Proceedings of International Social Sciences and Business Research Conference
4 - 5 December 2014, Hotel Himalaya, Kathmandu, Nepal, ISBN: 978-1-922069-65-8
Comparing China and European Maritime Behavior on Food
Spreading
Citra Hennida*
From around the fifteenth century, the large and very powerful Chinese empire
progressively pulled back from extensive maritime activity in the ‘southern oceans’ while
a group of much smaller and weaker European states embarked on a process of
competitive maritime expansion which would eventually produce a European-dominated
‘world economy’ by the nineteenth century. Article discusses the contrasting patterns in
European and Chinese maritime behavior on food spreading. It questioned why Chinese
empire which dominated ‘southern oceans’ had contributed less compare to European
states; even though Chinese vessel much bigger than its counterpart in Europe. Article
argues that European maritime expansions vast the food exchange instead of Chinese
maritime expansions. China maritime expansions contributed naval technology,
luxurious products and trade system between north and the Southern Oceans territory
instead of food distribution, while European maritime expansions made food regime on
international system which not only integrated food products but also investments.
Name of the track: Politics and Public Administration
1. Introduction
In fifteenth century, there were two main accesses for international trade: land access through
Eurasia and sea access through Indian Ocean (Wills, Jr., 2007). China has accessed for both
and put China as dominated state during the fourteenth until in the early fifteenth century
(Eastman, 1988). China had developed its maritime vessel system since Tang Dynasty (618907 AD). It reached Japan, Sumatra, Java and Southern India. China was looking for gems,
pepper, cloves and sandalwood. China‟s maritime vessel system further developed in Song
Dynasty (960-1279 AD) by reaching new ports. In that period, China exported books, porcelains
and silk while imported rice, sugar and iron ores. Practice in that period, China was a core state
in the international trade, which followed by the Arab states in the second rank. The Indian and
South Asian states acted as the semi periphery states, while Europe only acted as peripheral
states (Abu-Lughod, 1989).
In the same century, China not only conducted great maritime expansions, but also suddenly
pulled back from its massive maritime expansions. During Ming Dynasty, China had the largest
naval vessels in the world. Under Admiral Cheng Ho`s seven voyages, China cruised the Indian
Oceans; moreover, China had become the major power across the South East Asia, South
Asia, the Persian Gulf and Africa. China`s vessel was the biggest vessel in the early modern
history that even Europe could not compare its technology and ships that China has been used
(Abu-Lughod, 1989).
*
Citra Hennida, M.A., Department of International Relations, Airlangga University, Indonesia. Email:
citra.hennida@gmail.com
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Proceedings of International Social Sciences and Business Research Conference
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This position changed around the fifteenth century when the Chinese Empire progressively
pulled back from the international trade and in the same time Europe expanded their maritime
ability until they dominated the international trade in the nineteenth century. Anthony Reid
(1990) states that the fifteenth century and sixteenth century were known as „the age of
commerce‟, when exchange on religion, people, state system and commerce occurred (Reid,
1990). Commerce has helped the exchange of food and the changing position has created
several consequences on food distribution.
2. Literature Review
Article using strategic culture approach in order to analyze the role of Chinese and European
maritime behaviour on food distribution. Snyder (1977) was the first who coin the term strategic
culture. He defined startegic culture as “sum total of ideas, conditional emotional responses and
patterns of habitual behaviour” of decision makers. He coined the term in order to response
Soviet strategic on nuclear options. Johnston (1995) stresses that different state have different
strategic preferences. States‟ strategic preferences are influenced by their history (subjective
variables) and ahistory (objective variables). Subjective variables could be rooted in the early
experience of the state and influenced by their philosophical, political, cultural and cognitive
characteristics of the state and its elites. Meanwhile, objective variables could be technology,
polarity, or relative material capabilities. Johnston (1995) adds that subjective variables
sometimes act as constraints to the states‟ response on their dynamic environment and
influence their strategic choice. Therefore, even though objective variables have fast
developed, state‟s subjective variables often come on the slow path.
However, it does not imply that strategic culture approach reject rationality. Strategic culture is
compatible with limited rationality, process rationality and adaptive rationality . Stretegi culture
will simplify reality, narrow options and using historical background to guide choice (Johnston,
1995). Different with game strategy in which strategy is chosen based on the expectations
about what other players will do. Meawhile, strategic culture imply that state‟s strategic
behaviour is not fully responsive to others‟ choice (Schelling, 1980).
There are three development on strategic culture approach. First development focus on macro
environment variables. Gray (1990) and Jones (1990) explain that states‟ strategy are
influenced by macro environment variables such as historical experience, political culture, and
geography. Second development focus on leaders‟ or decison makers‟ behaviour. What leaders
think and say could be different to what they have done. Strategic culture is a tool for political
hegemony; therefore, it reflects the interest of hegemonistic group (Klein, 1989). Third
development focus on recent practice and experiment that influence states‟ strategy. Strategic
culture does not depend on historical experience like the other two; but, it depends on states‟
recent practices and experinces (Legro, 1995). This paper focus on the first and second
development. Both Chinese and European maritime strategy was influenced by its macro
environment and political hegemony among elites. Macro environment focus on geopolitical
situation at that time. Political hegemony among elites pushed China and Europe to spread its
influence abroad. China threat its trading partner using tributary state system due to its
confucianism background. This system did not give contribution to food distribution beacuse
Chinese vessels only loaded luxury goods. On the contrary, European threat its trading partner
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Proceedings of International Social Sciences and Business Research Conference
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as colony that had to be conquered. It was due to geographical condition barriers at home and
the need to mainntain food supply.
3. The Methodology
This article makes comparison between Chinese maritime expansion and European maritime
expansion around the fifteenth and sixteenth century. Rather than provide a detailed historical
construction, this paper highlights certain aspect on the role of Chinese and European maritime
expansion on food spreading. The discussion begins by focusing on China‟s maritime strategy
and how it only give little contribution on food spreading. This is followed by a discussion on
how Chinese strategic culture influenced their strategy which is more on tributary state system
that prevent them to load food on their voyage. Chinese vessels loaded and exchanged luxury
goods instead of bulk commodities like food. Finally, article explains why European maritime
strategy gave big contributions to food distribution compare to Chinese maritime expansion.
4. Findings
The great Chinese maritime expansions were conducted during the Ming Dynasty. The Ming
Emperor, Yong La (1403-1422) has ordered Admiral Cheng Ho to conduct voyages. There
were seven voyages that have been conducted. Admiral Cheng Ho has explored Indian Ocean
and Western Pacific under his seven voyages. In the first voyage (1405-1407 AD), he visited
Vietnam, Java, Malacca, Sri Langka, Callicu (a major trading port on the South Western Coast
of India) and Cochin. He escalated his voyage to the Persian Gulf at Hormuz where known with
luxury goods and jewelry such as pearls, gems and gold in his third voyage (1413-1415 AD). In
his fifth voyage, he visited the Persian Gulf and the East Coast of Africa. In his sixth voyage, he
visited Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf and Africa. The last voyage aimed was to restore
peaceful relations with the Kingdom of Malacca and Siam.
Wang has divided Chinese trade expansions into four phases (Abu-Lughod, 1989). First,
external trades which was carried out through Silk Road in the northern territory in the fifth
century. Second, there were trade expansions through inland seas. The trade was triggered by
massive migration from northern territory to southern territory between fifth century and eight
century. The northern territory was indicated as agriculture area where rice and millet have
been cultivated, while the southern territory was indicated as merchants‟ area due to close to
the ports. During that time, internal market was vast developed along with the build of ports on
the south coast. Third, a massive economic and technology development during ninth century
until fourteenth century pushed the long distance trade and industry. In that period, China
successfully developed a good relationship between internal production and international
market. According to Fitzpatrick (2005), China has successfully developed „…the role of the
north-south „Grand Canal‟ system…‟ Fourth, China started its maritime expansions in the
fourteenth century and fifteenth century.
Buckley (2009) adds that China conducted its maritime expansion due to four reasons. First,
China was threatened by Mongol invasion, especially in the Chinese major land trade routes
which connected to India and Western Asia (see Figure 1). Second, the increase of Japanese
pirates was threatening China‟s coastal and ports. One of voyage aim was to eliminate
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Proceedings of International Social Sciences and Business Research Conference
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Japanese pirates. Third, the Emperor wanted to control private merchants, not only the trade
mechanism but also exchange of envoys and protection among foreign vessel (Abu-Lughod,
1989) There were two level of maritime trade. One that was conducted under government‟s
control while the other conducted under private merchants. Chinese expansion to the south has
created many ports, and the coming of foreign merchants followed it. Those foreign merchants
were being controlled under government policy, not only their admission but also their travels
and transactions. Four, China wanted to expand its influence by offering friendship and trade to
other countries. Since trading would decrease Chinese image as a great state, the program
was developed under the tributary state system (Eastman, 1988). Due to Confucianism,
merchant which represented by trade is the lowest rank of society (Eastman, 1988). It means
that if China conducted a trade with other countries, it will give a negative effect on its
superiority image. For that reason, the tributary state system had been chosen. Under that
system, instead of economic trading, commodities and goods were exchanged as a diplomatic
tool between Chinese emperor and tributary state leaders (Eastman, 1988) In view of the fact
that foreign trade was an illegal activity if it conducted not under the tributary state system, it
has made a difficult situation for private merchants to develop their market. They sailed and
traded under the government maritime mission. Therefore, even though Admiral Cheng Ho has
explored southern oceans, China did not give a big contribution to the food exchanged if it
compared to what Europeans have done.
Figure 1. The Mongol Empire in the Late Thirteenth Century
Source: http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealogy/Documents/Asia/ChinaOverview.html
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Proceedings of International Social Sciences and Business Research Conference
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Under the Ming Dynasty, maritime expansion was vast developed. China has invented several
maritime technologies, and China leaded the world naval technology. For comparison, Admiral
Cheng Ho`s ship was 400 feet while Columbus‟s St. Maria was only 85 feet. Those
technologies has made China discovered southern oceans routes. During his voyages, Admiral
Cheng Ho has visited over 37 countries and more than 50.000 km (see Figure 2 for details of
his routes). In addition, he went with many ships, for instance, in his second voyage, he went
with 249 ships (Buckley, 2009). His crews were „…navigators, seamen,…, astronomers,
cartographers, geographers, geomancers, merchants, physicians and scribes.‟ while his cargo
were „…gold, textiles, porcelains and numerous items suitable to be used as imperial gifts to
foreign rulers and officers‟ (Buckley, 2009). Furthermore, along with his voyages, he traded and
developed market system. For instance, in his third voyage, he established warehouses and
stock dales to facilitate the trade (Rosenberg, 2009).
Figure 2. Ming China‟s Maritime Expansion
Source: http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealogy/Documents/Asia/ChinaOverview.html
As China also brought merchants in its voyages, food exchanged has also happened. However,
bulk commodities were not exchanged as crews only carried luxurious goods, which brought as
gifts to tributary states leaders. Furthermore, China exchanged spices, pepper, sappanwood
and forest products from Southeast Asian (Reid, 1990) The trade was not only conducted with
local merchants but also with Chinese communities who were founded near China‟s borders
(Reid, 1990; Buckley, 2009). Cheng Ho`s voyages also attracted merchants from other
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countries to come to China. Ports in southern China were busy ports that accommodated
foreign merchants with foreign products. Big and rich population attracted foreign merchants. It
also supported that the Emperor did not apply high taxes (Reid, 1990). In addition, Cheng Ho
also introduced the Indian pepper plants to northern Sumatra; it also increased the Indian
pepper plantation across Southeast Asia. Indian pepper then distributed to China‟s market
(Reid, 1990).
China‟s maritime expansions were pulled back after Emperor Yung Lo died in 1424. His son,
the Emperor Hung Shi forbidden Cheng Ho continued his voyage and asked him to come back
to China. Moreover, he destructed and burned documents recorded Cheng Ho`s voyages
(Buckley, 2009). The Emperor Hung Shi decided to pull back the voyage due to five reasons.
First reason is the increasing attack of Mongolian in the north and west borders. In order to face
the attack, the Chinese emperor needed human sources and money. Since the voyage drained
the emperor‟s budget and took a lot of men, pulled back the voyage would be a rational option
to overcome the crisis (McNail, 1983) In addition, there was a decline in the Indian Ocean trade.
For that reason, going home was a reasonable option that time. Second reason is the
intervention of foreigners in China‟s territory. The voyage caused the inland seas busy with
foreign merchants. The Emperor believed that it could decrease China‟s position as the great
empire since foreign culture could contaminate Chinese great culture. Moreover, the Chinese
Confucian officer tended to distrust foreigners (McNail, 1983). Third reason is the increase of
Japanese pirates‟ attacks. Fourth, the vast development of inland sea (the Grand Canal)
equipped with deep-water locks made big ships could across the canal easily. Therefore,
domestic shipping could be done to distribute food from north to south and vise versa. McNail
(1983) explains that one of the reason why China conducted a maritime expansion due to
looking for an alternative distribution access from north to south. Fifth, China developed its
domestic agriculture and production, so there would not be need to look on other areas (AbuLughod, 1989).
However, the order to pull back the maritime expansion had not significant effect to the food
exchange. First, China major trade was silks and porcelains instead of food. China exchanged
luxury goods such as rhinoceros horn, ivory and jewelry instead of bulk goods like food. Food
was exchanged domestically between north and south area (McNail, 1983). Moreover, the
Chinese Emperor Government banned grain export to other countries in order to put pressure
to China`s steppe neighbors (McNail, 1983). It is different with China`s counterparts in Europe,
China has known as one of the world food region with rice and millet as the major product
(Diamond, 1997). On the other hand, Europe expanded their food exchange since they have a
limited area for cultivation and they also have climate barriers. Meanwhile, China‟s area is vast
with different type of climate; therefore, China could cultivate its food production (Pomeranz and
Topik, 1999). Though, China also exchanged rare plantation and rare animals like ebony wood,
medical herbs, spices, pepper, rare bamboo, giraffe and birds in its maritime expansions. China
effected the implementation of food production and eating behavior. For instance, eating of
white rice with small fish or meat and sauce can be easily found in South East Asia (Wilson,
2000).
Second, the Tributary State System was more on political issue rather than on economic issue.
However, it has put a basic for the model of modern international monetary system by using
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silver as international currency, standardization on products by exchanging luxurious goods and
share good taste, and promoting fair trade (Pomeranz and Topik, 1999). Furthermore, China
involvement in maritime expansion has connected the northern territory and southern territory in
the Indian Oceans (Abu-Lughod, 1989). Third, even though the emperor forbidden the voyage
and isolated China from international trade, many private merchants traded secretly along
Chinese coast (McNail, 1983). Fourth, Europe maritime expansions discovered Asia‟s route in
1498 (Ried, 1990). Then, an era of European expansion started in Asia.
Europe maritime expansion started when Columbus had discovered America in 1492. This
discovery started „…an unparalleled exchange of crops in what has become known as the
Columbian exchange…[and] Europeans in revolutionizing transoceanic food system…‟
(Carney, 2001). The Columbian exchange not only brought food but also diseases. Moreover, it
changed people diet in both Old World (Western Hemisphere) and New World (Eastern
Hemisphere) (see Figure 3 for details food exchanged).
Figure 3. The Columbian Exchange
Source:http://mrthompson.org/text/2-3%20The%20Impact%20of%20Colonization.htm
Europe maritime expansion in Southern Oceans, especially in Asia started in 1498 when Vasco
da Gama discovered route to Asia. He sailed from the Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope and
then to Africa and India in order to searched spices access in Indonesia (Wills, Jr., 2007). After
Vasco da Gama, there were several European maritime expansions, which created trade
exchanged across the Atlantic, Africa and the Pacific (see Figure 4 for details of expansions)
(Wills, Jr., 2007). Columbus exchanged grains from Europe like wheat, barley and rye, and Asia
crops like sugar, bananas and citrus fruits (McNeill, 2007). European maritime expansions
exchanged food such as spices (cloves, nutmeg and mace) from Indonesia, tea from China,
coffee from Yemen and Java (Wills, Jr., 2007).
Figure 4. European Expansions
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Source: http://www.wwnorton.com/worlds/ch4/maps.htm
In 1557, Portuguese establish a trading post at Macao while Spanish established its trading
post at Manila in 1572. Portuguese was the first European which came to Asia. These posts
became the channel of Columbian exchange in Asia. For instance, corn (maize), sweet
potatoes, soybeans and peanuts, which originally came from American, were cultivated in
China (Chang, 1997). The introduction of Americans plantation not only helped to increase
national food production in China but also put China as the great production state of those food
commodities (Crosby, 1994). Another plantation was tobacco, which spread rapidly through
many areas of Asia (Wills, Jr., 2007). Sugar was not exchanged not until the seventeenth
century. Sugar contributed almost 70 percent of French foreign investment and 20 percent in
Britain (Crosby, 1994). When China reopened its territory for foreign trade in 1684, China‟s
original goods like silk and porcelain traded. Additionally, there was a new commodity, tea,
which attracted foreign trader like Britain (Eastman, 1988).
According to Crosby (1994), European expansions have effects on intellectual, economic,
nutritional and demographic. First, it had effect on intellectual‟s expansion and development.
For example, plantation methods has pushed scientist joined the expansions. Second, it had
effect on the spread of economic system. European expansion created an organized system of
human labor, raw materials, manufacturing and transportation system (Crosby, 1994). It
increased exchange of human labor such as the Atlantic slave trade, the movement of clerical,
merchants, soldiers and mechanical. Raw materials like food, spices, silver, cotton and silk
have exchanged across American, Europe, Asia and Africa. European also created
manufacturing in countries where they passed and settled. For instance, British India built
textile manufacture in India, Dutch East India Company managed spices from Indonesia then
distributed around the globe. European expansion also developed transportation system in the
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colonist states such as roads, bridges, warehouses, canals and administration buildings
(Crosby, 1994).
Third, European expansions have created a new diet among a lot of people from different area.
Maize could be found in North Africa, Spain, Egypt and Balkans. In the sixteenth century, maize
introduced to China and Southern Africa. Meanwhile in India and South Africa, maize became
the major crop between nineteenth to twentieth centuries (McNeill, 2007). Fourth, European
expansions has changed demographic structure in many areas, not only increase the number
of population but also decrease the number of population itself. Better diet and a lot of food
increased the number of population, for example potato helped population increase in China
and Europe (McNeill, 2007; Crosby, 1994). Peanuts and cassava, which originally from Brazil
are become a new diet in West and Central Africa (McNeill, 2007). However, food exchange
has also brought disease like smallpox, measles, mumps, whooping cough, influenza, chicken
pox and typhus in Americans (see Figure 3) which could decrease the number of population.
For instance, in Asia and Africa, there was a disease, which spread from domesticated animals
like sheep, pigs, cows and chicken (McNeill, 2007).
Harriet Friedmann and Philip McMichael (1989) added that European maritime expansion has
created the first food regime. Food regime is the combination of international food production
and consumption that created capitalism in the colonial states. The first food regime creates
„the culmination of colonialism‟ and „the rise of the nation state‟ (Friedmann and McMichael,
1989). Food regime helped colonial states to expand their product and their investment. Foreign
investment scattered in the dominion states which the money from products exchange will
come to Europe. It pushed the form of agricultural industry. Agricultural industry occurred
because of several reasons. First is diversification of agriculture products which are based on
climate and social organization. Second is the economic advantage of certain plantation.
European only cultivated plants which have economic advantages. Third, the complex relations
between agriculture and industry were managed under national economic organizations. These
organizations or institutions then created the rise of the nation states. In other word, food
regime helped the shape of hierarchy structure in the colonial states. Europe established
independent trade representative, which had political and administrative structure. This form
then changed into modern hierarchy structure that then develops into a modern nation state
(Friedmann and McMichael, 1989).
5. Summary and Conclusion
European maritime expansions vast the food exchange instead of Chinese maritime
expansions. China maritime expansions contributed naval technology, luxurious products and
trade system between north and the Southern Oceans territory instead of food distribution. It did
not mean that there was no food distribution but the distribution was limited only to precious and
rare food which could not cultivate at China area. Ingressiveness of China on food exchange
was due to several reasons. First, vast areas and various climate areas made China took
position as food producer. This condition has not pushed China to look other areas to develop
its food system. Second, the Chinese government believed that their country was great;
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Proceedings of International Social Sciences and Business Research Conference
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therefore, their major interest was to sphere China`s influence. Tributary state system was
chosen as a tool for that purpose. Under that system, goods were exchanged as a diplomatic
tool; therefore, only luxurious and rare goods were exchanged. Third, the trade system was
under the authority of the emperor government. Different with Chinese counterpart in Europe,
Chinese Emperor Government not provide law for its subject abroad (Pomeranz and Topik,
1999). This condition made private trade difficult to expand. According to the Confucian culture,
merchants were seen as a lower class in the society, and trading with foreign merchants could
decrease the Chinese nobility as the great nation. Fourth, China did not have competitors in
the home country for its products; moreover, Chinese market was a big market with its big
population. This condition has made China less interested to expand its market abroad
(Pomeranz and Topik, 1999).
On the contrary, after China pulled back its maritime expansions, Europe replaced China‟s
position in the Southern Oceans. Under the European domination, food exchange was vast
distributed. Food was exchanged across Americans, Africa, Europe, Asia and Pacific. The
aggressiveness of Europe food exchange was influenced by several reasons. First, Europe has
a limited plantation area due to a quite small territory and climate limitation. In the other hand,
Europe has a great number of populations. Therefore, looking for other food resources was
needed. Second, renaissance has pulled Europe to the era of liberalism. King and queen were
not set strict rules for maritime expansion. For instance, Dutch colonialism was conducted by
VOC instead of the Dutch Kingdom. European government has set up some law and rules
protected its subjects abroad. European private merchants has authority „…to use force,
conquer overseas areas, provide government and move in settlers‟ (Pomeranz and Topik,…).
This condition has created many private merchants. Third, there was a high competition in
Europe. Therefore, each state competed to each other to export commodities to Europe.
Moreover, inability to produce at home has made the colonial system preserved. These
conditions have triggered European maritime expansions around the globe. Despite of food
exchange, European maritime exchange has created integrated international trade system that
include exchange of human labor, exchange of commodity, exchange of manufacture,
transportation and administrative system. In the other words, European maritime expansion has
created the first food regime.
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End Notes
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