Duration estimates and behavioral measures as a function of sex and personality
by Donald James Warner
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science i n
Psychology
Montana State University
© Copyright by Donald James Warner (1985)
Abstract:
A behavior pattern called Type A is related to coronary heart disease and early death due to
cardiovascular illness. Type A behavior is characterized by physiological indicators of long-term stress,
extreme time consciousness, and a tendency to overwork. This study investigates the possibility that
Type A behavior may be due in part, to a relative inability of Type A individuals to determine the
passage of time through the information gained only from somatic cues. Through the use of the Bortner
scale, a total of 112 students were determined to be either Type A or B personality, and then using the
production method, were assessed on their ability to produce a specific duration in an environment of
reduced stimulation. Two possible behavioral indicators of Type A personality were also obtained. The
degree to which an individual's arrival time deviated from his or her scheduled appointment time was
determined, as was whether or not the individual wore a watch. As compared to Type B individuals,
Type A individuals showed less accuracy and more variability in estimating duration. Females arrived
earlier than males at their scheduled appointments, and wore watches less often. Implications and
potential applications of these findings are discussed.
DURATION ESTIMATES AND BEHAVIORAL MEASURES
AS A FUNCTION OF SEX AND PERSONALITY
by
Donal d James War ner
A t h e si s submitted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f t he r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t he degr ee
of
Ma s t e r o f S c i e n c e
i n
Psychol ogy
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Mont ana
Augu s t
1985
ti37$
Ia/^43
APPROVAL
of a t he s is
submitted
by
Donal d James War ner
T h i s t h e s i s has been r ead by each member o f t he t h e s i s
c o mmi t t e e and has been f ound t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y r e g a r d i n g
c o n t e n t , E n g l i s h usage, f o r m a t , c i t a t i o n s , b i b l i o g r a p h i c
s t y l e , and c o n s i s t e n c y , and i s r e a d y f o r s u b m i s s i o n t o t he
C o l l e g e o f Gr a d u a t e S t u d i e s .
^ -Z S
Dat e
Chai rperson, Graduate Committee
Appr oved
Date/ /
Appr oved f o r
Dat e
for
t he Ma j o r Dep a r t me n t
He"ad, Maj cu^EeTJcrrtm
the Col l ege
o f Gr a dua t e S t u d i e s
Gr a d u a t e Dean
111
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In p r e s e n t i n g
the
requirements
University,
this
for
thesis
a master's
I ag r ee t h a t
un d e r r u l e s
tations
thesis
permission,
source
provided
or
of this
in his
in
for
thesis
the
shall
make i t
library.
ar e a l l o w a b l e w i t h o u t
accurate
avail­
Brief
quo­
special
ac k n o wl e d g me n t o f
thesis
Signature
quotation
may be g r a n t e d
of e i t h e r ,
for
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n
Dat e
of
extensive
s c h o l a r l y purposes.
this
of
degr ee a t Mont ana S t a t e
a b s e n c e , by t h e D i r e c t o r
t he o p i n i o n
for
fulfillment
i s made.
Permi ssi on
tion
that
partial
the L i b r a r y
able to borrowers
f r om t h i s
in
f r om or r e p r o d u c ­
by my m a j o r
professor,
of L i b r a r i e s
whe n, i n
t h e p r o p o s e d use o f t h e m a t e r i a l
Any c o p y i n g
financial
gain
permission.
or use o f
shall
is
the ma t e r i a l
no t be a l l o w e d
i;v
VITA
Donal d James Wa r n e r , son o f R o b e r t S r . and K a t h r y n
Wa r n e r , was bor n Sept ember 29, 1950, i n West A l l i s , Wi s ­
consin,
He g r a d u a t e d f r om Bo y s ' T e c h n i c a l Hi gh School i n
M i l w a u k e e , W i s c o n s i n i n J u n e , 1 968.
A f t e r s e r v i n g i n the
U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r For ce as a Me d i c a l S e r v i c e S p e c i a l i s t ,
he a t t e n d e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Wi s c o n s i n - M i I wau k e e .
He g r a d ­
u a t e d f r om t h e P s y c h o l o g y De p a r t me n t i n May, 1978 w i t h a
Bachelor o f A r t s degree.
Mr . War ner e n t e r e d t h e Gr aduat e
s c ho ol o f Mont ana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n Sept ember 1979.
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A p p r o v a l ............................................................................................ .................. i i
St at ement o f p e r mi s s i o n
t o u s e .......................................................... i i i
V i t a ...................
i
T a b l e o f c o n t e n t s ............................................................................................ ..
List
o f t a b l e s ................................................................................................. .. .
A b s t r a c t ............................................................................................................ v i i
I n t r o d u c t i o n ..................
i
Me t h o d ..................................................................................................................... 13
R e s u l t s .....................................................................................
19
D i s c u s s i o n ............................................................................................................26
R e f e r e n c e s ..........................
34
Appendi c e s ...................................................................................................
39
vi
LI ST OF TABLES
Ta b’l e
1
Page
M and 'SJ) ( i n
parentheses) of
E s t i m a t e Measur e
bination
2
(in
seconds)
Each D u r a t i o n
for
Each Com­
o f D u r a t i o n and P e r s o n a l i t y T y p e . . ............... 21
M and S_D ( i n
parentheses)
T e s t o f the A r r i v a l
o f t he Le v e n e 1s
Time Data and Watch
Wear i n g B e h a v i o r , ..............
,...,....25
ABSTRACT
A b e hav i or p a t t e r n c a l l e d Type A is r e l a t e d to c o r o ­
nary h e a r t di s e a s e and e a r l y de a t h due to c a r d i o v a s c u l a r
illness.
Type A b e h a v i o r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p h y s i o l o g i c a l
i n d i c a t o r s o f l o n g - t e r m s t r e s s , extreme ti me consci ousness,
and a tendency to o v e r w o r k . Thi s st udy i n v e s t i g a t e s the
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Type A b e ha v i or may be due i n p a r t , to a
r e l a t i v e i n a b i l i t y o f Type A i n d i v i d u a l s to de t er mi ne the
passage o f t i me thr ough t he i n f o r m a t i o n gained o n l y from
somatic cues.
Through t he use o f t he Bo r t n e r s c a l e , a
t o t a l o f 112 s t u d e n t s
were det er mi ned to be e i t h e r Type A
or B p e r s o n a l i t y , and then usi ng t he p r o d u c t i o n method,
were assessed on t h e i r a b i l i t y to produce a s p e c i f i c d u r a ­
t i o n in an envi r onment o f reduced s t i m u l a t i o n .
Two poss­
i b l e b e h a v i o r a l i n d i c a t o r s o f Type A p e r s o n a l i t y were al so
obtained.
The degr ee to which an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a r r i v a l ti me
d e v i a t e d from hi s or her scheduled appoi nt ment t i me was
d e t e r m i n e d , as was whether or not t he i n d i v i d u a l wore a
wat ch.
As compared to Type B i n d i v i d u a l s , Type A i n d i v i ­
dual s showed l e s s a c cur ac y and more v a r i a b i l i t y i n e s t i m ­
ating d u ra tio n .
Females a r r i v e d e a r l i e r than males a t
t h e i r scheduled a p p o i n t m e n t s , and wore watches l e s s o f t e n .
I m p l i c a t i o n s and p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t hese f i n d i n g s
ar e di s c u s s e d .
I
INTRODUCTION
One o f
States
is
the
leading
causes o f deat h
coronary heart
disease
considered
t o be a p r e - m o r b i d
thickening
of
t he a r t e r i a l
fatty
deposits
pr i me
factor
cardial
(lipids)
in
essential
on t h e
heart
failure,
behavior
angi na
that
since
Osier
i mp e n d i n g
excitement.
with
CHD i s
a
such as myo­
cardiac
i n t he t w e n t i e t h
arrythmias,
(strokes),
of
century.
and
Sir
per s on t o d e s c r i b e t he
p e o p l e who d e v e l o p
i n advanced cases o f CHD
by a s e n s a t i o n o f c o n s t r i c t i n g
ac compani ed by a f e e l i n g
and i s
surface.
component t o CHD has been
(a syndr om f ou nd
death).
by a
blood p r e s s u r e ) .
characteristic
characterized
pai n
characterized
infarctions
(191.0) was t he f i r s t
pattern
thoracic
anoxi a
early
pectoris
is
interior
brain
generally
due t o a bu i l d - up o f
attacks),
(high
A neuropsychological
William
walls
(heart
hypertension
suspected
condition
t he U n i t e d
CHD i s
the e t i o l o g y o f c o n d i t i o n s
infarctions
congestive
( CHD) .
in
Thi s
frequently
i s most o f t e n
precipitated
of s u f f o c a t i o n
and
due t o myocar di um
by e f f o r t
O s i e r c i t e d w o r r y and t e n s i o n
or
in combi nat i on
a heavy wor k l o a d as a p r i m a r y cause o f a n g i n a .
The b a s i c
nexus o f b e h a v i o r s
has been f u r t h e r
delineated
laboratory
and c l i n i c a l
A behavior
pattern
first
described
by r e s e a r c h e r s
settings,
i n bo t h
and was c a l l e d
by Rosenman and Fr i edman
by O s i e r
t he Type
(1961).
Type
2
A behavior,
or t he c o r o n a r y - pr one b e h a v i o r
characterized
i nvolvement
deadlines,
by e x c e s s i v e
in competitive
pressure
enhanced sense o f
drive,
t i me
agg re si veness, a m b i ti o n ,
activities,
for vocational
urgency,
p a t t e r n , is
frequent
productivity,
an i n c r e a s e
of
struggle
short
speech,
to achieve
period
Jenkins,
and a c h r o n i c
individuals
process
that
is
behavior
pattern,
becomes a f a c t o r , Type A
excretion
in
and e n v i r o n m e n t a l
o f an
wall
t he
interplay
factors.
bl ood c o a g u l a b i l i t y ,
o f c a t a c h o l ami nes and i m p a i r e d
tolerance
have a l l
been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t he
o f Type A b e h a v i o r and t he
d e v e l o p me n t o f CHD ( F r i e d m a n ,
Fr i edman & Rosenman, 1959;
1964 ; F r i e d ma n ,
ar e t he p r e c u r s o r s
t o have an o r i g i n
accelerated
p a t h o g e n omi c i n d i c a t o r s
F r i e d ma n ,
this
engen der ed by a r t e r i a l
(genotypic)
serum l i p i d s ,
triglycerid
of
These c o n g e n e r s
and ap pea r s
o f endogenous
increased
1975 ;
g e n e r a l l y d i s p l a y an a r r a y o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l
o f CHD.
thickening,
Elevated
in a r e l a t i v e l y
Roseman, & F r i e d m a n , 1967 ) .
wher e m a r k e d l y e a r l y m o r t a l i t y
i schemi c
t he
( B u r n a m, P e n n e b a k e r , & G l a s s ,
At t h e more e x t r e me l e v e l s
congeners
a staccato
p r o p e n s i t y t o wa r d
a g r e a t many g o a l s
o f t i me
an
i n t he
a m p l i t u d e and f r e q u e n c y o f m o t o r i c ma n n e r i s ms ,
style
vocational
Byers,
F r i e d ma n ,
Rosenman, & C a r r o l ,
& Rosenman, 1964;
Rosenman, & B y e r s ,
1958 ; Rosenman &
1961 , 1963 ; Rosenman, F r i e d ma n ,
Straus,
Wurm,
3
Jenkins,
W.urm,
& Messi nger ,
Kositchok,
individual
physical
or
pattern
displays
a general
absence o f
associated with
u s u a l l y considered
1967 ; J e n k i n s ,
Although
If
an
t he b e h a v i o r s
and
he
t h e Type j? b e h a v i o r
level
of
risk
in
o f CHD ( B o r t n e r , 1969 ; B o r t n e r
regard to
& Rosenman,
Z y z a n s k i , & Rosenman, 19 7 1 ) .
the o v e r t
physiological
behavioral
correlates
manifestations
no c l e a r - c u t
ways Type A b e h a v i o r
and some
o f Type A b e h a v i o r ar e w e l l
known and ag r ee d upon by r e s e a r c h e r s
currently
Straus,
t he Type A p a t t e r n ,
to f i t
and ar e a t a much l o w e r
t he d e v e l o p me n t
o f the
Haan, & W e r t h e s s e n , 1964) .
findings
she i s
1966 ; Rosenman, F r i e d ma n ,
theory that
i n t he f i e l d ,
accounts
is manifested.
for
there
all
is
o f t he
Some r e s e a r c h e r s
( B o r t n e r & Rosenman, 1967 ; F r i e d m a n . & Rosenman, 1959 ) have
advocated a d i a t h e s i s - s t r e s s
but
it
date.
has r e c e i v e d
only equivocal
Rahe, H e r v i g,
heritability
o f Type A b e h a v i o r
young as t h o s e o f
Ot h e r
control.
This
acceleration
in order
is
is
of
to
d e v e l o p me n t ,
support
have f o u n d t he
be q u e s t i o n a b l e .
in c hil dr en
as
( Burnam e t a l . , 1975 ) c l a i m t h a t
maintaining
envi r onment al
supposedl y accompl i shed t hr oug h
the
to
age ( Mat hews & A n g u l o ,
a strategy for
to achieve
environment.
research
has been f ound
kindergarten
researchers
Type A b e h a v i o r
of pa ttern
and Rosenman ( 1978)
Ev i d e n c e o f Type A b e h a v i o r
1980).
model
pace a t wh i c h t h e
individuals
t he
live,
a sense o f m a s t e r y o v e r t h e i r
Irrespective
of
theory,
one o f
t h e more
4
common i d e a s
apparent
i n t he
distortion
individuals
However ,
this
finding
inappropriate
faster
(Glass,
it
t hen
If
her or h i s
t he d u r a t i o n
it
Sn y d e r ,
actually
in
is
that
define
either
s t r a t e g y t o assess
obtained
may pr oduce
t er ms o f any t h e o r e t i c a l
is
an i n d i v i d u a l
operatively
is
defined,
asked t o v e r b a l I y e s t i m a t e
(usually
an i n d i v i d u a l
through
the
light
or
j u d g e me n t o f a v e r b a l l y d e f i n e d
j u d g e me n t
in
& Hollis,
have u t i l i z e d
some f or m o f mani pul andum and c o n c u r r e n t
both)
have
e s t i m a t e was a s s e s s ed.
I n t he p r o d u c t i o n me t h o d ,
asked t o o p e r a t i v e l y
1978)
e s t i m a t i o n met hod,
a duration
experiencing
al . , 1975 ;
& Rosenman,
Compar i ng r e s u l t s
interpretations
presented with
( Bortner
two m e t h o d s , howev er ,
I n t he v e r b a l
length.
i n Type A
Type A b e h a v i o r do
estimation
of d u r a t i o n .
f r om t he use o f t h e s e
and a f t e r
f ound
an
can be vi ewed as p o s s i b l y
studies
or a v e r b a l
t he e s t i m a t e s
its
who e x h i b i t
b e i n g t he m a j o r e x c e p t i o n )
framework.
is
Price & Clarke,
de p e n d i n g how t he d u r a t i o n
a production
is
sense t h a t
t i me as p a s s i n g
The m a j o r i t y o f
1974,
concerned w i t h
Many s t u d i e s
1975;
individuals
t en d t o p e r c e i v e
question
t i me
1978).
Burnam e t a l . ,
f ound t h a t
is.
of
is
( B o r t n e r & Rosenman, 1967 ; Burnam e t
Price & Clarke,
1967;
literature
shorter
is
use o f
t one or
duration.
t hen t h e o b j e c t i v e
5
standard, d iffe r in g
attributions
of du r a t i on
can be made.
met hod,
interpretation
t he
subjective
t e mp o r a l
r uns
t e mp o r a l
units,
Wi t h
units
or t h a t
experience
smaller
ar e
t he
larger
clock
contradiction
r u ns
presents
a t t he d e v e l o p me n t
o f the processes
label
by.this
o r pe r h a p s
( i n mi n u t e s
issue
for
is
h o we v e r ,
the d i s c r e p a n t
by t h e p e o p l e t h a t
that
relative
a p p e a r t o be
or t he
inability
This
i n t er ms
seemi ng
o f t he
needed t o a r r i v e
pattern.
seem t o be t h a t
a given d u r a t i o n
they
in a
fashion.
a more p a r s i m o n i o u s
exhibit
is
individual's
e x p e r i ance d u r a t i o n
t i me e s t i m a t i o n
Type A b e h a v i o r
Wi t h t he
t he p r o b l e m may be t h a t
and sec onds )
consistently diffe ring
Ther e
that
o f t h e Type A p e r s o n a l i t y
raised
clock"
pace t han an o b j e c t i v e
some d i f f i c u l t y
per haps Type A and B i n d i v i d u a l s
differently,
clock.
( B i n d r a & Wa k s b e r g , 1956 ) .
conceptualization
The q u e s t i o n s
units,
at a f a s t e r
"internal
s u b j e c t i v e . t e mp o r a l
seems t o be bound i n u n i t s
clock"
individual's
t han o b j e c t i v e
external
t e mp o r a l
estimation
the
individual's
individual's
t ha n o b j e c t i v e
"internal
external
the
t he v e r b a l
i s made t h a t
s l o w e r t he n an o b j e c t i v e
p r o d u c t i o n me t h o d ,
as t o t he e x p e r i e n c e
explanation
abilities
Type A b e h a v i o r .
partly
the
to d i s c r i m i n a t e
result
of
displayed
It
may be
some e s s e n t i a l
t he passage o f
ti me.
6
T h i s woul d
t en d t o
i n t r o j e c t . an e l e me n t o f , r andomness
in t h e i r
estimates
of
increase
t h e amount o f
subjects
on a s i n g l e
r e p e a t e d me a s u r e s .
"internal
i n t he
units
me as ur e,
the
or the
clock."
literature
theory,
length
of
relative
Instead,
person's
it
is
Our s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e
success t h e a b i l i t y
situation
the d i s c r e p a n t
t i me
level
suc c es s
of
necessary f o r
for
to. an a r t i f a c t
the l a c k
the passi ng
of a
of. t i me
is
select
for
and r e i n f o r c e w i t h
the en v i r on men t al
develops.
constraints.
context
In or der
for
under
the
o f no t b e i n g a b l e t o
passage a c c u r a t e l y t o a c h i e v e a c o n s i s t e n t
in
their
them t o
and p r e o c c u p a t i o n
in order
findings
durations.
who have t h e m i s f o r t u n e
estimate
individual's
t o p e r f o r m u n d e r t e mp o r a l
provides
subjective
t he o n t o g e n y o f Type A b e h a v i o r .
both
whi c h t h e Type A p a t t e r n
individuals
hypothesized
pr o p o s e d t h a t
in
on
no a t t r i b u t i o n s
speed o f t h e
to d i s c r i m i n a t e
seen as a p r i me f a c t o r
Thi s
subjects
ar e a b l e t o be a t t r i b u t e d
study,
ability
f ound bo t h bet ween
and w i t h i n
o f t he met hod used t o e s t i m a t e
In t h i s
t h a t woul d p o t e n t i a l l y
variability
Wi t h t h i s
ar e made r e g a r d i n g
t e mp o r a l
duration
with
lives,
it
■
becomes a l m o s t
d e v e l o p an e x t r eme t i me c o n s c i o u s n e s s
o v e r wo r k .
t he a f f l i c t e d
Thi s
individuals
is
a c c o mp l i s h e d
t o be s ur e t h a t
7
t h e y ar e a b l e
on i n
t he amount o f
behavior
that
t o c o mp l e t e
is
t he n
t i me
that
reinforced
ar e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
within
given
the t asks
is
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
on t he
do l i v e
or n o t t h e r e
Thi s
at
research
pattern
that
has c o n c e n t r a t e d
that
pace t h a t
(1967).
is
t he q u e s t i o n
bo t h
ar e
o f wh e t h e r
i n the e s t i m a t i o n
involved
on ma l e s .
o f mal es
in
Thi s
in
Most
t h e Type A
i s most
t he m a j o r i t y
have been s t u d i e d .
o f Type A b e h a v i o r
l ea ds
arousal
o f t i me and i n Type A b e h a v i o r .
due t o t he p r e v a l e n c e
studies
t he n
woul d ap p e a r t h a t
the a c c e l e r a t e d
issue
on t h e f a c t o r s
populations
set goal s
situation
it
Thi s
consequences
cardiovascular
ar e sex d i f f e r e n c e s
o f the passi ng
to t hem.
positive
surface
was pr opos ed by Burnam e t a l .
A maj or u n r e s o l v e d
t h e y have t aken
t he a c h i e v e me n t o f
t i me c o n s t r a i n t s .
Therefore,
alloted
by t h e
t o t h e d e v e l o p me n t o f a c h r o n i c
pattern.
that
To d a t e ,
likely
o f t he
o n l y a few
have been p u b l i s h e d
that
i n c l u d e women as p a r t i c i p a n t s .
Likewise,
differences
in
the r e s u l t s
t he e s t i m a t i o n
have been e q u i v o c a l
at
have e i t h e r
s ma l l
Singer,
been o f
1964)
(Roecklein,
of
best.
research
of
duration
sex
experience
Sex d i f f e r e n c e s ,
ma g n i t u d e
or wer e o f ambi guous
1972).
into
when f o u n d ,
( Ge e r , P l a t t ,
interpretation
&
8
Thi s
s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d
some o f t h e pr o b l e ms w i t h
i n an a t t e m p t
the u n c e r t a i n
to
resolve
findings
have r e s u l t e d
f r om r e s e a r c h
in
literature
revi ewed w i t h
an emphasi s on p o t e n t i a l
sources
is
of c o n f l i c t
bet ween s t u d i e s ,
t h a t met hodol ogy r a t h e r
basic
construct
t he f a i l u r e
to
ar e
studies
that
inadequate
Motiff
gr oup s
the a p p r o p r i a t e
& Pal I a d i no,
Is
B individuals
there
(duration)?
ability
modified
o f t he d u r a t i o n
questions
that
Many o f t he
t he ar ea have used
( Bortner et a l . ,
1958;
1967;
Fr i edman
o r t h e y have used
or me t h o d o l o g y t h a t
question
did
( Gl a s s e t a l . ,
ability
Further,
by t h e
he o r
t h a t was assessed
a difference
in t h e i r
o f t i me
1974),
and
not
1974;
1980).
The e x p e r i m e n t a l
s t u d y was:
in
t he
results
findings
e t al . , 1 9 7 1 ) .
Fr i edman e t a l . ,
al.,
becomes a p p a r e n t
bo t h e q u i v o c a l
participants
I 96 0 ;' Gl ass e t
When t he
p r obl e ms w i t h
t he s i g n i f i c a n t
(Jenkins
1975;
inadequate c o n t r o l
ad d r e s s
in
have been c o n d u c t e d
Burnam e t a l . ,
et a l . ,
likely
numbers o f
it
t han p o s s i b l e
replicate
have been o b t a i n e d
the pa s t .
that
bet ween Type A and Type
to esti mate a given
t o what e x t e n t
individual's
she i s
in this
is
passage
this
gender and t h e l e n g t h
attempting
to estimate?
9
The t h e o r e t i c a l
it
is
possible
to estimate
that
basis
individuals
In t h i s
ar e
these
a difference
durations
individuals.
for
less
exists
bet ween c e r t a i n
study i t
questions
is
is
i n t he a b i l i t y
gr oups o f
hypothesized
able to est i mat e
that
a given
that
Type A
duration
t he n ar e Type B i n d i v i d u a l s ,
and t h e r e f o r e
c o mp e n s a t o r y s t r a t e g i e s
a l l o w them t o be a b l e t o
function
in a "real
efforts,
if
that
time"
f r a me w o r k .
for
a sufficient
utilized
t en d t o d e v e l o p
These c o mp e n s a t o r y
length
of
e v e n t u a l l y f or m t h e nexus o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
personality
through
pattern
social
To d i f f e r e n t i a t e
scale
for
short
Type A b e h a v i o r
length
( seven
administration
mi n u t e s
for
f or m o f
items),
its
bo t h
instruction
participants
relative
Type A b e h a v i o r w i t h
rating
its
ease o f
a t most f i v e
The B o r t n e r
a level
study,
into
s c a l e was chosen f o r
and c o m p l e t i o n ) ,
validity.
this
B o r t n e r 1s ( 1 969 )
to c l a s s i f y
Thi s
sampl ed i n
( p a p e r and p e n c i l , t a k i n g
degr ee o f p r e d i c t i v e
to p r e d i c t
processes.
the p o p u l a t i o n
Type A and B c a t e g o r i e s .
short
o f t h e Type A
and ar e s u b s e q u e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d
mediation
I d e c i d e d t o use t h e
time, ,
and i t s
scale
hi gh
is able:
of accuracy that
compar es f a v o r a b l y w i t h many o f t h e o t h e r o b j e c t i v e
10
measur es
(Jenkins
et a l . , 1 9 7 1 ;
Robi ns on & H e l l e r ,
somewhat l o w e r
original
vi ew
1980),
level
predictive
(developed
of
criterion
B ' s who e x h i b i t
have a
compar ed t o t he
Inter­
Group S t u d y ,
is mainly a t t r i b u t a b l e
o f t h e u n d e v e l o p e d Type A 1s and t h e Type
some Type A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
t h o s e who e x h i b i t
seem t o
biased
i n the d i r e c t i o n
To
of
s t r o n g e r Type A o r B c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
h o p e f u l l y reduce the
not to
that
o f t h e Type A/ B c o n t i n u u m .
a sampl e more h e a v i l y
si ze o f the e r r o r
study those
the B o r t n e r ' s Scal e f e l l
this
(1974),
appears to
and
t er m i n t h e a n a l y s e s ,
individuals
within
distribution,
and i t
1 980;
measur e, the Standard
But t h i s
oc c u py t h e m i d - p e r c e n t i l e s
I decided
ability
by t h e West er n C o l l a b o r a t i v e
influence
obtain
& Palladi.no,
The o b j e c t i v e measur es
predictive
Rosenman et al . , 1 964 ) .
to the
Motiff
whose s c o r e s on
the mi ddl e o n e - t h i r d
was t h e p r o c e d u r e used
pr o d u c e a s t r o n g
o f t he
by Gl ass e t a I .
split
bet ween
■
t h e A and B g r o u p s .
In a d d i t i o n
type,
to the p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
the present
s t u d y exami nes
effects
the t i me
p e r i o d on t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
Previous
findings
amount o f
error
( Gl a s s
present
et a l . ,
sex and p e r s o n a l i t y
estimates
1974)
in duratio n
of the l en g t h of
reveal
estimates
of duration.
that
t he
increases
in
p r o p o r t i o n to t he length, o f t i me being e s t i m a t e d .
possible t h a t
there
i s an i n t e r a c t i o n
It
is
between the l e n g t h
o f t i me being e s t i m a t e d and t he p e r s o n a l i t y t y pe o f the
participant,
w i t h Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
increasing
their
amount o f e r r o r a t a g r e a t e r r a t e than Type B i n d i v i d u a l s
as the l e n g t h o f the t i me pe r i od
increases.
The p r o d u c t i o n method was used to de t e r mi ne t he p a r t ­
icipant's
first
duration
is t h a t ,
estimates
f o r two basic r eas ons .
when examined across
subjects,
The
t h e produc­
t i o n method tends to produce e s t i m a t e s wi t h a f i n e r o v e r a l l
level
of gradation
method.
in comparison to t he v e r b al
With v e r b a l
estimates,people
e s t i m a t e s o f t he amount o f ti me t h a t
ultant
potential
t he d a t a .
and e f f o r t
r espons e,
fo r negative e f f e c t s
give t h e i r
tend to gi v e rough
has passed,
The second reason i s l i n k e d
t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
estimation
with r e s ­
on the a n a l y s i s of
to the f i r s t .
rough e s t i m a t e s ,
from t he e x p e r i m e n t e r s to e l i c i t
it
t akes time
a more r e f i n e d
and w i t h i n t he c o n t e x t o f g a t h e r i n g d a t a ,
is usually l i t t l e
Two p o s s i b l e
When
there
t i me to s p ar e.
behavioral
i n d i c a t o r s of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
between Type A and B p e r s o n a l i t i e s
were i n cl uded
in the
s t udy .
their
The degr ee to which a p e r s o n ' s a r r i v a l
e x p e r i me n t a l
sessi on d e v i a t e d from t h e i r
ti me a t
scheduled
appoi nt ment t i me was assessed in t he b e l i e f t h a t
might
be a d i f f e r e n c e
in how i n d i v i d u a l s
there
of e i t h e r Type A
or B p e r s o n a l i t y respond when c o n f r o n t e d
by the i m p l i c i t
demands o f a set appoi nt ment t i m e .
It
was hy po t he s i z e d t h a t
deed have a decreased a b i l i t y
ti me from somatic cues,
tent
fashion
if
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
to e s t i m a t e t he passage of
t h e y mi ght d i f f e r
from Type B i n d i v i d u a l s
t hey v a r y from t h e i r
if
Thi s v a r i a b l e
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
ti me passage,
in some c o n s i s ­
in t he degree to which
scheduled appoi nt ment t i m e .
amined was whet her or not an i n d i v i d u a l
wat ch.
Also ex­
wears or c a r r i e s
a
was i n c l u d e d on the hypot hesi s t h a t
have a decreased a b i l i t y
to e s t i m a t e
t h e y mi ght tend to wear watches more of t e n
then do Type B i n d i v i d u a l s .
ures were al so anal y sed
Both o f these b e h a v i o r a l
in terms o f the p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
Our s o c i e t y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s
greatly
f emal es on many as pec t s o f
b e h a v i o r , and i t
si zed t h a t t he p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
factor
do i n ­
was hypothe­
sex mi ght be an i mp o r t a n t
behavioral I y .
sex.
between males and
in whether or not the Type A p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r
becomes m a n i f e s t e d
meas­
13
METHOD
S ub j e c t s
An i n i t i a l
icited
sample of p o t e n t i a l
p a r t i c i p a n t s was s o l ­
from t he p o p u l a t i o n of s t ude nt s a t t e n d i n g t h r e e
i n t r o d u c t o r y psychol ogy courses a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
The p a r t i c i p a n t s
were v o l u n t e e r s whose c o o p e r a t i o n was
ob t a i n e d t hr ough t he promise o f e x pe r i me n t a l
was to be added to t h e i r
course t h a t
grades in the psychology
o f 584 i n d i v i d u a l s
completed t he B o r t n e r scale,
t he sc a l e s were scor ed,
f o r m a t i o n o f a Type A/B conti nuum.
ures f i r s t
that
t hey were a t t e n d i n g .
A total
and a f t e r
final
credit
were i ncl uded
Fol l owi ng t he proceed-
used by Glass e t al . (1 9 7 4 ) ,
in the mi ddl e o n e - t h i r d
i n the
the i n d i v i d u a l s
o f t he d i s t r i b u t i o n
were not s t u d ­
i ed f u r t h e r
in o r d e r to ac hi e v e a st rong Type A/B d i f f e r ­
entiation.
After
t he e x c l u s i o n o f t he mi ddl e o n e - t h i r d of
t he d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
t he Type A p e r s o n a l i t y was o p e r a t i o n a l l y
d e f i n e d as an i n d i v i d u a l
was g r e a t e r
than or equal
whose score on the B o r t n e r scal e
to 6 . 5 .
Simila r ily ,
a Type B
p e r s o n a l i t y was o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d as an i n d i v i d u a l
whose score on t he B o r t n e r sc a l e was l es s than or equal
5.5.
Thi s
procedure r e s u l t e d
i n an i n i t i a l
s u b j e c t pool
to
14
o f 386,
w i t h 1 90 Type A p e r s o n a l i t y
and 116 f e m a l e s ) ,
individuals
(74 males
and 1 96 Type B p e r s o n a l i t y i n d i v i d u a l s
(98 males and 98 f e m a l e s ) .
A 2 (Type A or B) X 2 (male of f e ma l e )
five-minute duration)
icipants
desi gn was used,
randoml y assi gned to d u r a t i o n
dual s were c o n t a c t e d
to t a k e p a r t
their
factorial
assent,
length.
t he i n d i v i d u a l
p a r t i c i p a n t s were scheduled in
t i me s l o t .
scheduled f o r
e s t i m a t i n g t he same d u r a t i o n .
sources o f e r r o r
Thi s was accompl i shed f o r
an equal
and to reduce
i n h e r e n t w i t h the perf ormance of
two or more set s o f d i f f e r i n g
When a l l
a total
Assignment was
the same t i me s l o t
both the conveni ence o f t he e x p e r i m e n t e r s ,
t he e x p e r i m e n t e r s .
Upon
o f which d u r a t i o n was to be es t i mat ed,
w i t h both p a r t i c i p a n t s
in the study.
T h e . i ndivi
in a psychol ogy e x per i ment f o r c r e d i t .
based on t h e c r i t e r i a
were f i l l e d ,
wi t h p a r t ­
by phone and r equest ed to v o l u n t e e r
groups o f two to a p a r t i c u l a r
possible
X 2 ( o ne- or
si mul t aneous o p e r a t i o n s
by
o f t he e i g h t p o s s i b l e c e l l s
o f 112 p a r t i c i p a n t s were i ncl uded
Ther e were 56 femal es and 56 ma l e s ,
wi t h
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of Type A 1s and B' s o f each sex.
The mean B o r t n e r score f o r male Type A p a r t i c i p a n t s was
7.10,
SD= 7 . 1 2 9 .
The mean score f o r f emal e t y pe A p a r t -
i c i pants was 7 . 1 5 4 ,
SD= 7 . 1 7 5 .
mean B o r t n e r scores f o r
A t_ t e s t
performed on the
the f emal e and mal e. Type A 1s i n d i ­
cat ed t h a t t h e r e was ho s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
£ <^ . 2 0 ]
between t he two groups.
f o r male Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s
The mean B o r t h e r s c o r e '
was 4 . 8 8 5 ,
SD= 4 . 8 9 3 .
mean score f o r t he f emal e Type B' s was 4.875.,
t
test
performed on t he mean B o r t n e r
and male Type B's r e v e a l e d
difference
[£(56)=
that
[ t _ ( 5 6 ) = .029,
The
SD= 4 . 9 1 4 .
A
scores f o r the female
t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t
.008, £ > .20]
The age range o f t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
between the two groups.
was 18 to 36 y e a r s .
Apparatus
The e x per i ment was conducted
in two small
exper i ment al
rooms ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 . 2 m long X I .8 m wide X 2 . 9 m h i g h ) ,
each c o n t a i n i n g a st andar d wooden s t u d e n t ' s desk w i t h a
small. (10 cm X 15 cm X 7 cm) l u c i t e
surface.
light
On each of t hese l u c i t e
and an o n / o f f
Also i n c l u d e d
box mounted on the work
boxes t h e r e was a p i l o t
swi t ch to o p e r a t e
in t he p h y s i c a l
it.
s e t t i n g was a common
room ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 . 4 m long X 3 , 2 m wide X 2 , 9 m hi gh)
t h a t c o nt a i ne d
two wooden desks f o r t he use of the p a r t i c i ­
pants w h i l e t h e y were f i l l i n g
chairs
out f or ms,
f o r use by t he e x p e r i m e n t e r s .
and two wooden
The e l e c t r o n i c
t i mi n g
ap par at us and p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s
were on a t a b l e
located
in
t he f r o n t o f t he room.
The d u r a t i o n measurement appar at us was composed of
two Hunter model
pilot
lights
used by the p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
to connect a l l
were wi r ed
1 20 K l o c k o u n t e r s , the o n / o f f
o f t he e l e c t r i c a l
so t h a t t he s t a r t i n g
was c o n t r o l l e d
swi t ches and
and the w i r i n g used
apparatus.
The t i me r s
and stoppi ng o f the u n i t s
by t he p a r t i c i p a n t s when t hey were seated
in t he dat a c o l l e c t i o n
rooms (see Appendix A f o r the w i r i n g
sc h e m a t i c ) .
The p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s
s c a l e and t he i n s t r u c t i o n s
c o n s i s t e d o f the B o r t n e r r a t i n g
for
its
compl et i on
(see Appendix
B) •
Procedure
Participants
their
arrival.
were seated in a common w a i t i n g room upon
Whi l e t h e r e ,
t h e y were r equest ed to f i l l
out and sign a v o l u n t a r y s u b j e c t
participation
st atement,
and to remove any watches t h e y mi ght have and put them i n '
their
pocket,
purse or
backpack.
ioral
measures o f a r r i v a l
The data f o r t he behav­
ti me and watch weari ng
behavi or
were a s c e r t a i n e d and r ecorded w h i l e the p a r t i c i p a n t s were
complying w i t h t he r e q u e s t s .
A f t e r the v o l u n t a r y p a r t i c i -
pat ion forms were c o l l e c t e d ,
t he small
e x p e r i me n t a l
i n each room.
"In th is
t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
were led to
rooms where t hey were s e a t e d , one
These d i r e c t i o n s were then read to them:
p o r t i o n o f the e x p e r i m e n t , your t a s k i s to
t hrow t he swi t ch and t u r n on the l i g h t
f o r a peri od
o f ti me t h a t you e s t i m a t e to be one [ f i v e ]
Pl ease do not count to y o u r s e l f ,
or use any o t h e r
l e a v e the l i g h t
minute[s].
count your
h e a r t be a t s ,
s i m i l a r method to estmate how long to
on.
Al I
we want i s an e s t i m a t e of
your f e e l i n g o f when one [ f i v e ]
minute[s]
When you f e e l
t h a t one [ f i v e ]
minute[s]
o f f the l i g h t
and the e x p e r i m e n t e r w i l l
has e l a ps ed.
is over,
t ur n
come back i n t o
t he room."
Any q u e s t i on s were answer ed, t he e x p e r i me n t e r s l e f t
rooms, and the d u r a t i o n
estimation
the
p o r t i o n o f t he study
began.
P a r t i c i p a n t s were r e q u i r e d to produce t h e i r
o f e i t h e r a 60- or a 3 0 0 - s e c .
t i o n method.
t i me per i od usi ng t he produc­
The e s t i m a t e was o p e r a t i v e l y d e f i n e d through
t he t u r n i n g on and the t u r n i n g o f f the p i l o t
on/off
switch.
e s t i ma t e
l i g h t wi t h the
The m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the swi t ch c o n c u r r e n t l y
s t a r t e d and stopped an e l e c t r o n i c
timer lopated
in the
*
18
common room.
In a d d i t i o n
gi ven to the p a r t i c i p a n t s
to t h e s p e c i f i c
regarding
instructions
e s t i m a t i o n met hods,
t hey were f or c ed to r e l y on somati c cues to e s t i m a t e the
passage o f ti me by pe r f or mi ng t h e i r
envi ronment of reduced e x t e r n a l
no o b j e c t s
stimulation.
p r e s e n t o t h e r than t he c h a i r
and the c o n t r o l
little
e s t i m a t e s w h i l e in an
There were
in which t hey s a t ,
appar at us f o r t he t i m e r s . . There was
or no ambi ent n o i s e ,
and no Source o f i n f o r m a t i o n
by which to judge t he passage o f t i m e .
o f t he e s t i m a t e s ,
t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
Upon t he compl et i on
were r e t u r n e d to the
common room, where t h e y were d e b r i e f e d .
19
RESULTS
Duration
Est i mat es
Each p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
duration
e s t i m a t e was i n i t i a l l y
used in a 2 x 2 X 2 (Sex X P e r s o n a l i t y Type X D u r a t i o n )
analysis
of va ria nc e.
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y ,
o f d u r a t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t
[ £ ( I , 111)
The mean p r o d u c t i o n o f t he 60 s e c . t i m e
the main e f f e c t
= 262.1 , £ <
per i od was s h o r t e r
then the mean pr o d u c t i o n o f t he 300 sec p e r i o d .
was al s o l es s
.001].
b e t w e e n - s u b j ect s v a r i a b i l i t y
There
i n t h e 60 sec
d u r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n then t h e r e was i n t he 300 sec., c o n d i t i o n
as i s r e v e a l e d
by a Le v e n e 's
e i t y of variance
1973).
[£(1,
111)
t e s t o f t he he t e r o g e n ­
= 65.82, £
< . 001] , ( Keppl e ,
The main e f f e c t o f p e r s o n a l i t y type was o n l y mar­
ginally significant
A participants
[ £ ( 1 , 111)
conditions.
l o n g e r e s t i m a t e s than
in both t he 60 sec and '3 00 sec
were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more v a r i a b l e
= 5.60, £
Type B i n d i v i d u a l s .
cant f i n d i n g s
£ < .30],
wi t h Type
However, a Le v e n e 1s a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d t h a t
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
[ £( 1 , 111)
= 3.20, £ < .1 0 ],
produci ng s l i g h t l y
di d Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s
1.88],
(1960)
<.05]
in t h e i r
e s t i ma t e s then were
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f the l a c k o f s i g n i f i ­
f o r t he main e f f e c t
o f sex [£(!■,
or f o r any o f the i n t e r a c t i o n s
t hese f i n d i n g s ,
as a wh ol e,
[all
Ill)
= 1.13,
£ ( 1 , 1 1 1 )<C
tend to suppor t the
20
original
hypotheses t h a t Type A i n d i v i d u a l s would produce
e s t i m a t e s o f d u r a t i o n t h a t were both l o n g e r
marginally)
and more v a r i a b l e
( a l t h o u g h onl y
than Type B i n d i v i d u a l s
(see
Ta b l e I ) .
N e x t , each p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
ed as a f u n c t i o n o f i t s
t he o b j e c t i v e
Again,
duration
[ F ( l , 111)
er a b s o l u t e l e v e l
= 52. 37 , P < . 0 0 1 ] ,
[all
More i m p o r t a n t l y ,
results
= 0.00],
TH)
those w i t h t h e Type A p e r s o n a l i t y were
estimates
There was no main e f f e c t
for
nor were any i n t e r a c t i o n s
< 1.63].
from t he a n a l y s i s
estimates,
indicating a great­
i n comparison, to the
less accurate with t h e i r
P_ < . 0 5 ] .
£(1,
from
o f accur acy a t t he 60 sec then a t the
Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
[ F( I , 111)
or d e v i a t i o n ,
t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t of
300 sec d u r a t i o n .
= 4.27,
absolute e r r o r ,
e s t i m a t e was assess­
st andar ds of 60 and 300 seconds t h a t were
utilized.
significantly
duration
[ F ( l , 111)
sex
significant
However, i n combi nat i on w i t h the
perf ormed on the a c t u a l
duration
t hese f i n d i n g s l end c o n f i r m a t o r y evi dence t h a t
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s a r e indeed l e s s a c c u r a t e and more v a r i ­
a b l e when e s t i m a t i n g t he passage o f t i me then a r e Type B
individuals.
21
Ta bl e I
M and 'SJD ( i n
(in
p a r e n t h e s e s ) o f Each D u r a t i o n
seconds)
for
E s t i ma t e Measure
Each Combi nati on of D u r a t i o n and
P e r s o n a l i t y Type
Duration
Personali t y
Type
I Mi nut e
Combined
5 Mi nutes
Pr oduct i on
A
63.3
(32.5)
339.8
(133.3)
201 .6 ( I 6 8 . 9 )
B
56. 7
(15.4)
290.1
(83.8)
173.4
(131 . 3 )
M
60.0
(25.6)
314.9
(114.1 )
187.5
(1 50.1 )
Abs ol ut e D e v i a t i o n from Standard
A
20.6
(25.3)
I 06 . 3
(89.7 ).
63.4
(78.6)
B
12.6
(9.3)
72.7
(42.9)
42.6
(43.2)
M
16.6
(19.5)
89.5
(72.3)
53.0
(60.9)
Abs ol u t e D e v i a t i o n from Mean
( Le v e n e 1s T e s t f o r H e t e r o g e n e i t y o f V a r i a n c e
A
19.8
(23.8)
1 06 . 2
(80.1 )
63.0
(73.2)
B
10.6
(7.8)
72.2
(41.9)
41 .4 ( 4 3 , 1 )
M
15.2
(18.3)
89.2
(66.1)
52.2
(58.2)
22
Arrival
Time
Arrival
ti me data were c a l c u l a t e d
in terms o f the
number o f seconds t h a t a p a r t i c i p a n t a r r i v e d
tive
error,
or d i s c r e p a n c y ) ,
discrepancy),
ality
or l a t e
tended to a r r i v e
(a n e g a t i v e e r r o r ,
or
O ve ra ll, participants
e a r l y f o r the e x p e r i m e n t , w i t h a mean
di s c r e p a n c y o f 147 sec . ( SJD = 3 7 8 . 5 2 s e c ) .
e f f e c t found in t h i s
o f sex [ £( 1 , 111)
= 5.00,
(M = 6 5 . 9 sec,
The o n l y
a n a l y s i s was a main e f f e c t
P_ < . 0 5 ] :
i c a n t l y more e a r l y . (M = 228.1
di d males
(a p o s i ­
and were s u b j e c t e d to a 2 X 2 (Sex X Person­
Type) a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e .
significant
early
Females a r r i v e d
signif­
s e c , SJD = 3 6 0 . 6 4 sec) than
SJD = 3 9 6 . 3 9 s e c ) .
A Le v e n e 1s t e s t o f the h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e v a r i a n c e
i n d i c a t e d t h a t n e i t h e r males or f e m a l e s ,
B participants
were more v a r i a b l e
nor Type A or Type
by t h e ms e l v e s .
However,
a s i g n i f i c a n t Sex X P e r s o n a l i t y Type i n t e r a c t i o n was found
[ F ( I , 111)
= 7.91,
t he l e a s t v a r i a b l e
P_ < . 0 1 ] .
Male Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s were
(P[ = 1 68 . 42 sec,
S£ =
196.25 sec).
Thi s d i f f e r e n c e
in v a r i a b i l i t y was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t
[ t (11 2) = 4 . 7 8 ,
P_ < . 0 0 1 ] .
Differences
in v a r i a b i l i t y were
al so found between male Type B and Female Type B p a r t i c i ­
pants
(M = 3 6 8 . 9 6 sec,
SJD = 3 0 7 . 0 5 s e c ) , [ t ( 1 1 2 )
= 2.86,
23
P.. < . 01 ] ,
and f emal e Type A p a r t i c i p a n t s
(M = 2 7 5 . 0 4 sec,
SD = 24 1 . 1 8 sec) and male Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s
1.78, 2 < .05 ],
wi t h
[ j t ( l 12) =
both f emal e Type A and B p a r t i c i p a n t s
being more v a r i a b l e than male Type B.
Match Wearing
Finally,
each p a r t i c i p a n t s
watch weari ng
behavi or was
examined in a 2 X 2 (Sex X P e r s o n a l i t y Type) a n a l y s i s of
variance.
There was a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t
[jF(l,
= 7.50, £ < .01],
111)
cant main e f f e c t
for
= .61, £ < . 5 0 ] ,
nor was t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t
111)
= 2.45, £
sex
w i t h 57% of t he males weari ng
wat ches, compared to o n l y 32% o f t he f e ma l e s .
[£(!,
for
No s i g n i f i ­
p e r s o n a l i t y t y pe was found [ £ ( 1 ,
111)
interaction
<.20].
An ex a mi na t i on o f t he d i f f e r e n t i a l
f r e q ue n c y o f watch
weari ng between males and f emal es may help to account f o r ,
in p a r t ,
the f i n d i n g s
t h a t males tended to a r r i v e a t the
exper i ment c l o s e r to t h e i r
schedul ed appoi nt ment times then
di d f e m a l e s , y e t e x h i b i t e d more o v e r a l l
Levene' s t e s t
for
the a r r i v a l
t i me d a t a .
v a r i a b i l i t y on the
In t h e i n t e r a c ­
t i o n o f sex and p e r s o n a l i t y t ype found on t he Levene' s
a n a l y s i s , male Type A, and f e ma l e Type A and B p a r t i c i p a n t s
were a l l
found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y more v a r i a b l e on t h e i r
24
arrival
times, than male Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s .
p a t t e r n o f r e s u l t s was found to e x i s t
ing o f watches
(see Ta b l e 2 ) .
relative
A similar
to the wear ­
Male Type B p a r t i c i p a n t s
tended to wear watches s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f t e n then did
f emal e Type A [ t ( 1 1 2)
[t_( 112)
= 3.14,
= 2.50,
and f emal e Type B
P/ < . 01 ] , and t e n d i n g toward s i g n i f i c a n c e
wi t h male Type A p a r t i c i p a n t s
It
< .05],
[ t (112)
= 1.63, £ < .15].
i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t whether or not an i n d i v i d u a l
a watch coul d make a d i f f e r e n c e
their
scheduled a p p o i n t me n t s .
in t h e i r
wears
p u n c t u a l i t y at
25
Ta bl e 2
M and SJD ( i n
Arrival
Cell*
p a r e n t h e s e ) o f the Levene' s Te st o f the
Time Data and Watch Wearing Behavi or
Levene' s Te st f o r A r r i v a l
Time i n Seconds
Watch Wearing
Per cent
MA
37 4 . 3 2
(340.50)
. .46
(.50)
MB
I 68. 43
(196.25)
.68
(.47)
FA
275.04
(241 . 1 8 )
.36
(.48)
FB
368.96
(307.05)
. 29 ( . 4 5 )
* MA = M a l e Type A
MB = Male Type B
FA = Female Type A
FB = Female Type B
26
DISCUSSION
The pr i ma r y hy pot hesi s
was whet her
differ
individuals
■
t h a t was t e s t e d
classified
from Type B i n d i v i d u a l s
in t h i s
st udy
as Type A p e r s o n a l i t y
i n t he a b i l i t y
to e s t i ma t e
the passage of t i me from i n f o r ma t i o n gai ned onl y from
somat i c c u e s .
Thi s hy pot hesi s was t e s t e d
e s t i ma t i n g d u r a t i o n s
c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h
desi gn.
individuals
durations
usi ng t he pr od uc t i on method in
specific
Wi t hi n t h i s
features
context, i t
were s i g n i f i c a n t l y
of the e x per i ment al
was found t h a t Type A
l ess ac c ur a t e
then were Type B i n d i v i d u a l s .
t he hypot hesi s was f u r t h e r
i ncr eased
t hrough t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
level
On t h i s measure,
suppor t ed by the pr esence of an
of v a r i a b i l i t y
t he Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
i n e s t i ma t i n g
found in the responses of
as det er mi ned by the Le v e n e 1s t e s t
of the h e t e r o g e n e i t y of t he v a r i a n c e .
Thi s h i ghe r
level
of v a r i a b i l i t y woul d appear to i n d i c a t e t he pr esence of an
enhanced p a t t e r n
individuals
of randomness i n t he r espondi ng of Type A
in compari son to t he Type B i n d i v i d u a l s .
i s perhaps i n d i c a t i v e
of e i t h e r
of the somat osensor y processes
that
l ess
reliable
percept i on
in Type A i n d i v i d u a l s ,
t he processes t hemsel ves ar e more v a r i a b l e .
Re ga r dl e s s ,
in e i t h e r
case,
it
individuals
have a decr eased a b i l i t y
appears t h a t Type A
to e s t i ma t e t i me
passage in compari son to Type B i n d i v i d u a l s .
This
or
2 7
An i n t e r e s t i n g
sex d i f f e r e n c e s ,
sidelight
i s the l ack of s i g n i f i c a n t
or i n t e r a c t i o n s
of sex and p e r s o n a l i t y
on t he e s t i m a t i o n of t i me passage.
society that
It
is t he norm in our
t he i n d i v i d u a l s who devel op CHD and who have
t he Type A p e r s o n a l i t y can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d
males in p o s i t i o n s
of a u t h o r i t y or s i m i l a r
o c c up a t i ons .
It
women i n t h i s
category
as h a r d - d r i v i n g
stress
evoki ng
may be t h a t t he l ack of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
( t hose who devel op CHD) , does not
stem from a l ack of s u s c e p t a b i I i t y of f emal es to t he
p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n and i t s
r a t h e r from a l ower l e v e l
p a t h o l o g i c consequences, but
of o p p o r t u n i t y of women wi t h the
Type A p e r s o n a l i t y to be pl aced in an a p p r o p r i a t e
pat hogeni c envi r onme nt .
& Chamber l ai n,
1980)
A recent
st udy ( Da v i ds on,
focused on Type A b e h a v i o r ,
measured by t he Bor t n e r s c a l e ,
f emal e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
as
i n a. group of 148 se ni or
I t was found t h a t t hese women
compare f a v o r a b l y wi t h males
pathogonomi c i n d i c a t o r s
Cooper,
in s i m i l a r
p o s i t i o n s , .on the
of Type A b e h a v i o r .
It
can
p o s s i b l y be expect ed t h a t as women come to occupy more
high-stress
increase
CHD.
positions,
there w i l l
be a concomi t ant
i n t h e i r m o r t a l i t y due to t he c o mp l i c a t i o n s of .
28
Thi s coul d be p r o p e r l y be assessed t hrough a l o n g i t u d i n a l
st udy s i m i l a r
i n na t ur e to t he West ern C o l l a b o r a t i v e Group
St udy ( Rosenman e t a I . ,
1964).
It
would be i n s t r u c t i v e
to
not onl y moni t or t he pr ogr ess of women who ar e a l r e a d y in
positions
of h i g h - s t r e s s ,
but al so to det er mi ne
if
t her e
i s an i n c r e a s e of CHD i n s u s c e p t i b l e women who in the
course of t he s t udy ,
enter
and encount er h i ghe r l e v e l s
An a d d i t i o n a l
finding
is t hat whi l e there
into posi t i ons
of a u t h o r i t y
of s t r e s s .
of t he d u r a t i o n e s t i ma t e data
is a s i g n i f i c a n t
increase
i n t he l e v e l
of e r r o r pr e s e nt as t he l engt h of t i me e s t i ma t e d
there
i s no concomi t ant
increases,
sex or p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e ;
i s t h e r e any i n t e r a c t i o n
between t he d u r a t i o n bei ng
e s t i ma t e d and a pe r s on' s gender or p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e .
mi ght
indicate
t he l i t e r a t u r e
fact that
there
that
t he l ac k of sex d i f f e r e n c e s
Thi s
found in
on t he e s t i m a t i o n of t i me may be due to the
i s no r eal
and f emal es p e r c e i v e
The b e h a v i o r a l
difference
in t he way t h a t males
t i me .
measures t h a t were exami ned i n t h i s
st udy produced r e s u l t s
t he a p r i o r i
nor
t h a t were i n many ways c ount e r to
assumpt i ons r e g a r d i n g expect ed outcomes.
29
t he r e s u l t s
t h a t were p r o j e c t e d on t he d i f f e r e n t i a l
to j udge t i me passage,
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
be more v a r i a b l e on t h e i r
arrival
t i me s ,
es more o f t e n to hel p c ount er t h e i r
tion.
Except f o r
were expect ed to
and to wear wat ch­
poor t empor al
tations
per cep­
t he case o f t he Type A mal e p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
t hese hypot hesi zed r e s u l t s di d not however,
ears t h a t
ability
perhaps d i v e r g e n t c u l t u r a l
occur.
It
i n f l u e n c e s and expec­
between f emal es and mal es may be a g r e a t e r
i n t he behav i or o f i n d i v i d u a l s
app­
factor
t han p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s
are.
In t h i s
st udy,
it
was found t h a t mal es t end t o wear
watches more o f t e n t hen do f e ma l e s .
interesting
exist
Thi s f i n d i n g
i m p l i c a t i o n s when combined wi t h p a t t e r n s
i n t he a r r i v a l
t i me d a t a .
dat a may have been t he r e s u l t
gi ven when t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
schedul ed f o r t h e i r
it
t i me di scr epanc y
o f t he i n s t r u c t i o n s
were cont a ct e d
ap po i nt me n t s .
that
The sex d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t
were found i n t he a n a l y s i s o f t he a r r i v a l
inherent
has some
t h a t were
by phone and
Due to t he problems
i n g a t h e r i n g dat a on a l a r g e number o f s u b j e c t s ,
was necessar y t o emphasi ze t h a t t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
a r r i v e as cl ose to t h e i r
should
schedul ed appoi nment t i mes as
p o s s i b l e to avoi d crowdi ng and d e l a y s .
As mal es tend to
30
wear watches more o f t e n t hen do f e ma l e s ,
t h a t t he mal es i n t h i s
a r r i v e at t h e i r
st udy were a b l e t o ,
relative
It
may be t h a t
assur e t h a t t he y would not
arrival
po s s i bl e
in gener al ,
schedul ed
f e ma l e s ,
l ower r a t e of wat ch we a r i n g ,
unconsc i ous l y paced t h e i r
mean a r r i v a l
is
appoi nt ment s c l o s e r to t h e i r
t i mes then were f e ma l e s .
their
it
due to
c o n s c i o u s l y or
t i mes e a r l y enough to
be l a t e ,
and hence produced a
t i me t h a t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
earlier
then t he
males'.
It
mi ght
be noted
here t h a t a p p a r e n t l y t he i n s t r u c ­
t i o n s gi ven t o t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
by phone were a t l e a s t
t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
it
failed
when t hey were cont a ct e d
to some degr ee e f f e c t i v e .
to keep t h e i r
ap po i nt me n t s .
i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t he promi se o f e x t r a
psychol ogy gr a d e s ,
None o f
Though
po i nt s f o r t h e i r
i n combi nat i on wi t h t he dat a c o l l e c t i o n
t a k i n g pl ace t he l a s t week o f t he academi c q u a r t e r may al so
have been a f a c t o r .
When a r r i v a l
its
t i me dat a were examined as a f u n c t i o n of
absol ute d e v i a t i o n
( t he L e v e n e ' s t e s t o f t he h e t e r o ­
g e n e i t y o f t he v a r i a n c e ) ,
an i n t e r e s t i n g
interaction
bet­
ween t he sex and p e r s o n a l i t y t ype o f t he p a r t i c i p a n t was
f ound.
The i n t e r a c t i o n
i s somewhat conf usi ng u n t i l
it
is
31
examined i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h t he p a r t i c i p a n t s wat ch weari ng
behavi or.
As was ment i oned e a r l i e r ,
pa t t e r n of d i f f e r e n c e s
found i n t he i n t e r a c t i o n was al so
found wi t h p a r t i c i p a n t ' s
personality
the, same r e l a t i v e
individuals
wear i ng o f wat ches.
Mal e Type B
were found t o wear wat ches s i g n i f ­
i c a n t l y more o f t e n t han j u s t about ever yone el s e i n t he
st udy.
Therefore i t
shoul d not be s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t hey
were al so t he l e a s t v a r i a b l e on t h e i r
possi bl e interdependency of a r r i v a l
arrival
tuality.
Given
t i mes and watch weari ng,
i t may be t h a t whet her or not an i n d i v i d u a l
is a p r e d i c t o r of t h e i r
t i me s .
wears a watch
behavi or t owards appoi nt ment punc­
Thi s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e
if
t he i n d i v i d u a l ' s
sex and
p e r s o n a l i t y t ype a r e known.
I n t he f u t u r e ,
if
additional
c o n s t r u c t o f a t empor al
contributor
uent CHD, i t
r e s e a r c h conf i r ms t he
e s t i m a t i o n d y s f u n c t i o n as a prime
to t he genesi s o f Type A behavi or and subseq­
mi ght
be p o s s i b l e to devel op an i n t e r v e n t i o n
regi men based on t e a c h i n g Type A behav i or prone i n d i v i d u a l s
to more a c c u r a t e l y d i s c r i m i n a t e t he passage o f t i m e .
discrimination t r aining
if
Type A i n d i v i d u a l s
would l i k e l y
be most e f f i c a c i o u s
were both i d e n t i f i e d
begun a t as e a r l y an age as p o s s i b l e .
Thi s
and t r a i n i n g
Thi s coul d tend to
32
promote t he r e d u c t i o n o f t he p a t h o l o g i c
physiological
ps y c h ol o gi c a l
and
consequences o f t he Type A be hav i or p a t t e r n
to a c o n s i d e r a b l e degr ee.
In r e t r o s p e c t ,
se v e r a l
ar eas o f t h i s
st udy coul d be
i mproved i n a r e p l i c a t i o n o f t he met hodol ogy.
ient
numbers o f p a r t i c i p a n t s
were a v a i l a b l e ,
If
an expansi on
o f t he desi gn to i n c l u d e more v a r i a b l e s mi ght
interesting
level
relationships
of mani pul at i on
participants
i n t he r e s u l t s .
i n t he i n s t r u c t i o n s
produce some d i f f e r e n c e s
t i me p u n c t u a l i t y .
wi t h i n s t r u c t i o n s
of p a r t i c i p a n t s
of a d i s t r a c t i o n
tic
cues.
in t h e i r a r r i v a l
and. then
group wi t h no i n s t r u c t i o n s
be an a c c e p t a b l e method.
r e ga r d i ng
Wi t h r egar d to
t he a d d i t i o n of a not he r group
who e s t i ma t e t i me passage i n t he presence
t a s k mi ght
hel p to d i s c e r n whet her or not
e s t i ma t e s ar e bei ng made on t he basi s of soma­
Al so an e x t e ns i on o f t he d u r a t i o n s
at ed to perhaps 10 mi nut es mi ght
found a t
ex per i ment al
to be as prompt as p o s s i b l e ,
t he e s t i m a t i o n o f d u r a t i o n s ,
individual's
gi ven to t he
Schedul i ng one group o f p a r t i c i p a n t s
s c hedul i ng a c o n t r o l
p u n c t u a l i t y mi ght
produce some
An a d d i t i o n a l
when t hey ar e schedul ed to t h e i r
s e s s i o n s , mi ght
suffic­
shorter
intervals.
It
bei ng e s t i m­
pi ck up d i f f e r e n c e s
mi ght al so
not
be i n s t r u c t i v e
33
t o exami ne t he v a r i a b l e s
and v e r bal
Overall,
i n t he c o n t e x t o f both pr oduc t i on
e s t i m a t i o n methods o f d u r a t i o n assessment .
however,
t he r e s u l t s
o f t he pr es ent st udy suppor t s
t he hypot hesi s t h a t an i n a b i l i t y
to a c c u r a t e l y e s t i ma t e t i me
passage may p a r t i a l I y account f o r t he o r i g i n and d e v e l o p ­
ment o f t he Type A behav i or
pattern.
34
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39
Appendi x A
Data C o l l e c t i o n
Rooms^- t Pi l ot Li ght s
v On/ Of f /
' Swi t ches'
'6 V o l t
Power Source
■Wiring Bundl e
E l e c t r o n i c Ti mer s
Common Room
40
Appendi x B
Each o f us bel ongs somewhere al ong t he
l i n e between t hese two ext r emes.
For
exampl e, most of us a r e n e i t h e r t he most
c o m p e t i t i v e nor t he l e a s t c o m p e t i t i v e
person we know. What we would l i k e you
to do. i s make a v e r t i c a l l i n e where you
t h i n k you bel ong between t hese two
meas ur es.
Never l a t e
Not competitive
Casual about
a p poi nt ment s
_____:_________ ^
Very C o mp e t i t i v e
Al ways rushed
Never f e e l s r ushed,
even under pr essur e
Takes things one
at a time
T r i e s t o do many
t h i ng s a t once/
t h i n k s about what
to do next
Fast ( e a t i n g ,
wa l k i ng e t c , )
Slow doi ng t h i ng s
"sits" on
fe e lings
Many interests
Name _________
Phone no.
Expresses f e e l i n g s
Few i n t e r e s t s
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Duration estimates and
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