Request for New Course EASTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY DI VI SI ON OF ACADEM I C AFFAI RS
REQUEST FOR NEW COURSE DEPARTM ENT /SCHOOL : ____HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY___________COLLEGE:
CAS
CONTACT PERSON: ___W. JOHN KOOLAGE________________________________________________________________________
CONTACT PHONE:
734-487-1018
CONTACT EM AI L :
WKOOLAGE@EMICH.EDU
REQUESTED START DATE: T ERM __FALL___________Y EAR__2012_________
A. Rationale/Justification for the Course Philosophy of the Life Sciences focuses the lens of philosophic inquiry on a variety of contemporary and emerging sciences. Life Sciences such as Biology, Psychology, and Environmental Science have recently enjoyed an explosion in knowledge generation and have developed a number of new methods of inquiry and methodological tools. Philosophy of Science provides at least three important lines of inquiry when it comes to the generation of knowledge and knowledge related methods. First, philosophic questions can sometimes be answered by advances in other branches of knowledge production (such as the Life Sciences);; understanding innovations in the Life Sciences can shed light on philosophic questions, including but not limited to, what is the nature and relation of mind and body, what is the nature of knowledge, and what is the logic of science (if there is one)? Second, philosophy is, at its core, a discipline engaged in examining normative concepts and claims. In this capacity, philosophic inquiry into the various sciences can (and does) address the questions regarding what counts as good science, not in the moral sense of good VXFKDVµWKLVVFLHQFHHQKDQFHVKXPDQZHOOEHLQJ¶EXWLQWKHHSLVWHPLFVHQVHVXFKDVµWKHVHPHWKRGVSURGXFHEHWWHU
knowledge than these methods). In fact, knowledge generation is more likely using methods like double blind studies, peer review, controlled experiment, improved statistical tools, and so on. A central question in philosophy of science is when are these methods appropriately employed, when do they get things wrong, when are some better than others, can improvements to these methods be made by examining the fundamental logic behind them. Put in a slightly different way, Philosophy of Science investigates the idea of ³VXFFHVVIXO´LQTXLU\ZLWKLQDVFLHQWLILFFRQWH[WIXUWKHULWFDQEH
HPSOR\HGWR³FRUUHFW´XQVXFFHVVIXOOLQHVRILQTXLU\ZLWKLQDVFLHQWLILFFRQWH[WThird, philosophic inquiry has, at its core, the investigation of concepts and the role of these concepts in clear thinking within a particular domain. The Life Sciences have introduced a number of critical concepts to our market place of ideas, including the following: species, selection, neural nets, belief as electrochemical pulse, culture, ecosystem, fitness, health, and so on. These concepts, among many others, can be examined for coherence, enhanced by filling in missing details, checked against other concepts in the theory for logical relationships, and so on. Philosophy of Science in particular is aimed at understanding the relations among the concepts of a theory, the relation of these concepts to the world, and also the application of these concepts outside of their original domain. Put in a very general way, philosophy of science is directed at the conceptual and methodological presuppositions of science and/or particular sciences. B. Course Information 1. Subject Code and Course Number:
481-W
2. Course Title: Philosophy of the Life Sciences
3. Credit Hours:
3
4. Repeatable for Credit? Yes_______
No__x____
5. Catalog Description (Limit to approximately 50 words.): Miller, New Course Sept. 09 ,I³<HV´, how many total credits may be earned?_______
New Course Form This course will focus on philosophical issues relevant to one or more of the following topic areas: the concepts and methods of the Life Sciences (e.g. Biology, Psychology, and Environmental Science), the biological possibility of altruism, the nature of selection, whether there are biological laws, whether there are psychological laws, the nature of empathy, the reducibility of mental phenomena, and the nature of explanation, justification, and methods of inquiry in the Life Sciences. 6. Method of Delivery (Check all that apply.) a. Standard (lecture/lab) x b. Fully Online c. Hybrid/ Web Enhanced On Campus Off Campus 7. Grading Mode: Normal (A-­E) x Credit/No Credit 8. Prerequisites: Courses that MUST be completed before a student can take this course. (List by Subject Code, Number and Title.) Two courses in Philosophy other than Phil 120 or 130 9. Concurrent Prerequisites:
Code, Number and Title.)
Courses listed in #5 that MAY also be taken at the same time as a student is taking this course. (List by Subject
10. Corequisites: Courses that MUST be taken at the same time as a student in taking this course. (List by Subject Code, Number and Title.) 11. Equivalent Courses. A student may not earn credit for both a course and its equivalent. A course will count as a repeat if an equivalent course has already been taken. (List by Subject Code, Number and Title)
12. Course Restrictions: a. Restriction by College. Is admission to a specific College Required? College of Business Yes No x College of Education Yes No x b. Restriction by Major/Program. Will only students in certain majors/programs be allowed to take this course? Yes No If ³<es´, list the majors/programs x Miller, New Course 6HSWµ Page 2 of 5 New Course Form c. Restriction by Class Level Check all those who will be allowed to take the course: Undergraduate Graduate All undergraduates__x_____ All graduate students__x__ Freshperson Certificate Sophomore Masters Junior Specialist Senior Doctoral Second Bachelor________ UG Degree Pending_____ Post-­Bac. Tchr. Cert._____ Low GPA Admit_______ Note: If this is a 400-­level course to be offered for graduate credit, attach Approval Form for 400-­level Course for Graduate Credit. Only ³$SSURYHGIRU*UDGXDWH&UHGLW´undergraduate courses may be included on graduate programs of study. Note: Only 500-­level graduate courses can be taken by undergraduate students. Undergraduate students may not register for 600-­level courses d. Restriction by Permission. Will Departmental Permission be required? Yes No (Note: Department permission requires the department to enter authorization for every student registering.) 13. Will the course be offered as part of the General Education Program? Yes x No x ,I³<es´, attach Request for Inclusion of a Course in the General Education Program: Education for Participation in the Global Community form. Note: All new courses proposed for inclusion in this program will be reviewed by the General Education Advisory Committee. If this course is NOT approved for inclusion in the General Education program, will it still be offered? Yes x No C. Relationship to Existing Courses Within the Department: 14. Will this course will be a requirement or restricted elective in any existing program(s)? Yes
No
x
If ³<es´, list the programs and attach a copy of the programs that clearly shows the place the new course will have in the curriculum.
Program
Program
15. Will this course replace an existing course? Yes No x Required
Restricted Elective
Required
Restricted Elective
16. (Complete only if the answer to #15 LV³<HV´ a. Subject Code, Number and Title of course to be replaced: b. Will the course to be replaced be deleted? Yes No 17. (Complete only if the answer #16b is ³<HV´,IWKHUHSODFHGFRXUVHLVWREHGHOHWHGLWLVQRWQHFHVVDU\WRVXEPLWD5HTXHVWIRU
Graduate and Undergraduate Course Deletion. a. When is the last time it will be offered?
Term
Year
b. Is the course to be deleted required by programs in other departments?
Contact the Course and Program Development Office if necessary.
Miller, New Course 6HSWµ Yes
No
Page 3 of 5 New Course Form c. If ³<HV´, do the affected departments support this change?
Yes
No
If ³<es´, attach letters of support. If ³1o´, attach letters from the affected department explaining the lack of support, if available . Outside the Department: The following information must be provided. Contact the Course and Program Development office for assistance if necessary. 18. Are there similar courses offered in other University Departments? If ³<es´, list courses by Subject Code, Number and Title Yes No x 19. If similar courses exist, do the departments in which they are offered support the proposed course? Yes No If ³<es´, attach letters of support from the affected departments. If ³1R´ attach letters from the affected department explaining the lack of support, if available. D. Course Requirements 20. Attach a detailed Sample Course Syllabus including: a. Course goals, objectives and/or student learning outcomes b. Outline of the content to be covered c. Student assignments including presentations, research papers, exams, etc. d. Method of evaluation e. Grading scale (if a graduate course, include graduate grading scale) f. Special requirements g. Bibliography, supplemental reading list h. Other pertinent information. NOTE: COURSES BEING PROPOSED FOR INCLUSION IN THE EDUCATION FOR PARTICIPATION IN THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY PROGRAM MUST USE THE SYLLABUS TEMPLATE PROVIDED BY THE GENERAL EDUCATION ADVISORY COMMITTEE. THE TEMPLATE IS ATTACHED TO THE REQUEST FOR INCLUSION OF A COURSE IN THE GENERAL EDUCATION PROGRAM: EDUCATION FOR PARTICIPATION IN THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY FORM. E. Cost Analysis (Complete only if the course will require additional University resources. Fill in Estimated Resources for the sponsoring department(s). Attach separate estimates for other affected departments.) Estimated Resources: Year One Year Two Year Three Faculty / Staff $_________ $_________ $_________ SS&M $_________ $_________ $_________ Equipment $_________ $_________ $_________ Total $_________ $_________ $_________ Page 4 of 5 F. Action of the Department/School and College 1. Department/School Miller, New Course 6HSWµ New Course Form
1. Department/School
Vote of faculty: For _____7_____
Kate Mehuron
Against _____0_____
Abstentions ____0______
(Enter the number of votes cast in each category.)
11/09/2011
Department Head/School Director Signature
Date
2. College/Graduate School
A. College
College Dean Signature
Date
B. Graduate School (if Graduate Course)
Graduate Dean Signature
Date
G. Approval
Associate Vice-President for Academic Programming Signature
Miller, New Course
Sept. ‘09
Date
Page 5 of 13
New Course Form
Re: new course proposal: PHIL 481W Philosophy of the Life Sciences
January 9,
2012
12:11 PM
From: mlaporte
To: kmehuron
Kate,
We do have a similar course in our department, BIO406 Nature of Science. We are supportive of the new course. It comes from a different
perspective, will serve a different audience of students and will further the understanding of life science on our campus.
Marianne
Dr. Marianne M. Laporte
Head, Department of Biology
Eastern Michigan University
391 Mark Jefferson Science Complex
Ypsilanti, MI 48197
(734) 487-4242
mlaporte@emich.edu
From: "Carol Freedman-Doan" <cfreedman@emich.edu>
To: "Kate Mehuron" <kmehuron@emich.edu>
Sent: Friday, January 6, 2012 11:54:33 AM
Subject: Re: new course proposal: PHIL 481W Philosophy of the Life Sciences
Cool looking course, Kate.
There is no overlapping course in Psychology and we have no objection to the course.
...
Talk soon,
Carol Freedman-Doan, PhD
Department Head - Psychology
314 King
Eastern Michigan University
Ypsilanti, MI 48197
cfreedman@emich.edu
734 487-1155
Miller, New Course
Sept. ‘09
Page 6 of 13
New Course Form
Philosophy of the Life Sciences – Phil 481-W
W. John Koolage
Course Description
Philosophy of the Life Sciences focuses the lens of philosophic inquiry on a variety of contemporary and emerging
sciences. Life Sciences such as Biology, Psychology, and Environmental Science have recently enjoyed an explosion
in knowledge generation and have developed a number of new methods of inquiry and methodological tools.
Philosophy of Science provides at least three important lines of inquiry when it comes to the generation of knowledge
and knowledge related methods:
First, philosophic questions can sometimes be answered by advances in other branches of knowledge
production (such as the Life Sciences); understanding innovations in the Life Sciences can shed light on
philosophic questions.
Second, philosophy is, at its core, a discipline engaged in examining “goodness”. In this capacity,
philosophic inquiry into the various sciences can (and does) address the questions regarding what counts as
good science, not in the moral sense of good (such as, ‘this science enhances human well being’) but in the
epistemic sense (such as, ‘these methods produce better knowledge than these methods). Put in a slightly
different way, Philosophy of Science investigates the idea of “successful” inquiry within a scientific context;
further, it can be employed to “correct” unsuccessful lines of inquiry within a scientific context.
Third, philosophic inquiry has, at its core, the investigation of concepts and the role of these concepts in clear
thinking within a particular domain. The Life Sciences have introduced a number of critical concepts to our
market place of ideas, including the following: species, selection, neural nets, belief as electrochemical pulse,
culture, ecosystem, fitness, health, and so on. The concepts can (and will) be evaluated, compared, analyzed,
questioned, and improved by identifying their relations to other concepts, their role in theory, and their
relation to the world itself.
This course represents a philosophic examination of the concepts and methods of the Life Sciences. It focuses
primarily on the second and third applications of philosophy of science. Topics include the biological possibility of
altruism, the use of simplicity in cladistics, the nature of selection, whether there are biological laws, whether there are
psychological laws, the nature of empathy, the reducibility of mental phenomena, and the nature of explanation,
justification, and methods of inquiry in the Life Sciences.
This course is a writing intensive course in the philosophy program. Students will write 2 take-home essay exams and
a substantial philosophical paper. The essay exams are devoted to understanding and critiquing arguments put forward
by someone else. The substantial paper is a reasoned defense of a thesis. Students will choose an issue with serious
philosophic considerations form among the methods and concepts of the Life Sciences, formulate a thesis and defend
that thesis.
Required Textbooks
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Assignments, Exams, and Whatnot
The class will be graded on the standard EMU grading scale. I do not grade on a curve, though I do sometimes adjust
grades (never down) on the basis of calibration issues. The assessment tools for the class are as follows:
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Graduate Level Assessment
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Miller, New Course
Sept. ‘09
Page 7 of 13
New Course Form
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Grading Scale
92-100 A; 89-91 A-; 87-88 B+; 83-86 B; 80-82 B-; 77-79 C+; 73-76 C; 70-72 C-; 67-70 D+; 60-66 D; 59-0 E
It should be noted that for students taking 4xx-W for graduate credit, D is a failing grade.
Course Goals
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QCCs
Part of your participation grade will be determined by a short written feedback device, known as the QCC.
QCC stands for Question, Comment, or Criticism. You will be expected to turn in a QCC at the end of every class.
While this is helpful in evaluating participation for more reserved students and bolstering the participation grades of
those who are more outspoken, the main purpose of the QCC is to help guide lectures by identifying topics of interest
and of difficulty. To complete a QCC, a student must turn in a sheet (or piece of paper sizable enough to not be easily
lost in a stack) that has at least two, two sentence questions, comments, or criticisms (in any combination); of course, if
you write longer QCCs, you will get more credit toward your participation grade
Accommodations
It is my goal that this class be an accessible and welcoming experience for all students, including those with
disabilities that may impact their learning in this class. If anyone believes they may have trouble participating or
effectively demonstrating learning in this course, please meet with me (with or without a Disability Resource Center
(DRC) accommodation letter) to discuss reasonable options or adjustments. During our discussion, I may suggest the
possibility/necessity of your contacting the DRC (240 Student Center; 734-487-2470 ; swd_office@emich.edu ) to talk
about academic accommodations. You are welcome to talk to me at any point in the semester about such issues, but it
is always best if we can talk at least one week prior to the need for any modifications. No retroactive accommodations
are possible.
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Miller, New Course
Sept. ‘09
Page 8 of 13
New Course Form
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FERPA
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act is a federal law designated to protect the privacy of a student’s
education records and academic work. All files, records, and academic work completed within this course are
considered educational records and are protected under FERPA. Exceptions will only be given when there is explicit,
written, and signed consent. Verbal consent or email is insufficient.
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Classroom Etiquette
Of course, it would be nice if everyone hung on my every word. However, since that is not likely to be the case, I
would like to pretend it is a possibility. As a result, please don’t do anything in class that would lead me to believe it is
impossible that you could be interested in what I have spent time preparing for you. That is, don’t answer your cell
phone, don’t read a newspaper, don’t be snoring, etc.
University policy prohibits firearms, explosives, alcoholic beverages, controlled substances, and behavior intended to
threaten or intimidate others; consequently, you should avoid such practices that may lead to a violation of this policy.
Do not engage in any behavior that could be construed as offensive or threatening to a reasonable human being.
As in all matters, we are all expected to uphold codes of conduct as determined by EMU. See www.emich.edu/student
conduct/ for regarding the student code of conduct.
Topics and Readings Outline
This is an overview of what I think we should cover in this class. It is unlikely that we will cover it all. Philosophy of
science, especially when directed to particular sciences, is a broad and deep area of study. Thus, we should not be too
upset about how far we get; as the old adage goes, it is the journey and not the destination that matters.
As for reading, I suggest you read the required stuff right before we start in on that topic. Of course, you will probably
have to read this stuff more than once (even the best of us must do that), so read it again after we’ve talked about the
material in lecture and/or discussion. This way you’ll be prepared to ask questions that will help you learn.
Week 1 – Basics
Topics: Logic, Probability, Evidence, and Biology Basics
Sober, Philosophy of Biology, Chapter 1 and 2
Eells, “Probability.” (In Probabilistic Causality, Cambridge University Press, 1991)
Darwin, Origin of Species, Introduction, Chapters 3, 4, 6, 13, 14
Paley, Natural Theology, Chapter 1
Weeks 2 through 5 – Evolutionary Biology
Topics: Evolution, Fitness, Functional Analysis, Testability, Group Selection, and The Tree of Life
Sober, Philosophy of Biology, Chapter 3, 4, 5, and 6
Gould and Lewontin, “The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm” (In CI)
Maynard Smith, “Optimization Theory in Evolution” (In CI)
Sober, “What’s Wrong with Intelligent Design?” Quarterly Review of Biology. 2007
Cummins, “Functional Analysis” (In CI)
Wilson, “Levels of Selection” (In CI)
Felsenstein, “The Detection of Phyologeny” (In CI)
Mishler and Donoghue, “Species Concepts” (In CI)
Miller, New Course
Sept. ‘09
Page 9 of 13
New Course Form
Sterelny and Kitcher, “The Return of the Gene.” Journal of Philosophy, 1988
Weeks 6 though 8 – Biology’s Bulging Boundaries
Topics: Biology’s place among the sciences, the relation of ethics to the biological sciences, Evolutionary Psychology,
Cultural Evolution
Fodor, “Special Sciences” Synthese, 1974, Vol. 28
Ruse and Wilson, “Moral Philosophy as Applied Science” (In CI)
Kitcher, “Four Ways of ‘Biologicizing’ Ethics” (In CI)
Sober, Philosophy of Biology, Chapter 7
Cosmides and Tooby, “From Evolution to Behavior” (In J. Dupre (Ed.), The latest on the best: Essays on evolution and
optimality. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press)
Fodor, The Modularity of Mind, MIT Press, 1983 (excerpts)
Sober, “Models of Cultural Evolution” (In CI)
Weeks 9 through 12 – Philosophy of Psychology
Topics: Folk Psychology, Nativism, Modularity, Mind Reading, Mental Content, and Intelligence
Botterill and Carruthers, The Philosophy of Psychology, Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 4
Dennett, “Can Machines Think?” (1990)
Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”, Mind, Vol. LIX, 1950
Skinner, Science and Human Behavior, 1953 (excerpts)
Clark, “Embodied, situated and distributed cognition.” W. Bechtel, G. Graham, Editors , A Companion to Cognitive
Science, Basil Blackwell (1999)
Clark and Chalmers, “The Extended Mind”, Analysis, Vol. 58, 1998
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Bibliography for Philosophy of the Life Sciences (PHIL 4xx-W)
Botterill, G. and Carruthers, P. ( 1999) The Philosophy of Psychology, Cambridge University Press
Brandon, R. N., (ed.) (1996) Concepts and Methods in Evolutionary Biology, Cambridge University Press
Brandon, R. N. and Burian, R. M. (eds.) (1984) Genes, Organisms, and Populations, MIT Press
Buller, D. (2005) Adapting Minds: Evolutionary Psychology and the Persistent Quest for Human Nature, MIT Press
Buss, D. (2007) Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind, Allyn and Bacon
Buss, D. M., M. G. Hasleton, et al. (1998) “Adaptations, Exaptations and Spandrels”, American Psychologist
Clark, A. (1999) “Embodied, situated and distributed cognition.” W. Bechtel, G. Graham, Editors , A Companion to
Cognitive Science, Blackwell
Clark, A. and Chalmers, D. (1998) “The Extended Mind”, Analysis
Cosmides, L. and Tooby, J. (1987) “From Evolution to Behavior” In J. Dupre (Ed.), The latest on the best: Essays on
evolution and optimality. Cambridge University Press
Cowie, F., 1999, What's Within? Nativism Reconsidered, New York: Oxford University Press
Darwin, C. (1859) Origin of Species
Dawkins, R. (1976) The Selfish Gene, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Dennett, D. (1990) “Can Machines Think?”
Dennett, D. (1995) Darwin's Dangerous Idea, New York: Simon and Schuster
Dupre, J. (2001) Human Nature and the Limits of Science, Clarendon Press
Eells, E. (1991) Probabilistic Causality, Cambridge University Press
Fodor, J. (1983) The Modularity of Mind, MIT Press
Fodor, J. (2000) The mind doesn't work that way: the scope and limits of computational psychology, MIT Press
Gould, S. J. and R. Lewontin (1979) “The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A critique of the
adaptationist programme” Proceedings of the Royal Society London
Grantham, T. and S. Nichols, 1999, “Evolutionary Psychology: Ultimate Explanations and Panglossian Predictions”, in
V. Hardcastle (ed.), Where Biology Meets Psychology, MIT Press
Griffiths, P. E. (2001) “Genetic Information: A Metaphor in Search of a Theory.” Philosophy of Science
Hauser, M. (2006) Moral Minds: How Nature Designed our universal sense of right and wrong, Harper Collins
Hull, D. L. (1974) Philosophy of Biological Science, Prentice-Hall
Hull, D. L. and Ruse, M. (2007) The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology, Cambridge University Press
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Kitcher, P. (1984) “1953 and all that: a tale of two sciences” Philosophical Review
Laland, K. N. and G. R. Brown (2002) Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior, Oxford
University Press
Lewontin, R. (1998) “The evolution of cognition: Questions we will never answer”, in D. Scarborough and S.
Sternberg (eds.), Methods, Models, and Conceptual Issues, MIT Press
Lloyd, E. A. (1999) “Evolutionary Psychology: The Burdens of Proof”, Biology and Philosophy
Marr, D. (1983) Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual
Information, W.H. Freeman
Machamer, P., Darden, L. et al. (2000) “Thinking about Mechanisms.” Philosophy of Science
MacLaurin, J. and Sterelny, K. (2008) What is Biodiversity? University of Chicago Press
Millikan, R. G. (1984) Language, Thought and Other Biological Categories, MIT Press
Neander, K. (1991) “Functions as selected effects: the conceptual analyst's defense.” Philosophy of Science
Nichols, S. (2004) Sentimental Rules: On the natural foundation of moral judgment, Oxford University Press.
Okasha, S. (2007) Evolution and the Levels of Selection, Oxford University Press.
Orzack, S., and Sober, E., (eds.) (2001) Optimality and Adaptation, Cambridge University Press
Paley, W. (1802) Natural Theology
Pinker, S. (1997) How the Mind Works, W.W. Norton
Pittendrigh, C. S. (1958) “Adaptation, natural selection and behavior.” In A. Roe and G. G. Simpson (eds.), Behavior
and Evolution, Yale University Press
Samuels, R. (1998) “Evolutionary Psychology and the Massive Modularity Hypothesis” British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science
Sarkar, S. (1992) “Models of reduction and categories of reductionism.” Synthese
Sarkar, S. (2005) Biodiversity and Environmental Philosophy: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press
Shapiro, L. A. and W. Epstein (1998) “Evolutionary Theory Meets Cognitive Psychology: A More Selective
Perspective”, Mind and Language
Skinner, B.F. (1953) Science and Human Behavior
Smart, J. J. C. (1959) “Can biology be an exact science?” Synthese
Sober, E. (2000) Philosophy of Biology, Westview Press
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Sober, E. (ed.), (1993) Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology, MIT Press
Sober, E. (2007) “What’s Wrong with Intelligent Design?” Quarterly Review of Biology
Sober, E. and Wilson, D. S. (1998) Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior. Cambridge,
Massachusetts, Harvard University Press
Sterelny, K. (2003) Thought in a Hostile World: The Evolution of Human Cognition, Blackwell
Sterelny, K. and Kitcher, P. (1988) “The Return of the Gene.” Journal of Philosophy
Stotz, K. and Griffiths, P. E. (2008). “Biohumanities: Rethinking the relationship between biosciences, philosophy and
history of science, and society” Quarterly Review of Biology
Wilson, R. A., (ed.) (1999) Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays, MIT Press
Wimsatt, W. C. (1972) “Teleology and the Logical Structure of Function Statements.” Studies in History and
Philosophy of Science
Wimsatt, W.C. (1976) “Reductive Explanation: A Functional Account” Proceedings of the Philosophy of Science
Association
Wimsatt, W. C. (1980) Reductionistic Research Strategies and Their Biases in the Units of Selection Controversy. In
Nickles, T. (ed.): Scientific Discovery: Case Studies
Wright, L. (1973) “Functions” Philosophical Review
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