describing the impact of
ventilation on the smoke was a temporary tunnel as air rushed in through the ventilation opening.
Higher smoke release rates and heat release rates have decreased the desired smoke lifting that is
traditionally the intent of ventilation. If visibility is increased then search and fire attack are
easier to accomplish. It appeared that as the fire received air it produced more smoke than was
being ventilated out of the house and therefore not lifting the smoke layer.
It is possible to get an idea of what may be happening inside the structure by observing the flows
at the front door after it is opened. In these experiments there was an obvious flow in through
the front door toward the fire location. The average velocity through the bottom of the front door
for all of the experiments where the door was opened was 1.5 m/s (3.4 mph). There was also a
tunneling effect that resulted from the in rush of air through the front door. Figure 490 and
Figure 491 show this effect during Experiment 10. An image was captured from the video
292
camera in
nside the fro
ont door 5 seeconds beforee ventilationn and 5 seconnds after venntilation.
Another similar exam
mple was cap
ptured during
g Experimennt 13 in Figuure 492 and F
Figure 493.
Without the impact of
o wind this could
c
indicaate there is a ventilation llimited fire iinside and
precautio
ons should be taken. Slo
owing down and ensurin g a charged hoseline witth the crew iis a
good prim
mary precau
ution. In som
me cases the smoke liftedd above the ffloor in adjaacent rooms tto
the fire but
b rarely in remote
r
room
ms such as th
he bedrooms. The liftingg usually weent away oncce the
fire room
m transitioned
d to flashoveer.
Figure 490
0. Front Doorr Image from Experiment 10,
1 5
seconds beefore Ventilation
Fig ure 491. Fron
nt Door Imagee from Experiiment 10, 5
secoonds after Ven
ntilation
Figure 492
2. Front Doorr Image from Experiment 13,
1 5
seconds beefore Ventilation
Fig ure 493. Fron
nt Door Imagee from Experiiment 13, 5
secoonds after Ven
ntilation
293
9.6. Vent
V
Enter Search (VE
ES)
VES is a tactic used by
b many firee departmentts. It can bee described aas ventilatingg a window,
entering the window,, searching that
t room an
nd exiting ouut of the sam
me window enntered. Thesse
experimeents show the ability of a closed door to protect a room from
m fire conditiions even wiith an
open win
ndow. They also show how
h conditio
ons can worssen as a winddow is ventillated remotee
from the fire, creating a flow path
h from the window
w
to thhe fire. A prrimary objective of VES is to
close the door of the room ventilated to isolaate the flow ppath to the fiire and not aallow the air from
the open window to make
m
it to th
he underventtilated fire. T
This can be tthought of ass Vent Enterr
Isolate Seearch. Whille one may be
b able to seaarch the room
m quickly annd exit, the nnew flow paath
created by
b this tactic if not isolated could cau
use an uninteended interioor condition crews are nnot
expecting
g.
During Experiment
E
8 the second floor bedroo
om (Bedroom
m 3) was veentilated. Thhis tactic couuld
representt a firefighter conducting
g a VES opeeration of thee bedroom w
without closinng the door tto
the bedro
oom. Figuree 494 showss the bedroom
m temperatuures versus tiime with arroows indicatiing
tenability
y thresholds.. If a VES operation
o
were conductedd in this beddroom tempeeratures wouuld
increase significantly
y. The temperature 1 ft above
a
the flooor was apprroximately 660 °C (140 °F) at
ventilatio
on and increaased to the occupant
o
tenability limit in 2 minutes and to the firefighter
tenability
y threshold in
n 3 minutes.. If the doorr had been cllosed the tem
mperatures w
would not haave
increased
d much abov
ve 60 °C (140 °F) based on the peak temperaturee of Bedroom
m2 (the adjaccent
bedroom
m) that had th
he door closeed.
Ignittion
BR3 Window Ope
en
Fron
nt Door Open
600
7 ft.
f Bedroom 3
5 ft.
f Bedroom 3
3 ft.
f Bedroom 3
1 ft.
f Bedroom 3
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
Fireffighter Tenabbility
200
Occuupant Tenabiility
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
0
1000
1200
Figure 494
4. VES bedro
oom temperatu
ures
In Experiiment 14 thee window to the closed bedroom,
b
Beedroom 3, waas opened att 8:42 (Figurre
495). Th
his could sim
mulate condu
ucting a VES
S with a clos ed bedroom or what wouuld happen w
when
the door was closed. Figure 496 and Figure 497 show thhe same view
w one minutee and two
294
minutes after
a
ventilattion respectiively. Durin
ng each of thhese pictures there is a fuully developeed
fire right outside the door to the bedroom
b
and
d the smoke layer is lifteed and condiitions improvved
in the bed
droom for th
he duration of
o the experim
ment. This further highhlights the im
mportance off
closing th
he door during VES opeerations. Thee image of thhe rear of the house alsoo shows thickk
black sm
moke ventilating out of Bedroom 2 which has an open bedrooom door. Cllosing a doorr
between a firefighterr and a fire during
d
emerg
gency condittions is also a good way to buy moree
time to be rescued.
8:42
Figure 495
5. Experimen
nt 14 view of reear of house and
a Bedroom 3 at 8:42
9:42
Figure 496
6. Experimen
nt 14 view of reear of house and
a Bedroom 3 at 9:42
10:42
Figure 497
7. Experimen
nt 14 view of reear of house and
a Bedroom 3 at 10:42
295
9.7. Flow
F
paths
Many firre departmen
nts teach theiir search crew
ws to “ventiilate as they go.” The reeasoning is thhat
the proceedure may crreate cooler and clearer conditions
c
thhroughout thhe structure. Experimennts 14
and 15 sh
how this is not
n the case if
i water is no
ot applied too the fire. Figure 498 shoows the flow
w
paths creeated between the seat off the fire and
d the 4 open windows. T
The living rooom temperaature
from ven
ntilating the door
d
and 4 windows
w
is compared
c
to ventilating tthe front dooor and only 1
window near
n the seatt of the fire (Figure
(
499)). Opening m
more window
ws created fa
faster fire groowth
and flash
hover approx
ximately 40 seconds
s
fasteer. Figure 5500 shows thhe flow path from the sam
me
ventilatio
on scenario in
i the two-sttory house. In
I this experriment, openning multiplee windows aalso
created faster
fa
fire gro
owth and flaashover cond
ditions approoximately 800 seconds fasster (Figure 5501).
Every neew ventilation opening prrovides a neew flow pathh to the fire aand vice verssa. This couuld
create veery dangerou
us conditionss when there is a ventilattion limited fire. Addingg many opennings
does not confuse the fire or creatte cooler tem
mperatures foor a longer pperiod of tim
me.
Window(s) Open
n
Front Door Open
O
Ignition
1200
D
Door
and 1 Window
1000
Temperature (oC)
D
Door
and 4 Windows
s
800
600
400
200
0
0
Figure 498
8. Experimen
nt 14 flow path
hs
100
200
300
4
400
500
Tim
me (s)
600
0
700
800
F igure 499. On
ne-Story 1 win
ndow versus 4 windows
296
I
Ignition
Window
w(s) Open
Fron
nt Door Open
12
200
Door and
a 1 Window
10
000
Temperature (oC)
Door and
a 4 Windows
8
800
6
600
4
400
2
200
0
Figure 500
0. Experimen
nt 15 flow path
hs
0
200
400
600
0
Time (s)
(
800
10
000
1200
Figurre 501. Two-S
Story 1 window versus 4 windows
C you ven
nt enough?
9.8. Can
h
is that opening
g enough veentilation loccations will ttransform a
Another firefighter hypothesis
on limited firre to a fuel limited fire. Figure 502 shows the teemperatures 1 ft above thhe
ventilatio
floor in th
he living roo
om for each of the differrent ventilatiion scenarioss. In all fourr scenarios tthe
living roo
om transition
ns to flashov
ver. The oraange curve reepresents thee scenario w
where the dooor
and 4 win
ndows were opened and
d this is also the
t scenario where flashhover occurred the fastesst.
During th
his experimeent there wass 102 squaree feet of venttilation opennings (Table 38). All fouur
scenarioss also remain
ned ventilation limited th
hroughout thhe experimennt, until supppression took
place. Th
he two-story
y house behaaved very sim
milar to the oone-story hoouse in that tthe scenario with
the front door and 4 additional
a
windows
w
tran
nsitioned to fflashover thee fastest (Figgure 503).
During th
his experimeent there wass 159 squaree feet of venttilation opennings. In thee heat releasee rate
experimeent in Section
n 7 there waas 70 square feet open onn the front off the room aand the fire w
was
ventilatio
on limited. In
I both of the house expeeriments, wiith significanntly more veentilation areea,
the fire sttill burned at
a the openings indication
n a ventilatioon limited fire and not a fuel limitedd fire.
297
Table 38. Experimental Ventilation Area
Ventilation Parameters
2
Ventilation Area (ft )
Experiment #
Structure
1
1-Story
Front Door
19.1
2
2-Story
19.1
3
1-Story
61.2
4
2-Story
Front Door
Front Door + Living Room Window (Window
near seat of the fire)
Front Door + Family Room Window (Window
near seat of the fire)
5
1-Story
Living Room Window Only
42.1
6
2-Story
42.1
7
1-Story
8
2-Story
9
1-Story
10
2-Story
11
2-Story
12
1-Story
Family Room Window Only
Front Door + Bedroom 2 Window (Window
remote from fire)
Front Door + Bedroom 3 Window (Window
remote from fire)
Front Door + Living Room Window (Repeat
Exp. 3)
Front Door + Family Room Window (Repeat
Exp. 4)
Front Door + Family Room Window (Repeat
Exp. 4)
Front Door + Living Room Window (Repeat
Exp. 3)
13
2-Story
14
1-Story
15
2-Story
Front Door + Upper Family Room Window
Front Door + 4 Windows (LR, BR1, BR2,
BR3)
Front Door + 4 Windows (LR, Den, FR1,
FR2)
Ignition
Ventilation Window Open
Front Door Open
1400
Door Only
Window Only
Door and Window
Door and 4 Windows
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Time (s)
Figure 502. One-story comparison of different ventilation areas
298
800
61.2
32.5
61.2
61.2
61.2
61.2
61.2
61.2
102.4
158.8
Ignition
Ventilation W indow Open
Front Door O pen
1000
Door O nly
W indow Only
Door and W indow
Door and 4 W indow s
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Tim e (s)
Figure 503. Two-story comparison of different ventilation areas
1200
9.9. Impact of shut door on victim tenability and firefighter tenability
When it comes to rescuing occupants, the fire service makes risk based decisions on the
tenability of occupants. They assume personal risk if it may save someone in the house. During
the experimental design it was decided to have one closed bedroom in each house for every
experiment. This allowed for the comparison of tenability of two side by side bedrooms, one
with an open door and another with the door closed assuming the occupant already had a closed
door or the closed it when they discovered there was a fire in the house.
In the one-story house there was a thermocouple tree in the closed bedroom (Bedroom 3) and
one in the hallway right outside the closed bedroom. Figure 504 shows the ceiling (worst case
scenario) temperatures during Experiment 14 in both of these locations for comparison. In the
hallway the temperature reached 900 °C (1650 °F) while the Bedroom remained below 125 °C
(260 °F). Large variances in temperature were observed in every experiment. The oxygen
concentrations were also compared from inside the closed bedroom at 5 ft. above the floor, in the
adjacent open bedroom and outside the room in the living room at 5 ft. above the floor (Figure
505). The living room and open bedroom had oxygen concentrations decline to 10% while the
closed bedroom did not decline below 19.5%. The closed bedroom conditions were tenable
while the open bedroom was not.
A comparison can also be made in the two-story house. Bedroom 2 had a closed door and the
adjacent Bedroom 3 was open. There is also a thermocouple tree on the second floor hallway
landing right outside the two bedrooms. Figure 506 compares the temperatures at these 3
299
locations. The second floor hallway temperature reaches 825 °C (1520 °F) and the open
bedroom reaches 430 °C (810 °F) while the closed bedroom remains below 100 °C (210 °F).
Conditions in every experiment for the closed bedroom remained tenable for temperature and
oxygen concentration thresholds. This means that the act of closing a door between the occupant
and the fire or a firefighter and the fire can increase the chance of survival. During firefighter
operations if a firefighter is searching ahead of a hoseline or becomes separated from their crew,
and conditions deteriorate then an option would be to get in a room with a closed door until the
fire is knocked down or escape out of the room’s window with more time provided by the closed
door.
1000
20
7 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Bedroom 3
800
Oxygen (%)
o
Temperature ( C)
15
600
400
5 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 3
5
200
0
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
600
700
800
Figure 504. Experiment 14 Hallway and Bedroom 3
Temperatures with Door Closed
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Bedroom 2
7 ft. Bedroom 3
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (s)
600
700
Figure 505. Experiment 14 Hallway, Bedroom 3 and
Bedroom 2 Oxygen Concentration with Door Closed
1000
Temperature (oC)
10
1200
Figure 506. Experiment 15 Temperatures on the 2nd
Floor Hallway and in Bedroom 2 with the door closed
300
800
9.10.
Poten
ntial impact of open win
ndow alread
dy on flashoover time
All of theese experimeents were deesigned to ex
xamine the fi
first ventilation actions bby an arrivingg
crew wheen there are no ventilatio
on openings.. It is possibble that the ffire will breaak a window
prior to fire
f departmeent arrival orr that a door or window was left opeen by the occcupant whilee
exiting. It is importaant to undersstand that an already opeen ventilationn location prrovides air too the
fire, allow
wing it to su
ustain or grow
w. In the ex
xperiments w
where multipple ventilatioon locations w
were
made it was
w not possible to create fuel limiteed fires. Thee fire respondded to the addditional air
provided
d. That mean
ns that even with a ventillation locatioon open the fire is still vventilation
limited and will respo
ond just as fast
f or faster to any addittional air. Itt is more likeely that the ffire
will respo
ond faster beecause the allready open ventilation llocation is allowing the fire to mainttain a
higher temperature th
han if everytthing was clo
osed. In the se cases rapid fire progrression is higghly
probable and coordin
nation of firee attack with
h ventilation becomes evven more impportant.
The closeest experimeent to demon
nstrate this phenomenon
p
ment 1. Thee fire was
was Experim
ventilated
d at 480 seco
onds by open
ning the fron
nt door. Thee fire producced its peak ttemperatures of
725 °C (1
1340 °F) at approximate
a
ely 660 secon
nds (Figure 5507). The fi
fire was allow
wed to grow
w and
then two 10 second bursts
b
of watter were flow
wed into the front door. At 857 secoonds one halff of
the living
g room wind
dow was opeened (Figure 508). This caused the lliving room tto transition to
flashoverr in approxim
mately 30 seeconds and peak
p
above 1 300 °C (23770 °F) (Figurre 509 and
Figure 51
10).
Figure 507
7. Peak fire co
onditions with
h front door open
301
Fig ure 508. Con
nditions at time of window oopening (14:15
5)
Figure 509
9. Conditionss after ventilattion of window
w
(14:50)
9.11.
ng room temp
peratures for E
Experiment 1
Fig ure 510. Livin
Pushiing Fire
With the changes thaat have occurrred in the fiire environm
ment and the speed at whhich fires groow
there hav
ve been quesstions posed about the vaalidity to thee belief that ffire can be “ppushed” witth a
hose stream. Pushing
g fire could occur as a reesult of threee potential m
mechanisms. Once a hosse
stream iss directed intto an opening
g with fire or
o hot gases eexiting, the ppressure from
m the stream
m,
airflow created
c
by the stream or steam
s
expan
nsion could ccreate condittions in the hhouse that arre
worse do
ownstream. It was not th
he focus of th
his research to examine this problem
m but since thhese
fires werre knocked down
d
by exteernal water application,
a
tthe data can be analyzedd to look at thhe
possibilitty of pushing
g fire.
In each experiment,
e
the
t fire was allowed to grow
g
to apprroximately ppeak burningg rate before
water waas introduced
d through thee opening. In
I order to exxamine the iimpact of thee water,
temperatu
ures were ex
xamined in each
e
room, 30
3 seconds bbefore water application, during the 110
seconds of
o water app
plication and
d 30 seconds after water application. Figure 511 through Figgure
527 show
w the temperrature versuss time for eveery water appplication, foor every experiment, andd for
every roo
om. The water application duration is identifiedd by the timee interval bettween the tw
wo
black verrtical lines. In Experimeent 1 and Experiment 13 both types oof streams w
were used. T
The
stream was
w directed toward
t
the ceiling
c
to coo
ol the ceilingg and was noot directed ddirectly onto any
burning fuel
f which iss why there is
i no dramattic cooling seeen in the grraphs. Exam
mining the grraphs
from the 15 experimeents, there iss no evidence of “pushinng fire”. Tem
mperatures tend to decreease
and any temperature
t
increase afteer water app
plication wass minimal. T
There were aalso no
temperatu
ure spikes in
n any of the rooms,
r
especially the ro oms adjacennt to the fire room. It
appears that
t in most cases the fire was sloweed down by tthe water appplication andd that externnal
water app
plication had
d no negative impacts to
o occupant suurvivability.
While room temperattures were not
n influenceed by the usee of the fog sstream, theree was an imppact
on visibillity or the diisruption of the
t thermal layer
l
in Expperiment 14 aand 15. Twoo key factorss for
this weree the air entraainment on the
t stream an
nd the prese nce of a flow
w path. Thee flow from tthe
nozzle caaused steam formation an
nd that steam
m flowed thrrough the floow path creaated by the oopen
door and
d windows. Figure
F
528 and
a Figure 52
29 show an example of tthis thermal layer disrupption
in the two-story housse. The firstt quad view shows
s
the frront, rear, froont door andd living room
m
302
views from the video just before the fog nozzle was operated. The second quad view was
captured 10 seconds after the first and the visibility has greatly decreased because of the flow of
gases out of the front door and living room windows. Figure 530 and Figure 531 show this same
phenomenon in the one-story house during Experiment 14. The first two pictures show the front
of the house and the master bedroom just prior to fog stream application. The second two
pictures were captured 10 seconds later and the gases from the water application are forced into
the bedroom in the flow path with the open window. This did not occur with the use of the
straight stream water application but the fog stream was more effective at cooling during these
experiments. While steam was “pushed” along the flow path there was no fire “pushed”.
SS into Front Door
500
o
o
300
200
200
740
750
760
Time (s)
770
780
0
780
790
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
400
350
300
250
800
810
820
Time (s)
830
840
850
Figure 512. Experiment 1 Fog Stream
Figure 511. Experiment 1 Straight Stream
SS into Front Door
790
200
150
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
SS into LR Window
1200
1000
800
o
730
Temperature ( C)
0
720
o
300
100
100
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
400
Temperature ( C)
400
Temperature ( C)
Fog into Front Door
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
500
600
400
100
200
50
0
940
950
960
970
980
Time (s)
990
0
1000
600
Figure 513. Experiment 2 Straight Stream
610
620
630
Time (s)
640
650
Figure 514. Experiment 3 Straight Stream
303
660
700
o
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
1200
1000
o
600
1400
Temperature ( C)
800
Temperature ( C)
SS into LR Window
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
SS into FR Window
500
400
300
800
600
400
200
200
100
0
1040
1050 1060
Time (s)
1070
1080
0
1090
670
Figure 515. Experiment 4 Straight Stream
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
SS into LR Window
300
690
700
Time (s)
710
720
730
SS into Front Door
1000
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
800
200
o
Temperature ( C)
o
250
680
Figure 516. Experiment 5 Straight Stream
Temperature ( C)
1030
150
100
600
400
200
50
0
920
930
940
0
970
980
990
1000
Time (s)
1010
1020
1030
950
960
Time (s)
970
980
Figure 518. Experiment 7 Straight Stream
Figure 517. Experiment 6 Straight Stream
SS into LR Window
1400
SS into BR Window
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
700
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
1000
o
600
1200
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
800
600
200
400
100
200
0
1030
1040
1050 1060
Time (s)
1070
1080
0
1090
650
Figure 519. Experiment 8 Straight Stream
660
670
680
Time (s)
690
700
Figure 520. Experiment 9 Straight Stream
304
710
SS into FR Window
SS into FR Window
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
500
400
o
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
600
Temperature ( C)
350
300
200
100
100
50
0
0
1430
1440
1450
1460 1470
Time (s)
1480
890
1490
900
910
930
940
950
Figure 522. Experiment 11 Straight Stream
Figure 521. Experiment 10 Straight Stream
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
SS into FR Window
SS into LR Window
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
1000
700
600
o
o
800
800
Temperature ( C)
1200
Temperature ( C)
920
Time (s)
600
400
500
400
300
200
100
200
0
720
730
740
0
640
650
660
670
680
Time (s)
690
700
750
760
Time (s)
770
780
Figure 524. Experiment 13 Straight Stream
Figure 523. Experiment 12 Straight Stream
Fog into FR Window
Fog into LR Window
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
1200
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
1000
800
o
3 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Foyer
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
840
850
860
870
880
Time (s)
890
900
0
760
Figure 525. Experiment 13 Fog Stream
770
780
790
Time (s)
800
Figure 526. Experiment 14 Fog Stream
305
810
820
Fog into
i
FR1 Window
1000
3 ft. Family Room
R
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Bedroom
m1
3 ft. Bedroom
m2
3 ft. Bedroom
m3
3 ft. Bedroom
m4
3 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Den
3 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Dining Room
R
3 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
8
850
860
870
880
Time (s)
T
890
900
910
Figure 527
7. Experimen
nt 15 Fog Strea
am
Figure 528
8. Two-story house before fog
f stream ap
pplication (Exp
periment 15)
306
Figure 529
9. Two-story house 10 seconds after start of fog stream
m application (Experiment 15)
Figure 530
0. One-story house
h
before fog
f stream app
plication, Froont, left and Beedroom 1, righ
ht (Experimen
nt 15)
Figure 531
1. One-story house
h
10 secon
nds after fog stream
s
applicaation (Experim
ment 14)
307
9.12.
No da
amage to surrounding rooms
r
Just as th
he fire triang
gle depicts, fiire needs oxy
ygen to burnn. A conditiion that existted in every
experimeent was that the fire (living room or family
f
room
m) grew untill oxygen wass reduced beelow
levels to sustain it. This
T means th
hat it decreaased the oxyggen in the enntire house bby lowering the
oxygen in
n surroundin
ng rooms and
d the more remote
r
bedroooms until coombustion w
was not possible.
In most cases
c
surroun
nding roomss such as the dining room
m and kitcheen had no firee in them evven
when thee fire room was
w fully inv
volved in flam
mes and wass ventilating out of the sttructure. Thhere
was not enough
e
oxyg
gen in the strructure to bu
urn so there w
was some pyyrolysis or m
melting becauuse
of high teemperatures, but there was
w no burnin
ng in the adjjacent roomss. The only time this didd not
hold wass when remote windows were ventilaated. Doing this createdd a flow pathh for oxygen to
come fro
om another part
p of the ho
ouse and igniite rooms in the flow patth but not ouutside the floow
path. Th
his is a good demonstration as to why
y ventilatingg near the seaat of the firee is ideal. Thhe
fully dev
veloped fire conditions
c
were
w localized by ventilatting near thee seat of the fire.
Examinin
ng the video of the interiior condition
ns in the houuses as comppared to the eexterior
condition
ns highlighteed the flame locations an
nd extent of ffire extensioon within thee houses. Figure
532 show
ws the video views from Experimentt 3. At 10 m
minutes after ignition, flam
mes were
extending
g out of the entire front door
d
and living room wiindow. The view in the bottom righht is
the view from the kittchen into th
he living room
m, and the fl
flames are fillling the entiire doorway and
intermitteently flowing in through
h the top of th
he door but are not fillinng the kitcheen due to lack of
oxygen. During all of
o the experiments the ap
ppliances, caabinets, kitchhen table andd chairs mellted a
little bit but
b never became involv
ved in the firre. If the kitcchen door orr windows w
were ventilatted
this woulld change an
nd the flow path
p would allow
a
for burrning of the ccombustiblees in the kitchhen.
Figure 532
2. Experimen
nt 3 at 10:00 sh
howing flame extension.
308
10. Summary of Findings:
There has been a steady change in the residential fire environment over the past several decades.
These changes include larger homes, more open floor plans and volumes and increased synthetic
fuel loads. UL conducted a series of 15 full-scale residential structure fires to examine this
change in fire behavior and the impact of firefighter ventilation tactics. This fire research project
developed the empirical data that is needed to quantify the fire behavior associated with these
scenarios and result in immediately developing the necessary firefighting ventilation practices to
reduce firefighter death and injury.
The increased use of synthetic materials in the home has created faster flashover times. The two
experiments demonstrated flashover times of less than 4 minutes with modern furnishings as
compared to more than 29 minutes with legacy furnishings. This difference has a substantial
impact on occupant and firefighter safety.
Tenability in these two homes was limited for occupants but the possibility of savable lives,
especially behind closed doors should be considered by the fire service in their risk analysis.
Also, emphasis should be placed on closing doors when the fire service is educating the public.
Tenability for firefighters can also be quantified for these experiments. Firefighters had 100
seconds in the one-story house and 200 seconds in the two-story house after ventilation before
water would have to be applied to remove the hazard or the firefighter would have to exit the
house. These numbers should be considered conservative as the fire were allowed to become
ventilation limited and decrease to a low temperature without becoming extinguished.
A significant portion of the 100 second and 200 second time to firefighter untenability is fresh air
being entrained into the ventilation limited fire. In many of the experiments the time from the
beginning of temperature escalation until untenability was less than 10 seconds. This provides
little warning that the fire is going to flashover and highlights the need to understand that
ventilation opening are not only allowing hot gases to escape but fresh air to enter.
Several ventilation comparisons could be made from the experimental series. First, the more
ventilation openings that were made the faster the fire room transitioned to flashover. This
shows that even in these modestly furnished homes fuel is not the limiting factor and that more
air will create more burning and less tenability. Ventilating near the seat of the fire localized the
combustion and temperatures within the house. Ventilating remote from the seat of the fire
created a flow path which expanded the area available to burn and further decreased tenability
within the homes. Allowing air into a ventilation limited fire low and letting the hot gases out
high can create prime conditions for a flashover, even in a large volume like the two-story family
room. More efficient ventilation can mean more efficient air entrainment which can lead to
faster flashover times if water is not applied in the shorter tenability window.
Several tactical considerations were able to be developed with the assistance of the technical
panel of fire service leaders. In summary, the stages of fire development change when a fire
becomes ventilation limited. It is common with today’s fire environment to have a decay period
prior to flashover which emphasizes the importance of ventilation. Forcing entry has to be
thought of as ventilation as well. While forcing entry is necessary to fight the fire it must also
trigger the thought that air is being fed to the fire and the clock is ticking before either the fire
309
gets extinguished or it grows until an untenable condition exists jeopardizing the safety of
everyone in the structure. A common event during the experiments was that once the fire
became ventilation limited the smoke being forced out of the gaps of the houses greatly
diminished or stopped all together. No smoke showing during size-up should increase awareness
of the potential conditions inside. Once the front door is opened attention should be given to the
flow through the front door. A rapid in rush of air or a tunneling effect could indicate a
ventilation limited fire.
During a VES operation primary importance should be given to closing the door to the room.
This eliminates the impact of the open vent and increases tenability for potential occupants and
firefighters while the smoke ventilates from the now isolated room. Every new ventilation
opening provides a new flow path to the fire and vice versa. This could create very dangerous
conditions when there is a ventilation limited fire. Conditions in every experiment for the
closed bedroom remained tenable for temperature and oxygen concentration thresholds. This
means that the act of closing a door between the occupant and the fire or a firefighter and the fire
can increase the chance of survivability. During firefighter operations if a firefighter is searching
ahead of a hoseline or becomes separated from his crew and conditions deteriorate then a good
choice of actions would be to get in a room with a closed door until the fire is knocked down or
escape out of the room’s window with more time provided by the closed door.
All of these experiments were designed to examine the first ventilation actions by an arriving
crew when there are no ventilation openings. It is possible that the fire will fail a window prior
to fire department arrival or that a door or window was left open by the occupant while exiting.
It is important to understand that an already open ventilation location is providing air to the fire,
allowing it to sustain or grow. In the experiments where multiple ventilation locations were
made it was not possible to create fuel limited fires. The fire responded to all the additional air
provided. That means that even with a ventilation location open the fire is still ventilation
limited and will respond just as fast or faster to any additional air. It is more likely that the fire
will respond faster because the already open ventilation location is allowing the fire to maintain a
higher temperature than if everything was closed. In these cases rapid fire progression if highly
probable and coordination of fire attack with ventilation is paramount.
If you add air to the fire and don’t apply water in the appropriate time frame the fire gets larger
and safety decreases. Examining the times to untenability gives the best case scenario of how
coordinated the attack needs to be. Taking the average time for every experiment from the time
of ventilation to the time of the onset of firefighter untenability conditions yields 100 seconds for
the one-story house and 200 seconds for the two-story house. In many of the experiments from
the onset of firefighter untenability until flashover was less than 10 seconds. These times should
be treated as being very conservative. If a vent location already exists because the homeowner
left a window or door open then the fire is going to respond faster to additional ventilation
opening because the temperatures in the house are going to be higher. Coordination of fire
attack crew is essential for a positive outcome in today’s fire environment.
This research study developed empirical fire experiment data to demonstrate fire behavior
resulting from varied ignition locations and ventilation opening locations in legacy residential
structures compared to modern residential structures. The data will be used to provide education
and guidance to the fire service in proper use of ventilation as a firefighting tactic that will result
in mitigation of the firefighter injury and death risk associated with improper use of ventilation.
310
11. Future Research Needs:
These experiments were the first of their kind and there are countless experiments that could be
done in two full-scale houses, especially the 2-story house. Other full-scale house experiments
were done in an acquired structure and did not allow for repeatability or examination of multiple
variables. There are several variable changes that could be done to further validate the
conclusions from this series of experiments.
The first variable that could be altered is the fire location. These experiments focused on living
room or family room fires. Additional experiments with fires in the kitchen or bedrooms would
allow for analysis of fire spread from these locations. Additionally, changing fuel loading could
provide some further insight. These experiments were realistically loaded but more experiments
could examine the upper bound of fuel loading which may further emphasize the impact of
ventilation.
Future experiments should also consider creating a ventilation point after one already exists from
the fire creating one of its own by failing a window or a door being left open by an escaping
occupant or a window left open on a warm day. This will also show the importance of
ventilation. With an opening the fire will still be ventilation limited but will not be as starved for
oxygen. This will allow the fire to respond to the ventilation faster demonstrating a very
dangerous yet common situation.
There are also two more types of ventilation in addition to horizontal ventilation that are
frequently used by the fire service that did not fit into the scope of this project but should be
analyzed in a similar manner. These are vertical ventilation and positive pressure ventilation.
Very little research has been conducted on these tactics used in a house.
12. Acknowledgements:
Without the financial support of the Department of Homeland Security’s Assistance to
Firefighters Grant Program’s Fire Prevention and Safety Grants this research would not be
possible, in particular the staff members Dave Evans, Kathy Patterson, Ellen Sogolow and
Maggie Wilson.
311
13. References:
1. Ahrens, Marty. “Home Structure Fires”, National Fire Protection Association, March
2010.
2. Karter, Michael J. “Patterns of Firefighter Fireground Injuries” National Fire Protection
Association, February 2007.
3. Fahy, Rita F. “U.S. Fire Service Fatalities in Structure Fires, 1977-2009”, National Fire
Protection Research Foundation, June 2010.
4. “Commercial Structure Fire Claims the Life of One Fire Fighter—California”, NIOSH
report 98-F07.
5. “Volunteer Fire Fighter Dies Fighting a Structure Fire at a Local Residence – Texas”,
NIOSH report F2000-09.
6. “Volunteer Fire Fighter and Trapped Resident Die and a Volunteer Lieutenant is Injured
following a Duplex Fire – Pennsylvania” NIOSH report F2008-06.
7. Press release from Prince Georges County Fire/EMS Department Chief Spokesman Mark
Brady (http://pgfdpio.blogspot.com/), November 21, 2008.
8. “Nine Career Fire Fighter De in Rapid Fire Progression at Commercial Funiture
Showroom – South Carolina,” A summary of a NIOSH fire fighter fatality investigation,
February 11, 2009.
9. “One Career Fire Fighter/Paramedic Dies and a Part-time Fire Fighter/Paramedic is
Injured When Caught in a Residential Structure Flashover – Illinois” NIOSH report No.
2010-10, published September 13, 2010.
10. www.firefighternearmiss.com, Nearmiss report 09-0000300, accessed October 1, 2010.
11. www.firefighternearmiss.com, Nearmiss report 09-0000112, accessed October 1, 2010.
12. www.firefighternearmiss.com, Nearmiss report 05-0000420, accessed October 1, 2010.
13. www.firefighternearmiss.com, Nearmiss report 06-0000131, accessed October 1, 2010.
14. www.firefighternearmiss.com, Nearmiss report 06-0000496, accessed October 1, 2010.
15. www.census.gov, accessed January 12, 2009
16. Babrauskas, V, “Glass Breakage in Fires,” Unpublished Author’s document of 2009.
17. Hassani, S. K., Shields, T. J., and Silcock, G. W., An Experimental Investigation into the
Behaviour of Glazing in Enclosure Fire, J. Applied Fire Science 4, 303-323 (1994/5).
18. Shields, T. J., Silcock, G. W. H., and Flood, M. F., Performance of Single Glazing
Elements Exposed to Enclosure Corner Fires of Increasing Severity, Fire and Materials
25, 123-152 (2001).
19. Shields, J., Silcock, G. W. H., and Flood, F., Behaviour of Double Glazing in Corner
Fires, Fire Technology 41, 37-65 (2005).
20. Fire Spread in Multi-Storey Buildings with Glazed Curtain Wall Facades (LPR 11:
1999), Loss Prevention Council, Borehamwood, England (1999).
21. Moulen, A. W., and Grubits, W. J., Water-Curtains to Shield Glass from Radiant Heat
from Building Fires (Technical Record TR 44/153/422), Experimental Building Station,
Dept. of Housing and Construction, North Ryde, Australia (1975).
312
22. Cohen, J. D., and Wilson, P., Current Results from Structure Ignition Assessment Model
(SIAM) Research, presented in Fire Management in the Wildland/Urban Interface:
Sharing Solutions, Kananaskis, Alberta, Canada (2-5 October 1994).
23. Harada, K., Enomoto, A., Uede, K., and Wakamatsu, T., An Experimental Study on
Glass Cracking and Fallout by Radiant Heat Exposure, pp. 1063-1074 in Fire Safety
Science--Proc. 6th Intl. Symp., Intl. Assn. for Fire Safety Science (2000).
24. Mowrer, F. W., Window Breakage Induced by Exterior Fires, pp. 404-415 in Proc. 2nd
Intl. Conf. on Fire Research and Engineering, Society of Fire Protection Engineers,
Bethesda, MD (1998). Also: Mowrer, F. W., Window Breakage Induced by Exterior
Fires (NIST-GCR-98-751), Natl. Inst. Stand. and Technol., Gaithersburg MD (1998).
25. McArthur, N. A., The Performance of Aluminum Building Products in Bushfires, Fire
and Materials 15, 117-125 (1991).
26. Tanaka, T., et al., Performance-Based Fire Safety Design of a High-rise Office Building,
to be published (1998).
27. Kang, Kai, “Assessment of a model development for window glass breakage due to fire
exposure in a field model,” Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 44, Issue 3, April 2009, pgs. 415424.
28. Obermayer, Robert, “Energy Efficient Windows,” Firehouse; Nov. 1992; pgs. 41-42
29. Smith, Michael, “High-Energy Windows Can Be Deadly.” Firehouse: Feb, 2008: pg. 46.
30. Svensson, Stefan, “Experimental Study of Fire Ventilation During Fire Fighting
Operations,” Fire Technology 2001; 37, pgs. 69-85.
31. Fleischmann, C.M., Bolliger, J.B., Millar, D.J., “Exploratory Experiments on Backdraft
in a Full Residential Scale Compartment”
32. Saber, H.H., Kashef, A., “CFD simulation for fully-developed fires in a room under
different ventilation conditions,” 16th Annual Conference of the CFD Society of Canada,
June 9-11, 2008, pp. 1-9
33. Kerber, Stephen, Walton, William D., “Effect of Positive Pressure Ventilation on a Room
Fire,” National Institute of Standards and Technology; NISTIR 7213, pgs. 1-55
34. Kerber, Stephen, Walton, William D., “Full-Scale Evaluation of Positive Pressure
Ventilation In a Fire Fighter Training Building,” National Institute of Standards and
Technology; NISTIR 7342, pgs. 1-92
35. NFPA 1001. Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications. 2008 Edition.
36. Vincent, “The Dangers of Outside Venting,” Fire Engineering, Strategy & Tactics;
October 1989; pgs. 43-50
37. Jr., David C., Maxwell, Scott, “Firefighters 10 Deadly Sins of the Fireground,” Fire
Engineering January 2004; pgs. 105- 110
38. Murphy Denis, Molle Hank, “First Due Without a Clue: Don’t let it happen to you,” Fire
Engineering: September 2005; pgs 16, 18-20
39. Hartin, Ed, “Flashover Fundamentals,” Fire Research Magazine August 2008; pgs 63-66
40. Wolfe, Vincent, “Getting the Most From Horizontal Ventilation,” Fire Engineering
March 2009; pgs123-125
41. Peltier, Jack, “Gone with the wind,” National Fire and Rescue September/October 2001;
pgs 22-26
313
42. Donnelly, Tom “Primary Ventilation: A Review,” Fire Engineering; Training Notebook,
June 2007; pgs 24, 26
43. Brennan, T., “Still Talkin’ in the Kitchen….,” Fire Engineering, Random Thoughts;
January 2006; pg. 234
44. Kertzie, Peter F., “Ventilation in Wood-Frame Structures,” Fire Engineering; April 2005
45. Carlin, John T., “When to Break the Windows,” Fire Engineering; September 2001; pgs.
12-17
46. Huggett, C., “Estimation of the rate of heat release by means of oxygen consumption,”
Journal of Fire and Materials, 12, pp. 61-65 (1980).
47. Krasny, J., Rockett, J. A.,and Huang, D. “Protecting Fire Fighters Exposed in Room
Fires: Comparison of Results of Bench Scale Test for Thermal Protection and Conditions
During Room Flashover.” Fire Technology, p. 5-19, (1988).
48. Krasny, J., Rockett, J. A.,and Huang, D. “Protecting Fire Fighters Exposed in Room
Fires: Comparison of Results of Bench Scale Test for Thermal Protection and Conditions
During Room Flashover.” Fire Technology, p. 5-19, (1988).
49. NFPA 1971. Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and
Proximity Fire Fighting, 2007 Edition.
50. Purser, D.A., “Toxicity Assessment of Combustion Products.” Society of Fire Protection
Engineers’ Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Third Edition, DiNenno,P.J.,
Editor-in-Chief, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, 2002.
51. Lewis, R.J., Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, Ninth Edition, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1995.
52. IFSTA [2008]. Essentials of fire fighting. 5th ed. Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection
Publications,International Fire Service Training Association.
53. Firefighter Exposure to Smoke Particulates. Underwriters Laboratories Inc. April 2010.
314
Appendix A: Firefighter Reference Scales for the Results Sections
This section includes tables with reference values that firefighters can use to assist with putting
the results in the following sections into perspective. Table 39 provides a set of temperatures
commonly experienced during firefighting operations and information on the human and
equipment response. Table 40 provides common symptoms from carbon monoxide exposures of
a given duration to a particular concentration. There are number of variables that could cause an
individual to respond differently.
Table 39. Firefighter Temperature Reference Table
Temperature
37 °C (98.6 °F)
44 °C (111 °F)
48 °C (118 °F)
55 °C (131 °F)
62 °C (140 °F)
72 °C (162 °F)
100 °C (212 °F)
140 °C (284 °F)
230 °C (446 °F)
250 °C (482 °F)
>300 °C (>572 °F)
>600 °C (1112 °F)
Response
Normal human oral/body temperature 1
Human skin begins to feel pain 2
Human skin receives a first degree burn injury 2
Human skin receives a second degree burn injury 2
A phase where burned human tissue becomes numb 2
Human skin is instantly destroyed 2
Water boils and produces steam 3
Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate 4
Melting temperature of polycarbonate 5
Charring of natural cotton begins 6
Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics begins 6
Temperatures inside a post-flashover room fire7, 8
References:
1. Klinghoffer, Max, M.D., “Triage Emergency Care Handbook,” Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.,
Lancaster, PA, 1985.
2. American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C1055, Standard Guide for Heated Systems Surface
Conditions That Produce Contact Burn Injuries, 4:6, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA, 1997.
3. Shugar, G.J., Shugar, R.A., Lawrence, B., “Chemical Technicians’ Ready Reference Handbook,”
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1973.
4. Quintiere, J., “Radiative and Convective Heating of a Clear Plastic Fireman’s Face Shield”, National
Bureau of Standards (currently NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, NBS Report 10-855, March 1972.
5. Askeland, Donald R., “The Science and Engineering of Materials”, Wadsworth, Inc., Belmont, CA.,
1984.
6. Krasny, John F., Sello, Stephen B., “Fibers and Textiles, Fire Protection Handbook,” 16th Edition, 1986.
NFPA, pp.5-27.
7. Fang, J.B., and Breese, J.N., “Fire Development in Residential Basement Rooms,” National Bureau of
Standards (currently NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, NBSIR 80-2120, 1980.
8 Drysdale, D., “An Introduction to Fire Dynamics”, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1999.
Table 40. Carbon Monoxide Firefighter Reference Table 1, 2, 3
Concentration
35 ppm (0.0035 %)
150 ppm (0.0150 %)
400 ppm (0.04 %)
800 ppm (0.08 %)
6400 ppm (0.64 %)
12800 ppm (1.28%)
Common Symptoms
None
Mild headache
Headache/nausea
Headache/nausea/dizziness
Progressing to unconsciousness
Headache/nausea/dizziness
Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH)
315
Duration of Exposure
<= 8 hours
2 – 3 hours
1 – 2 hours
45 minutes
2 hours
1 – 2 minutes
1 – 2 minutes
References:
1. Delagi, Robert, “A CO Emergency: Whose Call Is It, Anyway?”, Fire Engineering Magazine, October
2007.
2. Henry CR, Satran D, Lindgren B, Adkinson C, Nicholson CI, Henry TD, MD (2006). "Myocardial Injury and
Long-term Mortality Following Moderate to Severe Carbon Monoxide Poisoning". JAMA 295: 398-402.
3. Raub JA, Mathieu-Nolf M, Hampson NB, Thom SR. (2000). "Carbon monoxide poisoning-a public health
perspective". Toxicology 145 (1): 1-14.
316
Appendix B: Detailed One-Story House Drawings and Pictures
14 inches
60 inches
Screws for picture are at 18.5" from ceiling,
31.25" from right wall and 25.5" to the left
Picasso Picture centered on wall; 38-½”W x 1"D x 21-½”H
47 inches, 3" off floor
25.5"
71 inches
32 in.
Couches used:
Sante Fe patterned with
dimensions of 36" D x 72-½” L x 33" H
31-¼”
End Table
Spaced 1-½” off both
couches from table
top/edge; lamp
centered on table.
26 inches
in.
Coffee Table Dimensions
36"L x 20"W x 19-½”H
23 in.
51-1/2 in.
Living Room
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
24”
Figure 533. One-Story Living Room Detail
317
29 in.
18 in.
34 inches
20-½ in.
10", 3"
off floor
58-¼ in.
Foyer
42-¼ in.
9 foot 8 inches
.
36 in
Pen Camera
Gas Analyzer, installed
vertically thru ceiling,
1', 5' above floor
Curtain
TC Tree w/8 TC’s
1', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6', 7',
7'11" from floor
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Bi-Directional Probe, w/
readings at 1', 28", 40", 54”
and 68" off floor
1
.
5
"
9 feet 1-¾ inches
34
Armoire Dimensions
28" D x 41" W x 79" H
Spaced 42-¼” off wall at
right and 1-½” off back wall
TV centered in top of
Armoire
22"
5 ft. 1 in.
27"
15 in.
Floral Picture centered on wall; 30”W x 1"D x 26”H
24"
Screws for picture are at 22.5" from ceiling, 24"
from right wall and 22" to the left
6-½ inches
Chair used:
Light tan with solid pattern
Dimensions 35"D x 32-½” W x 32-½” H
Note: back left corner of chair (when
facing) is butted against window wall.
Stove
Dimensions 27"D x 30"W x 46-34" H
Butted against cabinet on right
and spaced 1-½” off back wall
Vacant space
Dimension 25" x 20"
Built-in cabinets
Dimensions: 8'L x 2'D x 3'H
35"
Breakfast
18"
5' 10-½”
8' 4"
10' 9"
6"
Kitchen
Built-in cabinets
Dimensions:
8'L x 2'D x 3'H
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
6"
46"
21-½’
26-½”
6' 7"
Dining Room Chairs
Dimensions: 20"D x 22-12"W x 36"H
Positioned as shown,
with the Backs 6 inches off the table.
6"
11' 9"
Dining Room Table
Dimensions: 44" W x 60" L x 30-½” H
Butted flush against wall and spaced
35-½” off the door wall
6"
Dishwasher
27"D x 24"W x 34"H
Refrigerator
Dimensions:
29"D x 36"W x 70"H
3
"
Pen Camera
TC Tree w/4 TC’s
1', 3', 5' and 7'
starting at floor
Figure 534. One-Story Kitchen Detail
318
Sprinkler (Pendent)
6"
6' 6"
6"
13 ft. 0 in.
30"
Dining Room Chairs:
Positioned as shown, centered along the
sides of the table with the chair backs
6 inches off the table.
Dining Room Table
Dimensions: 44" W x 60" L x 30-½” H
Spaced 45-½” to cement board inside window
6"
32"
29"
52"
Dining Room
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
11 ft. ¼ in
59"
6"
4' 6-½”
TC Tree w/4 TC’s
1', 3', 5' and 7'
starting at floor
Figure 535. One-Story Dining Room Detail
319
Sprinkler (Pendent)
2
"
Armoire Dimensions
25-1/2" D x 36" W x 79" H
Spaced 42" off wall at right and
2” off back wall
TV centered in top of Armoire
42"
45 in.
Mirror on wall centered above bed; 28"W x 1"D x 46-½”H
Headboard attached directly to wall, 60"L x 2"D
6' 2-¼”
5' 8"
5' 7-3/4"
Bed (Mattress + Box Spring) Dimensions
60"W x 78"L
Butted flush against headboard and 38-1/2"
off wall on right
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
11 ft. 10-½ in.
Master Bedroom
18 in.
5' 11-¼”
12 ft. 4-1/2 in.
38-½”
Dresser Dimensions
20" x 71-¾”L x 24" H
Spaced flush with window
wall and 39" off the left wall
(when facing dresser)
39"
6",
23" off floor
Pen Camera
Sprinkler (Pendent)
TC Tree w/4 TC’s
1', 3', 5' and 7' starting at floor
Figure 536. One-Story Master Bedroom (Bedroom 1) Detail
320
TV is centered on
dresser, butted
against wall.
1' off
headboard,
2 “ off wall
sitting on floor
Light Dresser Dimensions
19" x 71-½” L x 23-14" H
Spaced 2" off wall and 46¼” off the window wall
12 ft. 10 in.
Mirror on wall centered above bed; 28"W x 1"D x 46-½”H
6' 5"
2"
Headboard attached directly to wall, 60"L x 2"D
Bed Mattress/Box Spring Dimensions
60"W x 78"L
Butted flush against headboard and wall on left
24"
3' 10-¼”
23"
4' 5-¼”
Bedroom 2
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
4' 3"
11"
3' 5"
8 ft. 10-½ in.
Armoire Dimensions
28" D x 36" W x 79" H
Spaced 11" off wall at right and
11-½” off wall at left (when facing)
11-½”
Pen Camera
O2 Analyzer, installed
horizontally, 5 ft above floor
TC Tree w/4 TC’s
1', 3', 5' and 7' starting
at floor
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Figure 537. One-Story Bedroom 2 Detail
321
3 ft. 0 in.
24"
11 ft. 9 in.
5' 8"
23"
4' 3"
13 ft. 9-½ in.
Bedroom 3
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
8 ft. 11 in.
3 ft. 11-½ in.
Pen Camera
TC Tree w/4 TC’s
1', 3', 5' and 7' starting
at floor
Figure 538. One-Story Bedroom 3 Detail
322
Gas Analyzer, installed
horizontally, 5 ft above floor
Appendix C: Detailed Two-Story House Drawings and Pictures
36-¼ in.
24 in.
22-½ in.
24 in.
18" from wall
to front
right-hand
corner
43-½ in.
26” from wall
to back
left-hand corner
5 ft. 10-½ in.
5 ft. 2 in.
8 ft. 5 in.
Island Dimensions:
2'W x 8'L x 3'H
4 ft. 9 in.
Light Tan Chair
Dimensions:
35"D x 32-½”W x 32-½”H
48 in.
23 in.
Coffee Table Dimensions
36"L x 20"W x 19-½”H
9 ft. 4 in.
Armoire Dimensions
28" D x 41" W x 79" H
Spaced 43-½” off wall at left and 1" off back
wall.
TV centered in top of Armoire
6 ft. 6-¾ in.
1 ft. 5 in.
2"
15 in.
2"
62-¾ in.
24"
24"
End Table Dimensions:
24"W x 27"L x 24-¼”H
Spaced 1-½” off both
couches
27"
27"
Family Room
17 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
(carpet to ceiling)
Pen Camera mounted to island
Two Gas Analyzers,
installed horizontally, 1' and
5', respectively above floor
TC Tree w/17 TC’s at 1' increments
starting at 1' above the floor
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Figure 539. Two-Story Family Room Detail
323
Curtain
Couches used:
Sante Fe patterned with
Dimensions: 36" D x 72-½” L x
33" H
En
tra
nc
e
to
D
en
3 ft
Up
2 ft. 4.5 in.
Entrance to
Dining Room
9 in
6 ft. 6 in.
Entrance to Dining Room
3
in.
Closet Entrance
11 ft. 9 in.
Foyer
1' 2-½”
Up
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
Stairwell &
Landing
6 ft. 2-½ in.
3 ft. 11 in.
8"
4"
2 ft. 1 in.
Front Door
1 ft. 7-½ in.
Pen Camera at floor level
TC Tree w/7 TC’s located at
1', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6' and 7" above the
floor and 1" below the ceiling
Figure 540. Two-Story Foyer Detail
324
O2 Analyzer, installed
vertically thru ceiling,
10" above floor
Curtain
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Bi-Directional Probe, w/readings at
13", 27", 40", 54-½” and 68-½" off floor
7 ft. 0 in.
5 ft. 7 in.
9 ft. 10-½ in.
10 ft. 2 in.
Light Tan Chair Dimensions:
35"D x 32-½”W x 32-½”H
13 ft. 5-½ in.
15 ft. 10-½ in.
Den
4 ft. 10 in.
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
5 ft. 2 in.
2
ft.
4¾
.
in
oo
D
ni
pe
rO
ng
2f
t.
1
in
.
2 ft. 4-½ in. opening
"
10
1'
TC Tree w/4 TC’s at 1', 3', 5' and 7'
above the floor
1' 5-½”
1 ft. 11 in.
1'
½
"
1' ¾”
4 ft. 2-½ in.
Figure 541. Two-Story Den Detail
325
Armoire Dimensions
28" D x 41" W x 79" H
Spaced 42-¼” off wall at
right and 1-½” off back wall
TV centered in top of
Armoire
Couches used:
Sante Fe patterned
with dimensions of
36" D x 72-½” L x 33" H
8-½ in.
Living Room
Up
65 in.
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
Closet Entrance
12 ft. 4-¼ in.
16 ft. 9-½ in.
4 ft. 2 in.
23-¾ in.
24"
End Table
Dimensions
24"W x 27"L x 24-¼” H
Spaced 2" off
each couch
TC Tree w/4 TC’s at 1', 3',
5' and 7' above the floor
Sprinkler (Horizontal Sidewall)
Figure 542. Two-Story Living Room Detail
326
16 in.
28 in.
40-½ in.
27"
5 ft. 8-¾ in.
67 in.
5 ft. 6 in.
22-½ in.
Up
13 in.
23-½ in.
Coffee Table Dimensions
3'L x 20"W x 19-½”H
3 in.
Light Tan Chair
Dimensions:
35"D x 32-½”W x 32½”H
5 in.
Pen Camera mounted at floor
6 ft. 1-¾ in.
Built-in cabinets
Dimensions:
8'L x 2'D x 3'H
8 ft. 1 in.
Island Dimensions:
2'W x 8'L x 3'H
5 ft. 10-½ in.
Stainless Steel
Dishwasher
Dimensions:
27"D x 24"W x 34" H
5 ft. 11 in.
6"
Kitchen
5 ft. 9 in.
Breakfast
2"
Dining Room Chairs:
Positioned as shown, centered along the
sides of the table with the chair backs
6 inches off the table.
15 ft. 10 in.
Built-in cabinets
Dimensions:
8'L x 2'D x 3'H
6 ft 8-¼ in.
Dining Room Table
Dimensions: 44" W x 60" L x 30-½” H
Spaced 6' 8-¼” from cabinets adjacent to
dishwasher and
5'10-½” from back wall as shown.
6"
2"
6"
3
in.
6"
Range
Dimensions 27"D x 30"W x 46-34" H
Spaced 3" off cabinet on right
and 1" off back wall
TC Tree w/4 TC’s at 1', 3',
5' and 7' above the floor
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
Sprinkler (Horizontal Sidewall)
13 in.
34 in.
Stainless Steel Refrigerator
Dimensions:
27-½”D x 36-¼”W x 70-¼”H
Spaced 34" from the right, 30"
from the left and 2" from back
(when facing) walls
Figure 543. Two-Story Kitchen Detail
327
34 in.
3 ft. 4-½ in.
Pen Camera mounted to island
facing ignition source (family room)
3 ft 4-½ in.
2 ft. 4.5 in.
24 in.
28 in.
63 in.
Dining Room
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
6"
14 ft. 5-½ in.
6 ft. 6 in.
Dining Room Table
Dimensions 44" W x 60" L x 30-½” H
Spaced 45-½” to cement board inside window
The chairs are centered along the sides of the
tables
with the Backs 6 inches off the table.
6"
32 in.
6"
6"
2 ft. 1 in.
2 ft. 6 in.
52 in. from table top
to cement board
2 ft. 1 in.
4 ft. 11-¼ in.
Pen Camera at floor level
Sprinkler (Horizontal Sidewall)
TC Tree w/4 TC’s
1', 3', 5' and 7" above the floor
Figure 544. Two-Story Dining Room Detail
328
2'
4"
Bedroom
2
7½
Master
Bedroom
”
Floor/Ceiling
Open to Family
Room Below
2'
4½
”D
oo
rO
pe
nin
g
7½
Hand Rail 13' 2-½”
2' 10"
3' 0"
16' 7-½”
1' 6"
”
Bath 2
2' 2-½” Door Opening
2' 4-½” Door Opening
2' 4-½”
Hallway
1' 7"
Hand Rail 10' 4-½”
10"
2' 5" Door Opening
3.5"
1'
2'
3' 8-½”
Bedroom
3
Up
Bedroom
4
3"
2' 6" Door Opening
1' 6"
32"
8"
Floor/Ceiling
Open to Foyer
Below
Pen Camera #1 flush w/door opening at
floor level
Pen Camera #2 mounted on top of
handrail, pointed at lower level
Bedroom
4 Closet
Up
TC Tree #1 (hallway) with w/8 TC’s
located at 1', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6', 7' and 7'11"
above the floor
Gas Analyzer, installed vertically thru
ceiling, w/2 ports at 1' and 5' above floor
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Hand Rail
Figure 545. Two-Story Second Floor Hall Detail
329
WIC
Mirror on wall centered above dresser; 28"W x 1"D x 46-½”H
3
"
5 ft. 8 in.
Armoire Dimensions
25-1/2" D x 36" W x 79" H
Spaced 80" off wall at right
and 3” off back wall
TV centered in top of
Armoire
80 in.
Dresser Dimensions
20" x 71-¾”L x 24" H
Spaced ½” off wall
9 ft. 5-½ in.
Master Bedroom
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
7 ft. 11 in.
12 ft. 11 in.
Bed Mattress Dimensions
60"W x 78"L
Butted flush against headboard and 65"
off wall to the left.
15 ft. 10 in.
65 in.
TC Tree w/4 TC’s at 1', 3',
5' and 7' above the floor
Headboard attached directly to wall, 60"L x 2"D
Figure 546. Two-Story Master Bedroom (Bedroom 1) Detail
330
Mirror on wall centered above bed; 28"W x 1"D x 46-½”H
Headboard attached directly to wall, 60"L x 2"D
29"
25"
12 ft. ¼”
Light Dresser Dimensions:
19" x 71-½” L x 23-¼” H
Spaced ½” off window wall and
25" off the left wall (when facing);
TV positioned (angled) on right
side of dresser, as shown, with
back left corner butted against
window ledge.
Bed (Mattress+ Box Spring) Dimensions:
60"W x 78"L
Butted flush against headboard and 29" off window wall
12 ft. 4 in.
4 ft. 11-¼ in.
1
1
/
2
Bedroom 3
4 ft. 6 in.
3 ft. 9 in.
6 ft. 2 in.
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
Armoire Dimensions
28" D x 36" W x 79" H
Spaced flush with wall and 36” off
wall at left (when facing)
3 ft.
TC Tree w/4 TC’s at 1', 3', 5'
and 7' above the floor
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Figure 547. Two-Story Bedroom 3 Detail
331
Pen Camera mounted
on top of dresser
2
"
TV is centered on
dresser, butted
against wall.
4 ft. 5 in.
11"
Light Dresser
Dimensions
19" x 71-½” L x 23-¼” H
Spaced 2" off wall and
11" off the left wall
(when facing)
Mirror on wall centered above bed; 28"W x 1"D x 46-½”
Headboard attached directly to wall, 60"L x 2"D
9 ft. 10-½ in.
17-½”
8 ft. 0 in.
Armoire Dimensions
28" D x 36" W x 79" H
Spaced 17" off wall at right
and 17-½” off wall at left
(when facing)
10 ft. 10.5 in.
8 ft. 0 in. Ceiling
TC Tree w/4 TC’s at 1', 3', 5'
and 7' above the floor
Sprinkler (Pendent)
Figure 548. Two-Story Bedroom 4 Detail
332
32"
33 in.
17”
Bedroom 4
Appen
ndix D: Furniture
F
e Picturees
Figure 549
9. Sofa
Figure 5550. Chair
Figure 551
1. Armoire an
nd TV
Figure 5552. Dining R
Room and Kitchen Table
Figure 553
3. End Table
Figure 5554. Television
333
Figure 555
5. Dark Brow
wn Dresser
Figure 5556. Light Brrown Dresser
Figure 557
7. Kitchen
Figure 5558. Den Chaair
Figure 559
9. Brass Fram
me Picture
Figure 5560. Blue Fraame Picture
334
Figure 561
1. Bedroom Mirror
M
Figure 5562. Bed
Figure 563
3. Kitchen Ba
ase Cabinet
335
Appendix E: Detailed House Experiment Room Temperature
Graphs
Experiment 1
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
1400
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
1000
Figure 564. Experiment 1 - Living Room
336
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
300
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
200
o
Temperature ( C)
250
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 565. Experiment 1 - Bedroom 1
1000
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
o
Temperature ( C)
400
350
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
300
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
1000
Figure 566. Experiment 1 - Bedroom 2
337
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
70
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
60
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
1000
1200
1400
Figure 567. Experiment 1 - Bedroom 3
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
500
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
400
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Dining Room
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
1000
Figure 568. Experiment 1 - Dining Room
338
1200
1400
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
800
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
1000
1200
1400
Figure 569. Experiment 1 - Hallway
SS into Front Door
Ignition
Front Door Open
Fog into Front Door
350
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
300
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
1000
Figure 570. Experiment 1 - Kitchen
339
1200
1400
Experiment 2
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
250
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
200
3 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 1
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 571. Experiment 2 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
50
o
Temperature ( C)
40
30
7 ft. Bedroom 2
20
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
10
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 572. Experiment 2 - Bedroom 2
340
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
300
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
250
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 3
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 573. Experiment 2 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
350
7 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Bedroom 4
300
3 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Bedroom 4
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 574. Experiment 2 - Bedroom 4
341
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
200
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
3 ft. Den
1 ft. Den
o
Temperature ( C)
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 575. Experiment 2 - Den
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
300
7 ft. Dining Room
250
5 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Dining Room
200
o
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Dining Room
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 576. Experiment 2 - Dining Room
342
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
700
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 577. Experiment 2 - Family Room
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
350
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 578. Experiment 2 - Foyer
343
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
300
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
250
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Kitchen
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 579. Experiment 2 - Kitchen
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
250
7 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
200
1 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Living Room
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 580. Experiment 2 - Living Room
344
1500
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
600
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 581. Experiment 2 - Second Floor Hall
Experiment 3
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1200
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 582. Experiment 3 - Living Room
800
345
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 583. Experiment 3 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 584. Experiment 3 - Bedoom 2
800
346
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
40
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
35
o
Temperature ( C)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 585. Experiment 3 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
700
7 ft.
5 ft.
3 ft.
1 ft.
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
Dining Room
Dining Room
Dining Room
Dining Room
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 586. Experiment 3 - Dining Room
800
347
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 587. Experiment 3 – Hallway
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
500
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 588. Experiment 3 - Kitchen
800
348
1000
Experiment 4
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
700
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 589. Experiment 4 - Second Floor Hall
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
300
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
250
3 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 1
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 590. Experiment 4 - Bedroom 1
349
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
50
o
Temperature ( C)
40
30
7 ft. Bedroom 2
20
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
10
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 591. Experiment 4 - Bedroom 2
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 3
300
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 592. Experiment 4 - Bedroom 3
350
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
400
7 ft. Bedroom 4
350
5 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Bedroom 4
300
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 4
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 593. Experiment 4 - Bedroom 4
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
250
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
200
1 ft. Den
o
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Den
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 594. Experiment 4 - Den
351
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
400
7 ft. Dining Room
350
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
300
1 ft. Dining Room
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 595. Experiment 4 - Dining Room
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 596. Experiment 4 - Family Room
352
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
500
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 597. Experiment 4 - Foyer
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Kitchen
300
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 598. Experiment 4 - Kitchen
353
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Living Room
300
5 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 599. Experiment 4 - Living Room
Experiment 5
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
1400
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 600. Experiment 5 - Living Room
800
354
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 1
300
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 601. Experiment 5 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
400
7 ft. Bedroom 2
350
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
o
Temperature ( C)
300
1 ft. Bedroom 2
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 602. Experiment 5 - Bedroom 2
800
355
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
50
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
40
3 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 3
30
20
10
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 603. Experiment 5 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
500
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
400
3 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Dining Room
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 604. Experiment 5 - Dining Room
800
356
1000
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
800
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 605. Experiment 5 - Hallway
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
500
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
400
3 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Kitchen
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 606. Experiment 5 - Kitchen
800
357
1000
Experiment 6
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
500
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 607. Experiment 6 - Second Floor Hall
Ignition
1000
1200
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
250
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 1
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 608. Experiment 6 - Bedroom 1
800
1000
358
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
35
30
o
Temperature ( C)
25
20
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
15
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 609. Experiment 6 - Bedroom 2
Ignition
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
250
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 3
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 610. Experiment 6 - Bedroom 3
800
1000
359
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
250
7 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Bedroom 4
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 4
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 611. Experiment 6 - Bedroom 4
Ignition
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
200
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
3 ft. Den
1 ft. Den
o
Temperature ( C)
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 612. Experiment 6 - Den
360
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
300
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
250
3 ft. Dining Room
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Dining Room
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 613. Experiment 6 - Dining Room
Ignition
800
1000
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
600
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
1200
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 614. Experiment 6 - Family Room
361
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
350
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 615. Experiment 6 - Foyer
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
250
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 616. Experiment 6 - Kitchen
800
1000
362
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
SS into LR Window
250
7 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
200
3 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Living Room
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 617. Experiment 6 - Living Room
800
1000
1200
Experiment 7
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
1000
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 618. Experiment 7 - Living Room
800
1000
363
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
400
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 619. Experiment 7 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
600
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 620. Experiment 7 - Bedroom 2
800
1000
364
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
100
o
Temperature ( C)
80
60
40
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
20
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 621. Experiment 7 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
600
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Dining Room
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 622. Experiment 7 - Dining Room
800
1000
365
1200
Ignition
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
1000
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 623. Experiment 7 - Hallway
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into Front Door
500
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 624. Experiment 7 - Kitchen
800
1000
366
1200
Experiment 8
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
800
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 625. Experiment 8 - Second Floor Hall
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
300
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
250
3 ft. Bedroom 1
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 1
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 626. Experiment 8 - Bedroom 1
367
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
60
40
o
Temperature ( C)
50
30
20
7 ft. Bedroom 2
10
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 627. Experiment 8 - Bedroom 2
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
600
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
500
3 ft. Bedroom 3
400
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 3
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 628. Experiment 8 - Bedroom 3
368
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
400
o
Temperature ( C)
7 ft. Bedroom 4
350
5 ft. Bedroom 4
300
3 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Bedroom 4
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 629. Experiment 8 - Bedroom 4
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
250
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
200
3 ft. Den
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Den
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 630. Experiment 8 - Den
369
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
400
7 ft. Dining Room
350
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
300
1 ft. Dining Room
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 631. Experiment 8 - Dining Room
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
1000
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 632. Experiment 8 - Family Room
370
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
500
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 633. Experiment 8 - Foyer
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
400
7 ft. Kitchen
350
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
300
1 ft. Kitchen
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 634. Experiment 8 - Kitchen
371
Ignition
BR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into BR Window
350
7 ft. Living Room
300
5 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Time (s)
Figure 635. Experiment 8 - Living Room
Experiment 9
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1400
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 636. Experiment 9 - Living Room
800
1000
372
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 637. Experiment 9 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
400
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 638. Experiment 9 - Bedroom 2
800
1000
373
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
70
7 ft. Bedroom 3
60
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 639. Experiment 9 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
600
7 ft. Dining Room
500
5 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Dining Room
400
o
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Dining Room
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 640. Experiment 9 - Bedroom 4
800
1000
374
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 641. Experiment 9 - Hallway
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
400
7 ft. Kitchen
350
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
300
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Kitchen
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 642. Experiment 9 - Kitchen
800
1000
375
1200
Experiment 10
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
600
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 643. Experiment 10 - Second Floor Hall
Ignition
1500
2000
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
250
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 644. Experiment 10 - Bedroom 1
1500
376
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
50
o
Temperature ( C)
40
30
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
20
10
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 645. Experiment 10 - Bedroom 2
Ignition
1500
2000
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
400
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 646. Experiment 10 - Bedroom 3
1500
377
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Bedroom 4
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 647. Experiment 10 - Bedroom 4
Ignition
1500
2000
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
200
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
3 ft. Den
150
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Den
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
1500
Figure 648. Experiment 10 - Den
378
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
300
1 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 649. Experiment 10 - Dining Room
Ignition
1500
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
800
700
600
o
Temperature ( C)
2000
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 650. Experiment 10 - Family Room
1500
379
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
400
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
1500
2000
Figure 651. Experiment 10 - Foyer
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 652. Experiment 10 - Kitchen
1500
380
2000
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
300
7 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
250
3 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Living Room
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
Time (s)
Figure 653. Experiment 10 - Living Room
1500
381
2000
Experiment 11
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
700
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 654. Experiment 11 - Second Floor Hall
Ignition
1000
1200
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
300
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
200
o
Temperature ( C)
250
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 655. Experiment 11 - Bedroom 1
800
1000
382
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
50
o
Temperature ( C)
40
30
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
20
1 ft. Bedroom 2
10
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 656. Experiment 11 - Bedroom 2
Ignition
800
1000
1200
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
300
1 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 657. Experiment 11 - Bedroom 3
800
1000
383
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Bedroom 4
300
3 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Bedroom 4
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 658. Experiment 11 - Bedroom 4
Ignition
800
1000
1200
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
250
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
200
o
Temperature ( C)
3 ft. Den
1 ft. Den
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 659. Experiment 11 - Den
384
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
300
1 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 660. Experiment 11 - Dining Room
Ignition
800
1000
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
1000
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
1200
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 661. Experiment 11 - Family Room
800
1000
385
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
500
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 662. Experiment 11 - Foyer
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
350
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
300
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 663. Experiment 11 - Kitchen
800
1000
386
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into FR Window
300
7 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
250
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Living Room
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 664. Experiment 11 - Living Room
800
1000
1200
Experiment 12
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
1400
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 665. Experiment 12 - Living Room
800
1000
387
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
300
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 666. Experiment 12 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
o
Temperature ( C)
400
350
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
300
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 667. Experiment 12 - Bedroom 2
800
1000
388
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
80
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
70
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 668. Experiment 12 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
600
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
500
400
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Dining Room
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 669. Experiment 12 - Dining Room
800
1000
389
1200
Ignition
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
800
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
700
o
Temperature ( C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 670. Experiment 12 - Hallway
Ignition
400
800
1000
1200
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
SS into LR Window
400
o
Temperature ( C)
7 ft. Kitchen
350
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
300
1 ft. Kitchen
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 671. Experiment 12 - Kitchen
800
1000
390
1200
Experiment 13
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
700
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
600
800
Time (s)
Figure 672. Experiment 13 - Second Floor Hall
Ignition
400
FR Window Open
1000
1200
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
250
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 673. Experiment 13 - Bedroom 1
800
1000
391
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
40
35
o
Temperature ( C)
30
25
20
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
15
10
5
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 674. Experiment 13 - Bedroom 2
Ignition
400
FR Window Open
800
1000
1200
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
350
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
3 ft. Bedroom 3
1 ft. Bedroom 3
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 675. Experiment 13 - Bedroom 3
800
1000
392
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 4
5 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Bedroom 4
1 ft. Bedroom 4
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 676. Experiment 13 - Bedroom 4
Ignition
400
FR Window Open
800
1000
1200
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
200
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
3 ft. Den
1 ft. Den
o
Temperature ( C)
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 677. Experiment 13 - Den
393
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
300
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
250
3 ft. Dining Room
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Dining Room
150
100
50
0
0
200
600
Time (s)
Figure 678. Experiment 13 - Dining Room
Ignition
400
FR Window Open
800
1000
1200
SS into FR Window
Front Door Open
Fog into FR Window
1000
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 679. Experiment 13 - Family Room
800
1000
394
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
400
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
350
o
Temperature ( C)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 680. Experiment 13 - Foyer
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
300
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
250
3 ft. Kitchen
200
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Kitchen
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 681. Experiment 13 - Kitchen
800
1000
395
1200
Ignition
FR Window Open
SS into FR Window
Fog into FR Window
Front Door Open
300
7 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
200
o
Temperature ( C)
250
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 682. Experiment 13 - Living Room
800
1000
1200
Experiment 14
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1400
8 ft. Living Room
7 ft. Living Room
6 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
4 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
2 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
1200
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 683. Experiment 14 - Living Room
396
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
500
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 684. Experiment 14 - Bedroom 1
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
600
7 ft. Bedroom 2
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
400
o
Temperature ( C)
500
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 685. Experiment 14 - Bedroom 2
397
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
LR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
120
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
100
3 ft. Bedroom 3
80
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 3
60
40
20
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 686. Experiment 14 - Bedroom 3
Ignition
MBR Window Open
LR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
600
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
500
3 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Dining Room
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 687. Experiment 14 - Dining Room
398
1200
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
1000
8 ft. Hallway
7 ft. Hallway
6 ft. Hallway
5 ft. Hallway
4 ft. Hallway
3 ft. Hallway
2 ft. Hallway
1 ft. Hallway
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 688. Experiment 14 - Hallway
Ignition
MBR Window Open
BR2 Window Open
LR Window Open
Front Door Open
BR3 Window Open
Fog into LR Window
500
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
400
3 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Kitchen
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 689. Experiment 14 - Kitchen
399
1200
Experiment 15
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
1000
8 ft. Second Floor Hall
7 ft. Second Floor Hall
6 ft. Second Floor Hall
5 ft. Second Floor Hall
4 ft. Second Floor Hall
3 ft. Second Floor Hall
2 ft. Second Floor Hall
1 ft. Second Floor Hall
o
Temperature ( C)
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 690. Experiment 15 - Second Floor Hall
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
350
7 ft. Bedroom 1
5 ft. Bedroom 1
300
3 ft. Bedroom 1
1 ft. Bedroom 1
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 691. Experiment 15 - Bedroom 1
400
1200
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
50
o
Temperature ( C)
40
30
7 ft. Bedroom 2
20
5 ft. Bedroom 2
3 ft. Bedroom 2
1 ft. Bedroom 2
10
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 692. Experiment 15 - Bedroom 2
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
500
7 ft. Bedroom 3
5 ft. Bedroom 3
400
3 ft. Bedroom 3
o
Temperature ( C)
1 ft. Bedroom 3
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 693. Experiment 15 - Bedroom 3
401
1200
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
400
7 ft. Bedroom 4
350
5 ft. Bedroom 4
3 ft. Bedroom 4
o
Temperature ( C)
300
1 ft. Bedroom 4
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 694. Experiment 15 - Bedroom 4
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
350
7 ft. Den
5 ft. Den
3 ft. Den
1 ft. Den
300
o
Temperature ( C)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 695. Experiment 15 - Den
402
1200
Den Window Open
FR1 Window Open
LR Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
500
7 ft. Dining Room
5 ft. Dining Room
3 ft. Dining Room
1 ft. Dining Room
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 696. Experiment 15 - Dining Room
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
1200
17 ft. Family Room
16 ft. Family Room
15 ft. Family Room
14 ft. Family Room
13 ft. Family Room
12 ft. Family Room
11 ft. Family Room
10 ft. Family Room
9 ft. Family Room
8 ft. Family Room
7 ft. Family Room
6 ft. Family Room
5 ft. Family Room
4 ft. Family Room
3 ft. Family Room
2 ft. Family Room
1 ft. Family Room
800
o
Temperature ( C)
1000
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 697. Experiment 15 - Family Room
800
1000
403
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
700
8 ft. Foyer
7 ft. Foyer
6 ft. Foyer
5 ft. Foyer
4 ft. Foyer
3 ft. Foyer
2 ft. Foyer
1 ft. Foyer
600
o
Temperature ( C)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Figure 698. Experiment 15 - Foyer
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
500
7 ft. Kitchen
5 ft. Kitchen
3 ft. Kitchen
1 ft. Kitchen
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
Figure 699. Experiment 15 - Kitchen
800
1000
404
1200
Den Window Open
LR Window Open
FR1 Window Open
Ignition
Front Door Open
FR2 Window Open
Fog into FR1 Window
500
7 ft. Living Room
5 ft. Living Room
3 ft. Living Room
1 ft. Living Room
o
Temperature ( C)
400
300
200
100
0
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
Figure 700. Experiment 15 - Living Room
405
1200