THE SPIRIT OF PEACE: SPIRITUALITY AS A MOTIVATOR
FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION WORK
By
Anat Ben Nun
Submitted to the
Faculty of the School of International Service
of American University
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of
Masters of the Arts
In
International Peace and Conflict Resolution
Chair:
Anthony Wanis-St. John, Ph.D.
Abdul Aziz Said, Ph.D.
Dean of the School of International Service
Date
2011
American University
Washington, D.C. 20016
© COPYRIGHT
by
Anat Ben Nun
2011
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THE SPIRIT OF PEACE: SPIRITUALITY AS A MOTIVATOR
FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION WORK
BY
Anat Ben Nun
ABSTRACT
In the field of international conflict resolution, spirituality is yet to be fully acknowledged
as a valuable element in efforts towards peace. The study presented here seeks to change
this by illustrating the relationship between spirituality and conflict resolution from the
perspective of the practitioner. It focuses specifically on whether and how spirituality
plays a role as a motivator for conflict resolution work. Using the grounded theory
methodology, through the coding and analysis of twelve interviews, this study explores
transformational moments in the lives of conflict resolution practitioners and
demonstrates a connection between spirituality and a drive towards conflict resolution
work. Furthermore, the study discovers five key spiritual components that not only
motivate practitioners but also make them better at their jobs. Finally, it concludes by
stressing the positive effects of spirituality on conflict resolution, and recommends the
incorporation of spirituality in conflict resolution work as well as in educational
programs.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my thesis readers and advisors, Anthony Wanis-St. John and
Abdul Aziz Said, who supported me from the very start in this nontraditional project.
Their comments and insights were invaluable to the writing process and its end result. I
would also like to thank Christos Kyrou who helped me with the development of my
topic and my methodology, and was always willing to give advice and answer my
questions. Additionally, I highly appreciate the help of all of my professors at American
University, who equipped me with tools for a better understanding of the world on a
variety of levels.
Another thanks goes to my colleagues and friends Amelia Frank-Vitale, Kathryn
Lance-Parsoud, and Oyvind Ofstad who were with me throughout the writing process,
and allowed me to see the benefits of group support and peer review. I also remain
thankful to my other friends and family members who are always interested in what I do
and help me remain motivated.
Lastly, this paper could not have been completed without the help of the twelve
individuals who were willing to interview and share highly personal experiences for the
better good of the field of conflict resolution. I salute you for your courage and for the
work you do everyday to promote more harmonious and peaceful relationships between
people and nations.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................. iii
Chapter
1. TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE APPROACH ......................................... 1
Developments in Conflict Resolution and the Roles of Practitioners ........ 1
Conflict Resolution and Spirituality ........................................................... 6
Hypothesis .................................................................................................. 8
Significance of Study.................................................................................. 9
Organization of Paper ............................................................................... 10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 11
Previous Studies........................................................................................ 11
Defining Transformation .......................................................................... 14
Theories of Motivation and Adult Development ...................................... 15
Religion, Spirituality and Transcendence ................................................. 23
A Holistic Approach ................................................................................. 28
Spiritual Transformation and Peace Work................................................ 32
Conclusion ................................................................................................ 39
3. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 40
Research Method Rationale ...................................................................... 40
Data Collection ......................................................................................... 43
iv
Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 44
Limitations and Challenges ...................................................................... 46
4. SEEKING THE SPIRIT OF PEACE................................................................ 50
Defining Spirituality ................................................................................. 51
Becoming Spiritual and Working Towards Peace .................................... 56
Spirituality as a Motivator ........................................................................ 64
Alternative Explanations........................................................................... 98
Conclusion .............................................................................................. 100
5. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 101
Practicing Conflict Resolution Through Spiritual Lenses ...................... 101
Spirituality and Conflict Resolution Education ...................................... 106
Looking Ahead ....................................................................................... 109
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................................... 112
APPENDIX B: PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM ..................................................... 113
APPENDIX C: LIST OF INTERVIEWEES .................................................................. 115
APPENDIX D: IDENTIFYING CODES, CATEGORIES AND THEORY ................. 116
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 118
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CHAPTER 1
TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE APPROACH
As a conflict resolution student who is interested in the spiritual realm, I have
always been fascinated by the connection between spirituality and conflict resolution.
Every rare encounter of these two passions of mine seemed so incredibly natural in my
eyes, and led me to frequent conversations with other individuals who felt the same way
as I did, particularly within the conflict resolution world. For this reason, when I
discovered that this shared interest of numerous peace practitioners was not well
developed throughout the existing literature, I was certainly surprised. This has driven me
to write about the topic of spirituality and conflict resolution, with the hope that other
scholars will later develop it further.
In the present study, I focus on spirituality amongst peace practitioners
themselves. I explore how it developed, and what its motivating effects are on individuals
both prior to and during their work in conflict resolution. In this introductory chapter I
present recent developments in the conflict resolution field that make space for
spirituality to come in as valuable for conflict resolution practitioners. I then discuss the
research hypothesis of this paper, and the significance of the study.
Developments in Conflict Resolution
and the Role of Practitioners
The field of conflict resolution has been rapidly expanding in the past two
decades. This section focuses on selected major developments in the field, and the
1
2
individuals who instituted them. It does not attempt to survey the progress of the field
from its founding until today, but rather, to present the attributes of the field that have
implication on the role of conflict resolution practitioners.
Being highly interdisciplinary in its nature, conflict resolution theory draws on a
vast array of fields. According to sociologist Louis Kriesberg, an author and practitioner
of conflict resolution, these include anthropology, sociology, psychology, economics,
peace studies, international relations, mathematics and political science (2007a, 456).
Definitions of conflict resolution today vary from general statements about strategies that
visibly bring a violent conflict to its end,
to more specific descriptions focusing on
addressing root causes of conflict or arriving at conflict transformation (Avruch 1998, 2527). Because of this broad range of definitions, and perhaps due to the fact that the field
is still very much developing, the term conflict resolution today is viewed both as one
specific method to approach conflict, usually involving negotiation, mediation, or
problem solving, or as a broad term representing a variety of methods of analyzing and
addressing conflicts, which also contain the related field of peace studies. In this paper
the term conflict resolution is used in its later meaning.
Conflict resolution practitioners, also referred to as peace practitioners, are mainly
academics, diplomats, and workshop organizers (Kriesberg 2007a, 455). As their roles
began consolidating in the 1970s and early 1980s, conflict resolution practitioners were
regarded as providers of “services that assist adversaries to construct mutually acceptable
agreements to settle and ultimately resolve their conflicts” (Kriesberg 2007b, 31). In the
2000s, specific tasks within the larger role were defined in the literature. William Ury,
the co-founder of the Harvard Negotiation Project, for instance, created a list of practices
3
of engaging with conflicting parties. According to Ury, a conflict resolution practitioner,
based on the circumstances, acts as a provider, teacher, bridge-builder, mediator,
arbitrators, equalizer, healer, witness, referee, and peacekeeper (2000, 114-196).
Christopher Mitchell, a professor at George Mason University and a practitioner in
numerous conflict regions, later widened this list when arguing that a practitioner can act
also as a monitor, explorer, reassurer, decoupler, unifier, enskiller, convener, facilitator,
envisioner, enhancer, guarantor, legitimizer, verifier, implementer, and reconciler (2005,
20). These roles can be either formal or informal and can be enacted either independently
of one another or concurrently in the same peace-building effort. As illustrated below,
development in the field of conflict resolution definitely affected the roles and tasks of
conflict resolution practitioners.
The institutionalization of conflict resolution occurred only in the mid-twentieth
century, with the publication of The Journal of Conflict Resolution (JCR) in 1957 and the
establishment of the Center for Research on Conflict Resolution in 1959 by economist
Kenneth Boulding, sociologist Robert Cooley Angell, and psychologist Herbert Kelman
at the University of Michigan (Ramsbotham, Woodhouse and Miall 2005, 40). Boulding,
who was a religious mystic and a devoted Quaker, believed self-interest, fear, and love
were motivating forces for individuals, clearly favoring the latter for the betterment of
society (Boulding 1982). Angell was the director of the Social Science department of
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and
focused his research on social integration and issues of war and peace. Kelman is a
professor of Social Ethics and one of the prominent developers of the interactive problem
4
solving approach, which he implemented in the Middle East.1 The cooperation of these
three individuals may explain the interdisciplinary organization of the conflict resolution
field as a whole.
As the field of conflict resolution grew, a larger emphasis was put on the socialpsychological dimensions of conflict. Conflict, thus, began being defined as “a process
driven by collective needs and fears, rather than entirely a product of rational calculation
of objective national interest on the part of political decision makers” (Kelman 2007, 64).
This characteristic clearly differentiated the field from the discipline of international
relations, which by and large takes a realist approach to conflict. It also greatly influenced
the direction in which the conflict resolution field was heading.
One individual who emphasized these social-psychological dimensions of conflict
and conflict resolution was the Australian-born diplomat and academic John Burton.
While recognizing the merits of the hierarchy of basic needs of Abraham Maslow (1943),
Burton went on to develop a theory of needs related to conflict. According to Burton,
there exists a collection of psychological needs such as identity, recognition, and security
that must be fulfilled amongst individuals (1997, 32-40).2 The lack of fulfillment of such
needs, he states, can explain why conflict erupts. Consequently, while being attentive to
basic human needs, practitioners are able to understand the root causes of conflict, and
the real grievances and interests of the conflicting parties. These then help them work
towards conflict prevention and resolution.
1. For further information see Kelman (1998)
2. Abraham Maslow viewed humans as motivated by a hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow,
after physiological and safety needs are satisfied, one begins to search for senses of belonging and esteem.
5
Long before Burton, the work of Johan Galtung, a Norwegian-born
mathematician and sociologist who founded the field of peace studies, also pushed
conflict resolution practitioners towards understanding the underlying causes of conflict.
While Galtung’s contribution is vast, I focus on one aspect of it here, namely, his
distinction between positive peace and negative peace. Galtung argues that just like
violence can be either personal, physical or structural, so can peace be two-sided. Thus,
he defines negative peace as the absence of personal violence, and positive peace as the
absence of structural violence (Galtung 1969, 183). Galtung’s notion of positive peace
influences the field of conflict resolution in that it leads practitioners to address violence
in all of its forms, and seeks peace that is truly sustainable. Furthermore, it adds a
dimension of prevention, which is also present in Burton’s work, as it allows conflict
resolution practitioners to detect situations in which structural violence exists, and thus
physical violence might erupt.
As scholars and practitioners were developing methods that would help achieve
the positive peace described by Galtung and his predecessors, “conflict resolution” was
evolutionized into “conflict transformation.” John Paul Lederach, a professor of
International Peacebuilding at the University of Notre Dame, and a committed Mennonite
who has worked as a practitioner around the world in numerous third party roles, is the
person most identified with the term conflict transformation. Lederach views conflict
transformation as a holistic process that involves the empowerment of individuals and
communities so that they could use local knowledge and promote peace in all levels of
society; through reducing violence, healing relationships, and advancing justice,
6
opportunities for personal and societal transformation arise, and sustainable peace can
begin to unfold (Lederach 1995, 23).
Lederach’s approach thus requires a conflict resolution practitioner to think
holistically, and allow for the ideas and understandings of the local population to meld
with his or her academic and technical expertise to lead to empowerment and
transformation. A practitioner, thus, should assist those in conflict to see beyond the
harsh reality in which they live, and while still being realistic, imagine what needs to be
done for their situation to improve. Other qualities of conflict resolution practitioners that
derive from such an approach include humility, attentiveness, and creativity.
It can be understood from this section that as the conflict resolution field
develops, the number of roles that conflict resolution practitioners can play expands. At
the same time, the descriptions of the roles of the practitioners become more specified.
This, however, does not mean that practitioners’ roles become fixed or normative; just as
conflict cannot be resolved by one method only, practitioners’ roles have to change and
evolve based on the circumstances and the individuals they work with.
Conflict Resolution and Spirituality
The framing of conflict resolution as a set of transformative processes allows for
spirituality to enter the field of conflict resolution. Enhanced spiritual awareness can
become a central piece in both personal and societal transformation; it can act as a
vehicle through which individuals learn to recognize their underlying narratives and, as a
result, find new and profound life meanings (Power 2003, 133). Despite this clear
connection, and unlike religion – which has itself become a significant aspect of conflict
7
resolution – spirituality still remains very much in the background of the field’s theory
and practice.3 That said, a body of literature that focuses on spirituality and conflict
resolution, however small, does exist. Scholars began writing about the connection
between the two in the mid-1980s.4 Special issues of Mediation Quarterly (1993),
Dispute Resolution Magazine (2004), and ACResolution (2006) were later devoted to this
subject, showing further acknowledgement of the role of spirituality in conflict and its
resolution. Additionally, in 2000, the Association for Conflict Resolution began having
its own spirituality section. Most of these writings, however, do not focus on the roles of
practitioners, and do not relate to international conflict resolution. Furthermore, they are
by-and-large non-academic in nature.
Furthermore, one work that does recognize the role of spirituality amongst peace
practitioners is the collection of articles edited by Douglas Johnston, the President and
Founder of the International Center for Religion and Diplomacy (ICRD), and Cynthia
Sampson, a Founding Member of the Interfaith Consortium for an Ecological Civilization
– Religion, The Missing Dimension of Statecraft (1994). In this book, which emphasizes
the role of religion, spirituality is acknowledged as a contributing factor, for instance, in
peace efforts made by Quaker groups. Overall, although a connection between spirituality
and conflict resolution is acknowledged in scholarly writings, it is not emphasized nor is
it well-studied.
3. For further information on the role of religion in conflict resolution see for example Abu Nimer
(2001); Smock (2002); and Johnston and Sampson (1994).
4. Examples for books about spirituality and conflict resolution include Hanh (1987); Curle
(1990); Diamond (2000); Powell (2003).
8
Hypothesis
As mentioned above, in the existing literature on conflict resolution very little
attention is paid to conflict resolution practitioners themselves as individuals, or to their
spiritual beliefs and motivations. This is puzzling for two main reasons. First, conflict
resolution practitioners matter. While working towards the transformation of conflict, the
characteristics of both the conflicting parties as well as the third party affect the process
and its results. Therefore, practitioners’ motivations and qualities need to be carefully
examined in every analysis of conflict resolution efforts. Second, spirituality matters. If
we consider spirituality as a critical piece of conflict transformation, practitioners’
exposure to it may have significant influence on the success of their efforts. This is not to
say that non-spiritual practitioners cannot make a strong impact towards peaceful
resolution of conflicts, but to stress that spirituality is one quality that has the potential to
enhance conflict transformation efforts, and one that has not yet been explored
sufficiently in this context.
This research project addresses one angle of the relationship between spirituality
and international conflict resolution from the point of view of the practitioner. It focuses
on whether and how spirituality plays a role as a motivator for working in conflict
resolution. While exploring transformational moments in the lives of those who work on
the transformation of others, the study aims to discover where the drive of people
working in the conflict resolution field comes from.
The hypothesis of this research is that pivotal moments in the lives of individuals
lead them to experience a spiritual transformation. Then, their resulting enhanced
consciousness drives them toward the practice of conflict resolution. A spiritual person
9
often possesses characteristics that allow him or her to view peace as a higher value and
to become a change-maker, or a bridge-builder. Thus, it is possible that working towards
peace becomes a means for fulfilling a spiritual individual’s aspirations and inner
calling.5
I examine this hypothesis through the existing literature on the topic, which is
mostly taken from psychological theories of transformation, motivation, and adult
development, as well as from the fields of philosophy and theology. An exploration of
data from these fields of study, which includes looking at both Western and Eastern
traditions, fits the interdisciplinary nature of the conflict resolution field, and its current
focus on the conflict transformation approach. More importantly for this paper, however,
is the exploration of the hypothesis through interviews with prominent conflict resolution
practitioners who are based in the Washington DC metropolitan area. These interviews
are conducted and coded in order to generate a pre-theory on this topic that will help to
better understand how spirituality could act as a motivator for conflict resolution
practitioners.
Significance of Study
The present study contributes to the conflict resolution field by enlarging the pool
of knowledge that exists on two issues. First, it illustrates one way in which spirituality is
related to conflict resolution. Second, it illuminates one aspect of conflict resolution
practitioners’ motivations. The new information provided by this study can be seen as the
building blocks for larger theories to be developed regarding these topics.
5. This is not to say, however, that other careers related to care would not satisfy the same needs.
10
Moreover, if spirituality is found to play a large role in practitioners’ motivation
to work in the conflict resolution field, cultivating its components among conflict
resolution students may be a valuable practice. A better understanding of how spirituality
affects practitioners may lead to changes in their approach towards the conflicting parties,
and may increase their productivity in conflict resolution efforts. Enhanced motivation
due to spirituality could also prevent burnout amongst practitioners in the long run.
Organization of the Paper
This chapter introduced the present study by providing an overview of the conflict
resolution field and the role of the practitioner, and by making the connection between
these and spirituality. It presented the hypothesis of the study as well as its significance.
Taking an interdisciplinary approach, chapter 2 provides a review of the literature related
to personal transformation, spirituality, and to why these may lead individuals to work in
conflict resolution. Chapter 3 describes the methodology used in this study, justifies its
use, and elaborates on the study’s scope and limitations. In chapter 4, the data collected
through interviews with spiritual conflict resolution practitioners is analyzed and
discussed. Data regarding spirituality as a motivator to enter the conflict resolution field,
as well as data on spirituality as a motivator for practitioners to keep working towards
peace is presented. Finally, chapter 5 concludes this study by discussing its implications
and offering recommendations.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the role of spirituality in conflict resolution
has been acknowledged for several decades. Yet, while a sizable body of literature exists
to describe this connection, most of the published works on the topic are rather
descriptive and lack sufficient backing in the scientific sense. In fact, studies of the causal
links between spirituality and peacemaking are almost nonexistent. I begin the following
literature review by discussing the few studies that do focus on such links. I then proceed
by reviewing literature concerning transformation and adult development, as according to
this study’s hypothesis, a personal transformation should precede one’s becoming a
peacemaker. I continue by showing the link between transformation, spirituality and
religion. Finally, I establish a connection between spirituality and peace work.
Previous Studies
This section explores three studies that were conducted on issues related to the
topic under investigation in this research. The studies’ findings illustrate the role of
spirituality as a driving force, show crises as behavior-changers, and demonstrate the
motivation to incorporate spirituality in one’s work following a spiritual transformation.
The first study deals with spirituality and local mediation, the second investigates the
motivation of Jewish-Israeli peace workers and activists, and the third seeks to discover
the connection between spirituality and career choice. The findings of each of these
11
12
studies take us a little further in the understanding of a possible connection between
spirituality and conflict resolution work.
An attempt to discover how spirituality affects the mediation process was taken
by Debra Jones, who was also studying what makes mediation spiritual in nature. Using a
hermeneutic phenomenological approach, Jones interviewed 16 mediators who identified
as integrating spirituality in their work. Her findings show that mediators who view
themselves as spiritual see no separation between who they are and the work that they do.
Their practice was described as holistic, nonlinear, and one that is “more a matter of
being than doing” (Jones 2010, 150).6 For many mediators, the practice became a part of
their life journey. For others, who began their spiritual journey prior to their mediation
practice, becoming mediators “just made sense,” as they see themselves expressing their
spirituality through their mediation (Jones 2010, 149). Thus, spiritually-oriented
mediators seem to be aware of the link that exists between spirituality and mediation, yet,
at least in this study, they do not specifically refer to their mediation as peace work,
perhaps because their work is domestic rather than international. Because of this, and due
to the fact that my study does not focus solely on mediators but on people from a large
array of peace-oriented work, I find this study as insufficient in affirming the connection
between spirituality and peace work.
Ann Marsa (2006) investigated motivation and career choice specifically in
peace-related work, while exploring the perceptions and motivations of Jewish-Israeli
peace activists who are second and third-generation descendents of holocaust survivors.
Marsa did not consider spirituality as a motivator for these individuals. Nonetheless, she
6. Italics in the original.
13
found that 17 out of her 18 interviewees shared a high level of empathy towards others:
“most of those I interviewed possessed an incredibly strong capacity to empathize, both
cognitively and affectively, with almost everyone around them” (Marsa 2006, 95). A
result of this empathy, she states, was the humanization of the “other side” – the Germans
in the past and the Palestinians in the present.
Although recognizing empathy as a common characteristic of her interviewees,
Marsa did not focus on the Israeli activists’ personal qualities as the motivator for their
work. Alternatively, according to Marsa, the main reason why her interviewees got
involved in peace-oriented activities was a personal crisis in perception that arose as a
result of a cognitive dissonance. American social psychologist Leon Festinger defines
cognitive dissonance as the existence of inconsistencies among cognitions that creates a
sense of discomfort, which acts as a motivating factor to change behaviors or attitudes
until consonance is achieved (Festinger 1957, 3). Marsa argues that Israeli mistreatment
of Palestinians created strong inconsistencies in the identities of her interviewees and
caused them to become politically and socially active (Marsa 2006, 130). While Marsa
attributes her interviewees’ peace activism to cognitive dissonance alone, this study
wishes to delve further into those moments in which empathy prevails over indifference,
and discover if contradictions between beliefs and behaviors may provide something that
is greater than a mere return to consistency within the individual.
Judith Neal, Benyamin Lichtenstein, and David Banner (1999), in their study of
career choice, did focus on spirituality but did not directly explore this amongst
peacemakers. Neal et al. interviewed 40 individuals from a variety of different careers,
held a three-year online discussion forum with 150 participants, and conducted 700
14
informal conversations with individuals who have an interest in spirituality. According to
their data, personal transformations led individuals to seek to integrate spirituality into
their career. Another finding of theirs was that individuals working in consulting,
education and health care were those who sought to integrate spirituality into their work
the most. While this study does not demonstrate a connection between spirituality and
peace work, it illustrates that a person’s experience of spirituality through transformation
affect his or her career choices and life paths, in a way that is more care-oriented.
In sum, while Jones’s study illustrates that mediation is a natural step in one’s
spiritual path, the finding of Neal et al. show other desired professions which tend to
follow a spiritual transformation; all of them are care-related. In both studies the
integration of spirituality in one’s work seem to be highly valued. Marsa, at the same
time, found empathy as a characteristic shared among her interviewees, but attributes
their peace work to their coping with a cognitive dissonance. Is it a crisis, then, that leads
people to peace work, or does the incorporation of spirituality in their lives take them in
that direction? The following two sections, while defining transformation and looking at
it from psychological perspectives of motivation and adult development will address this
question that the studies above present to us.
Defining Transformation
Although the explanation of Marsa and that of Neal at el. may seem different on
the surface, through the eyes of Gail Wade (1998) the two explanations of crisis and
transformation could in fact be complementary. Wade, who wrote a concept analysis on
transformation, argues that when an individual acknowledges a moment of strong
15
dissonance, it provides him or her with an opportunity for spiritual growth: “a
problematic cognitive and affective meaning scheme that conflicts with one’s selfview…produces a painful, threatening and challenging opportunity for reflection and
expansion of consciousness” (Wade 1998, 716). This opportunity is in fact a transforming
moment. Wade states that the expansion of consciousness resulting from such a moment
helps one to become aware of old and new self-views. Wade’s explanation, thus, assists
to bridge the gap between Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory and the possibility for
a spiritual transformation as potential motivators for peace work.
Transformation can occur in one of several ways. It can either be comprised of
many transforming moments, or by one dramatic moment of transcendence (Mezirow
1991). According to James Loder, transforming moments can take place in the form of
anecdotes (events or realizations) in the life of an individual, that, either in that moment
or afterwards, become sources of new knowledge about the self and the world. Thus, he
argues, transforming moments are sources of spiritual growth (Loder 1981). While using
Wade, Mezirow and Loder’s understanding of the concept of transformation, this study
attempts to discover if the change in perception caused by transformation leads some
individuals towards peace and conflict resolution work.
Theories of Motivation and Adult Development
Psychologists Abraham Maslow, Carl Jung, and Reza Arasteh, in their theories of
motivation and adult development – all convey the issue of transformation. While each of
these psychologists uses slightly different terminology, it is clear that all of them refer to
the same phenomena. All three view spiritual transformation as the final stage of adult
16
development which occurs in the lives of a selected few. I will now turn to discuss each
of their theories regarding transformation. I wish to note here that although all three saw,
at some point in their lives, the role religion or spirituality plays in transformation, I will
refrain from discussing these aspects of their thought in this section, and will expand on
this topic in the following section.
Maslow developed vast personal interest in the idea of a spiritual transformation.
After establishing his famous hierarchy of needs as his theory of motivation (Maslow
1987), Maslow was particularly interested not in the sick people, but in the healthy ones;
the ones who constitute the majority of humanity and are often neglected in the study of
psychology. Particularly, he was interested in studying the healthiest individuals and find
out what makes them such. Thus, he began examining those people who have reached the
fifth and highest level of his hierarchy of needs – self-actualization.7 By self-actualization
Maslow refers to “people’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, the tendency for them to
become actualized in what they are potentially” (Maslow 1987, 22). Unlike the other
“lower” needs, self-actualization seems to arise not from deficiency but from growth
motivation; rather than fulfill something that is missing, self-actualizers “attempt to grow
to perfection and to develop more and more fully in their own style” (Maslow 1987, 133).
Thus, self-actualizers’ personal development is seen as an ongoing and ever-changing
experience, absent of a material goal at its end.
Common characteristics of self-actualizers that Maslow identified include
accurate and full perception of reality, high acceptance of themselves and others,
7. Maslow sees the first four needs in his hierarchy as “deficiency needs,” meaning that one seeks
to gratify something that one lacks. After fulfilling these needs, one may remain at this level of
development or move higher towards Maslow’s fifth need – self-actualization.
17
spontaneity, problem-centeredness, a quality of detachment, autonomy, exhibition of
freshness of appreciation, periodic peak experiences, human kinship, humility and
respect, profound interpersonal relations, strong ethics, well-developed sense of humor,
high creativity, resistance to enculturation, acceptance of democratic values, and an
ability to see beyond dichotomies (Maslow 1987, 133-149). Maslow was so impressed by
his findings on self-actualizers that he believed them to be an almost separate breed of
human beings (1968, 71).
Maslow’s intrigue with self-actualizers, combined with his attempts to create a
theory of change in cognition, led him to explore one of the characteristics of selfactualizing people – peak experiences – further. He attempted to comprehend what
exactly those special moments entail and what their effect is on the individual. In order to
do so he interviewed about 80 individuals and analyzed written responses of 190 college
students (Maslow 1968, 71). Maslow found that most people have peak experiences in
their lives but to different extents and in different frequencies (Maslow 1987, 138). This
discovery made him rethink his idea of self-actualization as a fixed stage and led him to
the conclusion that people in different stages of development are able to undergo
“transient moments of self-actualization,” which are in fact peak experiences (Maslow
1971, 48). Nonetheless, he indicated that self-actualizers themselves tend to have more
intense peak experiences and in higher frequencies.
Peak experiences, although arising from different sources, change the individual
and his perception of the world in rather similar ways (Maslow 1987, 163). Maslow
describes peak experiences as the
18
fusion of ego, id, super-ego and ego-ideal, of conscious, preconscious and
unconscious, of primary and secondary processes, a synthesizing of pleasure
principle with reality principle, a healthy regression without fear in the service of
the greatest maturity, a true integration of the person at all levels (Maslow 1968,
96).
This integration happens both within the person, who is getting closer to his true, unique
self, and between the person and the world, and works in both directions, one
perpetuating the other. As a result of this unification any inner or outer conflicts are
transcended and replaced by effortless confidence, skill, creativeness and perceptiveness
(Maslow 1987, 154). The person shifts toward what Maslow refers to as Being-cognition
(B-cognition), which is more passive, receptive and whole. From a place of wholeness, a
person can develop values of Being (B-values) which are different than his or her own
values. These values are interconnected and include wholeness, perfection, completion,
justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity, beauty, goodness, uniqueness, effortlessness,
playfulness, truth, honesty and reality, and self-sufficiency (Maslow 1968, 83-86).
As mentioned above, not every person who has had a peak experience is able to
reach these levels of personality development and integration. In fact, even among selfactualizers, Maslow found a division between “nonpeakers” and “peakers.” Nonpeakers
are not individuals who do not have peak experiences, but individuals who are rather
afraid of their peak experiences and do not attribute much meaning to them. They
suppress, deny, or simply forget their peak moments, or merely do not experience many
such moments (Maslow 1970, 22). Self-actualizers who are nonpeakers seem to be more
effective and practical, and work mostly as politicians, reformers, social world improvers,
or crusaders. Self-actualizing peakers, on the other hand, are individuals who are able to
reach the highest levels of peak experiences, and whose peak experiences can be
19
comparable to the mystic experience. These individuals tend to live in the realm of Being
and are interested in poetry, music, philosophy and religion (Maslow 1987, 138). Maslow
describes their peak experiences as including
Feeling of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being
simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before,
the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and
space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and
valuable had happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and
strengthened even in daily life by such experiences (Maslow 1987, 137).
In sum, Maslow views peak experiences as moments of wonder and awe that can
be experienced on many different levels. If suppressed by self-actualizers, they will not
have an effect on the person; if experienced by a person in lower stages of development,
they will elevate the person to a mode of self-actualization temporarily; and if
experienced fully by a self-actualizer they can lead the person to unification with himself
and the world, embrace b-cognition and b-values and arrive at a sense of relief and innerpeace. Peak experiences when experienced fully can be seen as moments of
transformation within the person, as they affect the person’s view of himself and the
world. The more frequently or intensely these occur, the higher the impact on the
individual will be and the more spiritual he is likely to become as a result.
Jung (1968) describes a similar integration of conscious and unconscious to the
one that occurs in peak experiences. Jung refers to it as individuation and views it as a
process of individual transformation. He defines individuation as “the process by which a
person becomes a psychological ‘in-dividual,’ that is, a separate, indivisible unity or
‘whole’” (Jung 1968, 275). According to Jung, individuation occurs when the conscious,
20
or the ego, harmonizes with unconscious data, and the consciousness reaches an
abnormal degree of development (Jung 1968).
Based on his work with his patients as well as his personal life path, Jung
determines that reaching this higher level of consciousness is not an intentional action; it
is something that has no recipe or coherent explanation (Wilhelm and Jung 1962).
Furthermore, Jung argues that few rather than many get to experience individuation. It
can begin either from without or from within, but soon after it sprouts, the experience
transcends inwards if generated from outside, or outwards if generated inside, creating a
sense of wholeness. At this higher level of consciousness, according to Jung, one gains a
whole new perspective on life, viewing what once used to be his or her grave problems as
“a storm in the valley seen from a high mountain top” (Wilhelm and Jung 1962, 91).
This new outlook may allow one to be truly concerned about higher order problems
which humanity faces. In the same context, once individuation is achieved one may feel a
sense of vocation from which there is no escape. Jung refers to vocation as “an irrational
factor that destines a man to emancipate himself from the herd and from its well-worn
paths” (Jung 1954, p. 175).
In his writings, Jung describes how he himself underwent a process of
individuation:
It was only towards the end of the First World War that I gradually began to
emerge from the darkness. Two events contribute to this…the second and
principal event was that I began to understand mandala drawings…between
1918 and 1920, I began to understand that the goal of psychic development
is the self. There is no linear evolution; there is only a circumambulation of
the self. Uniform development exists, at most, only at the beginning; later,
everything points toward the center. This insight gave me stability, and
gradually my inner-peace return. I knew that in finding the mandala as an
expression of the self I had attained what was for me the ultimate…some
21
years later (in 1927) I obtained confirmation of my ideas about the center
and the self by way of a dream. I represented its essence in a mandala which
I called “Window on Eternity”….a year later I painted a second picture
likewise, a mandala, with a golden castle in the centre. When it was
finished, I asked myself, “why is this so Chinese?”….It was a strange
coincidence that shortly afterwards I received a letter from Richard Wilhelm
enclosing the manuscript of a Taoist-alchemical treatise entitled The Secret
of the Golden Flower, with a request that I write a commentary on it. I
devoured the manuscript at once, for the text gave me undreamed-of
confirmation of my ideas about the mandala and the circumambulation of
the center. That was the first event which broke through my isolation. I
became aware of an affinity; I could establish ties with something and
someone (Jung 1963).
Jung’s personal story is composed of moments occurring both in the outside reality and
inside of himself, that over time led him to new realizations and helped him achieve a
higher level of consciousness and wholeness; principle events led him to his own
individuation which transformed him and made him more spiritual and connected.
Another variation of this process can be seen in Arasteh’s final personality
integration. Final integration, according to Arasteh, is an experience of inner evolution,
“where the id, ego and superego all merge into one force directing itself toward
unification” (Arasteh 1975, 57). Final integration begins with an “existential moratorium”
which leads to anxiety and detachment, and arrival at a state of void which is followed by
a complete rebirth and transformation (Arasteh 1975, 259). Unlike Maslow, and more
similarly to Jung and Wade, Arasteh seems to view transformation as arising from
moments of crisis rather than moments of extreme happiness. During the overcoming of
such crises, a person may arrive at elevating life experiences, or insights, which lead to
transformation and unification.
Attempting to arrive at a theory of final integration, Arasteh finds the different
streams of psychology to be fragmented when applied to the whole of human phenomena,
22
and believes that a theory of final integration can be developed only if a theory of humans
is coupled with a theory of culture. The dominant superego that is our cultural self must
be accounted for when understanding personality integration, and only when one is able
to reach a post-cultural stage can he arrive at a stage of final integration. Hence, Arasteh
views final integration as a universal phenomenon.
Attaining final integration can occur when one experiences the social self as a
fragmented self; when reason no longer provides trust and certainty all by itself; when
one doubts one’s own values after encountering another set of values; when religion and
culture are seen as means of self-realization, when one receives a genuine vocation and
examines oneself; when one is growing as a result of a constant struggle; when one finds
artistic ways to give meaning to his or her final integration; when one is sensitive enough
to understand man’s situation in a few tragic signs; when one grows in a creative
environment; and when one is awakened by the death of his or her beloved (Arasteh
1975, 65). When one or a few of the preconditions above are in place, one arrives at the
stage of final integration where vertical growth ends and the horizontal expansion of
adult personality begins (Arasteh 1975, 260). After solving inner and outer conflicts one
is expected to develop a positive and healthy attitude, and to become happy, highly
aware, ever expanding, and creative. At this stage one should also become aware of the
duality of thinking and differentiate between “that which is made by the mind and that
which is achieved by the heart,” moving away from a place where only rationality
prevails (Arasteh 1975, 86). Furthermore, one attains harmony not only within oneself
but also with an expanding cosmos (Arasteh 1975, 230).
23
Maslow, Jung and Arasteh are passionately describing a similar phenomenon of
transformation, each using his own terminology. All three authors describe the moment
or moments of transformation as a connection between the different parts of one’s
personality, as well as a connection between oneself and one’s surroundings.
Furthermore, all three view the transforming experience as leading to an increase in
consciousness which changes one’s view of oneself and the world, and leading one to
become more spiritual. Creativity and harmony seem to be common motives, as well as a
strong sense of vocation, which usually develops as a result of one’s transformation.
The theories above are useful in explaining two aspects of this paper’s hypothesis.
First, they illustrate how pivotal moments or events can lead to a spiritual transformation.
Second, through these theories one can gain a better understanding of the characteristics
of spiritual individuals such as having a sense of wholeness, connectedness and justice.
These characteristics may help explain why spiritual individuals are more likely to seek
peace in the world, and work toward conflict resolution. To explain precisely what I
mean by spirituality, the next section will define this obscure concept, and relate it to two
other important terms: religion and transcendence, while explaining the relationship
between religion and spiritual transformations.
Religion, Spirituality and Transcendence
The transformation discussed by the authors above is clearly of a spiritual nature.
Yet spirituality must be defined due to its intangible nature. This section will present
several definitions to spirituality and transcendence. Then, it will touch upon the
relationship between religion and spirituality. Finally, it will illustrate a more religious
approach to transformation, through the writing of Thomas Merton.
24
Spirituality is defined by the The Scottish Council of Churches as “an attempt to
grow in sensitivity to self, to others, to non-human creations, and to God who is within
and beyond this totality” (Nagler 2005, 7). David Elkins et al. also take the challenge of
defining spirituality and arrive at the following:
Spirituality, which comes from the Latin, spiritus, meaning ‘breath of life,’ is a
way of being and experiencing that comes about through awareness of a
transcendent dimension and that is characterized by certain identifiable values in
regard to self, others, nature, life, and whatever one considers to be the Ultimate
(Elkins et al. 1998, 10).
The components of spirituality, according to Elkins et al., include a transcendent
dimension, meaning and purpose in life, mission in life and a sense of vocation,
sacredness of life, appreciation of material values complemented by an ultimate
satisfaction that is found in spiritual things, altruism, idealism, awareness of the tragic,
and a discernible effect upon one’s relationships (Elkins et al. 1988, 10-12).
It will be useful to also define transcendence, a concept that is highly
interconnected to spirituality and is used in the Elkins et al. definition. Melvin Miller and
Susanne Cook-Greuter view transcendence as “deeper reaches of consciousness that exist
beyond the vertical or symbolic domain and sometimes beyond thought altogether.
Transcendent experiences culminate in the conscious appreciation of an underlying unity
of life” (Miller and Cook-Greuter 1994, xvii). Robert Emmons views transcendence as
the operationalization of spirituality (1999). The similarities between the definitions of
spirituality and the accounts of what happens during peak experiences, individuation, or
personality integration, illustrate that moments of transformation are spiritual in their
nature.
25
At this point it is important to explain how religion is viewed in this paper, and to
discuss both the differences and the connections between religion and spirituality.
Spirituality and religion are often defined as separate entities. Zinnbauer et al. (1999)
argue that although both terms are related, they can be set apart through three
dimensions: negative-positive, organized-personal, and substantive-functional. While
religion is seen as negative, organized and substantive, spirituality is viewed as positive,
personal and functional. Yet many disagree with this outlook. Hill and Pargament (2003)
state that such separation is highly artificial: religion does not necessarily lead to negative
fundamentalism, spirituality often unfolds in a social context, and many people
experience spirituality through their religion.
Huston Smith, one of the world’s leading religious studies scholars, and Michael
Nagler, a professor emeritus and a peace activist, view religion and spirituality as highly
interconnected. Smith states that while religion may make one want to do good,
spirituality can be the next step, “attempting to make the sacred and our own personal
history synonymous” (Smith 2010, 103). At the same time, Nagler looks at the
relationship between religion and spirituality from the opposite direction, arguing that
modern spirituality can renew religion (Nagler 2005, 84). Smith himself also
acknowledges this type of relationship between the two while seeing religion as
institutionalized spirituality, thus implying that without spirituality, there is no religion
(Center for World Spirituality 2010). These views suggest a bidirectional relationship
between religion and spirituality; religion can cultivate spirituality, and the transcendental
dimension of spirituality could lead a person to feel closer to God and become more
religious.
26
Spirituality does not have to be connected to religion. Yet, Smith argues that
while some people are able to surf the spiritual realm successfully without being involved
with institutionalized religion, there is value to an institution of some sort or another, as it
draws people together and creates a “critical mass,” which helps people go deeper into
their experiences (Center for World Spirituality 2010).
Another point of connection between religion and spirituality appears as Smith
and Nagler question whether religions, in contrast to the universal nature of spirituality,
actually are distinctive and mutually exclusive. Smith and Nagler view religions as
complementary at their base. Smith, a son of missionaries who grew up in China, traveled
the world to learn about the world’s religions, and practiced Christianity, Islam,
Hinduism and Buddhism, finds that there is much one can take from each of the world’s
religions. Furthermore, when religions are practiced in a spiritual manner, Smith and
Nagler argue, the differences between them become minute. Although this last point
might seem futile, as it brings spirituality back into the picture, it comes to show the
intricate and interconnected relationship between the two.
Based on this relationship between spirituality and religion, it is important to note
that although the present study focuses on spirituality and its relation to peace work,
ignoring religion altogether would be erroneous and might prove to be practically
impossible. Even if this study does not focus on any particular religion and its teachings,
the religious backgrounds of spiritual individuals must be acknowledged as contributing
to their spirituality.
Through the writings of Thomas Merton (2000), a Trappist monk, poet, author,
and social activist, one can see the possible interconnectedness between religion and
27
spirituality in the context of transformation. Like Nagler and Smith, Merton was open to
the wisdoms of the world’s religions, and saw them as complementary. He regularly
corresponded with spiritual individuals of other faiths, something which seems to highly
influence his own writings and understanding of the world.
“Our life demands breakthroughs,” Merton argues. These may not happen often,
he states, but when they do they take us further in our spiritual development, lead us to
transcend ourselves, and help us connect to ourselves and to God (Merton and Bochen
2000, 161). This idea is closely connected to the notions of transformation and adult
development. Yet Merton believed that the interior journey that may lead to such
breakthroughs is not merely an attempt to reach the psychological unconscious, as
proposed in the previous section. Rather, it is an attempt to reach God, and to unite with
the unknown inside oneself. Based on this inner-unification, one can strongly connect
not only with himself but also with others (Merton and Bochen 2000, 53).
Discovering one’s true self is like being touched by God, or expressing God’s will
in this world, Merton argues. For Merton, to be a saint means to be himself, since through
discovering his true self he connects with God (Merton and Bochen 2000, 55). In other
words, Merton believes that through higher levels of awareness one is able to recognize
the infinite being inside one’s limited being (Merton and Bochen 2000, 59).
Contemplation, he states, is one method which helps people reach enlightenment and gain
a certitude regarding God’s involvement in the world and in their life. Merton himself,
through a process of contemplation and breakthroughs, was able to experience the sense
of unity that he described in his writings. While feeling united, he felt that he could
28
become an instrument for unity in the world, and help other people (Merton and Bochen
2000, 140).
Now that spirituality and transcendence are defined, and the role of religion in a
transformation process properly explained, it is hard to ignore the parallels between the
psychological approaches and the religious aspect of spiritual transformation. The next
section will explore this relationship. Then it will explain the need for a holistic approach
to studying the topic under investigation.
A Holistic Approach
Merton’s ideas of transformation are highly similar to those raised in the
psychology of adult development at its late stages. The only difference between the two
has to do with what it is that one unites with. While the psychology writings focus more
on a connection with “the world” or a unity with nature, the theological writings refer
more to a unity with God. Yet this difference might not be as pronounced as it appears to
be. Merton was highly influenced by Arasteh’s concept of final integration. Merton saw
final integration as a state of insight, and believed that final integration implies openness
and emptiness, and thus the ability to be receptive and the potential for unusual creativity
(Merton and Bochen 2000, 165). Likewise, Arasteh’s Sufi background highly influenced
his writings on final integration. According to Arasteh, a fully integrated person means
being the truth or becoming God-like; “it means becoming love and loving to save, not
loving God to be saved” (Arasteh 1975, 112). Another idea that Arasteh borrows from
Sufism has to do with rebirth, which is a part of the final integration process. Rebirth and
final integration, as explained by Arasteh, can only arise after a process of disintegration
29
(fana) in which one breaks apart from a self-intellect, partial soul, and a social self, which
is followed by a process of reintegration (bawa) in which one’s totality is activated and
one becomes a universal self (Arasteh 1975, 109). These two examples show that one
cannot view transformation from one field of study alone, as Arasteh himself indicates
when adding a theory of culture to a theory of humans in his theory. In order to
understand the process of becoming spiritual, as well as its causes and implications, one
has to be able to take an all-encompassing view.
One advocate of this view is Nagler, who believes that the remarriage of science
and religion can help modern Western society transition away from its current spiritual
crisis. He argues that the current crisis results from the fact that our old paradigm no
longer fits, and a new one has not yet emerged with full force. He doubts that humans can
survive much longer while perceiving themselves as separate material entities in a
random universe (Nagler 2005, 6). Nagler believes that we can move towards the new
paradigm if we redefine faith and empiricism in a way that would at least put both
roughly on the same page. The connection between the two, which were separated during
the Renaissance, is essential, as it will help us leap into the unknown. “Imagine,” he
writes, “the explanatory power of an inquiring system that included both perspectives, the
best insights of both modes of knowing” (Nagler 2005, 83). Yet while Nagler discusses
this idea as foreign and groundbreaking, his “new paradigm” might not be as new as he
perceives it to be, as this section will demonstrate.
Maslow (1976) believes that new developments in psychology are changing our
philosophy of science, as they are allowing concepts that used to be considered religious
to be examined in a new way that is scientific and humanistic. The examination of values,
30
ethics, and morality, and of questions of great importance such as what the good life is
and who the good man and woman are – all can be done empirically. The scope of what
we believed to be scientific is expanding and therefore nineteenth-century science has to
be redefined and enlarged.
As a result of these changes, Maslow states, spiritual values gain a naturalistic
meaning and thus shift away from being the responsibility of institutionalized religion –
sacred texts, traditions, interpretations – and become the responsibility of all mankind
(Maslow 1976, 52). He further argues that “sophisticated theologians and sophisticated
scientists are now becoming closer and closer together in their conception of the universe
as ‘organismic,’ as having some kind of unity and integration, as growing and evolving
and having direction and, therefore, having some kind of ‘meaning’” (1976, 56). These
notions of integration and unity are thus now the property of both religion and science,
and it is almost impossible to understand one without the other. When Maslow describes
being God-like as a component of peak experiences, he does not necessarily refer to God
in the traditional theological way but could be referring to god in a naturalistic way.
Nonetheless, this differentiation is becoming more and more artificial as these two
disciplines are coming closer and closer together. In place of the division between
scientists and theologians, Maslow creates a new division that males more sense to him
considering these changes – a division between peakers who make use of their peak
experience, and nonpeakers who suppress their experiences and do not let them affect
their lives (Maslow 1976, 29).
This new approach to psychology was certainly groundbreaking and created,
together with the works of other psychologists such as Carl Rogers, a Third Force
31
Psychology – Humanistic Psychology.8 According to Maslow, the now established Third
Force is “a revolution in the truest oldest sense of the world,” as it brings about “new
conceptions of ethics and of values, new directions in which to move” (Maslow 1968,
iii). Nonetheless, he considers humanistic Third Force Psychology as transitional, and as
leading to the emergence of a “higher” Fourth Psychology, that is “transpersonal,
transhuman, centered in the cosmos rather than in human needs and interest, going
beyond humanness, identity, self-actualization and the like” (Maslow 1968 iii-iv).
Through his work, Maslow paved the way toward a holistic, transpersonal
approach. Today, his idea of a Fourth Psychology seems to be in the making. In 1969 The
Journal of Transpersonal Psychology was established, and two years later the
Association for Transpersonal Psychology was founded. Since then numerous books and
articles have been published on issues such as human development, consciousness and
spirituality. The most famous attempts to continue in Maslow’s holistic path and create a
Fourth Psychology are most likely those of Ken Wilber. Wilber’s Integral Theory
evolved from transpersonal psychology into a much larger “theory of everything” that
connects and views all aspects of reality as equally important in any knowledge quest.
Integral theory “situate[s] diverse knowledge approaches in such a way that they
synergistically complement rather than contradict one another” (Marquis 2007, 164). This
all-encompassing theory, although popular, is not fully accepted within the academic
community. In fact, many academicians prefer to ignore Wilber’s work altogether as they
8. First Force Psychology includes Freudian theory and Second Force refers to an experimentalpositivistic-behavioristic psychology.
32
conceive it as “a fringe discipline at best” (Adams 2002, 165). Secularists view the theory
as unscientific, and theistic writers view it as misguided Gnosticism (Adams 2002, 166).
Despite the controversy around Wilber’s work, the notion of interconnectedness
between religion and psychology in the context of spirituality is very much legitimized as
I have shown in all of the previous sections. The same goes for the interdependency
between the inner world of the individual and the outer universe, particularly during the
spiritual experience. With these established, I will now turn to discuss how a spiritual
transformation and the arrival at inner peace may relate to peace and conflict resolution
work.
Spiritual Transformation and Peace Work
What is it about “spiritually transformed” individuals that might lead them toward
the field of conflict resolution? Could it be their newly acquired characteristics that fit
this kind of task? Do their new understandings impel them to go in this direction? Or is it
a sense of vocation that takes them toward this path? I argue that all of the above may
play a role in directing individuals to seek peace and even find themselves turning this
goal into their career. While I do not mean to argue here that the only next step after
arriving at a place of inner-peace is working on peace in the world, I wish to show the
strong connection that exists between the two, and the ample reasons why peace-workers
who are spiritual are not only following a natural path that is both expected and sincere,
but they also have the potential to perform better at their work than non-spiritual people,
since they possess the characteristics that make good peace-makers, and view their work
as their vocation, performing it with complete genuineness and full intention.
33
According to Arasteh, well-integrated people have the characteristics, due to their
nature and exposure, that make them good facilitators in the international arena. Their
impartiality and their ability to be “subjectively objective,” as well as their lack of
prejudices, their creativity, and their understanding of culture, universality, and peace –
all contribute to their ability to mediate conflicts in a constructive manner. These traits
make them receptive and help them better diagnose and measure aspects of disputes
between two parties. Furthermore, Arasteh argues that well-integrated people are
naturally equipped with conflict resolution mechanisms, which they can utilize based on
the dispute at hand. Therefore, Arasteh recommends that international organizations
make use of well-integrated people in the resolution of international and domestic
disputes:
Until the UN or other international agencies can establish an institute for
educating ‘mediators’ these integrated individuals can make a valuable
contribution by serving as trouble shooters or mediators of disputes. In this
capacity they can serve both their own communities and humanity (Arasteh 1975,
254).
Responding to Arasteh’s theory of final integration, Merton states: “the finally integrated
man is a peacemaker and that is why there is such a desperate need for our leaders to
become such men of insight” (Merton and Bochen 2000, 155).
Psychologist Carl Rogers noticed a similar phenomenon in a slightly different
context. His person-centered approach suggests that facilitators are the most effective
when they fulfill the following three sets of qualities: genuineness/realness/congruence,
acceptance/caring/prizing, and empathetic understanding (Rogers 1986, 197-198). These
work in the field of psychology, according to Rogers, but also in other aspects of life and
other forms of facilitation. Although spiritual individuals often hold the qualities
34
mentioned above, many non-spiritual individuals may also possess them. Yet, Rogers’
personal experience taught him that his model was missing a quality – spirituality – that
is essential for a growth-promoting relationship and facilitation. Although he could not
explain it empirically, he was able to spell out the importance of the spirituality of the
facilitator to any group process he himself conducted:
When I am at my best, as a group facilitator or a therapist, I discover another
characteristic. I find that when I am closest to my inner, intuitive self, when I am
somehow in touch with the unknown in me, when perhaps I am in a slightly
alerted state of consciousness in the relationship, then whatever I do seems to be
full of healing. Then simply my presence is releasing and helpful. There is
nothing I can do to force this experience, but when I can relax and be close to the
transcendental core of me, then I may behave in strange and impulsive ways in
the relationship, ways which I cannot justify rationally, which have nothing to do
with my thought processes. But these strange behaviors turn out to be right, in
some odd way. At those moments it seems that my inner spirit has reached out
and touches the inner spirit of the other. Our relationship transcends itself and
becomes a part of something larger. Profound growth and healing and energy are
present (Rogers 1986, 198-199).
Rogers admits to have underestimated the importance of this mystical, spiritual
dimension of facilitation, something which might have occurred as a result of his
personal history. After quitting seminary because of his realization that he could not stay
in a field where he would have to believe in one specific religious doctrine, he distanced
himself from the religious and the spiritual. Only in his final years, after the passing of
his wife, this topic became less of a taboo for him, and he began paying more attention to
spirituality (Thorne 1992). It was during those years that Carl Rogers started working on
intergroup and international conflicts using his person-centered approach. His work
toward peace included largely the enhancement of communication and understanding
between conflicting parties, in which Rogers employed the same growth-promoting
conditions that he employed in his therapy. Rogers’ conflict resolution efforts largely
35
assisted peace efforts in many new democracies at the time, and in 1987 Rogers was
nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for those contributions (Kirschenbaum 2004, 122).
While both Rogers and Arasteh show the close correlation between spiritually and
conflict resolution, none of their arguments prove that the former may lead to the latter.
Thich Nhat Hanh, a Buddhist monk, author, and peace activist, makes this point
much clearer. He believes that “peace is made out of peace.” Thus, in order to bring
peace to the world, we must first be peaceful ourselves. Only when we walk, speak and
listen peacefully can we help heal our nation and the world, he asserts (Nhat Hanh 2005,
63). Only when we are mindful and aware do we become truly committed to the
protection of other people as well as the environment (Nhat Hanh 2007, 75). Nhat Hanh’s
statement on the making of peace seems to indicate a two-way relationship between inner
and outer peace – each cultivating and nurturing the other. Thus, it is not only the striving
for inner peace that drives people to seek peace in the world, but also the striving for
outer peace that returns people inwards to look for peace within themselves. According to
Nhat Hanh, we express and maintain our spirituality through five mindfulness trainings.
The first two trainings include awareness of the suffering caused by the destruction of
life, and awareness of suffering caused by exploitation, stealing, social oppression (Nhat
Hanh 2007, 53).9 If it is our inner peace that makes us aware of those aspects that prevent
harmony in the world, it seems that our inner peace is directly affected by the lack of
peace in the world. Thus, it is only natural that people who seek to live their lives
mindfully would want to create a world in which the suffering of all beings is at a
9. The other three mindfulness trainings include awareness of the suffering caused by sexual
misconduct, awareness of the suffering cause by unmindful speech, and awareness of the suffering caused
by unmindful consumption. Although all of the five mindfulness trainings can definitely be related to outer
peace I chose to mention only the first two, which show the most obvious relationship to peace.
36
minimum. Nhat Hanh also refers to this point when he argues that what brings people the
greatest happiness is having a job they like and that allows them to express their
compassion and understanding (Nhat Hanh 2007 53). The most direct way, as I see it, of
expressing such attributes when seeking inner peace is through working on peace in the
world.
Nhat Hanh himself criticizes peace work that is not accompanied by the spirit of
peace. If not peaceful, he argues, organizations and individuals cannot demonstrate real
peace. Not only that, but they can even cause more trouble (Nhat Hanh 2007, 90). On the
other hand, peaceful peace workers radiate peace themselves. Thus, it is only when we
can be at peace ourselves that we can make peace with others (Nhat Hanh 2006, 43).
Based on all of the above, Nhat Hanh views peace as a way of life rather than a goal to be
achieved: “there is no way to peace,” he says, “peace is the way” (Nhat Hanh 2007, 163).
In the same light, the Dalai Lama asserts that the concrete idea of happiness
includes “a combination of inner peace, economic development, and above all, world
peace” (Dalai Lama 2006, 18). He believes that in order to be truly happy, people must
develop a sense of universal responsibility, which means a deep concern for all. Since the
world is getting smaller and smaller we must now be concerned not only with issues in
our close proximity, but with global issues as well (Dalai Lama 2006, 18). A feeling of
closeness to all people is essential in this process, and this feeling comes only as a result
of spiritual development (Dalai Lama 2006, 21). Spiritual individuals thus take a
universal responsibility upon themselves, and cannot be truly happy without seeking
world peace, according to the Dalai Lama.
37
A nice way of illustrating the connection between spiritual transformation
and inner peace can be seen in Merton’s personal story. Merton described a
moment of transformation that he had experienced as follows:
In Louisville, at the corner of Fourth and Walnut, in the center of the shopping
district, I was suddenly overwhelmed with the realization that I love all those
people, that they were mine and I theirs, that we could not be alien to one another
even though we were total strangers. It was like walking from a dream of
separateness, of spurious self-isolation in a special world, the world of
renunciation and supposed holiness. The whole illusion of a separate holy
existence is a dream. Not that I question the reality of my vocation, or my
monastic life: but the conception of “separation from the world” that we have in
the monastery too easily presents itself as a complete illusion: the illusion that by
making vows we become a different species of being, pseudo-angels, “spiritual
men,” men of interior life, what have you ((Merton and Bochen 2000, 90).
He continues:
This sense of liberation from an illusory difference was such a relief and such a
joy to me that I almost laughed out loud…My solitude…is not my own for I see
now how much it belongs to others as well and I have a responsibility for it in
their regard not just in my own…This poor world has a right to a place in my
solitude. It is not enough for me to think of the apostolic value of prayer and
penance; I also have to think in terms of a contemplative grasp of the political,
intellectual, artistic, and social movements in the world (Merton and Bochen
2000, 91-92).
Merton’s transforming moment helped him see his connection to others. It took
him away from his solitude, brought him a great deal of happiness, and taught him a new
way of living and experiencing. As a result, something changed in his behavior. He could
no longer see prayer as a sufficient means to meaning in his life, and this led him towards
working on peace and conflict resolution:
One thing that has kept me very busy in the last few weeks is the international
crisis. It is not really my business to speak out about it, but since there is such
frightful apathy and passivity everywhere, with people simply unable to face the
issue squarely, and with only a stray of voice raised tentatively here and there, it
has become an urgent obligation. This has kept me occupied and will keep me
even more occupied, because I am now perfectly convinced that there is one task
38
for me that takes precedence over everything else: working with such means as I
have at my disposal for the abolition of war…I cannot consciously betray my
truth or let it be betrayed (Merton and Bochen 2000, 93).
As a result of his new vocation, Merton began speaking out on issues of peace,
racial tolerance, and social equality. He referred to war as “an illness of the mind and the
spirit,” connecting inner peace with an outside reality and assigning individual
responsibility to global issues (Merton and Bochen 2000, 105). If before, he had called
readers to see God deep within them, his new vocation led him to call people to “live out
the implications of that contemplative vision in compassion” (Merton and Bochen 2000,
89). Merton’s personal story is the illumination of the transformation process; a
transforming moment brought great joy, a sense of unity, a new way of experiencing
religion and spirituality, and a new mission – the abolition of war.
Looking back at the questions raised in the beginning of this section, it appears
that we can answer all of them positively. Spiritual transformation can lead individuals to
seek world peace because the unity created within them and between them and the world
allows them to see and feel reality in a whole new way. Through their new
consciousness, they become aware of their strong connection to others and to the
environment. Therefore, they strongly empathize with those who are suffering to the
extent that they see the suffering in the world as their own. As a result, they strive for
peace and harmony in the world. Furthermore, traits of those spiritual individuals, such as
compassion, emptiness, and creativity, make them more capable than others of bringing
healing and promoting peace as they are able to identify with others while remaining
subjectively objective, and come up with extraordinary ways of handling difficult issues.
In sum, the harmony inside spiritual individuals makes them want to work toward
39
conflict resolution, and their way of understanding the world and communicating with it
in fact promotes peaceful resolution to conflicts.
Conclusion
In this chapter I demonstrated the relationship between transforming moments,
spirituality, and action toward peace between people and nations. As can be seen in this
literature review, in this topic of inquiry the academic often touches the personal and the
spiritual, in ways that are inseparable. Thus, as I examine my findings, I wish to do so
from a more holistic perspective that allows for a connection between the fields of
psychology, theology, philosophy, peace studies, conflict resolution and others.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
In order to answer the research question presented in the previous chapter, this
study uses grounded theory as its methodology. Described by Barney Glaser and Anselm
Strauss, grounded theory is a qualitative research method designed to further the
systematic ability of researchers to obtain and analyze data in order to form new theories
(1967, 1). In this chapter I will explain why a qualitative method fits this research better
than a quantitative one; I will describe and justify my use of Straussian grounded theory
method; I will discuss the processes of data collection and data analysis; and finally, I
will share the limitations of this study and the challenges that I faced while conducting it.
Research Method Rationale
Qualitative research, according to Auerbach and Silverstein, is “research that
involves analyzing and interpreting texts and interviews in order to discover meaningful
patterns descriptive of a particular phenomenon” (2003, 3). Unlike quantitative, large-N
research, qualitative research generally focuses on a rather small number of cases and
investigates these cases in great depth. Qualitative research is useful when studying lived
experiences, people’s lives, behavior, emotions and feeling, as well as organizational
functioning, social movements, cultural phenomena, and interactions between nations
(Strauss and Corbin 1990, 10-11). Statistical analysis or other forms of quantitative
analysis can tell very little on such highly subjective and abstract phenomena, particularly
40
41
if existing data on them are limited. In such cases, it is essential that one “get[s] out into
the field if one wants to understand what is going on” (Strauss and Corbin 1990, 11). By
doing so, the researcher can obtain information regarding details that, if quantified, would
lose their substance.
Looking at the current study, the research question that I present has not been
studied extensively in the past. Hence, the study does not attempt to test an existing
theory, but rather to begin developing a new one while exploring a phenomenon. The
study also does not attempt to measure variables in a quantifiable way. Instead, it
examines individuals’ lived experiences – including personal stories, feelings and
emotions – as well as the abstract concept of spirituality. For all of the reasons above, a
qualitative method, and grounded theory in particular, would best fit the objectives of this
research.
Grounded theory, one of five common qualitative research methodologies, was
proposed by Glaser and Strauss in an attempt to revitalize theory generation in a time
when research concentrated around theory testing and verification (Strauss and Corbin
1994, 274). It relates to the “systematic discovery of theory from the data of social
research” (Glaser and Strauss 1967, 4). The grounded theory method involves a highly
structured data analysis process that organizes and examines raw data to construct new
theories. Today there exist two main schools within this approach, as Glaser and Strauss
parted ways not long after introducing their new methodology in 1967. Among several
differences between the two, Glaser takes a more positivist approach while Strauss,
whose methodology I follow in this research, views the interpretation of the researcher as
an inseparable part of his or her analysis (Strauss and Corbin 1990, 10).
A researcher following the grounded theory method begins his or her research by
42
identifying a specific question regarding a phenomenon that cannot be explained by the
existing literature. Then, the researcher identifies participants who have lived through
that phenomenon and explores their experiences and perspectives. The researcher does so
until he or she reaches theoretical saturation, meaning, until participants no longer
provide the researcher with new themes. At this point the researcher begins his or her
analysis through a coding procedure, and attempts to discover patterns across the
different transcripts that lead to a theoretical narrative (Auerbach and Silverstein 2003,
15-19).
Grounded theory is the most appropriate method for the current study, as it is
generally suitable for answering research questions that have not been researched in the
past, and is particularly fitting when the researcher is interested in human experiences.
Within grounded theory, this paper follows the Straussian tradition, acknowledging that
interpretation does affect the understanding and analysis of any data. With that, in order
to ensure that the analysis is fully grounded in the data despite of this recognized
subjectivity, this research follows the criteria of justifiability – transparency,
communicability and coherence – and transferability – the ability to continue and develop
the theory beyond this study’s sample (Auerbach and Silverstein 2003, 84). Thus, it
provides an explanation regarding the steps taken to arrive at my interpretation; it is
written in a clear and organized manner that can be understood by other researchers; it
tells a coherent story; and it allows for an extension of the research beyond the current
sample of participants.
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Data Collection
Data was collected through twelve in-depth interviews with conflict resolution
practitioners – many of whom are prominent in the conflict resolution field – whom I
identified as spiritual. The interviews took place in person, aside from one interview,
which was conducted through a phone conversation, between October and December
2010. All of the interviews were recorded and then transcribed by the researcher.
Interviews were semi-structured and lasted approximately 60 minutes. Questions were
phrased in an open-ended way in order to allow participants to bring their true
perspectives into the conversation, with minimal interruption on the part of the researcher
(see appendix A for the interview guide). Through the interviews I was trying to
understand how and why interviewees began working in conflict resolution, as well as
how and when they developed their spiritual inclinations, and the links between the two.
To ensure the physical and psychological safety of the interviewees, an approval
from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) was received. The interviewees signed a
consent form, assuring that they understand the procedures of the research, and the
interviews were anonymized to prevent invasion of privacy (see a blank consent form in
appendix B). Also to ensure privacy, the recordings of the interviews were destroyed
after transcription.
Participants were selected through a judgment sample, according to which “the
researcher actively selects the most productive sample to answer the research question”
(Marshall 1996, 523). While consulting with the advisors for this research, a list of
potential interviewees from the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area was compiled. Then,
through the snowball sampling method, interviewees recommended additional potential
44
candidates (Marshall 1996, 523). In order to reach a broad range of subjects, I actively
sought individuals from a rage of professional and religious backgrounds. Additionally, I
attempted to balance the number of male and female interviewees. My hope was that
reaching out to a variety of individuals will help me record as wide a range of
experiences as possible, and examine how spirituality has affected individuals across the
conflict resolution field.
Eventually, 12 individuals participated in this study. 8 of them were male and 4
were female. Their professional backgrounds involved either in diplomacy, academia, or
non-governmental organizations. All of them were U.S. citizens, but two of them were
born and grew up outside of the United States. In terms of religious affiliation, while
some referred to themselves as secular, all were able to identify with one of the following
religions: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and Baha’ism. Overall, interviewees
were keen to share personal information, and many of them invited me to read more of
their writings in order to gain a better understanding of their lives and their spirituality.
Furthermore, one university professor invited me to sit in on his class, and while doing
so, learn more about his work and beliefs. A more detailed description of the participants
in this research can be found in appendix C.
Data Analysis
Strauss and Corbin (1992) describe the process of data analysis as a 3-stage
coding process. It begins with open coding, the initial identification and naming of
repetitive ideas. This stage is followed by axial coding, in which codes are grouped and
linked. Lastly, through selective coding, central categories are discovered and a theory is
45
created. This process is both artistic and scientific, as the coding, questioning, and the
making of comparisons involves a rigorous process that is heavily grounded in the data
itself, but also demands a great deal of flexibility and creativity (Strauss and Corbin 1992,
13).
In the current research, after collecting data through interviewees as well as the
additional reading materials described in the previous section I transcribed the interviews,
and used ALTALS.ti, a qualitative analysis software, to code, compare, and group the
information provided by the interviewees. After eliminating irrelevant data, I was able to
discover initial categories based on repeating words and ideas across the transcriptions. I
later grouped and merged those as I linked them to each other. Finally, I was able to
discover a common path interviewees have undergone, as well as several themes within
their experience, which influenced their life-paths and careers. For a list of codes and
categories see appendix D.
The data analysis stage, as Strauss and Corbin suggest, became an interplay
between the researcher and the data (1990, 13). As such, it involved three levels of
interpretation. The first level included the interviewees’ way of recalling events in their
lives; second was the interviewees’ own understanding of these events; and third was my
interpretation of the interviewees’ experiences as they were described to me (Strauss and
Corbin 1990, 58). I will discuss the latter aspect further in the challenges and limitations
section. While getting absorbed in the data, I was able to discover a theoretical narrative
that I hope will be developed further in future studies. I consider my findings, as they are
presented in the next chapter, a contribution to the understanding of one aspect of the
understudied topic of spirituality and conflict resolution.
46
Limitations and Challenges
Financial constraints limited the geographical location of the study to the
Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. As I was able to interview individuals from a
variety of backgrounds, the location did not pose a critical challenge. Yet, one could
assume that like-minded people chose to live in close geographical proximity, and that
other research locations may provide different findings, particularly if the research is to
be conducted in a different cultural context. Nevertheless, as the experiences shared
through the interviews were by-and-large highly personal and not very culturally
dependent, it appears that the location of the study did not impose a strong limitation on
it.
Time constraints also affected the study as they limited the number of interviews
that I was able to conduct. Nonetheless, after interviewing twelve individuals who
represent a variety of backgrounds, a range of geographic experience, years of service,
and different professions within the field of conflict resolution, I reached a point from
which an analysis was possible. At this point in time ideas began to repeat themselves,
and few new categories were being uncovered. I do believe, however, that future studies
could elaborate on the analysis of this research while interviewing additional spiritual
conflict resolution practitioners as, due to the limited number of individuals interviewed
at the present study, the categories that emerged from it may not cover all aspects of
peace practitioners’ spiritual motivations.
Moving to the challenges of this study, one difficulty had to do with the
47
identification of spiritual individuals. As a person’s spirituality is oftentimes a private
matter, the question was raised regarding how I would know whether a certain conflict
resolution practitioner identifies himself or herself as spiritual. Several individuals
explicitly incorporated spirituality into their work and, thus, were rather easy to identify.
Others were identified based on personal or professional acquaintance by either my
advisors or myself. Lastly, participants were identified through the snowball sampling
method, which I chose to employ as I trusted that after being interviewed, interviewees
would have a clear understanding of the type of individuals that would fit for my
research.
Indeed, overall I was able to identify individuals that fit the criteria of this study
(i.e. conflict resolution practitioners who are also spiritual and who operate from the
Washington, D.C. metropolitan area). Yet, it appeared that the extent to which spirituality
was a significant part of the interviewees’ lives varied between different people. While
ten of the interviewees clearly expressed that they consider themselves spiritual, the other
two seemed to view spirituality as an aspect of their lives, but one which they devote less
attention to on a day-to-day basis than the other interviewees. Such a heterogeneous
sample was to be expected and yet it is worth mentioning since it was noticeable through
the interviews that some participants have contemplated the issue at hand in the past, and
were thus more prepared than others in answering the interview questions.
An additional and related challenge has to do with the fact that this research deals
with several terms that are highly abstract. Spirituality, transcendence, and transformation
– although defined in previous chapters – are not seen in the same light by every
individual. Thus, it was important for me as an interviewer to ask clarifying questions and
48
understand as best as I could the subjective meanings of the terms above to the research
participants. Furthermore, what might be considered as spirituality in the eyes of one
individual can be seen as humanism in the eyes of another. This expresses itself not only
in definition but also in interpretations of events. Thus, understanding one’s perspective
on his or her own experiences was crucial while building a theory based on their personal
stories.
Another challenge for this study lay in the difficulty to balance male and female
participants. While seeking an equal number of male and female participants, the study
eventually included twice as many males as females. Although I did locate several
additional females, they were unable to meet with me during the interviewing period.
Nonetheless, I did not expect to find gender differences and, therefore, this should not
pose a serious limitation on the current study. It is also important to note, however, that
this imbalance between male and female conflict resolution practitioners is not an issue
of this study alone. While looking at the development of the study and practice of conflict
resolution, it is apparent that men have been dominating the field. This is perhaps
counterintuitive, as feminine rather than masculine characteristics are often associated
with the notion of peace. The gender imbalance that was found in my study and is found
in the conflict resolution field as a whole is an issue worth examining in future studies.
Relating this to spirituality and conflict resolution, this finding raises the question of
whether there is a connection between the relatively low attention devoted to spirituality
in the conflict resolution field and the underrepresented portion of female practitioners.
A further challenge related to the identity of the participants resulted from my
personal and professional background as an Israeli, as well as my advisors’ personal and
49
professional Middle Eastern background. Our backgrounds led to the fact that many of
the interviewees we had identified were either of a Middle Eastern background, or had a
professional affiliation to the region. This was expressed through the experiences they
shared with me during their interviews. Nonetheless, this group within itself was highly
diverse as it included men and women, Jewish, Palestinian and non-affiliated participants.
Thus, this should not constrain the study in any way. Rather, it creates interesting
connections between individuals’ life experiences.
Lastly, although the Straussian tradition of grounded theory recognizes the
subjectivity of the researcher, in order to allow full transparency I wish to admit that I
entered this research with a set of ideas regarding spirituality and conflict resolution.
These were based mostly on my personal life experiences, which have led me to embrace
spirituality and to study and work toward conflict resolution. My assumptions prior to the
interviews were also impacted by conversations I had had in the past several years with
colleagues and friends regarding their personal experiences as they relate to this topic.
These, without a doubt, had some impact on my expectations from interviewees, and on
my interpretations of their accounts. Being aware of this fact, I attempted to remain as
objective as possible while analyzing the data, and was very careful while attributing
meaning to interviewees’ life stories. Now that I have described my methodology, I can
proceed to the data analysis.
CHAPTER 4
SEEKING THE SPIRIT OF PEACE
While interviewing the participants in this research - twelve spiritual individuals
who work in the field of conflict resolution – I sought to gain insight into the role of
spirituality as a motivator for their work. Interviewees shared with me their
interpretations of spirituality, their personal paths towards it, and how these were related
to their work on international conflict resolution. The findings of this research are
presented below.
Spirituality was understood by the interviewees in a manner similar to that of the
definition of Elkins et al. definition. It came about within them either gradually, through
peak experiences and transforming moments, or through a combination of the two. As for
the connection to conflict resolution work, transforming moments seem to have led to
spiritually motivated conflict resolution work. Nonetheless, even with the lack of
presence of peak experiences or transforming moments, spirituality appeared to act either
as a driver towards conflict resolution work or as individuals’ current motivation amongst
all of the interviewees. It also appears that while becoming spiritual, conflict resolution
practitioners developed a certain set of values and characteristics that led them to, and
that currently affect, their conflict resolution work. All of these will be discussed in the
proceeding sections in further detail.
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51
Defining Spirituality
In order to understand the role spirituality plays in motivating peace practitioners
to do their work, it is essential to first understand how these individuals perceive
spirituality. Considering the abstractness of the term and the subjectivity of it, it is
impossible to assume that all interviewees view spirituality in the same light, and in a
way that also corresponds to the researcher’s view of the term. Thus, the interviewees in
this research were asked to describe what spirituality means to them and how it takes
form in their own lives.
Despite some differences in interviewees’ views of spirituality, two repeating
concepts included the notion of spirituality as connectedness to others, and the idea of
relatedness to a transcendent dimension. Looking at the first concept, interviewee 9, a
professor of conflict resolution and a director of several peace-related institutes, for
instance, stated that spirituality has to do with the “interconnection of people with each
other as humans, as people, regardless of religion or ethnic affiliation.” Similarly,
interviewee 5, a professor of conflict resolution and a director of a conflict resolution
institute, claimed he views spirituality as “rooted in a connectedness to all of humanity.”
Interviewee 1, a former diplomat and a current president of a peace-related institute,
discussed the concept of connectedness in great depth throughout his interview. He
claimed to view genuine relationships between people as something that is spiritual and
even holy.
Taking the idea of interviewee 1 further, most interviewees stated that
interconnection does not stop at the person-to-person level or the more encompassing
human level – they saw spirituality as having to do with a transcendent dimension.
52
Interviewee 9 articulated nicely an idea that was voiced in the majority of the interviews
when stating that he views spirituality as “the belief that there is something that connects
all of us that is beyond the physical and the tangible.” From a slightly different angle,
also echoing the thoughts of several other interviewees, interviewee 5 said he sees
spirituality as a way of striving towards a “deeper connection to the world and to
sacredness.”
This notion of relatedness to a transcendent dimension, for many interviewees
also implies a sense of responsibility. Interviewee 2, founder and director of an initiative
promoting peaceful human systems, stated that spirituality to her means that “we are not
separate from divinity…the seed of every being is the seed of divinity…so spirituality to
me is relating to this inherent perfection, and the inherent wholeness.” Being a part of all
that there is, including the natural world, stated interviewee 2, makes her want to “serve
the whole,” in her words. An additional interpretation of that notion of responsibility lies
in the beliefs of interviewee 8, a director of a conflict resolution university program, and
interviewee 3, a director of individual giving at an international conflict resolution nongovernmental organization (NGO). Both of them expressed that they consider humans as
manifestations of the transcendent, and therefore, they see the importance of connecting
with that which is beyond the self in order to perform their role in this world in the best
way possible. In the words of interviewee 8:
I’m aware that beyond you and me there’s a presence that is not just me or just
you. I’m aware that the capacity to let this presence be, connects with my capacity
to fulfill life and so the more my words and actions express this unfolding
mystery the more my words and actions are present; effective; impactful.
53
The differences in interviewees’ views of spirituality began to appear when
looking at the role of religion. While all of the interviewees in this research were able to
identify themselves religiously, some view religion as a major component of their
everyday lives, while others do not attribute that strong a meaning to it. The former group
members tend to see spirituality as a way of being that is not only complementary to their
religious beliefs but that is also an inseparable part of them, and something that reinforces
their faith. The words of interviewee 4, a program manager at an international conflict
resolution NGO, for example, illustrate the direct relationship between her religion and
the spiritual values she obeys:
If I love God then I don’t want to do something that would displease him, not
because I think I’ll be punished, but because you don’t want to hurt the person
that you love so much, because if you love God you naturally love the people he
created in the world, so you want to do whatever you can to reduce suffering in
the world and to help, since everyone is his children.
At the same time, the latter group views spirituality as detached from religious
institutions. This group varies somewhat in terms of level of religious observance and
includes interviewee 5, for instance, who views his religion and his spirituality as
“uncomfortably separate” due to some discord between orthodoxy and his spirituality, but
also includes other individuals who do not seem to be guided by their religious beliefs in
their everyday lives. This group, while still mentioning a belief in the transcendent,
generally views spirituality as more connected to philosophy and to humanistic values.
There appears to also exist a third group of people, who do not easily identify
with one set of religious beliefs and yet still consider themselves religious. They have
been exposed to, and some even practiced in, several religious traditions, and they view
the practice of any of the world’s religions as something which is not only
54
complementary to their spiritual lifestyles but is also an inseparable part of it, and one
which strengthens their spiritual beliefs. When I asked interviewee 7, a professor, author
and critic who focuses on interfaith issues, what his religion was, and how it connects to
his spirituality, he only briefly mentioned his Baha’i background and then said the
following:
If I were asked what is your background, nationality, I would say one word –
human. And then if somebody asks me what’s your religion I’ll say I believe in
the ultimate reality. Now you’ll try to find out who is the ultimate reality – it
doesn’t really worry me, but you have to believe it is something outside of
yourself.
The three groups mentioned above can be seen as analogous to the three concepts
explored in the literature review – religion, humanism, and spirituality. That fact that
individuals from each of these groups reported that notions taken from the other two
concepts are related to their lives demonstrates the interconnection between the three
concepts. When commenting on her own religion, interviewee 2, who would be a
member of the third group, illustrates how spirituality, religion and humanistic values are
all a part of her belief system and way of understanding the world:
When someone asks me my religion my answer is usually, I’m a Jewish Christian
Native-American Buddhist with undertones of Sufism. So I have studied in all of
those arenas, I have practiced in all of those arenas, I have had what some would
call mystical experiences in all of those arenas through all of those languages, you
could call them languages or cultures, and they are all basically the same
regardless of the differences in their outer forms, the essential teaching is the
same: we are one, God is love, it’s about relationships, it’s about unity, it’s about
interdependence, it’s about mutual responsibility… you could translate it into
very concise ethical, moral, behavioral norms.
Other interviewees who connected the different spheres include interviewee 4,
who would be a member of the first group. She views a strong connection not only
between her values and her religion, as mentioned above, but also between her religion
55
and her spirituality. She expressed this when saying: “I don’t think I could really be
religious without being spiritual, it’s just like a natural extension.” Within the second
group, interviewee 6, for example, a former diplomat and a political psychologist that
today works on several conflict resolution initiatives, who would fit under the second
group, attaches high importance to ethical, humanistic and care values, but at the same
time, he is very much inspired to do so by the prophets of the Abrahamic religions. He
stated: “I believe in God as an expression of human needs for protection, for
connectedness, for care, security and love,” thus connecting humanism and religion.
Interviewee 9 completed the interconnection of the three concepts in the second group
while identifying the link between humanism and spirituality, as he referred to
humanistic values such as nonviolence as highly spiritual.
Interviewee 1 expressed these interconnections in a different manner while
saying: “ I’ve come to understand…that the Western Enlightenment’s separation between
the rational and the emotional is just plain wrong.” Likewise, interviewee 5 stated in his
interview that he believes there is a “sacred combination of science and religion.” These
notions are close to those of Maslow (1976) and Nagler (2005), who advocate a link
between religion, science, and the humanities. Thus, it appears that the participants in this
research view spirituality, religion and humanistic values as highly interrelated, just as
the literature suggests.
This section illustrated that the spiritual peace practitioners interviewed in this
research have a rather similar view regarding the meaning of spirituality in their lives. By
sensing interconnectedness between people, and being able to relate to the world and to
the transcendent, the research participants share a key characteristic that is bound to
56
affect the way they view their life and their work. With a better understanding of what
spirituality means to the spiritual peace practitioners, I can now proceed by examining the
hypothesis I presented in the introductory chapter, and discover whether peak experiences
followed by transforming moments can lead individuals to discover their own spirituality
and, as a result, become motivated to work towards peace.
Becoming Spiritual and Working Towards Peace
In this section I will discuss peacemakers’ progression toward spirituality and
conflict resolution. While revealing the different processes and paths participants in this
research underwent as they discovered their spiritual inclinations, the research indicates
that peacemakers did not all share one common route towards spirituality. Nonetheless,
the majority of the participants in this research do generally fit under the hypothesis; their
work in conflict resolution was influenced by a peak experience, which transformed them
spiritually. The rest of the participants either embraced spirituality in different ways, or
do not attribute to their spirituality a particularly strong role in their life and work. While
this section will discuss mostly the technical processes of arriving at spirituality and at
conflict resolution, the proceeding sections will address the specifics of individuals’
experiences, and investigate what it is about spirituality that motivates individuals
towards working in conflict resolution.
Five out of the twelve interviewees reported on peak experiences which directly
match this study’s hypothesis. Three of them (interviewees 1, 2, 3) indicated a path
toward spirituality, which resulted specifically from either a personal crisis or a pivotal
event and led to a new vocation of peacemaking. The other two interviewees
57
(interviewees 4, 5) indicated that although they had considered themselves spiritual in the
past, a moment of crisis was what deepened their spirituality and led them towards
working on conflict resolution. Additionally, interviewee 11, a professor and practitioner
of conflict resolution, has always considered herself spiritual and has been working in
conflict resolution from a young age, and yet she was able to identify a moment of crisis
that deepened her spirituality, something that was later expressed in her conflict
resolution work. For another two interviewees (interviewees 9, 10), discovering their
spirituality in a gradual manner after beginning to work in the conflict resolution field
resulted in a new drive and a shift in their work. Thus, it appears that for all of these
participants, the process of becoming spiritual or deepening one’s spirituality resulted in
a shift which led them to a new realization and a changed path, directed at spirituallymotivated peace-related work.
Furthermore, two interviewees (interviewees 6, 9) shared with me moments of
transformation that could be seen as spiritual, which led them to work in conflict
resolution. Yet these moments were not perceived as spiritual by the interviewees
themselves.10 Thus, while it is possible to speculate that these two interviewees could fit
under the same umbrella with others who viewed crises or pivotal events as motivating
them toward conflict resolution work, perception is still crucial. Without one
acknowledging one’s spiritual inclinations, it is wrong to argue that spirituality acts as a
motivator for that person.
10. Interviewee 9 is mentioned twice since he had mentioned a pivotal event in his life that led
him to begin working in dialogue, and yet he did not consider it to be spiritual. His spiritual awareness only
evolved later on in his life and therefore, he could not claim that his work was motivated by spirituality
prior to that time.
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The remaining interviewees could be divided into two groups. Two interviewees,
(interviewees 7, 8) stated that they have always been spiritual and see their work as a
continuation of their spiritual lives. Although they describe several moments which led
them to deepen their spirituality, it is unclear that these had a direct effect on their work.
Thus, these individuals who embraced spirituality through their family and religion at a
very young age are not fully consistent with this study’s hypothesis, but are definitely
motivated by spirituality to do their work.
The last two interviewees (interviewees 6, 12), although acknowledging
spirituality as a part of their lives, do not seem to attribute a very strong role to
spirituality in their lives and work. While interviewee 6 cherishes humanistic values and
connects them to religious values, he does not consider himself to be very spiritual.11 At
the same time, interviewee 12 is definitely influenced by spiritual guidance but has a hard
time understanding the meaning of spirituality to him. Nonetheless, their experiences will
be explored in the current study.
Hence, while not all of the participants in this research affirm the part of the
hypothesis that is related to peak experiences and transformation, it appears that the
careers of the vast majority of the interviewees were influenced to a great extent by their
spiritual inclination. I will now proceed to elaborate on the different ways in which
participants developed spiritually. Then, I will discuss how these relate to their careers in
conflict resolution.
11. Interviewee 6 is mentioned twice since although he mentioned a moment in his life that which
shifted him towards working on conflict resolution, he did not view it as a spiritual moment.
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Experiencing a crisis is what led seven of the interviewees towards either a
discovery or a deepening of their spirituality. Interviewees 2 and 3 described a period of
crisis as driving them towards spirituality. Correspondingly, interviewees 4, 5, 7, 10 and
11 mentioned moments of crisis as substantially deepening their spirituality. Crises seem
to arise among the participants in this research due to near-death experiences,
international conflict, marital issues, and mismatches or dissonances between one’s
values and one’s behavior. Interviewees described feelings of pain, sadness, helplessness,
grief, anger and frustration as characterizing this phase. Additionally, a search for
meaning seemed to occur at this stage among several of the interviewees. When
describing his moment of crisis, interviewee 3 recalls: “nothing made sense at that point.”
This state of great difficulty, it appears, made interviewees be open to new
understandings of themselves and the world. Discussing this stage in her life, interviewee
2 shared: “I was a wreck, I was a total wreck.” She then described the pain she was
experiencing for a period of time but then indicates that this place of a deep crisis is what
allowed her to begin thinking of her life differently: “I was drained, I was empty, so I was
ready to receive,” she said to me. These moments described by the interviewees appear
to be compatible with Arasteh’s notion of an existential moratorium, which is supposed
to be “an instrument of rebirth in final integration in the adult” (1965, 152).
Indeed, the interviewees in this study viewed those moments as driving them
towards a greater state of consciousness and development. Interviewee 11 described the
function of her moment of crisis:
[It was] a catalyst for rediscovering what matters in life, rediscovering what
resources are at my disposal to handle stressful situations, rediscovering what do I
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care about, rediscovering the self in a sense…various moments of crisis for me
have been in the end opportunities for a deepening of my spirituality.
Those interviewees for whom crisis did not play a part throughout their spiritual
journey described another kind of pivotal moment, more positive in its nature, which led
them to embrace or deepen their spirituality. During such moments interviewees
indicated that they experienced feelings of connectedness and love, and gained new
understandings. These same moments took place in the lives of those interviewees who
underwent a crisis as well; they released individuals from the state they were in and
allowed them to move forward. These pivotal moments, in both of the groups described
above, are what Maslow (1987) refers to as peak experiences. Although arising from
different sources, such as being in nature (interviewee 3), interacting with other
individuals (interviewee 1, 5), or communicating with God (interviewee 4), based on the
interviewees’ testimonies, these moments are spiritual and transformative. In the words
of interviewee 2: “I had a very deep spiritual awakening. I kind of changed from the
inside out and developed a whole world view that was based on spiritual understanding.”
With a new or greater sense of spirituality, individuals could not live their lives in
the same manner any more. They looked for ways of integrating their new knowledge
and understanding in their lives and found an answer in conflict resolution work. For
some interviewees the transformation resulted in a career choice. For others, the
transformation led to career change. And for those interviewees who were already
working in conflict resolution, this transformation led to a new source of motivation and
to the discovery of new ways of practicing conflict resolution. Interviewee 5, who
changed his career after undergoing a personal transformation, describes:
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I think I had a revelation when I was 25, 26…it was, it was a kind of discovery of
identity, in terms of what to be in this world…I remember myself sitting there in a
hallway…saying: ‘I’m going to be a peace rabbi’. It’s ill defined, but one thing is
clear – that it was a spiritual decision, a spiritual revelation; it was a mission.
While all of the interviewees above went through a process of transformation, it
appears from this research that a transformation does not need to occur in order to
embrace spirituality. Interviewees who stated that they have always been spiritual
described home environments that were characterized by exposure to religious, spiritual,
or humanistic values from a very young age. For instance, interviewee 11 mentioned:
My parents raised me with respect to religion and exposed me to several different
religions and different religious practices, definitely with respect to
spirituality…they raised me…with respect to multiple ones and exposure to
multiple ones in the sense of, find your own path, what’s going to bring the
spirituality out in you.
They also mentioned good relations at the home and family members who acted as role
models to them as something which exemplified spiritual values to them. When
discussing the roots of his spirituality, interviewee 7 stated:
I had a father and a mother who were impeccable in the way they behaved; in the
way they treated each other. My father in his own right was a very very
outstanding man, who really had served in his own life in a way that set a very
high example. I think it’s also how you are educated.
Overall, it appears that these individuals became spiritual as a result of their upbringing.
Additional information on their journey will be presented in the next section.
Looking at another part of the hypothesis – spirituality as a motivator for working
in conflict resolution – it seems that all twelve participants affirm the hypothesis. While
eight interviewees (interviewees 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11) entered the field of conflict
resolution motivated by their spirituality (to a higher or lesser extent), four began their
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work in conflict resolution first, and later on, as they embraced spirituality, also
developed new spiritual motivations to do their work (interviewees 6, 9, 10, 12).
According to the interviewees, once discovering spirituality, they did not simply
choose conflict resolution work; rather, discovering their career path was something a lot
more fluid in nature. As interviewee 8 perceives it, working on peacebuilding was “a
response more than a decision.” Even the interviewees who did not view spirituality as a
substantial force in their lives and work stated that they are motivated by spirituality,
whether it be in a more religious or more secular manner. For example, interviewee 12, a
former diplomat and a founder and director of a conflict resolution NGO, said to me
passionately that he is not sure why he is doing his work but he knows one thing: “this is
what I’m supposed to be doing.”12
Ten out of the twelve interviewees expressed directly that they do what they do
today due to spiritual reasons. Five interviewees specifically mentioned the word calling
when describing how they feel about their work. This finding is consistent with that of
Jones (2010), whose research participants – local mediators who identified as spiritual –
stated that they were called to do the work that they do. In the current research five
interviewees also mentioned that they feel guided by a higher power to work in conflict
resolution. Interviewee 4, for example, described her sense of calling in the following
manner: “I really felt that it is a spiritual calling, not just something that I wanted to do
but I felt very clearly that was what God wanted me to do.” Furthermore, three
participants indicated that they could not work in another job, as interviewee 11
12. This is not to say that spirituality does not also lead individuals to other lines of work, and
particularly work in service, as mentioned in Neal et al. (1999). Yet, since this study focuses on conflict
resolution practitioners, it examines how spirituality motivates individuals to work specifically in this field.
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describes: “It just feels like what I have to do, it’s what I grew up doing… this is what I
have a passion for working on…There was no other choice for me really.”
Both more religious and more secular interviewees referred to their work while
using terms such as “calling” or “mission.” And yet the two statements above are
distinctively different from one another. The gap between these two approaches is
breached by Steger, et al., who studied the conceptual shift of the term “calling” from a
time when it was only used in a religious sense to this days, when the term is used more
broadly. Steger et al.’s findings show that the term “calling,” when it comes to people’s
work, is relevant both as a vocation through a higher power and as a more secular force
of meaning and fulfillment (2009, 93). This is consistent with the way spirituality and
religion are viewed throughout the current research.
Considering all of the above, promoting peace is much more than simply a
profession for the individuals interviewed in this research. It appears that the
interviewees’ lives and work are highly interconnected, to the extent that some even had
difficulties separating the two during the interview process. When discussing his efforts
to build peace in several countries around the world, interviewee 12 said passionately:
“that’s what my life is all about!” What seems to create that connection between
interviewees’ lives and work is their spirituality. While acknowledging that spirituality
means different things to different people, and recognizing the importance of that fact,
interviewee 2 described how after discovering her spirituality, she could not just keep it
to herself: “spirituality for me is not…about being off on the mountaintop, sitting on the
cushion, studying and practicing meditation. For me it’s about making life better, about
the healing and repair of the world, it’s about hearing the suffering.” Furthermore, while
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attending interviewee 7’s class, I could see clearly how his life and work are connected,
by the way in which he was implementing his spiritual values through his words and
behavior. When asked in his interview about what spirituality means to him, interviewee
7 responded by saying: “my spirituality is very simple: never ever to be the cause of
unhappiness to any other human being.” And indeed, in his class, he demonstrated and
taught compassion, tolerance, love and generosity. The testimonies above make clear that
spirituality is a motivating force for the work of the individuals participating in this
research.
In sum, this section makes clear that spirituality acts as a motivating force for
conflict resolution practitioners. While spirituality seems to develop through a variety of
paths, not all of which are included in the hypothesis, the effect on peace practitioners
seems to be similar – a new understanding that leads to a calling and a sense of vocation,
all of which results in motivation for conflict resolution work.
Spirituality as a Motivator
Having I established that spirituality acts as a motivator for conflict resolution
amongst my interviewees, I will now proceed to discuss what it is within the more
abstract term of spirituality that motivates individuals to work towards peace between
people and nations. By exploring the details of individuals’ peak experiences or other
motivating spiritual paths, it is possible to gain a greater understanding of specific
components within spirituality that lead individuals to conflict resolution work.
Furthermore, while discussing spirituality as a motivator, many participants shared not
only their motivations to begin working in conflict resolution, but also the spiritual values
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by which they are motivated today to keep doing their work. These will be incorporated
into this section as well. Based on the data gathered from the twelve interviewees, the
components include the power of harmony and unity; disillusionment and illumination;
the power of human connection and relationships; the power of religion; and the power of
spiritual education. These are by no means disconnected from one another but are
separated here for the sake of clarity and organization.
The Power of Harmony and Unity
According to Raimundo Panikkar, a Roman Catholic priest, and a scholar who
advocated for inter-religious dialogue, harmony is identical to balance; it means that
everything has its place, and everything is integrated with all that there is (1995, 64).13
Complementary to this is the view of Chung-Ying Cheng, who states that harmony is
created when two or more forces, entities, or processes complement, fully support and
depend on one another (2006, 27). Even though the concept of harmony has been much
more prominent in Eastern thought, the West has begun showing interest in it ever since
Greek times. Western definitions of harmony today are quite similar to those of the East.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, harmony is a “combination or adaptation of
parts, elements, or related things, so as to form a consistent and orderly whole.”
Nonetheless, it appears that the Western definition is still lacking in its holism and
comprehensiveness. Panikkar exemplifies this by emphasizing the different dimensions in
which harmony occurs: “harmony here is harmony between the inner and the outer, the
body and the soul, the natural and the cultural, the masculine and the feminine, and so on
13. Panikkar was the sun of a Spanish Roman Catholic mother and a Hindu Indian father.
Although he was born and raised in Spain, he was very much influenced by his Eastern roots. Therefore,
here I refer to his writing as non-Western.
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– harmony amongst all sectors of reality” (1995, 64). Therefore, Panikkar continues:
“harmony embraces subject and object, knower and known” (1995, 65). Cosmic
harmony, he argues, depends on every being’s inner harmony (1995, 59).
With this in mind, Panikkar states that one cannot speak of peace without
harmony being present. In fact, he argues that peace is harmony (1995, 65). He views
peace as something which is spiritual, bodily and social, and as dependent on harmony in
the universe (1995, 59). Galtung also explores the connection between harmony and
peace. While reviewing the concept of peace in a variety of cultures and civilizations, he
finds a spectrum of meanings to peace that includes an ingroup/outgroup approach, an
inward-oriented approach, and a universalist approach (1981, 198). The notion of
harmony – in society, between people, and within individuals – can be seen as related to
the second and third approaches, and should be included, according to Galtung, in the
definition of peace (1981, 195).
This connection between harmony and peace was brought up by several of the
interviewees in this research. It appears that interviewees’ aspiration for harmony in the
universe motivated them to seek both inner peace and peace in the world. Several
interviewees found harmony as connectedness to the living planet and in fact, saw nature
as a teacher that led them towards both spirituality and peacebuilding. Furthermore,
interviewees saw harmony as something which goes even beyond our material world,
mentioning the notion of unification with the divine.
Interviewee 11 shared with me that her spirituality drives her to seek harmony:
“the beauty and love that can be expressed in this world come out of spirituality, and the
glimpses of that that I’ve seen drive me to want to seek more harmony.” While
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attempting to bring more harmony to the world, interviewee 11 works in several levels on
the promotion of peace. On the one hand, she trains and works with peacemakers from
war-torn societies, and on the other, she teaches conflict resolution students about selfconsciousness, and thus, inner peace.
For another interviewee, interviewee 2, embracing spirituality also naturally
meant seeking harmony and unity. Her spiritual awakening followed a time of great crisis
in her life. Interviewee 2 suffered from two rounds of breast cancer during her late
twenties. Her doctors did not expect her to survive. At around the same time, she and her
husband also got a divorce, and she was left with a young toddler and with a lot of
physical and emotional pain. After being dragged to therapy by her friends, her therapist,
who was not particularly spiritually-inclined himself, inspired by Carlos Castaneda,
found himself asking her,
so say you’re going to die so what? Everybody’s going to die, and maybe you
have a better sense of how and when than most people, but maybe not because
you could outlive all of us or you could be hit by a bus walking out of here today.
All you know is yeah, you are going to die – big deal. So the question is not are
you going to die but the question is (and this was the reference to Carlos
Castaneda) – imagine that you have death riding on your left shoulder, how do
you want death to find you at the moment you die?
Interviewee 2 knew the answer immediately:
When I die I want to be full of love I want to be full of life I want to be full of joy
and I want to be full of peace, and since I don’t know when I am going to die I
have to know how to live this way in every moment and I don’t know how to do
that and I don’t know anybody who does. Therefore, who will be my teacher? I
was in Vermont, I said – oh! The natural world!
Indeed, following that moment, interviewee 2 spent between two and three years
in the natural world, learning and developing her spirituality. There, she realized the
connectedness between humans and the living planet. Later on in her life she began
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studying with a Native American teacher. Throughout a couple of decades, she studied
and practiced in several religious and spiritual traditions and found a strong connection
between all of them.
Looking back at tough moments in her life, interviewee 2 shared: “I had several
opportunities to leave this body and in each case I’ve chosen to stay, because once I
understood from the inside out that I’m a part of all there is, then the only other question
to ask is, how can I serve the whole?” Feeling united with the world, interviewee 2 felt a
need to contribute to a harmonious state of humanity and the living planet. “Knowing that
I am here in service to the family of life is what drives everything that I do,” she stated.
Yet, for interviewee 2 the unification with the material world also included
unification with a divine realm. Her path towards this form of unification is directly
related to promoting harmony in the world, as she argued:
The potential [for unification with the divine realm] is being activated every time
we reconnect heart to heart; every time we step beyond fear; every time we reach
out to another; every time we move toward what we would call peace; create
harmony; stop hating the other. So there’s a million steps, there’s a million
pathways, but the siren song of peace is embedded in our soul, and our job as
human beings is, we are called to all of us, is to actualize that.
Interviewee 2 views promoting peace and creating harmony as ways of connecting with
the divine and as ways of strengthening her spirituality. Hence, her spiritual motivation to
work towards peace lie in her understanding of the interconnectedness of all things. Her
work reflects this perfectly, as she currently focuses, through education and training, on
promoting a systems approach to peace.
The transformation story of interviewee 3 shows yet another way in which
harmony can motivate individuals to engage in peace work. Like interviewee 2,
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interviewee 3 also discovered his spiritual inclinations in a period of crisis. Yet, the
nature of his crisis changed him in a different way, emphasizing another aspect of
harmony – one between inner peace and outer peace.14 After college, interviewee 3
joined the Peace Corps along with some of his friends, and spent four years in Sierra
Leone.15 When returning to the United States interviewee 3 seems to have experienced a
strong sense of reverse culture shock: “when I came back to the U.S., the Western pursuit
of happiness did not make sense,” he said to me.16 Interviewee 3 felt frustrated by the gap
between the liberal values of his country and his culture, and the harm that those were
inflicting upon other societies. Looking back in retrospect, he said: “the reason to get into
conflict resolution was because of that dissonance…I knew that the pursuit of happiness
in the United States and the western world was having an inverse effect, a) on the
environment; and b) on the global economy in places like Sierra Leone.” As a result, he
embarked on a quest to find meaning, and to discover a way to live his life that matched
the values he obtained both through his education and while in Sierra Leone.
At this stage of his life, interviewee 3 met a yogi by chance, who challenged his
thinking and led him to question his own way of life in a deeper manner. As time went by
he delved deeper and deeper into a meditation practice, and had a peak experience while
spending time in a natural environment. Through his practice, he began to see the
14. Interviewee 3 seem to both also possess those qualities that are presented in the story of
interviewee 2 and vice-versa, but I chose to use each one as an example for those qualities which he or she
emphasized the most throughout the interview.
15. Although volunteering with Peace Corps can definitely be seen as peace-related work,
interviewee 3 stated that he began working on conflict resolution only later, and that his service in the
Peace Corps was not a result of a conscious decision to work toward peace. Rather, he argue, this was a
path that many of the people close to him had taken at the time and he simply chose to follow them.
16. For more information on culture shock and reverse culture shock see for example Adler
(1975).
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connection between his inner peace and the outer harmony and peace of the world. While
recognizing the pain and suffering in the world, it was tough for interviewee 3 to find his
own peace of mind.
This was when interviewee 3 decided to begin working toward outer peace, and
became an employee at an international conflict resolution NGO. Along the years,
interviewee 3 got the opportunity to go back to Sierra Leone with his work, where he
witnessed incidents of harsh violence. When he returned to Washington, D.C., tensions in
Sierra Leone escalated into a civil war, and many people whom he had been in touch with
were hurt. These events severely shook up interviewee 3, but also helped him to deepen
his spirituality, as his sensitivity to outer conflict led him to seek a mentor and undergo a
process in which he learned much about things such as trauma healing through inner
work.
Reviewing the personal transformation story of interviewee 3, it appears that his
spiritual quest and search for inner peace were direct motivators to his work in conflict
resolution. Furthermore, it seems that his life and work today are very much
interconnected, as the NGO in which he works deals precisely with the issues that he
personally focuses on, such as trauma healing. Talking about his workplace, he stated:
[This NGO] is the closest thing that I have found to the embodiment of many of
the yogi teachings and spiritual teachings…in terms of tolerance and forgiveness
and compassion…people are committed to the idea of helping folks overcome
differences and focus on commonalities. In a sense it’s really about moving
towards union.
The personal stories of interviewees 11, 2 and 3 show how spirituality can lead to
a quest for harmony and unity. Through the experiences described above, interviewees
were able to arrive at higher levels of consciousness and new realms of being. As a result,
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they became aware of the union between humans, the environment, and a divine realm.
Thus, their spiritual journeys exposed them to a sense of harmony and led them to seek
more of it. Indeed, interviewees attested that once at this stage, they felt compelled to
serve others and do whatever they could to allow for a greater sense of harmony in the
world and in their lives. With harmony being tightly interlinked with peace, interviewees
found that by working towards peace and conflict resolution they were able to help bring
about more unity and balance in the world, while also feeling more wholesome
themselves. Thus, it appears that recognizing harmony is an expression of interviewees’
spirituality, and that attempts to generate more harmony through peace initiatives are,
among other things, ways of maintaining and expanding increased states of
consciousness.
Disillusionment and Illumination –
Learning the Other’s Narrative
The importance of narrative has been acknowledged by several academic
disciplines in the last few decades, including psychology, theology, political science and
conflict resolution (Lederach 2005, 145). Narrative, according to Gerald Prince, is “the
representation of at least two real or fictive events in a time sequence” (1980, 50). Julia
Chaitin argues that narratives are created as people generate sequences out of real or
imagined events and then recount those to others (2003). Lederach adds that narratives
help people in interpreting history as well as in constructing meaning and identity (2005,
143). In a conflict situation, as Woolner (2009) states, narratives also assist peoples to
define the “other.” From an indigenous perspective, a narrative “connects the remote past
of who we are with the remote future of how we will survive in the context of an
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expansive present where we share space and relationship” (Lederach 2005, 145). To sum,
through the retelling of a narrative, society connects the past, present, and future in a way
that creates a consistent story which provides a sense of self-identity and, particularly in a
conflict situation, also a construction of who is the “other.”
Exposure of one to the narrative of the “other” is thus essential in understanding
the other’s perspective on what might be a shared past and present. The acknowledgment
of this notion has led to numerous initiatives of storytelling in post-conflict areas, the
most famous of which are the Truth and Reconciliation Commissions in South Africa.
Yet, the examination of narratives is also used in conflict areas, as means for future
conflict resolution. In the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, for example, joint
organizations have been working on exposure to the other side’s narrative both through
encounters and storytelling, and through books and more formalized education.17
The transformation story of interviewee 5 has much to do with his exposure to the
narrative of the other. Interviewee 5 grew up in a Jewish orthodox community in the
United States. Throughout his childhood he was exposed to conflicts within the family
within the Jewish community and was very much aware of the Arab-Israeli and IsraeliPalestinian conflicts. He learned about the history of Israel and the Jews and felt himself
to be very much a part of that history. In fact, his emotional connection to the suffering of
other Jews was so strong, that at age of 15 he decided to go to Israel and fight in the 1973
war, but his teacher stopped him from doing so.
When I asked him about his shift – from wanting to go and fight for Israel to
working towards peace between Israel and the Arab world – he explained: “I believed
17. For examples of such work see Chaitin (2003).
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that there was going to be another holocaust.” He further added: “I went not to kill Arabs,
not to kill Palestinians. I never had any hatred for Arabs. I was not allowed; in the
spirituality that I grew up with my teachers there was no hatred.” “War is a tragedy, not a
mitzvah,” he added. After sharing these facts, I wanted to know more about the
upbringing of interviewee 5 in order to understand where he came from and what he has
become. He told me that he grew up religious and spiritual, and alongside his religious
studies he was also interested in Jewish philosophy and ideas of Tikkun Olam.18
Yet it was not until the Lebanon War of 1982 that a shift started occurring within
interviewee 5. He recalls:
I was sitting in Beit Midrash19 minding my business and when Sabra and Shatila
happened I got into a crisis…where I wrote my first major poem about a Beit
Midrash filled with blood. Sabra and Shatila – that was a turning point. It was a
turning point to my rabbi too…this was a turning point because I started to see
that my rabbi was trapped by his own Zionism.
Devastated by the role Israel played in these events, interviewee 5 reached a new
realization; he understood that the image of Israel that he grew up on was more of a myth
than a reality: “I grew up on the film Exodus as the true narrative of Israel,” he said, but
the war of 1982 made him see otherwise.20 Thus, Interviewee 5 was anxious to learn
more about the situation between Israel and its neighbors. While during his earlier visits
to Israel he was charmed by the country and felt a deep spiritual and emotional
connection to it, in his early twenties his experience in what for him had been the holy
18. Hebrew for healing and repairing the world.
19. Hebrew for place of Torah study.
20. Exodus is a war film from 1960, adapted from a novel with the same name written by Leo
Uris. Part true and part fictional, the movie shows the events around Jewish immigration to Israel and the
establishment of a Jewish State. The movie represented the Jews in a very positive light alongside the
British and the Arabs.
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land became utterly different: “I would go to Israel and it was absolutely wrenching
because my body was physically sickened…because every time I went to Jerusalem I
started to see a dichotomy.”
The gap between his former depiction of Israel and his new understanding made
him seek meetings with Palestinians. While telling me about such meetings with me,
although also discussing the human connection that was created in his encounter with
Palestinians, interviewee 5 mainly focused on how a greater understanding of the
Palestinian narrative affected him, and created “a real turning point” in his life. The first
time interviewee 5 met Palestinians was in Neve Shalom, a village, jointly established by
Jewish and Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel in 1983 in order to work together towards
peace education, equality, and mutual understanding. Interviewee 5 shared with me a
transformative experience from this encounter:
I remember going out to a ridge and looking over a beautiful valley that had a
beautiful pine trees, and I was just making a common bond with this [Palestinian]
fellow and I was saying, “Beautiful pine trees,” and he didn’t say anything…and I
realized, “Oh, I think he is upset,” so I said, “How did you react to the pine
trees?” And he said, “I don’t like them”. And I asked, “Why don’t you like pine
trees?” and I started my own learning, my own ways of conflict resolution, of
being inquisitive, not saying back, not arguing back…just asking more questions.
So I said, “Why don’t you?” “Because it’s covering up.” “What is it covering
up?” “It’s covering up a well. I’ll take you down there and I’ll show you a well.” I
said, “What well?” He said, “There was a village there.” I said, “I don’t see a
village.” He said, “All along that valley as far as you can see, there’s pine trees
covering up villages. All of these are villages from 1948 and they were all
covered up.” And then in my mind on that ridge looking there at that moment. My
life changed – because I helped plant those trees, because that was the Jewish
National Fund, and from the time I was 5 years old I was proud and I had on my
bedroom wall the certificate that said that I had planted a pine tree. And that’s
when life really changed.
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Interviewee 5 defined this moment as a spiritual moment, because he said he
shifted right then and there “from being an ethno-religious person to being a spiritual
person when you have multiple narratives.” During these days he was in the midst of his
Ph.D. work in Jewish Studies and Jewish Philosophy, but returning to the United States,
he had an epiphany, a highly spiritual moment, in which he realized that he was going to
work on bringing Arabs and Israelis together. After finishing his Ph.D., interviewee 5
began teaching and practicing conflict resolution, while working mostly with religious
groups on both sides. Today, although highly exhausted and frustrated by the situation
between Israelis and Palestinians, providing a platform for young peacemakers still gives
him great pleasure.
Interviewee 5 deepened his spirituality and found his calling while discovering
the narrative of the “other.” His disillusionment with the narrative he grew up on resulted
in his active search for more information. Acquiring the knowledge he was craving, he
was illuminated. Following his inner transformation, he felt compelled to change his
original career path, as he could no longer continue living in the same manner. Ever since
then his life has been dedicated to peace and conflict resolution.
The Power of Human Connection and Relationships
Perhaps the most famous piece written on relationships is Jewish philosopher
Martin Buber’s “I and Thou” (1937). Buber argues that a person finds meaning in
relationships if he or she engages in “I-Thou,” as opposed to “I-It” relationships.
According to Buber, while “It” can be seen as something separate and isolated from
oneself, “Thou” contains all that there is. In an “I-Thou” relationship, Buber states, each
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object sees the whole universe in the other, and therefore both see a sense of sacredness
in the relationship. Thus, he believes relationships themselves have a great potential to
become spiritual.
In the field of conflict resolution, the matter of relationships and human
connection has been studied in the context of dialogue. Amongst the various definitions
of dialogue, William Isaacs views dialogue as “a conversation where people think
together in a relationship” (1999, 19). Another definition is one by Harold Saunders, a
U.S. senior diplomat who participated in the famous Kissinger Shuttles and the founder
of the International Institute for Sustained Dialogue. Saunders states that dialogue is “a
process of genuine interaction through which human beings listen to each other deeply
enough to be changed by what they learned” (1999, 82). These two definitions imply that
dialogue does not necessarily have to take place in a structured setting, as it could also
come about naturally in a conversation. Furthermore, according to the definitions above,
dialogue could be held between two parties to a conflict, as the term is most often used and
applied, but it could also be held between colleagues, partners, and friends.
Physicist and theorist David Bohm, the creator of Bohmian dialogue, suggests that
dialogue arises when our brains stop following only our limited world of abstract thoughts,
and begin to allow for the unlimited to enter. He believes that only while quieting the mind
we are able to let go of the patterns of our thought and open up to new ways of
understanding ourselves and others. As we do so, Bohm argues, we can achieve heightened
levels of consciousness, understanding, and connectedness to others (Bohm 1996, 107).
Isaacs, who attended a session of group reflection on Bohm’s works with David
Bohm himself, testifies that this experience demonstrated to him how “a conversation could
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in itself somehow lead people past their natural defenses into genuine contact with one
another, and a more invisible, implicate reality was not just a theoretical possibility” (Isaacs
1999, 40). While reflecting on the same experience, Bohm stated the following:
Thus far we have only begun to explore the possibilities of dialogue in the sense
indicated here, but going further along these lines would open up the possibility of
transforming not only the relationship between people, but even more, the very
nature of the consciousness in which these relations arise” (as cited in Isaacs 1999,
40).
Without explicitly discussing spirituality, it appears that both Bohm and Isaacs describe
dialogue as something that touches the spiritual and reaches beyond the material aspects of
reality, thus allowing of a sense of spiritual interconnectedness between people.
In the context of conflict, according to Abdul Aziz Said, the founding director of
the International Peace and Conflict Resolution department at American University and the
founder of the Center for Global Peace, “through dialogue, we surface our key
presuppositions regarding the meaning and role of ‘self,’ ‘other,’ ‘conflict,’ and ‘peace.’
Accordingly, we adjust the worldviews that frame our reality and fashion responses to
one another that are appropriate to our newly understood mutual values and goals” (2006,
3). While doing so, a person gets to a state in which he or she begin to rehumanize the
“other,” and seek a common future (Said 2006, 2). Through the rehumanization process
one is able to individualize the former enemy, recognize his or her suffering, and feel
empathy towards him or her (Halpern and Weinstein 2004). Dialogical moments of
authentic human interaction thus play a large role in rehumanization and connectivity
between people. Nonetheless, as Saunders and Halpern and Weinstein suggest, in order to
bring about a true change to relationships between people, dialogue, in whichever form it
takes, must be lasting and sustained.
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Several of my interviewees describe human connection as what led them towards
spirituality and/or conflict resolution. While meeting the “other,” or seeing a colleague in
a different light, the interviewees created a true bond which allowed them to humanize
the other, and to expose themselves to a new realm of reality. For instance, the meetings
of interviewee 5 with Palestinians in Jerusalem elicited a strong response on his part. He
began seeing them as individuals and as victims rather than perceiving them simply as
stereotyped “Arabs.” Prior to his meetings with Palestinians, interviewee 5 stated that he
was terrified of them. Yet, his interaction with Palestinian individuals in Neve Shalom, as
described in the previous subsection, helped him rehumanize the “other,” feel empathy
towards their status, and work towards peace between Israelis and Palestinians.
In the same manner, interviewee 9, who is Palestinian, described how his
interaction with a Jewish-Israeli colleague led him towards conflict resolution work, and
more specifically, the initiation of an Israeli-Palestinian dialogue group at the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem. Interviewee 9 was motivated to work in conflict resolution by
his aspiration for social and political change in Israel. He engaged in several methods of
nonviolent direct action in order to bring awareness amongst the Jews in Israel to the
status of the Arabs inside Israel and in the Palestinian territories.
During those days, interviewee 9 was working toward his degree in counseling
education. He mentioned during his interview that this was something which influenced
his approach to conflict: “this paradigm and way of studying…brought me to closer to
dialogue than to the political fires.” Yet there was another occurrence that led him to cocreate a dialogue group in the Hebrew University – his interaction with one of the
Jewish-Israeli students at the university.
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Interviewee 9 first interacted with this woman after a distasteful incident with
another Jewish Israeli student during a sociology class. When asking for notes from a
Jewish-Israeli student, instead of notes interviewee 9 received a shower of offensive
ethnic insults. In this context he met another student who became the person with whom
interviewee 9 began his conflict resolution work. He recalled:
[Another Jewish-Israeli student] offered me her notes and I accepted them, and
later on we met for coffee, and then she invited me to her house with her husband
and child and dog and I think it was Hanukkah…and then I invited her to my
village in the North and then we became friends, and it developed a more human
relations with that person and then we began facilitating dialogue groups together
and became friends.
Although interviewee 9 had multiple different interactions with other JewishIsraeli students, particularly within the Peace Movement, something about his connection
with this person was different. Being introduced to her family, he recalled, was what
made the difference for him. When I asked for a further explanation, he said that when
you see someone’s family you understand that “you struggle together on the same level
of personal and human challenges.”
Form this point on, the two began getting together more often, and creating a sort
of a free-flowing dialogue between them. It did not take long before they gathered a
group of friends and launched a formal dialogue group for Israelis and Palestinians.
Interviewee 9 and his co-facilitator from over three decades ago remain friends to this
day. This fact, however, is not surprising considering that a byproduct of dialogue is the
formation of strong connections between people.
Although interviewee 9 had strong political motivations for social change, and
was an activist in his student days, it seems that the experience described above was what
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truly pushed him from his activism into turning conflict resolution into a career, and
making significant sacrifices as a result. After this experience, interviewee 9 began
exploring the power of dialogue and human connection in transforming relationships
between people. Whereas in my eyes, the moment of rehumanization that he described
sounded as if it was highly spiritual in nature, interviewee 9 felt otherwise. This is
interesting particularly because the terminology interviewee 9 used when telling this
story to me was closely linked to that which he used while describing what spirituality
meant to him, mainly with regards to the power of human connections. Nonetheless,
when I asked him if he defines his experience as spiritual, he responded by saying,
I did not frame it out of spirituality but if you look at it today you can say it’s the
same thing. I think that that’s the difference if you operate from a secular
humanist versus spiritual humanist [approach]. There’s not much difference, it’s
just in the way you frame it.
Although interviewee 9 himself does not define this experience of meeting and
humanizing an individual from the “other” side as spiritual, I believe it is important to
discuss in this section, particularly because his definitions of spirituality and humanism
are not far apart from one another. If the changes which occurred within interviewee 9,
such as the development of understanding and sensitivity towards others, are rather
similar to those which would occur following a spiritual transformation, then the
statement that spirituality is closely connected to humanistic psychology or sociology,
which was presented in the literature review, is affirmed. Nonetheless, it might be
essential to explore whether and how the lack of a transcendental dimension would
differentiate conflict resolution practitioners’ motivations as well as their characteristics
and style. Even if the differences are minor, as interviewee 9 stated, it is important to
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understand how a person’s framing of certain experiences affect his or her beliefs and
behavior with regards to it. Future research, therefore, should explore the differences and
similarities between spiritually motivated conflict resolution work and conflict resolution
work that is motivated by humanism.
Lastly, the experience of interviewee 1 demonstrates how connecting with another
person on a human level, even outside of a conflict situation, can drive a person towards
spirituality and lead him or her towards working in conflict resolution. “People’s careers
sometimes unfold by a series of accidents,” interviewee 1 said to me when I asked about
his path towards conflict resolution work. As one government position led to another, he
recalls, interviewee 1 found himself participating in Henry Kissinger’s shuttle diplomacy
between Israel and Egypt. This was one way in which interviewee 1 worked towards
conflict resolution, and successfully so, as the Kissinger shuttles resulted in 1978 in the
Camp David Accords. With that, a transforming moment he experienced during this
period brought him into an understanding that reshaped the way he views peace
processes, and led him to a different path towards peacemaking and to eventually
establishing his own conflict resolution NGO.
The personal transformation story of interviewee 1 begins in 1973. His wife
passed away just before the October War broke out between Israel and its Arab
neighbors, and left him with two young children. Shortly after this personal tragedy
occurred in his life, interviewee 1 was back in the Middle East, participating in the
Kissinger Shuttles. While Kissinger was delayed in Egypt, he and a colleague flew to
Israel to explain the situation to the Israeli government. He recalls:
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We arrived there on the day casualty figures from the ’73 War had been publicly
announced and it was almost like a palpable biblical cloud was hanging over the
land because everybody knew somebody who had been killed, wounded or
missing, so my colleague and I walked into Golda’s office,21 and she came over
and took my hand and said, ‘I lost a lot of people too, I’m sorry for your loss, I
guess we feel some of the same way today,’ and I thought to myself: if a Prime
Minister whom I’d always seen with a title over the door and official, could come
down to that immediate human level, if I ever forgot that I was dealing with
people and pain, I wouldn’t be doing my job as an American diplomat, so the two
levels of being were pronounced to me that day.
This peak experience, this moment of genuine human connection between
interviewee 1 and the Israeli Prime Minister shifted something within him. It helped him
see the importance of relating to other people as humans, even in politics, and gave him a
sense of true comfort in a time of deep grief. This deep connection over the loss of lives
incited a sense of spirituality within interviewee 1. Ever since that day, he began viewing
relationships in a different manner. During my interview with him he said that he
believes there is something holy about relationships, and referred to the ideas of Martin
Buber, which were discussed above. Currently, interviewee 1 is the head of an NGO that
focuses on transforming relationships through dialogue.
This subsection illustrates how genuine human connection can be spiritual, or
ignite a sense of spirituality within individuals. Furthermore, it demonstrates that
authentic interaction between people across conflict lines can shape their views of the
“other” and create a greater sense of empathy and understanding that is essential for an
enduring peace. Moreover, it shows the importance of relationships not only at the
grassroots, people-to-people level but also at the top, between government officials.
Lastly, it provides an example of a case in which experiencing a true bond between
21. Referring to Golda Meir, the Israeli Prime Minister at the time
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people became a motivating force in the life of an interviewee, one which shifted his
understanding of peacemaking and led him towards the conflict transformation paradigm.
The Power of Religion
Elaborating on the role of religion as a motivator for conflict resolution is beyond
the scope of this paper. However, since several of the interviewees in this research
defined themselves as religious and found their religion and spirituality as inseparable
from one another, it is important to discuss the spiritual aspects of religion that drive
individuals towards conflict resolution work. Religion is often associated with conflict
rather than conflict resolution, and although it rarely actually constitutes the cause for
conflict it does often act as a contributing factor to it (Smock 2002). Nevertheless,
religion can and does also act as a force for peace. This is true both on a theological level,
in terms of the values embedded in sacred texts, and on a practical level, as the efforts of
people from different religions who collaborate to promote peace tend to create a
significant impact on their respectful societies (Solomon in Smock 2002, viii). Today,
many initiatives around the world acknowledge the role of religion in conflict resolution
and incorporate a religious dimension into their activity. One example is the International
Center for Religion and Diplomacy that links religious reconciliation to more formal
diplomatic efforts.
For the more religious interviewees of the current research, religion appears to
have created a platform – either moral or practical – for conflict resolution work. When
talking about his work towards Arab-Israeli peace, interviewee 5 expressed that to him,
peace between Jews and Arabs in the Middle East constitutes a spiritual goal. When I
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asked him to elaborate, he said that striving towards peace is what characterizes his
spirituality as a Jewish person: “we Jewish spiritualists, we took peace as a focus of our
spirituality.” Interviewee 5 also articulated his frustration with Jewish spiritual leaders
who ignore this goal: “if there is a group of people in the world that you just ignore and
it’s the same group of people that your community is responsible for having a bad
relationship with, than that’s not authentic spirituality.” For interviewee 5, spiritual
values are thus directly connected to sacred texts and to the writings of Jewish
philosophers whom he holds dear. He also acknowledges, though, that these values are
related to a larger body of wisdom literature, which can be found in many religious
traditions.
Another interviewee that is highly influenced by religion in her quest for
normalizing Muslim-American relations is interviewee 4. Interviewee 4 grew up in a very
Catholic family. One of the first things she said to me during her interview had to do with
her religious motivation to work in conflict resolution: “in my religion, peacebuilding is
very strongly emphasized.” She later added: “I see the value of peace as central to the
Catholic faith, and I think to most religions really. And, of course, in the Bible Jesus says
‘Blessed are the peacemakers; they are the children of God.’” Nonetheless, for
interviewee 4, these do not only provide a religious motivation but also a spiritual one,
since she finds her religion and spirituality as reinforcing each other constantly, and, in
fact, as one and the same. She emphasized this connection while describing how her love
for God naturally makes her want to help making the world a better place:
If I love God then I don’t want to do something that would displease him, not
because I think I’ll be punished, but because you don’t want to hurt the person
that you love so much, and because if you love God you naturally love the people
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he created in the world so you want to do whatever you can to reduce suffering in
the world and to help since everyone is his children.
Yet, it was not until 2001 that interviewee 4 found her true vocation within that
larger mission. Interviewee 4 was studying abroad in Japan when the two planes hit the
World Trade Center towers back in the United States. The events of September 11
strongly impacted her, particularly due to her fervent love for the United States:
I didn’t know someone personally, like a family member, that was killed…but I
guess I felt it very personally because I love America very much and to see this
kind of hatred and violence directed at my country, it was almost like someone
attacking your child, you would almost rather be attacked personally than see
what you love so much be attacked. And I was in Japan at the time, studying
abroad…and I felt just such grief and trauma and sadness but also helplessness.
Attempting to deal with her grief, interviewee 4 was praying to God that night,
asking him to help her do something good that would help deal with these tragic
circumstances. Immediately following that, a Japanese friend approached her and asked
her for help in organizing a vigil at their school. While this event did not actualize,
interviewee 5 organized other vigils in the upcoming days, which turned out to be very
successful in the sense that they seemed to have helped individuals in dealing with their
grief and anger. Interviewee 4 was incredibly pleased with the fact that she could really
affect people’s lives in that manner, and felt that “God really answered my prayer in a
very real way.”
Interviewee 5 stated that this experience did not only help her deal with her
feelings of helplessness but also deepened her spirituality in a meaningful way that gave
her a new direction in life. Interviewee 5 shared with me that the way in which she was
reading the Bible changed as a result of the events of September 11, 2001:
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When Jesus says love your enemies do good to those who hate your bless those
who curse you and pray for those who do you harm, and I guess I thought it was
nice but never really thought about it too much before, I didn’t think it had much
of a relation to me because there wasn’t any one I considered my enemy, and I
still don’t really but after 9/11 I realized that there were people that would
consider me their enemy because of my nationality and maybe my religion. And
so that verse became very very important to me…because I felt very helpless after
the attack and I thought, at least the one thing I can do wherever I am is to pray
and to try to love the people who did this and try to forgive them and ask God to
forgive them…. it allowed me to be more spiritual in some ways…in terms of
love and forgiveness, having that experience that I didn’t have previously sort of
deepened my spirituality in terms of actually having to deal with the issue of
loving someone who had hurt you so much and forgiving someone.
In being able to love those who hurt her, interviewee 5 realized that she must do whatever
she can in order to improve relations between the United States and the Muslim world, so
that no side would ever want to hurt the other again. This, to her, became a spiritual
calling; something which she believed God wanted her to do. Today interviewee 5 is a
program manager in an NGO that incorporates religion in conflict resolution efforts.
While working on training programs in Pakistan, and reconciliation and reconstruction in
Afghanistan, interviewee 5 found herself connecting strongly with the people she was
working with: “you can…make a connection on a spiritual level as people of faith, even
though it [is] a different faith,” she said, hoping that others from the two faiths will be
able to follow a similar path.
Lastly, the unique story of interviewee 8, although less helpful in terms of future
implications, illustrates another form in which the amalgamation of religion and
spirituality can result in peace-related work. Interviewee 8 was born in Italy and grew up
Catholic. In 1970, at age 13, he became a member of an organization called the
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Community of Sant’Egidio, which was established in Rome two years earlier.22 This, he
shared with me, was when he became aware of a spiritual presence in his life and in the
world. “[This presence] connects with my capacity to fulfill life and so the more my
words and actions express this unfolding mystery the more my words and actions are
present, effective, impactful,” he explained. Thus, interviewee 8 developed his
spirituality through his participation in this religious organization.
The road from there to conflict resolution work was incredibly direct. The
community, which was focused on prayer and the spreading of the Gospel, was also
dedicated to service, and quickly became aware of world concerns. This happened
particularly through the relationship of this young community with a Mozambican priest
who was studying in Rome at the time. The situation in Mozambique at the time and the
connection to the priest created an opportunity for the Community of Sant’Egidio to
become involved in world affairs. Interviewee 8 shared with me, how the community,
which comprised of “a bunch of kids” at the time, was able to help the priest “see ways
through which Italian politicians could help Mozambique towards a more tolerant,
inclusive politics.” The community ended up playing a key role in Mozambique,
mediating between FRELIMO and the Mozambican National Resistance. Its efforts
culminated in the 1992 Rome General Peace Accords, which constituted the beginning of
the community’s involvement in peacebuilding around the world.
22. The Community of Sant’Egidio began as a gathering of Catholic high school students in Rome
who sought to live a religious life together and spread the Gospel. The community’s commitment to help
the poor led it to become a third party to the conflict in Mozambique starting from the 1970s. Its success as
a mediator in Mozambique led the Community of Sant’Egidio to become a world-recognized actor in the
international arena, and to work towards peace in places such as Algeria, the Balkans, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Guatemala, and Burundi.
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In the words of interviewee 8, the Community of Sant’Egidio “encountered
peacemaking in the execution of its own vocation in the world.” It appears that what is
true for the community as a whole is also true to him specifically. When I asked
interviewee 8 if his peacemaking efforts were motivated by spirituality, he responded by
saying: “I met peacemaking in the Community of Sant'Egidio and I remained involved in
peacemaking because of the Community of Sant'Egidio so I would say that definitely
that’s the case.” He added, “I stumbled into it but then the stumbling was at the same
time demanding, challenging, life-giving and very compelling.” And indeed, from
volunteer activity in Rome, peacemaking turned into the main occupation of interviewee
8, as he began directing a center for conflict resolution at an academic institution.
Interviewee 8 emphasized that “clearly you cannot equate peacemaking and
spiritual life. You may have spiritual motivation to a peacemaking effort but you can
have a lot of generative, productive, very precious moments in different paths of life.”
With that, when I asked him if he could see himself doing anything else for a living, he
responded by saying that even if he were working in another field, a component of nonpaid non-professional peacemaking, most likely through the Community of Sant’Egidio,
would always remain a part of his life.
The connection of interviewee 8 to peacemaking, which was directly linked to his
membership in a religious community, illustrates a collective way in which people get
involved in conflict resolution efforts. This form of entering the field is different from all
of the other examples presented in this paper, since whereas other religious interviewees
were also motivated to do good by their religions, they found their calling in peace work
individually and not as a part of a religious group. The way in which interviewee 8
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entered the conflict resolution field thus should be explored further in future studies. This
could also look at individuals within other religious communities such as Quaker
communities, who are also known for their peace-promoting activities.
The personal stories of interviewees 4, 5, and 8 demonstrate the way in which
religion and spirituality can come together as motivating forces for conflict resolution
work. This appears to occur on an individual or community level, a theological,
ideological or practical level. Either way, the result is the same – religious individuals
with firm motivation to act for the bettering of this world.
An Additional Factor: Spiritual Awareness
Raising Through Education
While some of the interviewees in this research embraced their spirituality in a
manner consistent with that described by scholars such as Maslow, Jung and Arasteh, not
all of the interviewees followed this predicted path. Those interviewees who did not
arrive at their spirituality through a transforming moment seem to have embraced
spirituality in a gradual manner through different forms of education. Interviewees 4, 5
and 8, who grew up in religious families, stated that they developed their spirituality at
home or with their religious communities. At the same time, interviewees 8 and 11 stated
that the humanistic and spiritual values that were emphasized throughout their upbringing
introduced spirituality into their lives. Finally, interviewees 9 and 10 viewed exposure to
spiritual individuals and traditions later in life as what led them to gradually delve into
spirituality.23
23. Interviewees 9 and 10 mentioned the presence of religion and spirituality in their upbringing
and stated that this initial exposure made them more open to spirituality later in life.
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With that, for all of the interviewees discussed in the previous subsections, with
the exception of interviewee 8, the connection between spirituality and conflict resolution
was still created through a moment of transformation. Thus, a gradual acceptance of
spirituality into their lives might have actually been a contributor for those moments that
deepened their practice and created a new calling in their lives. Four of the interviewees
who did not report a moment of transformation as driving them toward conflict resolution
work, and did not fit under the categories above, are interviewees 7, 9, 10, and 11.
Nonetheless, the spirituality of all four either directly contributed to their entry to the
conflict resolution field or affected their practice significantly. Thus, their stories
comprise yet another way in which spirituality motivates individuals to work in conflict
resolution.
Growing up in a Baha’i home, interviewee 7 shared with me that he was exposed
to humanistic values from a young age. When I asked him how he has become a spiritual
person, he answered: “ I think it’s how you are educated.” According to interviewee 7,
every prophet or religious leader is first of all an educator. And, thus, he implied, it is
possible for people who follow them to become spiritual through education. Yet, for
interviewee 7 himself, it was also formal education that led him towards his spiritual
lifestyle. Studying Arab and Islamic studies, and getting his Ph.D. in English literature,
interviewee 7 was greatly influenced by poetry and literature, both Arab and Western:
“poetry opened my eyes,” he said. “I felt that there was a message to the human race in
the words of Shakespeare, of Dante, of Goethe,” he added. He discussed this message
throughout his interview while connecting the values of justice, unity and peace.
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After finishing his Ph.D. he was interested in teaching “anything in the humanities
that’s related to the spirit.” In the meantime living through the civil war in Lebanon, his
spirituality and religious beliefs only strengthened. “It is my faith in God,” he said, “that
allows me to love all people.” The passion interviewee 7 possesses toward humanistic
values leads him to believe that one day humanity could arrive at a stage of universal
peace. Today, he is working towards this goal both with his students and with interfaith
groups around the world. He aims to make them grasp and follow what he refers to as
humanity’s shared universal principles.
Interviewee 11 also began her spiritual journey in a home environment. While
exposing her to different traditions, her parents encouraged her to find her own
spirituality in whatever way fit her. “I grew up with international people coming in and
out of our house, and being aware of all the reasoning behind it,” she said, referring to the
establishment of cultural understanding across conflict lines. Reflecting back, she stated
that her experiences in an international youth camp that worked towards building crosscultural friendship at age 11, were definitely spiritual in their nature: “here’s this human
family, look how big it is, look how global it is…when you think about compassion for
other people that you know, all of a sudden I know around the globe.” Following that
experience were many years of working with American-Soviet exchange groups, which
constituted the beginning of her work in conflict resolution.
While in college, interviewee 11 took a course on Buddhism, which influenced
her greatly. She began practicing with a group of Ph.D. students and deepened her
spirituality. From that point until today interviewee 11 has been affiliating herself with
Buddhism. Her practice was further deepened later in life, while undergoing a crisis in
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her marriage. While following conflict resolution principles she was able to overcome
this crisis and grow as a result, discovering a whole new extent of the connection between
spirituality and conflict resolution. Today interviewee 11 still focuses on the Caucasus
region, and works with peace practitioners there. She is also a professor of conflict
resolution and her courses include ones that emphasize the connection of spirituality and
consciousness to conflict resolution.
Interviewees 9 and 10 are different than interviewees 7 and 11 in the sense that
they did not consider themselves to be spiritual when entering the conflict resolution
field. Both of them gradually became spiritual in a later stage in life. For interviewee 9
this happened while he was teaching at a Quaker school in the 1990s. He had a close
friend who was very spiritual and together they were attending Quaker meetings.
Although claiming to have some spiritual base prior to this, interviewee 9 said that during
this five-year period, he began giving spirituality “more and more attention and really
more serious thought and reflection.” Later on he also began looking into Sufism and
Buddhism more seriously, and he has been continuing this exploration ever since.
The newfound spirituality of interviewee 9 changed his frame of reference from
humanist to spiritual, and he particularly began seeing interconnectedness as a highly
spiritual experience. It was at around the same time that he also began acknowledging the
role of religion in conflict resolution. When I asked interviewee 9 if his work today is
motivated by spirituality, he answered: “I don’t have any doubt today. As I told you, in
1995 I’ve already begun…integrating those things in my work. It’s been about 15 years
in which I’ve been practicing both personally and professionally.” Today interviewee 9,
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as a professor, a facilitator and a trainer, focuses mainly on religion and peace, while
always emphasizing human connectedness.
Finally, interviewee 10, a doctoral student of International Relations focusing on
gender, religion and conflict issues, and a board member in organizations related to
women and spirituality, began her work in conflict resolution simply because she found it
interesting. She studied development but took a few classes in conflict resolution and
became drawn to the subject. She found a job in an institute that works with religious
peace-builders but at the time was not particularly religious or spiritual herself.
Nonetheless, the work of religious-builders sparked an interest in her and she began
exploring spiritually herself. A few years down the road, she participated in a workshop
taught by a Sufi spiritual leader that, in her words, blew her away. She has been reading
books she bought at this workshop ever since and surrounding herself with other spiritual
individuals.
A crisis she was undergoing recently, she shared with me, has led her to delve into
spirituality even further in an attempt to find inner peace.
Today interviewee 10 views both her spirituality and her work as giving purpose
to her life: “more and more…I feel that my spirituality motivations and even informs my
conflict resolution work,” she stated. Her strengthening relationship to religion and
specifically to Islam also seems to be motivating her towards “building a more equitable
and peaceful world.” Interviewee 10 also mentioned that she is seeing the effects of her
spirituality on her life and work: “when I feel like I’m more connected within myself, I’m
probably a better person. I’m a better listener, I’m more patient, I’m more able to connect
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with others.” Related this to peace work, she added: “I think I will only be effective in
helping to build peace if I have inner peace within myself.”
Each in their own ways, the interviewees in this chapter arrived at spirituality
through education. As they delved more deeply into their practices, they began to see the
connections between their inner journeys and outer peace. Those already working in the
field of conflict resolution found ways to connect the two. The one who was not, only
wished to teach something “connected to the spirit.” Thus, more than anything, this
section shows on a broader scale how spiritual individuals wish to create a connection
between their life and their work, as indicated by Neal et al. (1999).
The Power of Love – the Connecting Element
The power of love encompasses a great deal of interviewees’ motivation to work
in conflict resolution. When we love another person, and act from a place of love; we are
genuine, selfless, admiring, and caring. The interviewees in this study seem to feel this
kind of love on a larger scale. The way they behave towards others as well as the
environment makes them lovers of our world. As such, they do what they can for the
bettering of it. The power of love relates to interviewees’ striving for unity and harmony,
their level of understanding, accepting, and connecting with other people, as well as with
God, which were described in the previous subsections. Thus, love becomes a connecting
element between the different life stories of interviewees in this study.
According to Pitrim Sorokin, a Russian-born 20th century sociologist, who
established the sociology Department of Harvard University, as well as the Harvard
Research Center in Creative Altruism, love manifolds into six aspects. Love can be
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religious, i.e. love is God and God is love; ethical, i.e. love as goodness itself;
ontological, i.e. love as unifying and harmonizing; biological, i.e. love as life-creating;
psychological, i.e. love as empathy, sympathy, kindness, devotion, admiration,
benevolence, reverence, respect, adoration, friendship; and social, i.e. love as meaningful
interaction (2002, 3-14). The participants in this research referred to all of the aspects of
love described by Sorokin excluding the biological aspect, which is irrelevant in this
case. It in interesting to note here that Boulding, one of the founders of the conflict
resolution field, also viewed love as a motivating force for individuals as well as for
states (1982). Yet, according to Nhat Hanh, love is not always a spiritual force: “it is
what we do with love that makes it into a spiritual power” (2008, 108). The individuals in
this research, while using their love to help bring about peace, definitely turned love into
a spiritual power.
Interviewee 2 said to me that she believes “God is love,” and that she wants to be
“full of love.” When she is full of love, she stated, she is able to spread love and peace in
the world. She shared an incident with me, in which she connected heart to heart with a
soldier at a checkpoint in Israel, and how thanks to their connection she was able to keep
footage that she gathered for a documentary that she could not have kept otherwise.
Interviewee 8 mentioned several times during his interview that he always tries to
live “a life of intimacy with the presence that is life; that is love; that is light; [that is]
peace.” For him, the connection between love, peace, and the transcendent was purely
intuitive. He also referred to peace work as life giving, thus connecting his work to his
spiritual beliefs.
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Interviewee 7 stated that his faith is what allows him to love all people. He
believes that without love and unity, peace is impossible. During his interview he
passionately recited the Sufi sage, philosopher and poet Ibn Arabi, who wrote:
I follow the religion of Love: whatever way Love's camels take,
that is my religion and my faith.
His connection to his wife was a repeating idea in his interview, as he was sharing that
their love for each other, despites all of their differences, inspires him to want to achieve
peace in the world as well.
Interviewee 4 sees love for God as a central value. Her love for God leads her to
love other people and peace, she states, is the natural extension of that. “I think it’s hard
to have real peace without love,” she stated. Her ability to love the people who hurt her
terribly and to forgive them for what they have done, gives her the energy to work on
creating peace in the world.
The motivation of interviewee 5 to bring peace to Israelis and Palestinians, he
states, “is rooted in a love of complete strangers, it is rooted in a love of enemies.” This
love, he believes in spiritual is nature.
Interviewee 6, who was heavily affected by terrorism and by the death of loved
ones in the Middle East, returned to the United States with a new understanding: “after all
of this career and dealing with violence and warfare and death and destruction it is really
true that so much of the answer is love.”
Interviewees 3 and 11 mentioned that they witnessed glimpses of love through
their spiritual experiences, and one of the reasons for their work in conflict resolution is
to be able to see more of that love in this world.
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Interviewees 1 and 9, through their genuine connectedness with other people,
which comes out of their spirituality, help create meaningful interactions between
individuals and promote a kind of social love.
Interviewee 10 was truly touched by the love that she saw through peacemakers
who have been living through violent conflicts. They provided her with the inspiration to
work towards peace.
Interviewee 12, at the age of 88, keeps working towards peace, simply because
this is what he loves doing. He will keep going, he said to me, as long as he is physically
capable to do so.
All 12 interviewees were able to bring to life the words of Abdul Aziz Said, who
simply and beautifully creates the relationship between love, spirituality and peace:
When our thoughts reflect love,
Our words are those of a lover
And our deeds are directed toward the Beloved.
We are peace.
When Peace emanates from us, Peace returns to us.
We become peaceful – a source and mirror of peace.
This section explored a range of paths to spirituality that drove conflict resolution
practitioners towards their line of work, or significantly changed their existing practices.
The data also illustrated that spirituality remains a motivating force for peace
practitioners throughout their careers. What seems to connect the experiences of all 12
interviewees is motivation by spiritual love. While the components of spirituality
mentioned here are by no means exhaustive, they provide a comprehensive account of the
life experiences of the participants in this research.
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Alternative Explanations
Several interviewees mentioned motivations to conflict resolution work other than
spirituality. These include role models, conflict in childhood, and former occupation. I
describe them below, as they were presented by the interviewees. These should be
studied in future research in greater detail.
Interviewee 11 stated that having a role model in her family was a large
contributor to her entering the conflict resolution field. Her grandmother was the one
who established the international youth camp in which she participated at a young age,
the same one that comprised the beginning of her own work in conflict resolution.
Talking about her grandmother, she said to me: “she got her Ph.D. in the 1920s and then
she went and changed the world, so I think I grew up with that vision.” Interviewee 11
understood her grandmother’s work from a very young age; she saw what a woman could
achieve and was inspired by it.
Inspiration was something both interviewee 11 and interviewee 10 mentioned that
drove them to the field of conflict resolution and kept them going afterwards. Interviewee
11 who got her inspiration from her grandmother; today she is getting it from
peacemakers in conflict zones, with whom she works. Interviewee 10 shared with me that
she was highly inspired by Romeo Dallire, who served as Force Commander of the
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) in 1993-1994 and is known
for his attempts to stop the genocide there. Listening to him speak in the Hague,
interviewee 10 recalled, contributed to her interest in and passion for conflict resolution.
Since entering the field, interviewee 10, like interviewee 11, was inspired by
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peacemakers from conflict areas who, despite of their antagonistic or violent
environments, are seeking peace in every way they can.
Interviewees 5 and 6 mentioned conflict in childhood as a factor that led them to
become mediators and problem-solvers. Interviewee 6 stated that he grew up in a fairly
combative family, and that while trying to protect himself from potential violent situation
he was always attempting to make peace in his home. Interviewee 5 stated that he was
exposed to conflict in his family and his community early in life. Because he did not
know how to deal with conflict, he shared with me, he tried to find ways to resolve it, and
became a sort of a peacemaker.
Finally, interviewees 2 and 9 mentioned their former studies or occupation as
related to their current work. Interviewee 9 mentioned that it was his study of counseling
education that helped him focus his nonviolent struggle on dialogue and connection
between people. Interviewee 2 mentioned that for her, working on international conflict
resolution was taking her former work as an organizational consultant to the next level.
Thus, based on the testimonies of these interviewees, a background of counseling and
consulting might be related to international conflict resolution work.
The reasons for working in conflict resolution are vast. This research does not
pretend to encompass all motivations for conflict resolution work, but rather focuses
specifically on spiritual motivations. While this section exposed additional possible
motivations, these might be just the tip of the iceberg. Future research can illuminate
other motivations to a greater extent.
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Conclusion
This chapter illustrated how spirituality and conflict resolution work became
connected in the lives of twelve spiritual peace practitioners. While examining the
hypothesis it explored whether and how individuals’ path towards spirituality played a
part in their motivation to work in conflict resolution. Individuals appeared to arrive at
spirituality through peak experiences and new understandings that in some cases were
preceded by a period of crisis and together created moments of transformation, or through
a gradual process of formal or informal education. Nonetheless, even amongst the latter
group, individuals seem to have deepened their spirituality through peak experiences and
personal transformations. Finding or deepening their spirituality through those moments
led individuals to a new vocation and constituted the beginning of their work in conflict
resolution or the change of direction within the conflict resolution field. Whether
undergoing a personal transformation or not, individuals in this study found that
components of their spirituality namely, harmony, understanding, connectedness, religion
and love – became and still are their central motivations to work towards peace.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
This study explores the relationship between one’s spiritual quest and his or her
pursuit of peace amongst communities and nations. It illustrates how through peak
experience and personal transformation, education, and religion – spirituality becomes a
driving force for conflict resolution work. In fact, the data collected for this research
shows that spirituality not only acts as a driving force to enter the field, but also acts as a
constant motivation in the day-to-day work of peace practitioners. Furthermore, the data
indicates that there is a reciprocal relationship between one and the other: conflict
resolution work within itself often reinforces an individual’s spirituality. Hence, a mutual
relationship seems to exist between the two. In this concluding chapter, I examine the
implications of the relationship mentioned above on the conflict resolution field, and
recommend the fostering of spirituality and spiritual values among conflict resolution
practitioners.
Practicing Conflict Resolution
Through Spiritual Lenses
As illustrated in this study, harmony, human connectedness and love play a
substantial role in spiritual peace practitioners’ lives and work. Yet, spiritual traits are
more than mere motivators – they express themselves through the work of the individuals
who possess them. A facilitator, mediator or trainer cannot keep who he or she is outside
of his or her work. The intentions and compassion of spiritual peace practitioners
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definitely manifest themselves as these individuals work towards conflict resolution. This
may occur on intrapersonal and group levels, as well as on an analytical level.
Beginning from the former, spirituality-motivated peace practitioners keep
performing their work as best as they can due to intrinsic factors such as an inner quest
for harmony. It also keeps them hopeful even after failures, and provides them with a
sense of purpose. In a field where exhaustion often becomes an inhibiting issue, this piece
of information is of crucial importance.
Interviewee 12, who is in his eighties and does not consider retirement as an
option, is one example of this. Another example is interviewee 11, who acknowledges
that spirituality prevents the familiar exhaustion that is attached to the conflict resolution
field:
Having the sense of the human spirit gives me hope and optimism even when all
seemingly rational analysis would say – ‘this is ridiculously impossible.’ Gandhis
do exist in the world. Martin Luther Kings do exist in the world, and there
are…heroes in every conflict situation that see the good in the other, see some
alternative path…so to know that these people exists gives me hope…and I think
to do conflict resolution for years and years and years and not burn out requires
some sustaining faith in the human spirit.
Other than motivation to keep going, spirituality also appears to increase the
effectiveness of conflict resolution attempts made by spiritual practitioners. Several
interviewees described how their state of being tremendously influences their work.
Interviewee 10, for instance, said the following about her work: “I think I will only be
effective in helping to build peace if I have inner peace within myself. I think that
definitely my own effectiveness as a peacemaker…relies on to what extent I myself feel
inner peace, peace in my own life.” This statement of interviewee 10 can be interpreted
as related to the connection between one’s sense of inner peace and his or her striving
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towards peace in the world, which was discussed in earlier chapters. Even more, it
suggests a consonance between one’s inner dynamics and his or her external behavior.
Furthermore, it suggests that one’s sense of inner peace can go beyond the individual
himself or herself, and positively affect those he or she is in interaction with.
Several interviewees mentioned this while sharing that their own spirituality has
helped them create the right atmosphere for productive sessions of training or facilitation.
As interviewee 1 states: “there’s a genuine feeling of power, not power for me but power
for good…I’m using power as a capacity to change the course of events.” Interviewee 2
explained how she is able to influence a situation, while describing a difficult point in a
workshop with Greek and Turkish Cypriots. As the situation back in Cyprus deteriorated,
she recalls, participants were preparing to quit the workshop, but she was able to use her
spiritual learning to help them see the importance of the workshop, and perhaps even
value it more under the circumstances. In her words: “to be able to resonate or radiate the
vibration of peace is part of my spiritual training, and to be able to do that in a situation
where there is no peace is transformative, can be transformative in the environment.”
Thus, peace practitioners’ spirituality seems to positively affect their work, making them
more connected to other people and to their environment, and as a result, also more
effective in their endeavors.
On the other hand, interviewee 5, who admitted to become highly frustrated by
his failures to facilitate peace between Israel and its Arab neighbors, stated that his
frustration and anger prevent him from finding peace within himself. This, he believes,
also affects how effective he is at his work. “The key to the future of the planet is to have
happy social change makers,” he argued. Therefore, he continued, you have to discover
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“how you use your heart and your mind to both be happy yourself and to make others
better off.” It appears, then, that practitioners’ peace of mind can highly affect their
efforts for better or worse, and that spiritual peacemakers are highly capable of arriving at
a peaceful state of mind which allows them to perform well at their work.
Yet it is not only the personality or presence of the practitioner that influences the
result of conflict resolution attempts. Moving on to the analytical level, the approach to
conflict resolution taken by the practitioner is also essential to the success of any
intervention. Unsurprisingly, participants in this research saw the merits of Lederach’s
conflict transformation approach. Although some did not state so explicitly, it become
clear from their interviews, that the transformative approach matched their holistic view
of conflict resolution. Practitioners’ approach to conflict, of course, affects the way they
analyze a conflict, and determines their mode of intervention.
Several interviewees emphasized an approach that addresses personal, relational,
and structural dimensions of conflict. They stated that they work not only towards shortterm problem solving, but also towards long-term personal and societal transformation.
Interviewee 2, for example, stated that she follows a systems approach to peace. A
systems worldview, according to interviewee 2, “is all about interconnectedness,
relationship, finding coherence in the midst of chaos.” Thus, it is clear that the work of
interviewee 2 is directly affected by her spirituality. A number of other interviewees
mentioned that they follow a wholesome, multi-track approach to peace, while
recognizing the importance of a variety of elements in conflict resolution processes.
Others interviewees mentioned a focus on changing relationships from the core, another
aspect of the conflict transformation approach. Thus, although not all of the interviewees
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focus on the variety of different levels of conflict transformation through their direct
work, they all acknowledge the importance of all of those levels, and seem to be playing
their part in the grand scheme of things.
In a sense, spiritual peace practitioners are the epitome of the conflict
transformation approach, particularly those who have gone through transformations
themselves. The characteristics they adopt as a result of their peak experiences and
transformation naturally turn them into effective peace practitioners. Individuals who go
through peak experiences and become self-actualizing or fully integrated, usually possess
qualities such as humility, creativity, human kinship, and the ability to see beyond
dichotomies (Maslow 1968, 71). The spiritual individuals participating in this research
definitely displayed such characteristics; these can be detected throughout the excerpts of
their interviews as they are presented in this paper, and were definitely apparent in our
interpersonal interaction as well. In concord with Arasteh, I argue that such fully
integrated individuals possess the characteristics that allow them to become more
effective mediators, facilitators, or trainers (Arasteh 1975, 254).
More than that, such spiritual peace practitioners also seem to be well equipped to
fully implement Lederach’s conflict transformation techniques, as they seem capable of
looking at immediate situations, understanding deeper relationship patterns, and
creatively assisting conflict parties to address all of these issues with a long-term view
(Lederach 2003); they are able, as interviewee 11 stated, to engage their whole selves in
the conflict resolution process.
Furthermore, it is possible the unique nature of peace practitioners’
transformations lead them to understanding themselves and the world in a new way that
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is conducive to conflict transformation. This has happened to interviewee 1, for instance,
who learned through his personal transformation about the importance of relationships in
all levels of conflict resolution, both between high-ranking officials, and private
individuals.
For all of the reasons above, I argue that spiritual individuals who have gone
through transformation themselves are highly capable of performing well while working
towards the transformation of other individuals and towards the transformation of
relationships between conflicting parties. That being said, the parties to the conflict
themselves, of course, share responsibility for the results of any intervention. Neither the
personality and the approach of the practitioners, nor their thorough understanding of the
needs of the parties, can guarantee fruitful interventions.
It is important to state that the conflict transformation approach goes beyond
relationships alone, which have been the main focus on my analysis here. Nonetheless, as
interviewee 2 commented, different individuals have different roles in the conflict
resolution and peacebuilding processes; each must work on what they are best at. I
strongly believe that spiritual peace practitioners prove themselves to be particularly
good at the interpersonal and relational level of conflict resolution, and that they are able
to place their activities in the context of larger scale societal, structural, and cultural
transformations.
Spirituality and Conflict Resolution Education
If spirituality positively affects peace practitioners’ conflict resolution efforts, it
might be helpful to cultivate it in conflict resolution programs. But is this at all possible?
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Or can spirituality not be taught in such a structured academic setting? Interviewee 2
referred to spirituality as “a skill that I advocate that we’d be teaching in our
universities.” She added: “I learned it from years of spiritual study and practice but it can
be taught, more briefly, but it takes practice to develop. I can teach it to you in three
minutes, but then you have to practice it to really have it as a tool, as a gift to use.”
Interviewee 11 supports the statements made by interviewee 2 through her words
and actions. She argued in her interview that “if it’s true that many conflict resolution
practitioners are motivated or inform their work through their spirituality then some sort
of an acknowledgment of that in teaching conflict resolution would be appropriate.”
Agreeing with this comment, I argue that conflict resolution education programs must
work towards the development of increased consciousness levels among their students.
Interviewee 11 herself has already does so, as she has instructed classes on consciousness
and spirituality in the conflict resolution program where she teaches.
Yet there are also other ways through which spirituality can be taught in conflict
resolution programs. While focusing on the world’s available spiritual teachings, students
might not experience transformation, but they can certainly gain an understanding into
aspects of humanity that are not always emphasized in non-spiritual writings. Interviewee
7 regularly teaches his students about a variety of spiritual traditions. This, he believes,
leads to increased tolerance and understanding of others amongst his students. This type
of course, I believe, can be highly valuable for students of conflict resolution.
Interviewee 3 seemed to agree with this notion. Towards the end of his interview
he emphasized that he is above all interested today in exploring how the spiritual
wisdoms could “more deeply manifest in the world to help individual transformation and
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societal transformation, and the bringing about the conditions for peace to be experienced
inwardly and also across societies.” Thus, interviewee 3 also recognizes the merit of
delving into different spiritual traditions for the betterment of conflict resolution
practices.
It is here where the lines between spirituality, religion and humanism might
become somewhat blurry. Nonetheless, all have valuable lessons that can prove
themselves useful to conflict resolution practitioners. Furthermore, although this paper
illustrates that humanistic motivation contains somewhat different characteristics than
spiritual motivation amongst some individuals, none is necessarily better than the other,
and each can also lead towards the other. Thus the teaching of any of the above, in my
view, can only promote more human-oriented and wholesome ways of building peace.
Education for spirituality, in any of the methods described above, could thus help
improve the effectiveness of conflict resolution attempts. It could also help develop a
more holistic approach to peace. Hence, teaching the various spiritual traditions, in both
theory and practice, can enrich conflict resolution students’ worldviews, and help them
develop skills that would turn them into better practitioners. This kind of teaching might
also produce some opposition from certain individuals. Therefore, a variety of
approaches of teaching spirituality should be taken along the spectrum, or the circle, of
religion, spirituality, science and humanism. This will allow students and practitioners
from different backgrounds open up to these valuable teachings.
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Looking Ahead
Several issues that were raised by this study should be extended beyond the scope
of this work. I consolidate them here as possible avenues for future research. First, the
difference between spiritual motivation and humanist motivation should be examined
further. This paper was unable to capture the different implications of the two, which are
critical if we wish to implement the conclusions of this study in conflict resolution
education programs. Second, the imbalance of the male-female ratio in high-level conflict
resolution efforts and its consequences should be explored further. Third, spiritual
motivation for conflict resolution that results from religious communities or certain
religious denominations should be looked at more deeply. While the Community of
Sant’Egidio might be a unique case, it appears that many of the founding fathers of the
field of conflict resolution were, for instance, Mennonites or Quakers. These, as well as
other denominations within a variety of religions, should be explored to discover how
they motivate individuals to work towards international conflict resolution. Lastly, role
models and inspiring individuals, conflict in childhood, and former occupations were
presented in this paper as alternative motivations leading individuals to conflict
resolution work. Each of these explanations should be examined more carefully to
determine how it affects conflict resolution practitioners’ understanding of the field as
well as their skills.
This paper has demonstrated that spirituality among conflict resolution
practitioners matters – it acts as a motivator to enter the field and becomes the reason
why they keep going. Moreover, spirituality equips practitioners with new values and
tools that can be used throughout their work, thus making them better at what they do.
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Due to all of these positive implications, the role of spirituality must be valued in its own
right, and merits further study within the context of conflict resolution. While I have
focused mainly on the role of spirituality as a motivator, future work can elaborate on this
topic and also examine other functions of spirituality within conflict resolution work.
This paper, therefore, can be seen as one of the building blocks of a larger theory dealing
with the connection between spirituality and conflict resolution, and between inner and
outer peace.
Looking ahead, based on the findings of this research, spirituality must be taken
into account as governmental and non-governmental organizations plan conflict
resolution interventions. While this would be easier to implement on a non-governmental
level, the personal story of interviewee 2 illustrates how spiritual values can play a part
even in the highest diplomatic levels. Taking spirituality into consideration is likely to
enhance the conflict transformation model, as it will emphasize the human dimension of
conflict and promote creativity in solutions to specific issues in conflict situations.
Furthermore, the incorporation of spirituality into conflict resolution efforts implies that
the identity of the peace practitioners becomes crucial to the success of a conflict
resolution effort. While these ideas are not completely new, they are definitely not
common practices, as spirituality is hardly ever discussed in a direct manner in such
settings. Thus, the institutionalization of spirituality as a bridge builder, in addition to or
in a complementary role to religion, can become a strong enhancer of current conflict
resolution efforts.
Lastly, an additional byproduct of this study which stems from the interviews is a
rare glimpse into the inner lives of peacemakers themselves. Kyoon (2009) argues that
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through personal and authentic storytelling, peace practitioners can help conflicting
parties shape their way of thinking in a constructive manner, and cultivate their moral
imagination.24 Indeed, peace practitioners’ storytelling can act as a powerful inspiration
for those facing conflict around the world, as well as to fellow practitioners and future
practitioners. Sharing the stories that were exposed through this study, as well as other
transformation stories that are yet to be written or told, can become a powerful tool for
increasing consciousness and compassion, for encouraging personal transformation, and
for advancing peace on all levels.
24. According to Lederach,
The moral imagination requires the capacity to imagine ourselves in a web of
relationships that includes our enemies; the ability to sustain a paradoxical curiosity that
embraces complexity without reliance on dualistic polarity; the fundamental belief in and
pursuit of the creative act; and the acceptance of the inherent risk of stepping into the
mystery of the unknown that lies beyond the far too familiar landscape of violence.
(2005, 5)
APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW GUIDE
•
Could you please describe what you do in a couple of sentences?
•
Can you tell me about how you began working in the field of conflict resolution?
o When was the first time you thought about working in the field of conflict
resolution?
o What is it that got you into this field in the first place?
•
What are some of the things you enjoy the most about your work?
o How do you feel regarding your decision to work in the conflict resolution
field?
•
What role, if any does spirituality play in your life?
o What is the meaning of spirituality to you?
o Where, if at all, does religion fit in?
o Would you say that spirituality was a part of your life prior to your work
in the conflict resolution field?
•
Did spirituality play a role in your decision to go into the conflict resolution field?
•
Could you share one of a few important points in your life that helped you embark
on your spiritual path?
•
How would you define the connection (if it exists) between your personal practice
and your work?
•
What are some other reasons that you can think of, that led you to work in conflict
resolution?
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APPENDIX B
PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM
Consent to Participate in Research
Identification of Investigators & Purpose of Study
You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Anat Ben Nun from
American University. The purpose of this study is to investigate motivations for working
in the conflict resolution work, while focusing on the role of spirituality in the process.
This study will contribute to the student’s completion of his/her master’s thesis.
Research Procedures
Should you decide to participate in this research study, you will be asked to sign this
consent form once all your questions have been answered to your satisfaction. This study
consists of an interview that will be administered to individual participants in
Washington, DC. You will be asked to provide answers to a series of questions related to
your motivation to work in conflict resolution. With your consent, he interview will be
recorded.
Time Required
Participation in this study will require 60 minutes of your time.
Risks
The investigator does not perceive more than minimal risks from your involvement in
this study.
Benefits
Potential benefits from participation in this study include a deeper exploration of what
drives one to become a conflict resolution practitioner. Furthermore, benefits for the field
may include the future generation of criteria for conflict resolution practitioners, and a
better understanding of how spirituality may or may not play a role in the process of
conflict resolution.
Confidentiality
The respondent's identity will be attached to the final form of this study only if the
respondent agrees to it. Otherwise, the results of this project will be coded in such a way
that the respondent’s identity will not be attached to the final form of this study. The
researcher retains the right to use and publish non-identifiable data. All data will be
stored in a secure location accessible only to the researcher. Upon completion of the
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study, all information that matches up individual respondents with their answers,
including audio tapes, will be destroyed. Participation & Withdrawal
Your participation is entirely voluntary. You are free to choose not to participate.
Should you choose to participate, you can withdraw at any time without consequences of
any kind. You may also refuse to answer any individual question without consequences.
Questions about the Study
If you have questions or concerns during the time of your participation in this study, or
after its completion or you would like to receive a copy of the final aggregate results of
this study, please contact:
Anat Ben Nun
Anthony Wanis-St. John
School of International Service
School of International Service
American University
American University
anat.bennun@gmail.com
wanis@american.edu
Questions about Your Rights as a Research Subject
Dr. David Haaga
Matt Zembrzuski
Chair, Institutional Review Board
IRB Coordinator
American University
American University
(202)885-1718
(202)885-3447
dhaaga@american.edu
irb@american.edu
Giving of Consent
I have read this consent form and I understand what is being requested of me as a
participant in this study. I freely consent to participate. I have been given satisfactory
answers to my questions. The investigator provided me with a copy of this form. I
certify that I am at least 18 years of age.
I give consent to be audio taped during my interview. ________ (initials)
______________________________________
Name of Participant (Printed)
______________________________________
Name of Participant (Signed)
______________
Date
______________________________________
Name of Researcher (Signed)
______________
Date
APPENDIX C
LIST OF INTERVIEWEES
Interviewee 1 – Former U.S. diplomat, current president of a peace-related institute.
Interviewed in person by author on November 5, 2010.
Interviewee 2 – Founder and director of an initiative promoting peaceful human systems.
Interviewed in person by author on October 28, 2010.
Interviewee 3 – Director of Individual Giving at an international conflict resolution nongovernmental organization. Interviewed in person by author on November 15, 2010.
Interviewee 4 – Program manager at an international conflict resolution nongovernmental organization. Interviewed in person by author on November 16, 2010.
Interviewee 5 – Professor of conflict resolution and director of a conflict resolution
institute. Interviewed in person by author on November 19, 2010.
Interviewee 6 – Former diplomat, political psychologist, active in various conflict
resolution initiatives. Interviewed in person by author on October 25, 2010.
Interviewee 7 – Professor, author and critic who focuses on interfaith issues. Interviewed
in person by author on October 28, 2010.
Interviewee 8 – Director of a conflict resolution university program. Interviewed in
person by author on November 22, 2010.
Interviewee 9 – Professor of conflict resolution and a director of several peace-related
institutes. Interviewed via phone by author on December 2, 2010.
Interviewee 10 – Doctoral student of International Relations focusing on gender, religion
and conflict issues, board member in organizations related to women and spirituality.
Interviewed in person by author on November 17, 2010.
Interviewee 11 – Professor and practitioner of conflict resolution. Interviewed in person
by author on November 22, 2010.
Interviewee 12 – Former diplomat, founder and director of a conflict resolution NGO.
Interviewed in person by author on November 8, 2010.
115
APPENDIX D
IDENTIFYING CODES, CATEGORIES AND THEORY
Codes
Categories
Themes
Trauma
Struggle in personal life
Illness
Death of loved one
Near-death experience
Pivotal moment
Transformation
Natural inclination
Coincidence
Contemplation
Embracing spirituality
Deepening spirituality
New understanding
Calling
Vocation
Would not work elsewhere
Happiness
Meaning
Love
Motivation
Work as life giving
Life-work connection
Making a difference
Inner and outer peace
Spiritual power
Spirituality and peace
Religion and conflict
resolution
Religion and humanism
Spirituality and religion
Crisis
Important event
Transforming moment
Inner processes related to
spirituality leading to work
in conflict resolution
New realization about the
self and the world
Calling
Conceptions of spirituality,
religion and humanism
Spirituality
116
117
Codes
Bond between religions
Frustration with Track I
Seeking political change
Seeking social change
Personal interest
Role model
Issues dealing with conflict
Conflict at home
Former occupation
Natural world
Unity
Harmony
Confusion
Inner conflict
Impact of conflict
Forgiveness
Care for others
Human connection
Meeting/humanizing the
other
Relationships
Dialogue as spiritual
Religious values
Religious communities
Guidance from above
Acting as an instrument of
God
Education by parents
Impact of spiritual
individuals
Service as a value
Exposure to world concerns
Categories
Themes
Direct, outward motivations
For conflict resolution work
Motivations related to
Harmony and unity
experiencing harmony in the
world through spirituality
Motivations related to a
Disillusionment and
renewed understanding
illumination
of one’s one identity
Motivations related to
a spiritual connection
between individuals
Human connection and
relationships
Spiritual values embedded
In various religions
Religious communities
Religion
Importance of upbringing
Familiarity with world
affairs and philosophy
Awareness raising through
education
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