International Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 3(3): 196-201, 2011
ISSN: 2041-2908
© Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2011
Received: April 14, 2011
Accepted: May 13, 2011
Published: June 10, 2011
Knowledge and Practices Related to T. solium Cysticercosis -Taeniasis among
Smallholder Farmers in Selected Villages in Kilolo District in Iringa
Region in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
1
A.F. Maridadi, 2J. Lwelamira and 2F.G. Simime
Kilolo District Council, P.O. Box 108, Iringa, Tanzania
2
Department of Population Studies, Institute of Rural Development Planning,
P.O. Box 138, Dodoma, Tanzania
1
Abstract: Understanding farmers/community knowledge and practices towards T. solium CysticercosisTaeniasis is key for successful eradication strategy. This study was carried out in three selected villages in
T.solium endemic areas in Southern highlands of Tanzania namely Kihesamgagao, Masege and Lulanzi from
Kilolo district in Iringa region. The study aimed at determining farmers’ knowledge on T. solium
Cysticercosis- Taeniasis, including life-cycle of the parasite and practices related to the infection as well as
factors influencing farmers’ knowledge on life- cycle of the parasite in the study area. The study was a crosssectional survey involved 80 randomly selected households with 45 households being pig keepers and 35 being
non- pig keepers. Three Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), one in each village were also conducted to gather
some qualitative information for the study. Quantitative data were analyzed for descriptive statistics such as
percentages, as well as for inferential statistics i.e. ,Chi-square tests using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS). Qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis. Results from this study indicated
substantial proportion of respondents were aware of the problems in their area that can be linked to T. solium
infections. The most known problem was Porcine Cysticercosis (75%), followed by Tapeworm in human
(Taeniasis) (31.2%) and Epilespy (20%), indicating T. solium infections to be a serious problem in the area.
Despite significant portion of the respondents were aware of T. solium related infections in their area, however,
there was still a noticeable proportion of respondents (32.5%) who didn’t have a proper knowledge on life cycle
of T. solium, a situation fueled practices that encourage spread of T. solium infections. Fifteen percent of the
surveyed households had no latrines and nearly two- third of pig keepers practiced free range or semi- indoor
pig rearing system, practices which allows pig to have access to human faeces and hence continued life-cycle
of the parasite. Furthermore, findings from this study indicated that most pig farmers (69%) slaughter their pigs
at home in which meat inspection is rarely done or non-existent. Main source of pork meat by majority of
respondents was local brew bars/shops where it is served as fried meat and consumed on the spot. It was
revealed during Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) that pork meat in local brew bars is sometimes saved
undercooked if no close supervision of a frying process, practice which predisposes consumers to the risk of
T. solium infections. Several socio- demographic factors were noted to have influence on knowledge on life
cycle of T. solium by framers. Male and older respondents/farmers, being from other ethnic groups other than
Hehe, as well as more educated farmers were more likely to have a proper knowledge of life-cycle of T. solium
than their counterpart. Based on these findings it was recommended that more education to farmers and a
community as whole on T. solium infections and its control is needed in the area. For the T. solium eradication
strategy/campaigns in the study area to be effective it should put special emphasis on female, younger and less
educated farmers, as well as Hehe; that is the less knowledgeable groups.
Key words: Cysticercosis, Taenia solium, porcine, taeniasis
tissue, while human is the definite host habours adult
stage of the parasite in small intestine. Pig acquires the
infection following ingestion of embryonated eggs
(Oncospheres) or gravid proglottids passed out to the
environment with human faeces from a carrier individual
(i.e., fecal contamination) (Flisser et al., 2003; Tirdo,
INTRODUCTION
Taenia solium (T. solium), a pig tapeworm is a
zoonotic cestode in which his life cycle depends on both
pig and human. Pig is the intermediate host habours larval
stage (Metacestode/Cysticercus) of the parasite in muscle
Corresponding Author: J. Lwelamira, Department of Population Studies, Institute of Rural Development Planning, P.O. Box
138, Dodoma, Tanzania
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Int. J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 3(3): 196-201, 2011
2004; Mutua et al., 2007; Hidalgo, 2007). Upon hatching
Oncospheres crosses the instestinal wall, migrate to
muscles and transform into larval vesicles (Cysticerci)
i.e., larval form of the parasite resulting into condition
known as Porcine Cysticercosis. Cysticercosis is the
presence of T. solium Cysticerci in tissues. Human
acquire the worm by ingesting uncooked/undercooked pig
meat (pork) infected with T.solium Cysticerci, latter on
these Cysticerci develop into adult form in human small
intestine leading to Teaniasis. Taeniasis is the presence of
adult tapeworm of Taenia spp. in human intestine
(Hidalgo, 2007). Human can also develop Cysticercosis
by accidentally ingesting embryonated eggs
(Oncospheres) or gravid progrottidis of the parasite via
contaminated food or water leading to Human
Cysticercosis (Garcia et al., 1991; Sarti et al., 1988, 1992;
Phiri et al., 2003; Flisser et al., 2003).
T. solium infections has been associated with
negative economic consequences to smallholder pig
farmers as a result of carcass condemnation or lowered
value of infected pigs (Boa et al., 2001; Garcia and Del
Brutto, 2000; Zoli et al., 2003; Phiri et al., 2003;
Rajshekhar et al., 2003; Mutua et al., 2010). For
example, studies in Tanzania revealed that farmers
sometimes faces difficulties in selling their pigs to
middlemen (one of the important customers) in which due
to the recognition of the problem of Porcine Cysticercosis,
they usually do lingual examination to pigs before they
buy, and the infected pigs are rejected or bought at lower
prices, hence economic loss by farmers (Boa et al., 2001;
Phiri et al., 2003). Furthermore, Taeniasis as well as
Human Cysticercosis, specifically Neurocysticercosis due
to T. solium infection has also been a public health
problem in community involved in pig production.
Neurocysticercosis occurs when larval form of the
parasite lodge in brain tissues, resulting into headache,
epileptic seizures, blindness, mental disturbance and even
death (White, 2000). Studies indicate most of the epilepsy
cases in Sub-saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America to
be associated with Neurocysticercosis (van As and
Joubert, 1991; Román et al., 2000; Del Brutto et al., 2001;
Zoli et al., 2003; Engels et al., 2003; Rajshekhar et al.,
2003; Ito et al., 2004). Generally, these infections
(Taeniasis and Neurocysticercosis) are burdens to the
community due to associated costs of treatment and
decreased labour productivity as a result of morbidity.
More than 60% of pig population in Tanzania is
found in Southern highlands of Tanzania, including a
study area which is located in Iringa region. Prevalence
of Porcine Cysticercosis in Iringa region based on lingual
examination of pigs in villages was estimated to be 8.8%
and figure can go as high as 26.9% in some villages
(Boa et al., 2001; Phiri et al., 2003), figures which are
unacceptably high. Although limited information on
Human Cysticercosis and Taeniasis are available in the
area, however, available figures for prevalence of Porcine
Cysticercosis in the area indicates there is a significant
proportion of human carriers of the parasite in the area
which transmit the parasite to pigs and vice versa and
hence a serious health risk. To eradicate the infections and
hence improved wellbeing smallholder farmers in the
area, understanding their knowledge and practices related
T. solium infection is important for informed decisions for
such programs and hence their effectiveness. Therefore,
this study was carried out to determine farmers’
knowledge and practices towards T. solium infection and
factors influencing knowledge on the infection.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area: This study was carried out in three selected
villages namely Kihesamgagao, Masege and Lulanzi from
Kilolo District in Iringa region in Southern Highlands of
Tanzania. These villages are among the villages with
highest population of pigs in the district with nearly 13%
of total households in these villages are keeping pigs
(Kilolo District Council Reports, 2008). This was among
the criteria for choice of these villages for study. Other
criteria included easiness in accessibility and familiarity
of the area by the researchers. These villages are located
in highland zone of the district. The area lies between
1600- 2700 m above sea level. The area has got good
climatic conditions to support variety of crops/vegetables.
The annual rainfall in the area ranges from 1000 to 1600
mm with mean temperature of 15ºC.
Study design: The study involved a cross-sectional
survey carried out in the selected villages between June to
July, 2008. A total of 80 randomly selected households
were included in this study with 45 households being pig
keepers and 35 households being non-pig keepers. Data
from these households were obtained through face to face
interviews with household heads using a pre-tested semistructure questionnaire. The questionnaire for both pigkeepers and non-pig keepers covered items/questions
designed to obtain information on demographic
characteristic of household head, and knowledge and
practices related T. solium infection. In addition, the
questionnaire for pig keepers also involved questions
which sought information on pig rearing system, pig
slaughtering and marketing. Furthermore, three Focus
Group Discussions (FGDs), one from each were also
carried out to obtain some qualitative information relevant
to the study and to verify some responses from individual
interviews (i.e., interview with household heads). Each
group for focus group discussion involved ten (10)
individuals.
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Int. J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 3(3): 196-201, 2011
Table 1: Distribution of respondents by Socio- demographic characteristics
Variable
Pig keeper (n = 45)
Sex
Male
73.3%
Female
26.7%
Age (Years)
< 30
20.0%
30-40
37.8%
> 40
42.2%
Education level
None
8.9%
Primary
73.3%
Secondary
17.8%
Ethnicity
Hehe
73.3%
Bena
13.3%
Kinga
8.9%
Others
4.4%
NS= Non- significant (p>0.05)
Non- pig keeper (n = 35)
Chi-square value
68.6%
31.4%
0.22NS
25.7%
31.4%
42.9%
0.514NS
20.0%
57.1%
22.9%
2.80NS
71.4%
11.4%
8.6%
8.6%
0.90NS
Table 2: Distibution of respondents by Knowledge on T. solium Cysticercosis-Taenias (n = 80)
Variable
Ever heard of Porcine Cysticercosis/or seen Porcine Cysticercosis infected meat
Know someone in the community with an epilepsy
Know someone in the community ever treated or detected to have Tapeworm in the past twelve months prior to survey.
Aware of relationship between Porcine Cysticercosis and Tapeworm in human or T. solium and epilepsy or both (Knowledge
of life cycle of T. solium)
%
75.0
20.0
31.3
67.5
(pig-keepers and non-pig keepers) were Hehe, followed
by Bena and Kinga.
Data analysis: Data collected were verified, coded and
then analyzed for descriptive statistics such as percentages
using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
program. The program was further used for bivariate
analyses (Chi-square tests) to test whether there was an
association between some variables. The association was
considered significant when p<0.05. On the other hand,
content analysis was used to analyze qualitative
information from FGDs.
Knowledge and practice towards T. solium
Cysticercosis-Taenias: Proper knowledge on T. solium
Cysticercosis- Taeniasis complex by responsible
community /farmers is a key factor for its eradication
through proper practices (Mafojane et al., 2003; Sarti and
Rajshekhar, 2003; Ngowi et al., 2008). Results from
Table 2 indicate most of the respondents (75%) have
either ever heard of Porcine Cysticercosis or seen Porcine
Cysticercosis infected pork, while nearly one-third
(31.2%) of the respondents knew someone in the
community that have ever been treated or detected to have
Tapeworm in the past twelve months prior to survey.
Furthermore, substantial proportion of respondents (20%)
was also aware of someone in the community with
epilepsy. These observations indicate T. solium
Cysticercosis-Taeniasis to be a problem in the area and
significant proportion of the respondents are aware of the
problem. Despite significant proportion of respondents in
the area were aware of the problem, however, nearly onethird of total respondents (32.5%), unacceptably high
level didn’t have a proper knowledge of lifecycle of
T. solium (Table 2). These observation support earlier
findings by Boa et al. (2001) in other similar areas of
Southern Highlands of Tanzania as well as results of a
studies by Mutua et al. (2007) in Teso district in Kenya
and Shey-Njila et al. (2003) in North West Cameroon.
Limited knowledge and hence wrong perception on
transmission of the T. solium (its life cycle) was also
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic characteristics of respondents: Sociodemographic characteristics of a household head
sometimes influence his/her knowledge and hence
practices/decision towards various aspects including
farming decisions by a household (Kisinza et al., 2008;
Odoemenen and Obinne, 2010). In this study both Pigkeepers and Non-pig keepers were sampled. However,
results from Table 1 show distribution of respondents by
socio-demographic characteristics to be similar for both
pig keepers and non- pig keepers (p>0.05), indicating
decisions to keep pigs were not influenced by these
factors. Majority (more than two- third) of respondents in
both groups were males and aged 30 years and above.
Likewise, in both groups majority of the respondents
(at least 80%) had at least primary education with nearly
one in every five respondents had secondary education,
indicating good literacy level in the area. Similar trend has
been observed elsewhere in Tanzania (Namwata et al.,
2010). The dominant ethnic groups in both category
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Int. J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 3(3): 196-201, 2011
noted in all FGDs. The following beliefs/perceptions from
one FGD participant in Masege village illustrate;
their pigs at home instead of slaughter slab, a situation
which lead to most of the carcasses not being inspected.
The carcass is then sold to neighbors, People
roasting/frying pork in local brew bars/shops and some of
it is consumed at home. Findings from Table 3 further
indicate that overwhelming majority of farmers (92%)
were pork eaters with the main source of pork meat being
local brew bars (69%). In local brew bars pork is usually
sold as fried meat which is usually consumed on the spot.
However, it was learnt from Focus Group Discussions
(FGDs) that fried pork in local brew bars are
sometimes saved to customers undercooked. The
following quote from one participant of focus group
discussion illustrate;
“We know that the disease (vichenga) to these pigs
are caused by feeding pigs sugar cane, grain feeds
like maize grain or finger millet and sometimes
through mating of healthy female pigs with infected
male pigs” (from a man in Masege village).
Due to limited knowledge on life cycle of T. solium,
among others, several practices which favours continued
existence of the infection in the areas were noted. About
15% of interviewed farmers had no latrine at their
homestead, at the same time nearly two-third of the
interviewed farmers practices either free range or semiindoor system of pig raring, a condition which allow pigs
to have access to human faeces. Households with no
latrines usually tends to defecate in open air on farm/
bushes or near pig pens in which roaming pigs get access
to these human faeces and hence continued life cycle of
T. solium. Similar findings were also reported by
Pouedet et al. (2002) and Shey-njila et al. (2003) in
Cameroon and Ngowi et al. (2004) in Northern Tanzania.
Furthemore, it was revealed during Focus Group
Discussions (FGDs) that even though most of the
hoseuseholds in the study area had latrines, however,
some people tends to defecate on open air (i.e., farm)
during night when drunk and hence allows pigs to have
access to human faeces.
More education is required for the community to
indicate the importance of confining pigs and having
latrines for controlling T. solium infections. Results from
Table 3 shows that most farmers (nearly 70%), slaughter
Table 3: Distribution of respondents by practice
Variable
Pig rearing system (n = 45)
Free range
Indoor
Semi-indoor
Presence of latrine in household (n = 80)
Present
Absent
If consume pork (n = 80)
Yes
No
Main source of pork meat (n = 74)
Local brew bars/shops
Butcher
Home
Neighbours
Where slaughter pigs (n = 45)
Home
Slaughter slab
Table 4: Effect of socio-demographic factors on knowledge on life cycle of T. solium (n = 80)
Knowledge on T. solium life cycle
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Variable
Knowledgeable (%)
Not knowledgeable (%)
Total (%)
Keep pig
Yes
71.1
28.9
100.0
No
62.9
37.1
100.0
Sex
Male
73.7
26.3
100.0
Female
52.2
47.8
100.0
Age (Years)
< 30
44.4
55.6
100.0
30 - 40
64.3
35.7
100.0
> 40
82.4
17.6
100.0
Education
None
27.3
72.7
100.0
Primary
71.7
28.3
100.0
Secondary
81.3
18.8
100.0
Tribe
Hehe
60.7
39.3
100.0
Others
83.3
16.7
100.0
Location (Village)
Masege
73.3
26.7
100.0
Lulanzi
68.0
32.0
100.0
Kihesamgagao
72.0
28.0
100.0
NS: Non- significant, *: Significant at p<0.05; ** = Significant at p<0.01
199
%
5.0
35.0
60.0
85.0
15.0
92.5
7.5
67.6
13.5
8.1
10.8
68.9
31.1
Chi-square value
0.61NS
4.12*
7.91*
9.92**
3.92*
1.34NS
Int. J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 3(3): 196-201, 2011
“When demand for fried pork in a local brew bars is
high and no close supervision of a frying process by
a customer himself, a customer can be saved with
undercooked pork, taking into consideration that
close supervision of a frying process by customer is
usually difficult when a customer is drunk (Male
FGD participant from Kihesamgagao)”
educated farmers, as well as Hehe ethnic group (i.e., less
knowledgeable groups).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank farmers and Livestock field
officers for their good cooperation during data collection.
Socio- demographic determinants of knowledge on life
cycle of T. solium by farmers: As stated earlier, proper
knowledge on T. solium Cysticercosis-Taeniasis complex
including its life cycle is a key factor for various practices
by farmers in relation to T. solium infection in both pigs
and human. Understanding factors influencing farmers’
knowledge towards the above problem, specifically life
cycle of T. solium is important for designing more
effective eradication strategy. Table 3 shown that
knowledge on life cycle of T. solium was significantly
influenced by sex, age, education level and tribe/ethnicity
of the farmer. Whether farmer keep or not keep pig as
well as location had no influence on knowledge of life
cycle of T. solium. (i.e., T. solium Cysticercosis- Taeniasis
complex). Male respondents (farmers) were more likely
to have proper knowledge on life cycle of T. solium than
females, similarly, for more educated farmers compared
to less educated one, and for older farmers compared to
younger farmers (Table 4). Furthermore, results show that
most of the respondents in other tribes (ethnic groups) had
proper knowledge on life cycle of T. solium compared to
Hehe, despite Hehe ethnic group accounts for majority of
population in the study area (Chenyambuga et al., 2008).
These observations imply that for eradication strategy/
campaigns in the study area to be effective it should put
special emphasis on female, younger and less educated
farmers, as well as Hehe; that is less knowledgeable
groups.
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