FIR/S125 Vol. 9
FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Volum e 9
FAO SPECIES CATALOGUE
VOL. 9. EMPEROR FISHES AND LARGE-EYE BREAMS OF THE WORLD
(FAMILY LETHRINIDAE)
AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF LETHRINID SPECIES KNOWN TO DATE
'U m
H®
U N IT E D N A T IO N S D E V E L O P M E N T P R O G R A M M E
F O O D A N D A G R IC U L T U R E O R G A N IZ A T IO N O F T H E U N IT E D N A T IO N S
FIR/S125 Vol. 9
FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, V o lum e 9
FAO SPECIES CATALOGUE
V O L .9
E M P ER O R FISH ES AN D LA R G E -E Y E BREAM S OF THE W O R LD
(Fam ily Lethrinidae)
A n A n n o ta te d and Illu s tra te d C a ta lo g u e o f
L e th rin id S p e c ie s K n ow n to D ate
prepared by
K ent E. C a rp e n te r
M ariculture and F isheries D epartm ent
and
Kuwait Institute fo r S cientific R esearch
P.O. Box 1638
G e ra ld R. A llen
W estern A u stralian M useum
Francis Street
Perth, Australia
2 2 0 17 Salm iya, Kuwait
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
R om e, 1989
The designations em ployed and the presentation o f
m a te r ia l
in this p u b lic a t io n
do not im p ly the
e xp re ssio n o f any op in io n w h a tso e ve r on th e part o f
the Food and A g r ic u lt u r e O r g a n iz a t io n o f the
United Nations concerning the legal status o f any
country, te rrito ry, city o r area or o f its au tho ritie s, or
concerning
the
delim itation
o f its f r o n t ie r s
or
boundaries.
M - 4 0 / T 0 2 4 2 E / 1 /1 .9 0 /2 5 0 0
IS B N 9 2 -5 -1 0 2 8 8 9 -3
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reserved.
No part o f this
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m ay be
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d elle T erm e di C aracalla, 0 0 1 00 Rom e, Italy.
©
FAO Rom e 1989
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT
A lth o u g h m ost e m p e ro r fis h e s and la rg e -e ye b re a m s are o f s ig n ific a n t in te re st to fis h e rie s in th e In d o -P a cific region,
inform ation on th e ir biology and fish e rie s is rather scanty, largely due to the difficu ltie s w ith correct identification o f
the sp e cie s in th is group.
The a u th o rs o f th e p re se n t ca ta lo g u e are e n g ag e d sin ce se ve ra l ye a rs in a w o rld -w id e re visio n o f th e fa m ily. Even if
the c o m p le tio n o f th e ir stu d y w ill p ro b a b ly ta ke se ve ra l m ore years, th e y have m ade su b sta n tia l p ro g re ss in the basic
ta x o n o m y o f the m ost im p orta n t co m m e rcia l re p re se n ta tive s, n a m e ly th e sp e cie s o f th e g e n us L eth rin u s , and it hence
ap p ea rs ju stifie d
w o rk.
to
m ake th e se finding
a va ilable w ith o u t d e la y to the fish e ry w o rkers w h o
need them
fo r th e ir daily
K. C a rp e n te r has prepared the m aterial p e rtaining to th e 28 sp e cie s o f the g e n us L eth rinu s, w h ile G.R. A lle n w ro te the
a cco u nts on the 11 sp e cie s belonging to the oth er genera, e.g. G n a th o d e n te x , G ym n o cran iu s, M o n o ta x is and
W attsia. The w o rk o f the a u th o rs has been based, a p a rt from a co m p re h e n sive review o f p e rtin e n t lite ratu re , on the
s tu d y o f typ e s p e c im e n s ke p t in th e m a jo r m useum c o lle c tio n s in E u ro p e and th e USA, and on th e e x a m in a tio n o f
fresh m aterial from va rio u s parts o f the w orld.
In v ie w o f th e im p o rta n ce o f co lo u r p a tte rn s as d ia g n o stic c h a ra c te rs fo r id e n tifica tio n , c o lo u r p la te s fo r all sp e c ie s
have been included.
The p ro b le m s still pending regard in p a rtic u la r th e ta xo n o m y o f the sp e cie s o f G y m n o c ra n iu s and th e a ssig n a tio n o f
valid sc ie n tific n a m e s to 2 sp e cie s o f L e th rin u s and t o l sp e cie s o f G ym n ocran ius.
T ec h n ic a l Editors:
W . F ischer, N adia S cialabba and W. S chneider, F ishe rie s R esources and E n viro n m e n t Division, FAO
Illu s tra to rs :
R. S w ainston, Perth, A u stra lia and P. Lastrico, FAO, Rom e
Page c o m p o s itio n :
G. S cia ra p p a-D e m uro , FAO, Rom e
C arp enter, K.E., A llen, G.R.
FAO sp e c ie s c a ta lo g u e . V o l.9. E m p e ro r fish e s and la rge -e ye b ream s o f th e w o rld (fam ily
Le thrinidae). An an n ota te d and illu stra te d ca ta lo gu e o f lethrinid sp e cie s know n to date.
FAO F ish eries S y n o p s is . No. 125, V o lu m e 9 . Rom e, FAO. 1989. 118p.
ABSTRACT
T his is the ninth issue in th e FAO se rie s o f w o rld w id e a n n ota te d and illu stra te d ca ta lo g u e s
o f m a jo r g ro u p s o f o rg a n ism s th a t e n te r m arine fish e rie s. T he p re se n t vo lu m e in clu d e s 39
le th rin id sp e cie s belo n ging to 5 g e nera. It co m p rise s an in tro d u c to ry se ctio n w ith g e n era l
rem a rks on the syste m a tics, ha b itat and fis h e rie s o f th e fam ily, a g lo ssa ry o f te ch n ica l te rm s
used, illu stra te d keys to ge n era and sp e cie s, and detaile d a cco u n ts on all sp e cie s. Species
a c c o u n ts in c lu d e d ra w in g s , s c ie n tific and v e rn a c u la r n a m e s, in fo rm a tio n on h a b ita t,
b io lo g y and fish e rie s, and a d istrib u tio n m ap. Lists o f n o m in a l sp e cie s in th e fa m ily, a table
o f sp e cie s by m ajor m arin e fish in g a re a s and c o lo u r p la te s fo llo w th e sp e cie s acco u nts. The
w o rk is fu lly indexed and there is am ple reference to pertinent literature.
D is trib u tio n
A u th o rs
FAO F ishe rie s O ffice rs
R egional F ishe rie s C o uncils
and C o m m issio n s
S e le cto r SC
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¡V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.
2.
IN T R O D U C TIO N
1
1.1
Plan o f th e C a talogue
..............................................................................................................................................................
1.2
G eneral R e m arks on Le thrin id s
1.3
Illustrated G lo ssa ry o f T ech n ica l T erm s and M e a s u r e m e n ts .....................................................................................
S Y S T E M A T IC C A T A L O G U E
............................................................................................................................................
2
3
10
...............................................................................................................................................................14
2.1
D ia g n o stic fe a tu re s o f th e Fam ily L e th rin id a e ......................................................................................................................... 14
2.2
Illustrated key to G enera and S p e cie s o f M onotypie G enera
2.3
In form ation by S p e cie s
.......................................................................................... 14
..................................................................................................................................................................17
Code
. . .
17
G n a th o d e n te x ........................................
G n a th o d e n te x a u ro lin e a tu s
LETH G nath
LETH G nath 1 ...............
17
G y m n o c ran iu s
LETH G y m n o ............... . . .
LETH G y m n o 3 ■ ■ ■ ■ . . .
18
22
LETH G y m n o 4
.....................................
G y m n o c ran iu s a u d le y i
G y m n o c ran iu s elo n g a tu s
G y m n o c ran iu s eu a n u s
G y m n o c ran iu s fre n a tu s
.........................
LETH G y m n o 5
LETH G y m n o 6
.
. . .
■
■
■
■
. . .
23
24
.
.
.
.
. . .
. . .
25
G y m n o c ran iu s g ra n d o c u lis
LETH G y m n o 2 . . .
. . . .
27
G y m n o c ran iu s g ris e u s ■ ■
G y m n o c ran iu s m ic ro d o n .
LETH G y m n o 1 . . .
LETH G y m n o 7 . . .
. . . .
. . . .
30
G y m n o c ran iu s s p .....................
LETH G y m n o 8 . . . .
■
31
. . .
. . .
33
47
LETH Leth
Leth 2
222 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 8 ...............
48
L e th rin u s a tla n tic u s .............................................................................
L e th rin u s b o rb o n ic u s
LETH Leth 13
51
53
54
L e th rin u s ..................................................................................................................
L e th rin u s a m b o in e n s is ......................................................................
L e th rin u s a t k i n s o n i .................................................................................
......................................................................
L e th rin u s c o n c h y lia tu s ......................................................................
L e th rin u s c ro c in e u s
L e th rin u s e n ig m a tic u s
......................................................................
..................................................................
L e th rin u s e ry th ra c a n th u s
L e th rin u s e ry th ro p te ru s
L e th rin u s g e n iv itta tu s
..................................................................
......................................................................
L e th rin u s h a e m a to p te ru s
L e th rin u s h a ra k
...........................................................
...........................................................
.............................................................................
LETH Leth
..................
LETH Leth 21
28
LETH Leth 9 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 1 0 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 2 3 ............... . . .
50
55
LETH Leth 3 ............... . . .
1 1 ......................... . . .
LETH Leth
Leth 11
LETH Leth 6 ......................... . . .
LETH Leth 2 4 ............... . . .
57
59
. . .
64
66
67
LETH Leth 2 ..................
61
63
L e th rin u s m a h s e n a
LETH Leth 2 5 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 4 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 1 2 ......................... . . .
L e th rin u s m ic ro d o n
LETH Leth 1 4 ...............
L e th rin u s m in ia tu s
LETH Leth 2 6
.........................
. . .
L e th rin u s n eb u lo s u s
L e th rin u s o b s o le tu s
LETH Leth 1 5
.........................
. . .
73
75
LETH Leth 1 6 ...............
LETH Leth 5 ................................ . . .
78
L e th rin u s la tic a u d is
L e th rin u s o liv a c e u s
......................................................................
LETH Leth 7 .................. . . .
LETH Leth 2 7 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 1 7 ......................... . . .
L e th rin u s s e m ic in c tu s
LETH Leth 1 8 ...............
L e th rin u s sp. 1
. . .
LETH Leth 2 8 ...............
L e th rin u s sp. 2
■■ ■
LETH Leth 2 9 ......................... . . .
LETH Leth 1 9 ............... . . .
LETH Leth 2 0 ...............
69
71
77
80
81
83
84
86
87
88
89
V
M o n o t a x i s ..................................................................................................................
LETH M o n o .................................. 91
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis .............................................................................
LETH M ono 1 .............................. 91
W a t t s i a ..........................................................................................................................
W a tts ia m o s s a m b ic a
LETH W a tt
LETH W a tt 1
..................................92
.............................. 93
3.
LIST O F N O M IN A L S P E C IE S O F L E T H R IN ID A E .........................................................................................................................95
4.
LIST O F S P E C IE S BY M A J O R FIS H IN G A R E A S ........................................................................................................................ 98
5.
B IB L IO G R A P H Y ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
6.
IN D E X O F S C IE N T IF IC A N D V E R N A C U L A R N A M ES
7.
C O L O U R P L A T E S .....................................................................................................................................................................................118
........................................................................................................... 111
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1
1.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
This catalogue presents fisheries-related and identification inform ation fo r the 39 presently recognized sp ecies o f
em perors and large-eye bream s (em perors are also som etim es collectively referred to as scavengers, pig -fa ce
bream s, barefaces, and e m p e ro r snappers). The details on biology, ecology, catch statistics and fishing techniques
com e principally from the literature. T hese data are abundant fo r som e species and scarce fo r others, m ostly
because lethrinids vary w idely in th e ir im portance to fisheries. The taxonom ic inform ation in this catalogue is
based on an ongoing revision o f the fam ily (G.R. Allen has taken the lead in the revision o f G n a th o d e n te x ,
G y m n o c ra n iu s , M o n o ta x is and W attsia, w hile K.E. Carpenter has taken the lead in the revision o f L e th rin u s ).
There has been m uch progress in solving the num erous taxonom ic problem s and further research is aim ed at
resolving the rem aining uncertainties. The interested reader is alerted to a forthcom ing revision by the authors.
Taxonomically,
lethrinids are considered one o f the m ost problem atic o f tropical m arine fish fam ilies. Several
m ajor attem pts at revision o f
this group have been
m ade in this century, and these
accounts are laced with
lam entations regarding the perplexity encountered. For exam ple, Smith (1959) stated: "It must be emphasized,
how ever, that at present, the positive iden tifica tion o f ce rta in species, preserved, w ith o u t co lo u r notes from fresh
specim ens, is, especially w ith juveniles, a form idable, alm ost im possible ta s k In sca rce ly any o th er group o f
m arine fishes it is so difficult to decide the true definition o f som e o f the species." W a lke r (1975) sum m ed up his
ta xo no m ic e xperience w ith lethrinids: "F o r one can only
em erge from such a study, particularly o f preserved
m aterial, w ith
a feeling o f hum ility and som e apprehension." Sato (1978, 1986), w ho has
worked on both
subfam ilies o f lethrinids rem arked on the genus Lethrinus: "The intrageneric system atics w ithin this genus,
how ever, has been in gre a t ch a o s..." and fo r the M onotaxinae, "I have tried to review this subfam ily and to show
m ajor moot points."
Due to the problem s in identifying preserved specim ens o f lethrinids, it is no w o n d e r that the earliest taxonom ists
gave m any d iffe re n t na m e s to
the sam e sp e cie s. T he
m ost p ro lific e a rlie r w o rk e r on th is
group, V a le n c ie n n e s
C u v ie r & V a le n c ie n n e s , 1830), re co g n ize d 37 sp e cie s o f th e g e n u s L e th rin u s , 31 o f th e se w e re new n am es. T oday,
we reco g n ize 27 sp e cie s o f L e th rin u s , o f w h ich on ly 11 o f V a le n cie n n e s' nam es are va lid . In fact, V a le n cie n n e s
assigned nine different new nam es to the sp ecies that w e recognize here as L. n eb u lo s u s . Pieter Bleeker, the
em inent Dutch ichthyologist w ho spent m uch o f his life studying fishes in Indonesia in the 19th century, named
17 sp e c ie s o f lethrinids, three o f w hich we recognize here as valid. O nly the e arliest w o rke r on lethrinids, Forsskál
(1775), w a s su cce ssful in nam ing a n u m ber o f species, all o f w h ich w e reco g n ize as valid. T his is m ainly b ecause he
w a s th e firs t ta xo n o m ist to w o rk on le th rin id s and, he w o rked o n ly on the few lethrinid sp e cie s from th e Red Sea,
w hich are relative ly easy to differentiate.
The problem s previously encountered in identification o f lethrinids are prim arily due to the fact that m any o f the
ch a ra cte rs
trad itio n a lly used to diffe re n tia te fish e s are relative ly co n stan t am ong certain sp ecies o f lethrinids.
W hen th e y are live or still fresh, colour can be ve ry helpful for species determ ination. Body colours and m arkings
also add to the confusion because they can change su b stantially according to the tim e o f day, the em otional state
o f the fish, ge o gra p h ic locality, and state o f freshness. D espite th e se problem s, previous researchers have
contributed to o u r understanding o f the syste m a tics o f le th rin id s and have revealed a n u m ber o f ch a ra cte rs that
help differentiate species. For exam ple, Sato (1978) found that the
pattern o f dark pigm ent
cells, or
m e la n o p h o re s , on th e m e m b ra n e s o f th e p e lvic fin, help d iffe re n tia te so m e s p e cie s w h ich w e re p re vio u s ly
d iffic u lt to s e p a ra te . In p re p a ra tio n fo r th is p u b lica tio n , 75 d iffe re n t co u n ts, m e a su re m e n ts and o b s e rv a tio n s
w ere taken on each o f o ve r 450 sp e cim e n s o f L e th rin u s , representing all species, including m ost o f the type
specim ens found in m ajor m useum s in the United States, Europe and Australia. O f the 75 characters found to vary
among L e th rin u s , 25 are presented here in detail. A m ong these 25 useful characters there are som e that have not
previously been used to d iffe re n tia te sp e cie s o f L e th rin u s . A n a d d itio n a l 3 10 sp e c im e n s w e re e xa m in e d fo r key
characters in m useum s and from collections m ade specifically for lethrinids in the Philippines, Thailand, and the
A rabian Gulf. T his catalogue is tim ely there fo re as a report on the progress in ta xo no m ic w o rk on lethrinids and
to clear up m any o f the identification problem s that have existed.
In keeping w ith the form al and style o f the "FAO
been kept to a m inimum. The
technical te rm s and illustrations
p urposes.
Species C atalogue" series, literature citations in the text have
literature that has been consulted is listed in the bibliography. A g lossary o f
are included to reduce the necessity to consult oth er sources fo r identification
(in
2
A c k n o w le d g m e n ts
W e extend gratitude to the follow ing persons and institutions
w ho assisted during m useum visits, provided
specim ens or loans o f specim ens, or in som e w a y am eliorated our understanding o f lethrinids: S.M. Alm atar, N.
Downing and J.M. M ccu llo ch (Kuw ait Institute fo r S cientific Research, Kuwait); M.L. Bauchot and M. D esoutter
(Muséum National d'Histoire
Naturelle, Paris); S. Blum and C.J.
Ferraris (Am erican Museum o f Natural History,
New York); G. Böhlke and W.F. S m ith-V aniz (A ca d e m y o f Natural Sciences, Philidelphia); D. Catania, W.N.
Eschm eyer and W .l.
Follett (California A cadem y o f Science, San Francisco); R.R. Carthy, S.L. Jewett, G.D. Johnson,
L W . Knapp, T.M. Orrell, S.J. Raredon, V.G. Springer, and J.T. W illiam s (United States National Museum o f Natural
History, W ashington, D.C.); P. Colin (M otupore Island Research Station, University o f Papua and New Guinea);
M.F.
G omon
(Museum
o f Vittoria,
Melbourne);
P.C.
Heemstra and
B.
Ranchod
(J.L.B.
Smith
Institute o f
Ichthyology, G raham stow n, South Africa); D.F. Hoese, J.M. Leis, M. M cG routher and J.R. Paxton (Australian
Museum , Sydney); M.L. Holloway, G.1. Howes, and A. W heeler (British Museum , Natural History), London; J.B.
Hutchins (W estern Australian M useum , Perth); M. Jebb (Christensen Research Institute, M adang, Papua and New
Guinea); M. van der Knapp (FAO Maldives); F. Krupp and H.
Zetzsche (N atur-M useum Senckenberg, Frankfurt);
K. Larson and B.C.Russell (Northern Territory Museum ,
Dan/vin); K.
M atsura (National Science Museum, Tokyo);
R. M cKay (Queensiand Museum, Brisbane); 1. Menne and J. Nielsen
(Zoologisti Museum, Copenhagen); H. Nijssen
(Zoölogisch Museum, Am sterdam ); M.J.P. van Oijen (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden); H.J. Paepke
(Museum fur Naturkunde, Berlin); R.L. Pyle, J.E. Randall and A.Y. Suzum oto (B. P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu).
Thanks are also due to W .A. Starck and R.C. Steene for assisting G.R. Allen with the collection o f lethrinid
specim ens on the G reat Barrier R eef o f Australia and the Coral Sea. M r Steene also gave us copies o f lethrinid
photos that w ere useful fo r colour descriptions. Likewise, R.H. Kuiter donated several co lo u r photographs.
W e offer special th a nks to J.E. Randall who m ade available his collection o f lethrinid colour transparencies; these
w ere a trem endous
aid in our work. Jack's enthusiasm fo r finding
solutions to the m any ta xonom ic problem s
plaguing th e L e thrinidae served as in sp iratio n and im p etu s fo r o u r w ork.
W e are grateful to the illustrators, R. Sw ainston and P. Lastrico w h o prepared th e co lo u r p a in tin gs and d ra w ing s for
this catalogue.
W e ackn o w le d ge W. F ischer w ho secured su p p ort fo r m useum visits and field w o rk th rough FAO and w hose
dedication and energy m ade this catalogue possible. W e th a nk W. Schneider, N. Scialabba and G. SciarappaD em uro fo r m aking the final editing se ssion both su cce ssful and enjoyable.
Special gratitude is due to Cecilia Luz M. Carpenter for her patience, and the countless hours spent in helping to
collect and com puterize data on lethrinid specim ens; a co m prehensive review o f L eth rin u s fo r th is catalogue
w ould not have been possible w ithout her help; and to C onnie A llen w ho provided considerable assistance w ith
library w ork, data processing and preparation o f the typescript. M. Eustaquio assisted in osteolgical preparations.
T he C.O. M insalan fa m ily provided la b o ra to ry space during field w o rk in th e P hilippines.
1.1 Plan o f th e C a talo g u e
A fa m ily d escription is given, follow ed by a key to genera w hich includes the species o f m onotypic genera. The
species acco u nts are arranged a lp habetically by genera and species. Each genus is introduced w ith its type
re fe re n c e a nd s y n o n y m s . D e s c rip tio n s o f g e n e ra w ith m o re th a n o n e s p e c ie s a ls o lis t d ia g n o s tic fe a tu re s a n d ,
com m ents on general biology, habitat, distribution, and interest to fisheries. The genus d e scrip tio n s are follow ed
by a key to the species and species accounts in alphabetical order. The inform ation pertaining to each species is
a rranged by para g ra ph s, in the o rd e r listed below:
(1)
S c ie n tific N am e: T he re fe re n c e fo r th e o rig in a l d e s c rip tio n and typ e lo c a lity is given.
(2)
S y n o n y m s : A ll in v a lid n a m e s a nd c o m b in a tio n s th a t h a ve b e e n a p p lie d a re re fe re n c e d .
(3)
FAO N am e : The FAO English nam e is considered the standard to be used for fish e ry purposes. This
should avoid confusion w hich can be caused due to the existence o f m ultiple nam es for the same
species or the sam e nam e fo r several species. The FAO nam e is not intended to supplant the use o f
local nam es but rather, to serve as a w o rld w id e reference. FAO French and S panish sp e cie s nam es are
not yet available.
(4)
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : D istin ctive c h a ra c te rs o f th e sp e cie s are give n as an aid fo r id e n tifica tio n ,
a ccom panied by useful diagram s. T hese dia g n ose s should be consulted to confirm sp ecies identified
using the illu stra te d key.
3
(5 )
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : The general geographic range is given in the text and illustrated on
a
map. The m ap shading includes known areas o f occurrence
and interm ediate areas betw een locality
reco rd s w h e re a sp e cie s is exp e cte d to be found.
(6)
H abitat and Biology: Inform ation on habitat, behaviour, food h a b its and rep ro d u ction is given.
(7)
S ize :
(8)
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
T he a p p ro x im a te m axim u m to ta l le n g th is given.
Detailed fish e rie s
possible.
1.2
data
G eneral
is
inform ation
unavailable
on
fo r all
the
extent,
species
published
and
type
o f fisheries,
therefore,
only
nam es are available.
a
are
given.
assessm ent
is
O ften, a single
local nam e
is
L ocal N a m e s :
These are given w here
applied to several species.
(10)
L ite ra tu r e : R ecent refe re n ces w hich contain illu stra tion s
given. It is stated if an incorrect nam e is given in the reference.
(1 1 )
R e m a rk s : U se fu l in fo rm a tio n w h ich is not a p p ro p ria te ly co ve re d in th e
included here. F re q u e ntly used in co rre ct scie n tific n a m e s are m en tio n e d here.
could
utilization
qualitative
(9)
that
and
be
useful
fo r
iden tifica tion
p re v io u s
are
p a ra g ra p h s
is
G e n e ra l R e m a rk s on L e th rin id s
S y s te m a tic s : The Lethrinidae are tropical m arine perciform s found entirely in the Indo-Pacific, except one
s p e cie s
th a t o ccu rs only in
the eastern Atlantic. They belong to
the suborder Percoidei, a diverse group
containing
m any fam ilies w hose
relationships
are
poorly
understood.
W ithin
this
suborder,
lethrinids
are
included under the superfam ily Sparoidea w hich also contains the fam ilies Sparidae (porgies), C entracanthidae
and N em ipteridae (threadfin bream ). Am ong percoids, sparoicis appear m ost closely related to the Lutjanoidea
(includes the snappers or Lutjanidae and, fusiliers or Caesionidae) and the H aem uloidea (includes the grunts or
Haem ulidae and Inermiidae). There has been m uch confusion concerning the familial allocation o f the genera
and sp ecies a m ongst these groups.
A kazaki
(1962) and Johnson (1981) defined the lim its o f sparoid fishes. T hey p resent convincing evidence to
support
the integrity o f w hat are currently considered the constituent
genera o f the S paridae, Centracanthidae,
Nem ipteridae and
Lethrinidae. The genera
included
in the
Lethrinidae are G n a th o d e n te x , G y m n o c ra n iu s ,
L e th rin u s , M o n o ta x is and, W attsia. These genera are divided into tw o subfam ilies by som e taxonom ists (Fig. 1),
although the integrity o f this classification is still in need o f critical evaluation. A phylogenetic analysis o f this
group is cu rre n tly in progress. A problem encountered in this analysis is the determ ination o f outgroup relations
and p o la rity o f c h a ra c te r s ta te s w ith in th e L e th rin id a e . T he s u p ra s p e c ific c la s s ific a tio n p re se n te d h e re is
therefore considered provisional.
Table 1 lists the m ajor characters that vary am ong the genera o f the Lethrinidae. M any o f these characters are
easily observable and there is no problem in distinguishing betw een genera. The num ber o f dorsal and anal fin
rays, th e p re se n ce or a b se n ce o f sca le s on the cheek, and the p re se n ce o f ce rta in bony stru ctu re s on th e m axilla
are constant w ithin genera and serve as convenient aids in identification. T hree o f the five genera o f lethrinids
are m onotypic (G n a th o d e n te x , M o n o ta x is , and W a tts ia ) and the in te g rity o f these taxa appears incontroversible.
The alm ost effortless ta sk o f differentiating am ong genera o f lethrinids does not properly prepare one for
the m any d ifficulties that can be encountered in separating species w ithin the m ultispecies genera G y m n o c ra n iu s
and L e th r in u s . No a tte m p ts have b een m ade to s e p a ra te s u b g e n e ra w ith in G y m n o c ra n iu s . In L e th rin u s how e ve r,
som e taxonom ists have divided this genus into different genera or subgenera. These attem pts have centered
around d ifferences in dentition and lateral teeth types; L eth rinella has been m eant to include species w ith long
snouts and conical lateral teeth w hile L e th rin u s includes species w ith short snouts and rounded or m olariform
la te ra l teeth. T here are m an y in te rm e d ia te s in th e se b a sic fo rm s how ever, and it is d ifficu lt to a ssig n som e sp e cie s
to one or th e o th e r taxa; su b d ivisio n s w ith in the g e n u s L e th rin u s are g e n e ra lly ignored in recent w ork. W e p re fe r
to d e fer any reco g n itio n o f s u p ra sp e cific divisio n w ith in w h a t w e recognize as L e th rin u s or G y m n o c ra n iu s until a
thorough evaluation o f phylogenetic relationships w ithin these genera is com plete.
Habitat and Biology:
Lethrinids
are
bottom -feeding,
carnivorous,
coastal
fishes,
ranging
prim arily
on
or
near
reefs. T hey generally possess large, strong ja w s and food pre fe re nce is co rre la te d w ith the typ e o f lateral ja w
teeth and to a certain extent, the length and angle o f the snout found in a particular species. For exam ple, the
h u m p n o se b ig -e ye bream , M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis , has large, w e ll-d e ve lo p e d m olars, and a short, blunt sno u t. It
co nsum es m olluscs, sea urchins and other hard-shell invertebrates. A t the o ther extrem e, the longface em peror,
L e th rin u s o liv a c e u s , has c o n ic a l la te ra l te e th , and an e lo n g a te , g ra d u a lly slo p in g s n o u t. It fe e d s m a in ly on fis h e s
Gnathodentex
1 species
Gymnocranius
8 species
MONOTAXINAE
SH I
mm
m
1 species
Wattsia
1 species
LETHRINIDAE
Lethrinus
28 species
LETHRININAE
FAMILY
SUBFAMILY
GENUS
I SPECIES
A provisional classification o f the sub fam ilies and g en era o f the F am ily Lethrinidae
5
T a b le 1
C h a ra cte rs found to va ry am ong ge n era o f the Lethrinidae
G n a th o d e n te x
Gymnocranius
W a tts ia
M o n o ta x is
L e th rin u s
Dorsal rays
10
10
10
10
9
A nal rays
8-9
9-10
10
9
8
Pectoral rays
15
14
14
14
13
68-74
46-49
41-47
44-47
42-49
Scales above lateral line
5
5-6
5
4-5
Cheek scales
+
+
+
+
Pectoral axil scales
-
-
-
+
denticulated
sm ooth
denticulated
denticulated
conical
conical, m olars
conical
molars
> 1
> 1
> 1
+
+
+
Lateral-line scales
M axilla surface
Lateral teeth
A scending prem ax.
process to alve o la r
ram us ratio
S ubocular s h e lf
5-6
-
+
sm ooth, knob
ridge
conical, m olars
> 1
+
-
E p io tic-p tero tic suture
narrow
narrow
narrow
narrow
broad
Vertical sphenotic
flange
eroded
eroded
eroded
eroded
entire
and
crustaceans. Between
these
extrem es,
species
exhibit
m any
interm ediate
lateral teeth
types,
from
m olar
through rounded to conical, and snout shape also varies w idely. Diet co n co m m itta ntly va ries betw een the
extrem es from prim arily hard-shell in vertebrates, to soft-shell invertebrates, to fishes, w ith co m b in a tio n s o f these
food item s found in m any species. T here is also a great deal o f se lectivity for particular food items. For example,
the predom inant food eaten by som e species is sea urchins. Food item s m ost com m only reported for lethrinids
are polychaetes, crabs, shrim ps, gastropods, bivalves, squid, octopus, sea urchins, sand dollars, starfish, brittle
sta rs, and fish.
Feeding in m ost species is done at night, although m any species forage coincidentally or
purposefully during the day. Diurnal feeding m igrations are reported fo r som e
species. For exam ple, L e th rin u s
b o rb o n ic u s typically ranges over sandy bottom during the day and at night th e y feed a ctively o ve r the reef.
A n o th e r species, L. m in ia tu s , re p o rte d ly re sts on th e re e f d u rin g th e d a y and a c tiv e ly fo ra g e s o v e r sand b o tto m s
at night.
L ethrinids are m ostly re e f fish e s but th e ir preferred habitat is sandy or rubble substrate. The reefs w hich th e y
freq u e n t can be
shallow , coralline reefs o r deep, rocky reefs. O ne sp e cie s fre q u e n ts the o u ter ed g es o f the
continental sh e lf and is caught to depths o f 180 m. Lethrinids can be solitary or schooling and do not appear to be
territorial. T hey often form large aggre g a tio n s w hile spaw ning.
Sequential
protogynous
herm aphroditism
is
apparently
the
usual
m ode
of
sexuality
in
lethrinids,
that
is,
w hen
sexually m ature th e y are initially fe m a le s and later in life th e y change sex. T his explains certain ch a ra cte ristics o f
lethrinid populations: m ales tend to be larger on the average than fe m a le s and there is usually a sex ratio slightly
in fa vo r o f fem ales. There is considerable overlap in size distributions betw een m ales and fem ales suggesting
that sexual transform ation occurs over a w ide size range. The testes o f m ales that have been exam ined
histologically (Young
& M artin,
1982) show typical secondary m ale (having transform ed from
an ovary)
cha ra cte ristics and no evidence has been found to su p p ort o ccurrence o f prim ary m ales (testes form w ithout
going through an ovary stage).
There are few reports on the spaw ning b e havior o f lethrinids. T his is not surprising since it is th o ug h t that m ost
le th rin id s spaw n a fte r dark. M uch o f w hat is reported about the spaw ning b e havior o f em perors co m e s from
o b s e rv a tio n s by fis h e rm e n (J o h a n n e s , 1 9 8 1). S p a w n in g is a p p a re n tly p re c e d e d by lo ca l m ig ra tio n s at d u s k to
6
p a rticu la r areas near a reef, either in a lagoon or on the
o uter edge o f a reef. Spaw ning occurs in large
a ggre g a tio n s w hile sw im m ing in circles near the surface or, at the bottom o f re e f slopes. T his activity is at a peak,
around the tim e o f the new moon.
Spawing sea so na lity v a rie s w id e ly am ong diffe re n t sp e cie s o f lethrinids, and fo r som e species, it va ries betw een
localities. Spaw ning is generally prolonged thro u g h o u t the year w ith peaks occurring in d ifferent seasons. For
exam ple, T oor (1964) reports spaw ning in the redspot em peror to occur m ostly from Decem ber to February and
again from June to A ugust in India. Loubens (1980a) reports a high percent o f sexually m ature in d ivid u a ls o f the
redspot em peror between Septem ber and Decem ber in New Caledonia. In the Red Sea, Kedidi (1984) reports
peaks in sexually m ature fe m a le s for this species in January and again in April-M ay. F ecundity for the redspot
e m peror w a s estim ated at 12 000 to 77 000 eggs spaw ned per fem ale per ye a r (Toor, 1964).
Courtship behaviour has been reported for the grey large-eye bream in a public oceanarium during M ay and June
shortly after dusk (Suzuki & Hioki, 1978). During courtship, m ales assum e a colour pattern different from its
norm al pattern, w ith several w a vy silve r stripes on the sides. Fem ales rem ain m otionless in aggre g a tio n s near the
bottom and m ales initiate spaw ning by nudging the abdom en o f the fem ale w ith their snouts. The pair then
a scend s lo w ly to w a rd th e su rfa ce to g e th e r and relea se th e ir g a m e te s s im u lta n e o u s ly at a d e p th o f a b o ut one or
tw o m eters; release is fo llo w e d by a q u ick return to the bottom .
The only sexual dim orphism reported for lethrinids is the average larger size o f m ales and the courtship
colouration described fo r the grey large-eye bream. It is possible however, that future stu d ie s m ay reveal
d ifferent courtship colours fo r o ther lethrinids. T his is one possible m echanism fo r the va riou s colour patterns
observed in som e em perors.
Fertilized eggs reported fo r lethrinids are pelagic w ith an oil globule, spherical, co lourless and betw een 0.68 to
0 .8 3 mm in d ia m e te r (Fig. 2). N orm ally, h atching o ccu rs 21 to 40 hrs a fte r fe rtiliza tio n . N ew ly hatched larvae are
1.3 - 1.7 mm with an unopened mouth, unpigm ented eyes, a large yolk sac and variable body pigmentation.
Notable characteristics o f the larvae are e xtensively developed head spination and cheek scales (Fig. 3).
3 hours
9 hours, 10 min.
15 hours
17 hours, 35 min.
14 hours a fte r hatching
2.09 mm
40 hours a fte r hatching
2.32 mm
F ig . 2
D e v e lo p m e n ta l s e rie s o f
10 hours, 10 min.
1.31 mm
11 hours, 35 min.
15 hours
3 hours after hatching
1.34 mm
24 hours a fte r hatching
2.24 mm
3 days a fte r hatching
2.2 mm
G y m n o c r a n iu s g r is e u s (fro m R e n z h a i & S u ife n , 1 9 8 0 )
7
1.9 mm
2.9 mm
5.2 mm
10.0 mm
16.0 mm
Fig. 3 L e th rin u s larvae (probably m ore than one species) from Leis & Rennis, 1983.
Lethrinids are relatively long-lived fishes. The average m axim um observed age reported for nine species o f
le th rin id s is 17 ye a rs; th e range o f m axim um o b se rve d age is seven to 27 years. A ve ra g e age o f g ro w th ce ssa tio n
is 11 years; the range, fo u r to 17 years. Both scales and otoliths have been used to age lethrinids and annual m ark
form ation on these structures are generally distinct.
Population
dynam ics
o f lethrinids
have
been studied w id e ly
and the von
B ertalanffy grow th
param eters
asym ptotic
length ( L ¡ n f ¡ n ¡ t y ) and th e c o e ffic ie n t o f g ro w th (K) are know n fo r p o p u la tio n s o f o v e r 15 sp e cie s.
The
a s y m p to tic
le n g th ra n g e s from a b o u t 19 cm to ta l le n g th fo r th e s m a lle s t sp e c ie s stu d ie d to o v e r 100 cm to ta l
length fo r the largest. G rowth coefficient
estim ates range from around 0.1 to 0.9. Estim ates o f
rate o f natural
m ortality range from 0.5 to 1.9.
F ish eries:
E m p e ro rs and la rg e -e ye b re a m s are an im p o rta n t c o m p o n e n t o f co m m e rcia l, re cre a tio n a l and a rtisa n a l
fish e rie s o f the w orid, although the degree o f im portance varies. A t certain localities and tim es, a species m ay be
th e m a jo r fo c u s o f a fish e ry, o r th e m ost prized catch. S om e le th rin id s how e ve r, n e ve r gain n o tab le im p o rta n ce to
fisheries, usually because o f th e ir sm all size or because th e y are relatively uncom m on, but all species are invariably
caught and consum ed in particular countries. There has been a m ore -or-le ss steady increase in the reported total
w orld catch o f lethrinids (m ostly com m erciai fisheries) from 28 242 to 57 887 m etric to n s over the period 1980 to
1987 (Table 2). This reported catch is from the w estern central Pacific (including Hong Kong), the eastern Indian
Ocean, and the w estern Indian Ocean; the latter area
contributing the greatest percent catch (Table 3). The catch
o f lethrinids is relatively sm all com pared to the total w orld catch o f fishes (in 1987, th is w a s 92 693 400 m etric
tons), but
fo r certain countries, lethrinids are o f prim ary im portance to fisheries (Table 4). In 1987, lethrinids w ere
the m ost im portant fish group in te rm s o f contribution o f w e ight to the fisheries in M auritius (31% o f total catch
by w e ig h t) and Q a ta r (25% o f total catch by weight); and they are am ong the top four m ost im portant also in
Bahrain, Fiji, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Em irates and the Yem en Arab Republic.
The reported
d ifficulties
in
unreported as
contribute to
w orld catch o f lethrinids
is greatly underestim ated in the
above account, either because o f
tabulating statistics from
different countries, or sim ply because the catch
o f lethrinids goes
part o f an artisanal or sport fisheries. For exam ple, in the
Philippines w hich is not reported to
the w orld catch in the above statistics, lethrinids are very com m on in
m arkets
but reported as
"P o rg ie s ";
na m e
a
g e n e ra lly
re fe rre d
to
s p a rid s
but
in
th e
P h ilip p in e s
th e s e re fe r
m o s tly
to
le th rin id s . The
8
T a b le 2
Reported w orld catch o f em perors and large-eye bream in m etric tons (FAO, 1 9 8 9 )
Emperors
Large-eye breams
TOTAL LETHRINIDS
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
26 987
33 620
34 613
43 300
44 364
42 978
51 1 5 9
56 710
1 255
1 194
28 242
34 814
1 091
936
35 704
44 236
882
808
45 246
43 786
829
51 9 8 8
1 177
57 887
T a b le 3
R eported catch o f em perors and large-eye bream s by fishing area fo r the ye a r 1 9 8 7
C a tch (m t)
% Total
17 4 4 4
30%
Eastern Indian Ocean
2 044
4%
W estern Indian Ocean
38 399
66%
W estern Central Pacific
(inoi. Hong Kong)
average
annual
catch
of
lethrinids
in
the Philippines
is
estim ated
at
around
11000
m etric
tons
w hich
would
increase the above estim ates by 1 9 % ! A n o th e r co u n try not included in the w orld catch o f lethrinids is Kuwait,
w h ich a ve ra g e s 50 to 100 m etric to n s o f le th rin id s per y e a r (total ca tch o f fin fish in K uw ait usu a lly b e tw e en 5 000
to 7 5 0 0 ) and lethrinids are considered one o f the m ost valuable m arket fishes. O ther countries w hich report
lethrinids as com m on or valuable in th e ir fish e rie s but are not reported as part o f the w orld catch include
Australia, India, Japan, the Maldives, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and various countries o f
Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia.
In m ost areas w here lethrinids are fished, stocks are near the level o f m axim um exploitation. In som e
areas,
how ever
(e.g. the trap fish e ry in the
Tuam otus), lethrinids a p p ea r to be overfished. Certain sto ck assessm ent
a ctivities in this decade also indicate a large potential
exploitable sto ck o f lethrinids (e.g. northern A ustralia) or
possibility o f further exploitation (e.g. M auritius Banks).
Lethrinids are potentially utilizable in aquaculture. Certain species grow well in cage culture and at least one
species, L. n e b u l o s u s w a s show n to be to le ra n t o f low salinities. R esearch also indicates that lethrinid larval
culture is feasible.
Em perors are an im portant com ponent o f recreational fisheries
in som e countries. In A u stra lia , they are one o f
the m ost popular sport fish e s because th e y are pow erful adversaries. It is not uncom m on fo r keen a n glers to
travel hundreds o f kilom eters fo r the challenge o f landing certain em perors.
Lethrinids
are
caught
by a va rie ty o f fishing
m ethods. T he m ost im portant are
handlines, droplines, traps, trawls,
shore seines, gili nets and vertical longlines.
G enerally, the soft w h ite fle sh o f le th rin id s is co n sid e re d o f e xce lle n t cu lin a ry quality. In som e a re a s how ever, the
flesh o f sm aller individuals o f certain species is said to have an unpleasant chem ical taste and sm ell. T his taste is
som etim es described as 'coppery' or sim ilar to iodine and is thought to be the result o f diet on particular
in v e rte b ra te s . In a d d itio n , so m e sp e cie s in th e S outh and C e n tra l P a cific are re p o rte d as c ig u a to x ic at ce rta in
tim es and localities.
Lethrinids are generally m arketed fresh.
9
T a b le 4
R e p o rte d c a tc h in m e tric to n s and p e rce n t o f to ta l ca tch o f e m p e ro rs and la rg e -e y e b re a m s by c o u n try fo r 1987;
if in th e to p fo u r, ra n k o f im p o rta n c e am o n g all sp e c ie s re p o rte d
C a tch (m t)
P e rc en t C atch
Rank
W e s te r n C e n tral P acific and Eastern Indian O cean
Fiji
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Kiribati
Malaysia
2 870
8%
954
< 1%
14 000
< 1%
1 620
(4)
4%
44
< 1%
Bahrain
930
12%
Kenya
666
< 1%
Mauritius
5 552
31%
Oman
1 006
< 1%
Qatar
672
25%
(1)
7 700
17%
(2)
W e s te rn In d ia n O cean
Saudi Arabia
Seychelles
(4)
(1)
308
8%
Tanzania
9 500
3%
United Arab Emirates
7 951
9%
(2)
Y em en Arab Republic
3 000
14%
(2)
10
1.3
Illustrated Glossary of Technical Terms and Measurements
spinous
dorsal fin
s o ft
nape
caudal fin
interorbital
snout
body depth
lateral
line
pectoral fin
caudal
peduncle
anus
head length
anal fin
total length
Fig.4
Extern al m o rp h o lo g y and m ea s u re m e n ts
A n g le o f s n o u t re la tiv e to u p p e r ja w - This angle is
m easured by placing a cle a r p ro tra ctor on the snout o f
th e fis h w ith th e lo w e r p la n e b is e c tin g th e p re m a x illa ,
parallel to the low er line o f the prem axilla, with the
point o f the fine resting on the tip o f the snout; the
u p p e r p la n e is ta k e n from th e tip o f th e sn o u t and
running along a fine o ve r the a n terior profile o f the
snout (Fig. 5).
A n al fin b a s e - The anal fin base is m easured from the
fron t base o f the an terio r-m o st anal spine to the
p o sterio r base o f the fast anal ray (Fig. 6).
so ft anal fin
anal fin base
Fig. 6
Fig. 5
A n g le o f sno ut relating to u p p er ja w
Length o f soft anal fin base and o f entire
anal fin base
11
A xil
-
The
angular
region
betw een
the
pectoral
fin
and
the body (Fig. 7).
pectoral fin
fo ld e d fo rw a rd
C h e e k , C h e e k h e ig h t, C h e e k s c a le s - The area betw een
the low er part o f the eye and th e low er lim b o f the
preopercle. The m easurem ent o f cheek height is taken
from th e lo w er-m ost point on the orbit to the furthest
point on the angle o f the preopercle (Fig. 9). Species o f
the genus L e th rin u s have naked cheeks, w hile other
le thrinids possess 4 to 6 ve rtica l row s o f sca le s (Fig. 10).
snout length
w ith o u t lip
cheek
height
fin axil
Fig. 7
Pectoral fin axil
C a n in e
A
prom inent
elongate,
sharp
tooth.
In
lethrinids, canines are usually restricted to the fron t part
o f th e ja w s (F ig .8).
preorbital
length
Fig. 9
a.
canines
im N u fa h u
M easurem ent o f cheek and snout (w ithout lip)
(\ A f y ^ l
villiform
teeth
posterolateral
teeth conical
villiform
teeth
posterolateral
teeth rounded
b.
canines
Fig. 10
c.
canines
Row s o f s c ales on c h e e k
C o m p r e s s e d - F la tte n e d fro m
relative body width.
Q C ta o
conical
teeth
Fig. 8
posterolateral teeth
distinct m olars
Types o f teeth
C o nical - Cone-shaped; refers to teeth (Fig. 8a,c).
D en ticu late - Flaving the
like structures (Fig. 13a).
appearance
D orsal
fin
- A
m edian
E d entate - W ithout teeth.
C a u d a l p ed u n c le - The n a rrow end o f th e b o d y betw e en
the posterior basal ends o f the dorsal and anal fins and
the base o f the caudal fin (Fig. 4).
o f teeth
or te e th ­
D orsal - T ow ard the back o r upper part o f the body.
fin
along
the fin is supported by sp in o u s
rays p osteriorly (Fig. 4).
C a rn iv o re - A fle sh -e a tin g animal.
s id e to s id e ; re fe r s to
the
back.
In lethrinids,
rays a n terio rly
and
soft
12
In te ro rb ita l - T he re g io n o f th e head a b o ve and
be tw e e n th e eyes. In le th rin id s, th is reg io n can be
e ith e r concave, nearly flat, or convex(F ig. 11).
simple
ridge
denti­
culated
ridge
knob
fla t
a
b
Fig.13
a
b
Fig.11
c
A n te rio r v ie w o f head sh o w in g s h a p e o f
interorbital region
O u te r surface o f m axilla
(lateral teeth not show n)
M o la rs , M o la rifo rm - Low,
shaped like m olars (Fig. 8c).
L ateral lin e - A series o f pored or tubed sca le s form ing a
raised line along the side o f the body (Fig. 4). The
lateral-line scales are counted from the m ost anterior
pored scale near the upper end o f the operculum to the
base o f th e caudal fin w h ich is d etected by the crease
w h ich resu lts from fo ld in g th e fin fo rw a rd . T here are
often one or m ore tubed scales that continue onto the
caudal fin, p o sterior to the base o f the caudal fin; these
scales are not included in the count o f lateral-line scales.
c
broad
and
rounded
teeth;
N ak e d - W ithout scales.
Nape - The region o f the head w here the skull jo in s the
body (Fig. 4).
O p e rc le - The large bone form ing
part o f the gili co ve r (Fig. 14).
the
upper posterior
L ate ra l te e th - T e e th in th e s id e s o f th e ja w s , o b se rve d
by opening th e m outh and parting the lips (Fig. 8).
M axilla
-
The
bone
o f the
upper ja w
lying
above
the
prem axilla (Fig. 12). The outside surface o f the maxilla in
lethrinids can be either relatively sm ooth, or have either
a denticulated ridge (Fig 13a), a sim ple ridge (Fig. 13b)
or a distinctive knob (Fig. 13c). The presence o f these
structures can be determ ined in lethrinids by pulling the
upper ja w forw ard so that it p ro tru d es and running the
side o f a probe over the surface o f the m axilla, in a
backward
direction,
and
top to
bottom
to feei the
co n tou rs o f the su rfa ce .
preopercle
(preoperculum )
Fig. 14
opercle
(operculum)
Lateral view o f head
maxilla
prem axilla
Fig. 12
Bones in upper jaw : m axilla and prem axilla
(M axilla usually covered w hen m outh is closed,
sh o w n here w ith overlying bone rem oved)
O rb it
The
bony
border
surrounding
the
eye.
M easurem ents or d ista n ces w hich involve the orbit do
not include the fleshy rim o f the orbit. It is som etim es
necessary to slightly squeeze the rim o f the orbit to
exclude th is fle sh y portion.
Palate - The ro o f o f the upper ja w w h ich includes the
palatine and vom er bones. These bones bear teeth in
m any fishes but they are edentate in lethrinids.
13
P a rie ta l s c a le s - An isolated patch o f sca le s above and
behind the eye on the nape, the lame as the supratem poral patch o f scales (Fig. 15).
«
S cales a b o v e and below lateral fin e - A tra n sve rse series
o f sca le
row s;
sca le s
below
la te ra l-fin e are counted
fro m
th e o rig in o f th e a n a l
fin ,
n o t in c lu d in g th e
m edian scale row,
along
a forw ard
diagonal to
the
la te ra l
fin e ,
but n o t in c lu d in g th e la te ra l lin e sc a le ;
scales
above the
lateral
line
are
counted
from the
m id d le ra ys o f th e s p in o u s p o rtio n o f th e d o rs a l fin
(n e a r th e b a se o f th e fifth o r s ix th d o rs a l s p in e ),
in c lu d in g th e row o f sm a ll s c a le s at th e b a se o f th e
d o rs a l fin (th is is u s u a lly liste d as 112 a s c a le ), on a
diagonal backward to the lateral line, and not including
the lateral line row (Fig. 17).
sc a le s row s above
lateral fine
Fig.15
Location o f parietal o r supratem poral
patch o f scales
P e d u n c u la r scales - S ca le s fo u nd on the caudal peduncle
(F ig . 16). T h e s c a le s in th e lo v e r s e rie s a ro u n d th e
caudal
p e d u n c le are co u n te d by s ta rtin g
w ith , and
in c lu d in g , th e la te ra l line sca le n e a r th e b a se o f th e
caudal
fin, counting
alt row s below this
scale that
te rm in a te on th e ca u d a l fin , a ro u n d th e v e n tra l m ost
p o rtio n
o f th e c a u d a l, w h ile ro ta tin g th e
fis h , and
c o u n tin g th e s c a le s on th e o th e r sid e o f th e ca u d a l
p e d u n c le , up to and in clu d in g th e la te ra l fin e sca le on
the opposite side w h e re the count began.
s c a le s ro w s b e lo w
lateral line
Fig. 17
Scale counts abo ve and below lateral line
S n o u t - The area betw een the tip o f the upper lip and
the anterior m argin o f the eye (Fig 4). In lethrinids the
snout is often m easured w ithout lip (Fig. 9).
lateral-fine scales
S u p ra te m p o ra l
patch o f scales
p atch o f s c a le s - Same as the parietal
(Fig. 15). W hen counting these scales, all
scales in the patch are enum erated, including
sca le s often at the lover periphery o f the patch.
the
small
T ra n s v e r s e s e r ie s - T hese are scale row s counted in an
oblique series above and below (but not including) the
lateral line
lateral fine".
T u b e rc le
S
lo w e r
p e d u n cu la r sca le s
Fig. 16
(Fig
-
A
17).
See
small
bump.
"Scales
Some
above
and
lethrinids
below
have
a
the
small
tubercle on the crow n o f a m olariform tooth (Fig. 18).
S cale counts on caudal peduncle
tu b ercle s on
molars
ç— ' ■
Q 0 © 0 ‘
Fig.18
L o v e r ja w (left d e n ta ry borse)
P o s te r io r - The rear or hind portion.
P re m a x illa
12 ).
-
The
anterior bone
o f the
upper ja w
(Fig.
P re o p e rc le - Bone on the
cheek in front
and form ing the front part o f the gili cover (Fig. 14).
P re o rb ita l
w id th
preorbital bone
-
(can
D istance
betw een
be felt at about
o f the opercle
a n terio r edge
of
m idpoint o f upper
jaw , behind lip) to a n terior edge o f orbit (Fig. 9).
Rays - The rigid s tructu re s that su p p ort the fin; soft rays
are segm ented, and flexible; sp in o u s rays are
unsegm ented,
and support
the anterior
anal and dorsal fins in lethrinids (Fig. 4).
stiff,
portion o f
V illifo r m te e th
in a band (Fig. 8).
the
-
Num erous
sm all
stender teeth,
usually
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14
2.
SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE
2.1 D iag no stic Features o f th e Fam ily L ethrinidae
Perchlike sparoid m arine coastal fish e s o f the tropical Indo-W est Pacific and W e st Africa. Dorsal fin continous w ith 10
sp ines and nine to 10 soft rays; anal fin w ith three sp ines and e ight to 10 soft rays; pectoral fin w ith 13 to 15 soft rays;
pelvic fin thoracic, w ith 1 spine and 5 rays; caudal fin e m arginate or forked, w ith seven to nine procurrent caudal
rays. Scales finely ctenoid
and m oderate in size. Mouth sm all to m oderate, term inal, lips often soft and fleshy; the
upper ja w protrusible, the ascending process o f the prem axilla confluent w ith a rticu la r process, usually longer than or
alm ost equal to the alveolar ram us; postm axillary process absent; palato-prem axillary ligam ent very w ell developed;
maxilla m ostly concealed
below infraorbital bones, not articulating broadly w ith the distal tip o f the prem axilla,
w ithout a supplem entary bone; eth m o -m a xillary ligam ent absent; an ou ter row o f canine teeth in front
o f both
jaw s, on sides the teeth
are conical or m olarlike; an inner row o f villiform teeth anteriorly;
vom er and palatine
toothless. Gili m em branes broadly united to one another but separated from isthmus; gills four, slit behind the
fo u rth present; p seudobranchs
present; gillrakers short and knoblike; four branchiostega! rays inserting
on the
ceratohyal, the fifth at the interspace betw een the ceratohyal and the epihyal, the sixth on the epihyal; second
epibranchial toothplate present, the third absent. Two op e ning s in pars ju g u la ris; su b o cular sh e lf reduced or absent.
Three predorsal bones present in the follow ing configuration: first predorsal, first neural spine, second and third
predorsal, second neural spine, first pterygiophore supporting the first tw o dorsal sp in e s and second p te rygiophore
supporting the third dorsal spine, third neural spine, third pterygiophore
supporting fourth dorsal spine, fourth
neural spine; tw o to three trisegm ental pterygiophores in the dorsal and anal fins; 11 e p ipleural ribs; accessory
su b p elvic keel absent; p o stpelvic process w ell developed. Pyloric caeca few, usually 3.
2.2
Illustrated Key to Genera and Species o f Monotypie Genera
1a.
C h eek w ith 4 to 6 ve rtica l row s o f sca le s (Fig. 19); 10
s o ft ra y s in dorsal fin; usually 9 or 10 soft rays in
anal fin
2a.
Usually 9 soft rays in anal fin
W attsia
Fig. 19
15
3a.
c a n in e -like teeth
S id e s o f ja w s w ith round, fia t m olars preceded by a
patch o f sm all teeth and an anterior series o f canines
(Fig. 20a); profile o f head in front o f eye strongly
convex; p e ctora l fin w ith 14 soft rays, in n e r surface
o f pectoral fin base scaled (Fig. 21a) no longitudinal
stripes on body ..................... M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis
(Fig. 22, Plate VIII, 47-49)
w 'G .
j
3b.
2b.
Each ja w w ith a narrow band o f villiform teeth, an
o u ter se ries o f conical teeth, and a se ries o f ca n in e s
at th e fro n t o f both ja w s (Fig. 20 b ); p ro file o f head
in fron t o f eye slig h tly convex o r straight; pectoral
fin w ith 15 so ft rays; in n e r su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin
base
scaleless
(Fig.
21b);
yellow
longitudinal
stripes on body ................ G n a th o d e n te x a u ro lin e a tu s
(Fig. 23, Plate I, 1)
conica|
teeth P \ I \b
villi­
form
teeth
ic c ir i
villiform
teeth
\b
1Ü
*b
ä
molar-like teeth
ro o f o f m outh
a.
M o n o ta x is
b.
G n a th o d e n te x
Fig .20
U sually 10 soft rays in anal fin
pectoral
fin folded
fo rw a rd
a. scales on inner base
p ectoral fin
folded
fo rw a rd
b. no scales on inner base
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis
Fig. 21
G n a th o d e n te x a u ro lin e a tu s
Fig. 23
Fig. 22
16
denticulated
ridge
(lateral teeth not show n)
Fig. 24
10 spines
10 soft rays
W a tts ia m o s s a m b ic a
Fig. 25
ro w s o f s c a le s
on cheek
10 soft rays
3 spines
G y m n o c ra n iu s
Fig. 26
9 so ft rays
no sca le s here
L e th rin u s
Fig. 27
8 so ft rays
L e th rin u s
Fig. 28
17
2.3
Information by Species
Gnathodentex Bleeker, 1873
G e n u s : G n a th o d e n te x
designation.
B le e k e r, 1 8 7 3 a : 4 1 . T y p e - s p e c ie s
LETH Gnath
S p a r u s a u r o lin e a t u s L a c e p é d e ,
1803,
by
o rig in a l
S y n o n y m s : None, but th e sin g le sp e cie s in th e g e n us has been assig n e d to D e n te x , P e n ta p u s , and P e n ta p o d u s by
v a rio u s authors.
A single species in the genus - see G n atho den tex aurolin eatu s.
Gnathodentex aurolineatus (Lacepéde, 1802)
LETH Gnath 1
Fig. 29, Plate I, 1
S p a ru s a u r e o -lin e a tu s Lacepéde, 1802, Histoire nat. poissons, Vol. IV: 42, 132 (no locality given).
S y n o n y m s : D e n te x ly c o g e n is B ennett (1831); G n a th o d e n te x o cu m a c u la tu s
Herre (1935).
FAO Names: En - Striped large-eye bream.
Fig. 29
com
cal<
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s :
Body oblong, its depth 2.3 to 2.8 tim es in standard length.
teeth
Dorsal profile o f head m oderately sloped; eye relatively large, its diam eter about equal
to length o f snout; ja w te e th in a narrow villiform band bordered by an o u ter se ries o f
co n ic a l te e th; 4 m o d e ra te -size d ca n in e s at fro n t o f u p p e r ja w and 6 at fro n t o f lo w e r
ja w (Fig. 30); m axilla (upper ja w ) w ith a longitudinal denticulated ridge (Fig. 31); a pair
o f close-set, round nasal ope ning s on each side o f snout in front o f eyes. Dorsal fin
w ith 10 s le n d e r s p in e s and 10 soft
rays, th e firs t
to fo u rth s p in e s in crea sin g in length,
th e rem a in in g s p in e s a b o u t equal; anal fin w ith 3 ste n d e r s p in e s and 8 o r 9 (u su a lly 9)
s o ft rays; pectoral rays 15 (including sm all splint-like upperm ost element); caudal fin
stron g ly forked w ith pointed tips. Lateral-line sca le s about 68 to 74; 5 scale rows
betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; inner surface o f pectoral fin
a xil s c a le le s s . C o lo u r: u p p e r o n e -th ird o f sid e (i.e. b a ck reg io n ) d a rk b ro w n w ith
n a rro w s ilv e ry strip e s, co rre sp o n ding w ith each horizontal scale row; rem ainder o f
head and body m ainly silve r to grey exce p t 4 or 5 brow nish-orange strip e s on low er
tw o -th ird s o f side, upperm ost stripe is the w idest and o riginates at upper co rn e r o f gili
flap
(operculum ); a
prom inent
golden-yellow
to
orange
blotch
directly
below
p osterior part o f dorsal fin and ju s t in fron t o f caudal fin base; snout and lips often
w ith a yellow ish tinge;
iris golden; a broad pearly stripe on preorbital
region,
continuing below eye to its posterior m argin; fins m ainly clear, although dorsal, anal,
' ÛHÛÔ
A *
villiform
teeth
roo f o f mouth
Fig. 30
denti­
culated
ridge
and caudal som etim es light reddish; y e llo w -o ra n g e spot at upper base o f pectoral fin.
Fig. 31
18
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
W ide-spread
in
the
Indo-west
and
Central
Pacific
(excluding the H awaiian Islands) from the
Tuam otu
Islands
to
the
east
coast
of
A frica, and from A u stra lia n o rth w a rd s to
Japan (Fig. 32).
Habitat and Biology: G enerally found on
coral
reefs,
som etim es
in
aggregations
containing
one
hundred
or
more
individuals. The depth range is between
about 3 and
20 m.
Feeds chiefly on
bottom -living invertebrates.
S iz e :
Maximum
total
length
about
30
cm;
common to 20 cm.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : F requently found
in
m arkets. C aught m ainly w ith spears, traps,
g illn e ts ,
and
h a n d lin e s .
A v e ra g e
q u a lity
flesh that is m arketed m ostly flesh.
Fig. 32
L o c a l N a m e s : A U S T R A L IA : G o ld -lin e d sea b re a m ; J A P A N : N o k o g irid a i; L A C C A D IV E IS L A N D S : B o n d u (M in ic o y ),
C h e e k k a n i (o th e r is la n d s ); N E W C A L E D O N IA : P e rch e a lig n e s d 'or; P A P U A N E W G U IN E A : M a n a h a la (P ort
M o re s b y );
P H IL IP P IN E S : G a p a s -g a p a s (V is a y a n ); S E Y C H E L L E S : C a ra n d in e ; S O U T H A F R IC A : G lo w fis h ; T A H IT I:
Maene.
L ite ra tu r e :
Fischer & Bianchi (eds) (1984); M asuda et a f (1984); Sato (1986); Smith & Heem stra (eds) (1986).
G y m n o c ra n iu s K lu n z in g e r, 1870
LETH G ym no
G e n u s : G y m n o c ra n iu s Klunzinger, 1870: 764. Type species D e n te x riv u la tu s Ruppeli, 1838 (= C a n th a ru s g ra n d o c u lis
Valenciennes, 1830 - see rem arks below), by m onotypy.
S y n o n y m s : G enus Paradentex
Bleeker, 1876.
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s :
M edium to large-sized em perors with an ovate, laterally com pressed body. Profile o f head in
front o f eye convex, the snout slope relatively steep; adult specim ens often developing a bony ridge on nape and
bony s h e lf a bove a n te rio r part o f eye. M outh sm all, u su a lly not reaching to level o f eye; each ja w w ith 2 o r 3 sm all,
slender canines at front w ith rem aining teeth villiform , except conical (m olariform in one species) on other part o f
la te ra l se ctio n . Eye re la tiv e ly large, a pair o f clo se -se t, round nasal o p e n in g s on each sid e o f sn o u t in fro n t o f eyes,
usually a thin flap o f skin on rear edge o f anterior opening. Dorsal fin continuous, not noticeably incised in m iddle
portion, w ith 10 s p in e s and 10 soft rays; anal fin w ith 3 sp in e s and 10 (o cca sio n a lly 9) so ft rays; p e ctora l fin rays 14,
including slender, splint-like upperm ost elem ent; caudal fin strongly to m oderately forked, usually w ith pointed tips.
Lateral -fine s c a le s 46 to 49 w ith 2 to 4 a d d itio n a l tu b ed sca le s e xte n d in g on to base o f ca u d al fin; re a r part o f c h e e k
w ith 3 to 5 tran sve rse scale rows, rem ainder o f cheek, preorbital, snout, and interorbital scaleless; inner surface o f
pe ctora l fin base sca le le ss. C o lo u r: g e n e ra lly o ve ra ll silve ry; c h e e k region below eye m arked w ith e ith e r a d a rk bar
(som etim es faint), w avy blue, longitudinal lines, or num erous blue spots; fin s clear to yellow or reddish. Freshly caught
sp e cim e n s, e s p e c ia lly ju ve n ile s, often a ssu m e a pattern o f 5 to 8 narrow d a rk bars.
B iology, H abitat and D istribu tio n: Inhabits shallow to m oderately deep w a te r (betw een about 10 and 80 m), usually
o ve r sand or rubble bottom s o f continental coasts, but a few species are so m e tim e s found around islands or offshore
reefs. T he y g e n era lly o ccu r solitarily, but G. g ris e u s so m e tim e s fo rm s schools. The diet co n sists o f sm all, bottom -living
invertebrates, e specially gastropod m olluscs.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : Tropical Indian Ocean to w estern and central Pacific Ocean.
In te re s t
to
F is h e rie s :
M ost
are
ca u g h t
in
re la tiv e ly
low
n u m b e rs,
except
G.
g ris e u s
w h ich
is
an
im p o rta n t
co m m e rcia l fish in som e co u n trie s o f so u th e a st A sia such as M alaysia and T hailand. In 1987, Hong Kong reported the
catch o f 9 5 4 1 and Fiji o f 2 2 3 1 o f unidentified G y m n o c ra n iu s sp e cie s.
19
R em arks: The o rigina l d e n o m in a tio n o f the typ e species, D e n te x riv u la tu s Ruppeli (1838) is an invalid nam e fo r the
In d o -P a c ific sp e c ie s. It is p re o ccu p ie d by D e n te x riv u la tu s B e n n e tt (18 3 5 ), a sp a rid fis h from th e B la ck Sea.
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ra n d o c u lis (Valenciennes, 1830) is the valid nam e fo r the species described by Ruppeli.
The identity o f the sp ecies in
great sim ilarity in shape and
counts, dentition, etc. are o f
o f the sm all size and poor
th is ge n us has caused co n siderable confusion. The m ain reason for this problem is the
coloration am ong the species. In addition, traditional characters such as fin-ray and scale
little value. It has been especially difficult to resolve nom enclatorial problem s, because
condition o f m any o f the type specim ens. S u rp rising ly, the group is not ve ry w ell
represented in m useum collections. Further study o f large ju ve n ile to adult series o f fresh m aterial is required to
confirm the status o f m ost o f the sp ecies recognized in th is catalogue. T herefore the classifica tio n presented here
should be regarded as provisional.
K e y to th e s p e c ie s o f G y m n o c ra n iu s
1a.
Caudal
fin
strongly
forked
(Fig. 33a),
the
m edian
rays
shorter
than
eye diam eter;
low er edge
o f eye intersected by line
from
tip o f snout to m iddle o f caudal fin fo rk (Fig.
34) ............................................................. G. e lon gatus
(Fig. 35, Plate I, 3)
1b.
Caudal
fin
m oderately
forked
(Fig.
33b),
the
m edian rays about equal to, or longer than
eye diam eter; low er edge o f eye above line
from tip o f snout to m iddle o f caudal fin fork
(Fig. 36)
a
b
Fig. 33
Fig. 34
G. e lo n g a tu s
Fig. 35
Fig. 36
20
2a.
Longitudinal
scale
row s
betw een
lateral
line
and
base
o f m iddle
dorsal
spines
4%;
m olars present on sides o f ja w s (Fig.
3 7 a ) .................................................................... G. e u a n u s
(Fig. 38, Plate I, 4)
2b.
Longitudinal scale row s betw een lateral line
and base o f m iddle dorsal spines 5 1/2 (Fig.
39);
m olars
absent, usually villiform
to
conical teeth present on sid e s o f ja w s (Fig.
37b)
3a.
Head
with
a
prom inent
shaped,
blackish
surro u n d ed by a
diam ond­
patch
of
w h ite bo rd e r
and behind each e y e
scales
above
G. a u d ie y i
(Fig. 39, Plate I, 2)
3b.
Head
w ithout the
m arking
described
b
Fig. 37
in 3a
4a.
4b.
Snout
with
prom inent
blueedged
ye llow
band
from
front
of
eye
to
above
upper
lip
(encom passing
nostrils); 3 or 4
oblique,
blue
(brow n
in pre se r­
vative) lines a cro ss cheek; body
moderately
deep,
the
maximum
depth about
2.3 to 2.4 tim es in
standard
length
.... G. fre n a tu s
(Fig. 40, Plate 1, 5)
4 % s c a le ro w s
Snout
w ithout
the
m arking
described
in
4
a;
cheek
may
have w avy, blue lines, but they
are
m ore
or
less
horizontal
rather
than
oblique;
body
depth variable, 1.9 to 3.0 tim es
in standard length
G. e u a n u s
Fig. 38
5 % scale rows
patch
G. a u d le y i
G. fre n a tu s
Fig. 40
Fig. 39
21
5a.
inner edge
o f caudal
fin
fo rk
slightly
convex w ith fin tip s blunt (Fig. 41a); live fish
w ith lo n g itu dina l row s o f d a rk sp o ts on
upper side .................... G y m n o c ra n iu s sp.
(Fig. 42, Plate II, 10)
5b.
Inner
edge o f caudal fin fo rk straight and
fin tips pointed (Fig. 41b); no longitudinal
row s o f d a rk sp o ts on u p p er side
6a.
6b.
Body
relatively
deep,
the
m aximum
depth about 1.9 to 2.2 (occasionally
2.3) tim es in standard length; no blue
sp o ts or w a vy blue lines on cheek;
usually
w ith
several
irre g u la r
dark
bars on sides and d a rk su bocular
bar
.......................................
G. g ris e u s
(Fig. 43, Plate II, 7,8)
b
Fig. 41
Body relatively slender, the m aximum
depth about 2.3 to 3.0 tim es in the
standard length; side o f snout and
c h e e k often
w ith
w a vy
longitudinal
blue
lines
(Fig.
45)
or
vertically
elongate
spots
(Fig.
44)
in
fresh
specim ens longer than 20 to 25 cm
standard
length;
sm aller
specim ens
m ay have irregular dark bars on side
and dark su bocular bar as in 6a
7a.
M aximum depth o f body about
2.6
to
3.0 tim es in standard
length;
ch e e k
often
with
vertically elongate blue spots in
fresh sp e cim e n s ... G. m ic ro d o n
(Fig. 44, Plate II, 9)
7b.
M aximum depth o f body about
2.3
to
2.5
(occasionally
2.6)
tim es
in
standard
length;
ju veniles below about 200 mm
standard
length
frequently
w ith
d a rk bar under eye and 5
or 6
irre g u la r d a rk bars across
sid e
o f body a d u lts w ith w avy,
blue
lines on snout and cheek,
increasing
in
num ber
with
grow th .................. G. g ra n d o c u lis
(Fig. 45, Plate II, 6)
G. m ic ro d o n
Fig. 44
G. sp.
G. g ris e u s
G. g ra n d o c u lis
Fig. 42
Fig. 43
Fig. 45
c lic k fo r n e x t p a g e
c lic k fo r p r e v io u s p a g e
22
Gymnocranius a u d le y i O g ilb y , 1916
G y m n o c ra n iu s a u d le y i Ogilby, 1916
Fig. 46, Plate I, 2
LETH G ym no 3
M em .Q ueensland M us., 5:56 (Moreton Bay, Queensland).
S y n o n y m s : G y m n o c ra n iu s b ito rq u a tu s Cockerell (1916)
FAO Names: En - Collared large-eye bream.
D ia g n o s tic F eatu res: B ody o b lo n g, its d e p th 2 .2 to 2 .4 tim e s in sta n d a rd length. S n o u t p ro file re la tiv e ly steep, a bony
m id-dorsal ridge on nape o f adults; low er edge o f eye w ell above a line from snout tip to m iddle o f caudal fin fork;
eye relatively large, its d iam eter usually less than snout length; interorbital space flattened to slightly convex, its
w idth less than eye diam eter; suborbital space about equal to eye diam eter or slightly less; ja w s extending to a
vertical th rough nostrils; a pair o f sm all, slender canines at front o f each ja w ; lateral teeth villiform (small and
s le n d e r) w ith a fe w la rg e r o u te r co n ica l te e th . Dorsal fin w ith 10 s le n d e r s p in e s and 10 so ft rays; firs t 3 o r 4 s p in e s
g radually increasing in length, the rem ainder about equal, the m iddle soft rays o f dorsal and anal fins slightly
elevated; anal fin w ith 3 sle n d e r sp ines and 9 or 10 soft rays; pectoral rays 14; caudal fin only m od e ra tely forked w ith
pointed tips, the m edian rays longer than eye diam eter. Lateral-line scales 48 plus 2 tubed scales extending on to base
o f ca u d al fin; c h e e k w ith 4 o r 5 tra n sve rse sca le rows; 5 1/2 sca le row s b etw een la te ra l line and base o f m iddle dorsal
fin s p in e s ; in n e r s u rfa c e o f p e c to ra l fin s c a le le s s . C o lo u r: o v e ra ll s ilv e r o r w h itis h , o fte n lig h t b ro w n o r o liv e on u p p e r
sides; each sca le on sid e s w ith a b row n spot
form ing
longitudinal
rows,
those
on
back
darkest; top o f head dull brow nish or grey;
cheek and opercle silvery, som etim es w ith a
golden sheen; parietal scale patch (on side o f
nape,
above
and
behind
eye)
blackish
surrounded by a brilliant w hite m argin; fins
uniform ly clear to slightly yellowish. Some
individuals,
e specially
those
fresh ly
dead,
have s ca tte re d b row n fle cks on sides. A lso a
blackish
evident.
bar running
through the eye m ay be
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
East coast o f
southern Q ueensland, A ustralia. A lso occurs
on the southern half o f the G reat Barrier R eef
(Fig. 47).
Fig. 47
23
H ab itat and B io lo gy:
In h ab its sand o r rubble a re a s a d ja ce n t to reefs, u su a lly at d e p th s b e tw een a b o u t 8 to 40 m. It
feeds m ainly on bottom -living invertebrates.
S ize : M axim u m to ta l le n g th a b o u t 40 cm ; c o m m o n to 35 cm .
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
O ccasionally seen in markets, although not
G ra n t (19 8 2 ) it so m e tim e s has a d is ta s te fu l io d in e fla v o u r th a t can
H ow ever "untainted" fish are good eating.
a high-priority com m ercial fish. A ccording to
a c tu a lly be sm e lle d on fre s h ly h o o ked fish .
L ocal N a m e s : AUSTRALIA: Collared sea bream (or Iodine sea bream).
L ite ra tu r e :
Fow ler (1933); G rant (1982).
R e m a rk s : The name b ito rq u a tu s has been applied to th is species, p articularly by A u stralian authors. It w as
introduced by Cockerell (1916) in a key to Q ueensland Sparidae based on scale ch a ra cte ristics, and w as not
a c c o m p a n ie d by a d e scrip tio n in th e tru e sense. C o cke re ll a ttrib u te d a u th o rsh ip o f th e sp e cie s to O gilby, but the
nam e w a s not published previously. It is doubtful that the scale characters presented in C ockerell's key are sufficient
to c o n s titu te a fo rm a l d e scrip tio n . Both C o c k e re ll's in tro d u ctio n o f G. b ito rq u a tu s and O g ilb y's d e s c rip tio n o f G.
a u d le y i w ere published in Mems. Q ueensland M usuem , Vol. 5 (10 July 1916). Therefore as first revisers o f this group
w e give p re ce d e n ce to a u d le y i, in the e ve n t th a t th e sca le ch a ra cte rs are in te rp re ted to co n stitu te a valid d e scrip tio n
(see Article 24a, International Code o f Zoological Nom enclature).
Gymnocranius elongatus Senta, 1973
LETH Gymno 4
Fig. 48, Plate I, 3
G y m n o c ra n iu s e lo n g a tu s Senta, 1973, Japan. J. Ichthyol., 20 (3):135-144 (South China Sea).
S y n o n y m s : None
FAO Names: En - Forktail large-eye bream.
¿ ff y t
4
J
n
m
Fig. 48
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body oblong, its depth 2.2 to 2.4 tim es in standard length. Head profile evenly rounded, snout
so m ew hat pointed; low er edge o f eye intersected by line from snout tip to m iddle o f caudal fin fork; eye large, its
diam eter usually about equal to length o f snout; interorbital space convex, about equal to eye diam eter; preorbital
w idth less than eye diam eter; mouth relatively sm all, posteriorm ost part o f ja w s not reaching a vertical th rough front
o f eye; 2 or 3 pair o f sm all, sle n d e r ca n in e s at front o f each jaw , lateral teeth villiform to conical; a pair o f close-set,
round nasal o p e ning s on each side o f snout in fron t o f eyes. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sle n d e r sp ines and 10 soft rays; anal fin
w ith 3 sle n d e r s p in e s and 10 soft rays; pectoral rays 14; caudal fin de e ply forked w ith pointed tips, the m edian rays
s h o rte r th a n eye d ia m e te r. L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 46 to 48 p lu s 2 to 4 tu b e d s c a le s e xte n d in g on to base o f ca u d a l fin;
c h e e k w ith 4 to 6 tra n sve rse scale row s; 5 % scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines;
in n e r s u rfa c e o f p e ctora l fin axil sca le le ss. C o lo u r: o ve ra ll silve ry, s o m e tim e s slig h tly b ro w n ish d o rsa lly; a b o u t 8
tran sve rse brow n bars on sides, the first crossing th ro u g h eye, the rem a in d e r below do rsa l fin and a cro ss caudal
peduncle; scattered blotches and speckling som etim es evident on sides; fins clear to ye llo w -o ra n g e ; caudal margin
and tips often deep red. There is considerable variation in the intensity o f the dark bars on the sides o f the body.
24
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
C oastal and s h e lf
w a te rs o f the w e ste rn P a cific and e astern
Indian o c e a n s from Ja p a n to n o rth e rn A u s tra lia
(Fig. 49). It has also been reported from the
w estern Indian O cean, but this needs to be
co n firm e d .
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits
trawling
grounds o f the continental shelf, usually at
de p th s betw een about 50 and 100 m. It feeds
m ainly on bottom -living invertebrates.
S iz e : M a x im u m
common to 25 cm.
to ta l
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
markets,
m ainly
fresh.
bottom traw ls.
le n g th
about
35
cm ;
O ccasionally seen in
Caught
m ainly
with
L ocal
N a m e s : A U S TR A LIA :
bream; JAPAN: Onaga-m eichidai.
Sw allow tail
sea
Fig. 49
L ite ra tu re : K y u sh in et a ^ (1 9 8 2 ); M asu d a e t a f (1 9 8 4 ); G lo e rfe lt-T a rp & K a ilo la (1 9 8 4 ); S a in s b u ry et a f (1 9 8 5 ); S ato
(1986); A llen & S w ainston (1988).
Gymnocranius euanus Günther, 1973
LETH Gym no 5
Fig. 50, Plate I, 4
G y m n o c ra n iu s e u a n u s Gunther, 1879, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. V , 4:136-137 (Friendly Islands).
S y n o n y m s : M o n o taxis affin is W hitley (1943); G ym n ocran ius ja p o n ic u s A kazaki (1961).
FAO Names: En - Japanese large-eye bream.
Fig. 50
25
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body oblong, its depth 2.4 to 2.5 tim es in standard length. Dorsal profile o f head sloping
steeply; low er edge o f eye well above a line from tip o f snout to m iddle o f caudal fin fork; eye relatively large,
although its diam eter less than interorbital space and w idth o f preorbital w idth
(at least in adults); m outh relatively
sm all, p o s te rio r part o f ja w s rea ch in g to a b o u t level o f n o stril o p e n in g s; 2 or 3 p a irs o f sm all, sle n d e r ca n in e s at fron t
o f each ja w , o th e r teeth villiform , but well developed m olars on lateral se ctio n s o f ja w s. Dorsal fin w ith 10 slender
sp ines and 10 soft rays; anal fin w ith 3 sle n d e r sp ines and 10 soft rays; pectoral rays 14; caudal fin m oderately forked,
inner edge o f fo rk slightly convex, w ith blunt tips, the m edian rays slightly longer than eye diam eter. Lateral-line
scales 48 or 49 plus 3 o r 4 tubed sca le s exte nd in g on to base o f caudal fin; ch e e k w ith 4 or 5 tra n sve rse sca le rows; 4
1/2 scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; inner surface o f pectoral fin axil scaleless.
C o lo u r: o v e ra ll s ilv e ry -w h ite to g re yish ; s c a le s o f b a ck and sid e s w ith a sm all b ro w n ish ba sa l sp o t; sca tte re d
prom inent black blotches m ainly on anterior h a lf o f body; a very faint bar som etim es present below eye to lo w e r
e d g e o f c h e e k ; fin s m a in ly c le a r to re d d is h , c a u d a l s o m e tim e s d u s k y re d d is h -b ro w n ; fa in t s p o ts m a y be e v id e n t on
dorsal, caudal, and anal fins.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
W estern
Pacific
Ocean
including southern Japan, South China
Sea, the G reat Barrier R eef o f Australia, Coral
Sea, New Caledonia and Tonga (Fig. 51).
H abitat and Biology:
Inhabits
sand
and
rubble
bottom s adjacent to
rock
and
coral
reefs, usually at depths betw een 15 and 50 m. It
feeds
m ainly
on
sm all
bottom-living
gastropod m olluscs.
E s tim a te s
of
a s y m p to tic
le n g th
( L m f m it y ) ,
c o e ffic ie n t o f gro w th (K) and rate o f natural
m ortality
(M)
have
been
m ade
for
the
p o p u la tio n in N ew C a le d o n ia : L m f m i t y = 3 9 .5
mm S L fo r m ales and 35.1 mm S L fo r fem ales, K
= 0.22 for m ales and 0.24 for fem ales and M =
0.58 for m ales and 0.42 for fem ales.
S iz e :
Maximum
comm on to 35 cm.
total
length
about
45
■|<5=sa^ r
P
cm;
Interest to Fisheries:
O ccasionally
seen
in
m arkets,
usually
fresh.
Caught
m ainly
with
b o tto m
lo n g lin e s and h a n d lin e s , s o m e tim e s
speared.
Fig. 51
Local N a m e s : A U S T R A L IA : J a p a n e s e sea b re a m ; JA P A N : S h iro d a i; N E W C A L E D O N IA : B o ssu b la n c à p o in ts n o irs.
L ite ra tu re : K yu sh in et aL (1982, as G. japo nicu s)-,
Gymnocranius frenatus Bleeker, 1873
M asuda et aL (1984, as G. japo nicu s)-, Sato (1986).
Fig. 52, Plate I, 5
G y m n o c ra n iu s fre n a tu s B leeker, 1873, V e rh .A k a d .A m s te rd a m , 13: 97 (C e le be s).
S y n o n y m s : None
LETH Gymno 6
26
FAO N am es: En - Y e llo w sn o u t la rge -e ye bream .
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s :
Body oblong, its depth 2.3 to 2.4 tim es in standard length. Dorsal profile o f head sloping
steeply, the upper fo rehead profile som e w h a t angular, low er edge o f eye w ell above a line from tip o f snout to
m iddle o f caudal fin fork in adults; eye relatively large, its diam eter slightly greater than interorbital space and
preorbital w idth (at least in adults);
m outh relatively sm all, posterior part
o f ja w s reaching to about level o f nostril
openings; 2 or 3 pair o f sm all, ste n de r ca nines at fron t o f upper ja w and an enlarged outw ard-projecting tu sk on
each side at front o f low er ja w ; o th er teeth villiform , but w ell developed m olars on lateral se ctio n s o f jaw s. Dorsal fin
w ith 10 s te n d e r s p in e s and 10 so ft rays; anal fin w ith 3 ste n d e r s p in e s and 10 so ft rays; p e ctora l rays 14; ca u d a l fin
m o d e ra te ly fo rke d , in n e r edge o f fo rk stra ig h t, w ith p o in ted tip s, th e m ed ia n rays lo n g e r th a n eye d ia m e te r. L a teralline s c a le s 48 or 49 plus 3 or 4 tu b ed sca le s exte nd in g on to base o f caudal fin; ch e e k w ith 4 or 5 tra n sve rse sca le rows;
5 1/2 sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m iddle d o rsa l fin sp in e s;
in n e r su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin axil scale le ss.
C o lo u r: o ve ra ll s ilv e ry -w h ite , g re yish on u p p e r back; a b o u t 5 -7 n arrow , irre g u la r d a rk bars (m a y be v e ry fa in t) on
sides; a p ro m in e n t b lu e -e d g e d , ye llo w band from fro n t o f eye to a b o ve u p p e r tip , e n co m p a ssin g n o strils; c h e e k
y e llo w is h w ith 3 o r 4 o b liq u e , blue b a n ds slo p in g u p w a rd s from a b o ve
u p p e r ja w to w a rd s re a r part o f eye; fin s
m ainly cle a r or w hitish; a b la ck spot at base o f u p p er pectoral rays and narrow brow n bar a cro ss base o f entire fin.
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
Indo Malaysian
Archipelago and South China Sea (Fig. 53).
Habitat and B iology:
Inhabits sand, mud,
and
rubble
bottom s,
usually
at
depths
betw een about 20 and 80 m. It feeds m ainly
on sm all bottom -livin g g a stro p o d m olluscs.
S iz e : Maximum
comm on to 30 cm.
total
length
about
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
Common
m arkets o f Malaysia, Thailand, and
35
cm;
in some
Vietnam .
Usually is fresh or dried-salted. C aught m ainly
w ith
bottom
traw ls,
but
som etim es
with
bottom longlines and handlines.
L ite ra tu r e : Kyushin et a f (1982, as G. griseus).
Fig. 53
c lic k fo r n e x t p a g e
c lic k fo r p r e v io u s p a g e
27
Gymnocranius grandoculis (Valenciennes, 1830)
LETH Gymno 2
Fig 54, Plate II, 6
C a n th aru s g ra n d o c u lis V a le n cie n n e s in C u vier & V a le n cie n n e s, 1830, H is t. nat. p o isso n s, Vol. 6: 341 (S eychelles).
S y n o n y m s : D en te x riv u la tu s Ruppeli (1838); D en te x le th rin o id e s Sleeker (1851a); P e n ta p u s d u x V a le n cie n n e s
(1862); P e n ta p u s c u rtu s G uichenot (1865); D entex ro b in s o n i G ilchrist & T hom pson (1908); P a r a d e n te x m a r s h a lli
Whitley (1936); G y m n o c ra n iu s r u p p e llii Smith (1 9 41 ).
FAO N am es:
En - B lue-lined la rge -e ye bream .
Fig. 54
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s :
Body
oblong,
its
depth
usually
2.4
to
2.5
tim es
in
standard
length.
Forehead
profile
m oderately
steep; large adults developing a bony ridge on nape and bony sh e lf over front part o f eyes; low er edge
o f eye w e ll a b o ve a line from tip o f sn o u t to m id dle o f ca u d a l fin fo rk; eye re la tiv e ly large, a b o u t e q u al to o r la rg e r
th a n in te ro rb ita l
c o m p a ris o n
to
sp a ce and p re o rb ita l w id th in sm a ll sp e c im e n s (le ss th a n a b o u t 40
in te ro rb ita l and p re o rb ita l w id th s in la rg e fish ; m outh re la tiv e ly sm a ll,
cm ),
but m uch s m a lle r in
p o s te rio r p a rt o f ja w s not
reaching a
vertical th rough fron t o f eye; 2 or 3 pairs o f sle n d e r ca nines at fron t o f each ja w , a lthough the outer
canine on each side o f low er ja w is
usually enlarged; o ther teeth villiform , becom ing strongly conical on lateral
s e c tio n s o f ja w s . Dorsal fin w ith 10 s le n d e r s p in e s and 10 so ft rays; anal fin w ith 3 s le n d e r s p in e s and 10 soft rays;
pectoral rays 1 4 ; caudal fin only m oderately forked w ith pointed tips, the m edian rays m uch longer than eye
d ia m e te r. L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 48 plus 2 or 3 a d d itio n a l tu b ed sca le s e xte nd in g on to base o f ca u d al fin; c h e e k w ith 3 or
4 tra n s v e rs e sca le row s; 5 1/2 sca le row s b e tw e en la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; in n e r su rfa ce o f
pectoral fin axil scaleless. C o lou r: overall silvery w ith thin brow n scale m argins; a n te rio r h a lf o f head often brow n; a
series o f narrow undulating, longitudinal lines on cheek and side o f snout; fin s cle a r to yellow
or orange; caudal fin
fre q u e n tly du sky g re y-b ro w n ; a narrow brow n bar a cro ss base o f pectoral fins. Ju ve n ile s u n d er a b o ut 25
cm
sta n d a rd le n g th o fte n w ith 5 or 6 irre g u la r d a rk bars on sid e and d a rk b a r b e lo w eye. T he bar at th e level o f the
pectoral fin base is usually the w idest and the d a rk coloration exte nd s onto the pelvic fins.
28
G e o g ra p h ic a l
buted
in th e
D is trib u tio n :
W id e ly
d is tri­
Indian O ce a n and w e ste rn edge
o f the Pacific O cean, from East A frica to
southeastern
O ceania
and
A ustralia
north­
w ard to Japan (Fig. 55).
H abitat
grounds
offshore
b e tw e e n
and Biology:
Inhabits
trawling
of
the
continental
s h e lf
and
rocky bottom s, usually
at
depths
a b o u t 5 0 and 1 0 0 m.It fe e d s
m ainly on bottom -livin g in ve rte b ra te s and sm all
fishes.
le n g th
( L m f m it y ) ,
c o e ffic ie n t
o f g ro w th
(K)
a nd
m o rta lity
(M )
h a ve
been
m ade
E s tim a te s
n a tu ra l
fo r th e
p o p u la tio n
= 46 .4 mm
S iz e :
of
a s y m p to tic
a ro u n d N e w C a le d o n ia :
K = 0.23 and M = 0.57.
L m fm ity
S L ,
Maximum
total
length
about
80
cm;
common to 50 cm.
Fig. 55
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : O cca sio n a lly seen in m arke ts, m ainly fresh . C a u g h t m ainly w ith
traw ls. A good p otential com m e rcia l fish if su fficie n t sto cks can be located.
bottom
lo n g lin e s and
bottom
Local Nam es: A U S T R A L IA : R ob in so n 's sea bream ; JA P A N : S a za n a m ida i; N E W C A LE D O N IA : B ossu b la n c gro sse ra ce ;
M A D A G A S C A R : B a ria d iva , B a rialava, T siva ra va ra m e n a ; S E Y C H E L LE S : C a p ita in e blanc; S O U T H A F R IC A : Rippled
b a re n o se o f G erim pelde kaalneus; TANZANIA: Thangu-chaa.
L ite ra tu re :
(as
G. ro b in son i)-.
K yu sh in et aL (1 9 7 7 ); F is c h e r & B ia n ch i (e d s.) (1 9 8 4 ); M asu d a et aL (19 8 4 ); K yu sh in
et aL (1982); Sato (1986); A llen & S w a in sto n (1988).
R em arks: T his sp e cie s has been referred to as G. ro b in s o n i in recent literature.
Gymnocranius griseus (Schlegel, 1844)
D e n te x g ris e u s
Synonym s:
FAO Nam es:
Fig. 56, Plate II, 7,8
LETH Gymno 1
Schlegel in T e m m in ck & S chlegel, 1844, Fauna Ja p o n ic a : 72 (Japan).
L o b o te s m ic ro p rio n B le e ke r (1851b); G y m n o c ra n iu s o rb is F ow ler (1938).
En - G rey la rge -e ye bream .
D ia g n o s tic Features: B ody o blong, its de p th u su a lly 1.9 to 2.3 tim e s in sta n da rd length.
head e v e n ly co n ve x or ve n tra l p ro file slig h tly stra ig h te r; lo w e r e dge o f eye slig h tly a b o ve
m id dle o f ca u d a l fin fo rk; eye re la tiv e ly large, its d ia m e te r a b o u t e q u a l to o r s lig h tly
interorbital w idths; m outh relatively sm all, p osterior part o f ja w s reaching to about level
3 p a ir o f s m a ll, s le n d e r c a n in e s a t fr o n t o f e a c h ja w , o th e r te e th v illifo r m , b e c o m in g
D orsal and ve n tra l pro file o f
a line from tip o f sn o u t to
la rg e r th a n p re o rb ita l and
o f a n terior nostrils. Two or
c o n ic a l on la te ra l s e c tio n s .
29
B
á jj
■
■¡¡Il
a. adult
b. juvenile
Fig. 56
Dorsal fin w ith 10 sle n d e r sp in e s and 10 soft rays; anal fin w ith 3 sle n d e r sp in e s and 10 soft rays; pectoral rays 14;
caudal fin m oderately forked w ith pointed tips, the m edian rays slightly longer than eye diam eter. Lateral-line scales
46 to 48 plus 2 o r 3 a d ditional tubed scales extending on to base o f caudal fin; ch e e k w ith 4 tran sve rse scale rows; 5
1/2 scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; inner surface o f pectoral fin axil scaleless.
C o lo u r: overall silvery, freq u e n tly w ith a diffuse to vivid pattern o f 5 to 8 narrow d a rk bars on side, including one
through eye and across cheek; fins m ainly clear to yellowish, som etim es diffuse m ottling
or spotting on dorsal,
ca u d al, and anal fins; often a n a rro w brow n bar a cro ss bases o f p e ctora l fin s. S om e a d u lt in d ivid u a ls p o sse ss a few
scattered blue spots or scribbling on the snout and cheek.
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n : Southern Japan
to the
Indo-M alaysian region and possibly
eastw ard to India (Fig. 57). The species has
often been confused w ith the young o f G.
g r a n d o c u lis , hence
the
true
distributional
lim its are som e w h a t obscure. Records o f G.
g ris e u s from
the
W estern
Indian
Ocean
probably pertain to G. g r a n d o c u lis .
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits
coastal
traw ling grounds, usually at de p th s betw een
about 20 and 80 m. It feeds m ainly on
bottom -living
invertebrates.
Sexual
m aturation occurs at a fairly sm all size,
about 15 to 17 cm standard length.
dm *
i
S iz e :
Maximum
total
length
has
been
reported at 80 cm, but it is doubtful that the
species
grow s
that
large;
m aximum
reliable
total
length
is
about
35
cm;
comm on to 25 cm.
Fig. 57
30
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
Com m on in markets,
som etim es w ith bottom longlines and handlines.
Local
N am es:
A U S T R A L IA :
m ainly fresh, occasionally dried. C aught m ainly with bottom trawls,
N a k e d -h e a d e d se a b re a m ; JA P A N :
M e ic h id a i;
P H IL IP P IN E S :
but
G a p a s -g a p a s (V is a y a n );
SO U TH A F R IC A : G rey bare n o se or G rys kaalneus.
L ite ra tu re : (as G. g ris e u s e xce p t as noted):
K yushin et aL (19 7 7 );
F isch e r & B ianchi (eds.) (1984);
M asuda et al.
(1984); Kyushin et aL (1984, as Gymnocranius sp.); Sato (1986); A llen & S w ainston (1988).
R e m a rk s : This species is characterised by a relatively deep body in both small juve n ile s and adults, the depth
2 .2
1.9 to
tim e s in sta n d a rd length. A ll s p e cim e n s th a t w e re e xa m in e d , and n u m e ro u s fish seen at m a rke ts on th e G u lf o f
Thailand, had a pattern o f
5 to 7 faint bars on the side and a subocular bar. The types were
exam ined
at RMNH
(Leiden) by Kent Carpenter. The lectotype is a dried specim en (RMNH D2248), 340 mm standard length. Its elongate
shape (depth 2.7 in standard length) is perhaps due to distortion. However, there is a possibility that it could
re p re se n t a n o th e r sp e cie s, p o ssib ly G. g ra n d o c u lis . The p a ra le cto typ e (R M N H 1026), 182 mm sta n da rd length, has a
depth o f 2.07 and still show s fa in t rem nants o f th e barred pattern. L o b o te s m ic ro p rio n Bleeker is a p p are n tly a ju n io r
synonym . It w as described from sm all juveniles. W e have exam ined 2 syntypes (RM N H 5680, mixed with holotype o f
D e n te x leth rin oid es), 51 to 56 mm standard length. T hey still exhibit faint bars and body depths are 1.96 and 2.03 in
the standard length.
Gymnocranius microdon (Bleeker, 1851)
LETH Gymno 7
Fig. 58, Plate II, 9
D en te x m ic ro d o n Bleeker, 1 8 5 1 c , Nat.Tijdschr.Ned.Indie, Vol. 2:219 (C elebes)
Synonym s:
None
FAO Names:
En - Blue-spotted large-eye bream.
Fig. 58
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s : B ody o b lo n g , its d e p th 2 .5 to 3 .0 tim e s in s ta n d a rd le n g th . F o re h e a d p ro file m o d e ra te ly s te e p ;
low er edge o f eye w ell above a line from tip o f snout to m iddle o f caudal fin fork; eye large, about equal to w id th o f
preorbital and interorbital spaces; m outh relatively sm all, posterior part o f ja w s reaching to about level o f nostril
openings; 2 or 3 pairs o f small, slender canines at front o f each jaw , other teeth villiform becom ing conical on lateral
s e ctio n s o f ja w s . Dorsal fin w ith 10 sle n d e r sp in e s and 10 soft rays; anal fin w ith 3 sle n d e r sp in e s and 10 soft rays;
pectoral rays 14; caudal fin m oderately forked w ith pointed tips, m edian rays longer than eye diam eter. Lateral-line
scales 48 or 49 plus 2 or 3 tubed sca le s e xtending on to base o f caudal fin; ch e e k w ith 3 o r 4 tra n sve rse scale rows; 5
% sca le row s b e tw e e n la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; in n e r su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin axil sca le le ss.
C o lou r: overall silve ry to brow nish, scale m argins w ith a narrow brow n border; num erous ve rtica lly e longate blue
spots on
brow n.
snout
and
cheek,
and
som etim es
on
operculum ;
fins
clear to
yellow
or
reddish,
caudal
som etim es
dusky
31
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
K now n th u s fa r
only from southern Japan, the South China Sea,
the Marshall Islands, and o ff Phuket, Thailand in
the Andam an Sea (Fig. 59).
Habitat and Biology: Inhabits sand and rubble
bottom s
adjacent
to
rock
and
coral
reefs,
usually at depths betw een about 20 and 50 m.
It
feeds
m ainly
on
small
bottom-living
invertebrates.
S iz e :
Maximum
common to 35 cm.
total
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
m arkets,
usually
fresh.
length
about
45
cm;
O ccasionally
seen
in
Caught
m ainly
w ith
bottom longlines and handlines.
L o c a l N am e s : JAPAN: Ome meichidai.
L ite ra tu r e :
Kyushin
et
G ym n ocran ius sp.); Masuda
(1986).
et
af
af
(1982,
(1984);
as
Sato
Fig. 59
G y m n o c ra n iu s s p .
Fig. 60, P late II, 10
LETH Gym no 8
S y n o n y m s : G y m n o c ra n iu s le th rin o id e s (not o f Bleeker, 1851a) in M asuda et a f , (1984)
FAO Names: En - Blacknape large-eye bream.
Fig. 60
32
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s : Body oblong, its depth 2.4 to 2.5 tim es in standard length. Dorsal profile o f head convex, the
snout sloping steeply; low er edge o f eye well above a line from tip o f snout to m iddle o f caudal fin fork; eye large, its
diam eter about equal to interorbital space and larger than w idth o f preorbital; mouth relatively small, posterior part
o f ja w s rea ch in g to a b o ut level o f n ostril o p e ning s; 2 or 3 p a irs o f sm all, s le n d e r ca n in e s at fro n t o f each ja w , o th er
teeth villiform, becom ing conical on lateral se ctio n s o f ja w s. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sle n d e r sp ines and 10 soft rays; anal
fin w ith 3 sle n d e r sp in e s and 10 soft rays; pectoral rays 14; caudal fin m od e ra tely forked, inner edge o f fo rk slightly
convex, w ith blunt tips, the m edian rays slightly longer than eye diam eter. Lateral-line scales 47 or 48 plus 3 or 4
tu b ed sc a le s exte nd in g on to base o f ca u d al fin; ch e e k w ith 4 o r 5 tra n sve rse sca le row s; 5 1/2 sca le row s b etw een
lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; inner surface o f pectoral fin axil scaleless. C o lour: O verall silve ry or
silve ry-w h ite ; scales o f back (and som etim es low er on sides)
w ith a prom inent blackish basal spot form ing
longitudinal rows; area im m ediately above eye (supraorbital shelf) blackish; a blackish (m ay be ve ry faint) bar below
eye to low er edge o f preoperculum ; fins m ainly Bear to reddish, caudal som etim es dusky reddish-brow n.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
Known
on ly
from
southern Japan, the G reat Barrier R e e f o f A ustralia,
Coral Sea, and New Caledonia (Fig. 61).
Habitat and B iology:
Inhabits sand and rubble
b ottom s a djacent to rock and coral reefs, usually at
depths between 15 and 40 m. It feeds m ainly on
sm all
bottom -living
gastropod
m olluscs.
Sexual
maturation is attained by a total length o f at least
27 cm.
Estim ates
of
asym ptotic
length
(L w m ty ),
c o e ffic ie n t o f gro w th
(K) and rate o f natural
m ortality (M) have been made for the population
around New Caledonia: U n f i m t y = 37 mm S L , K =
0.28, M = 0.69.
S iz e : Maximum
common to 35 cm.
total
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
m arkets, usually fresh.
length
about
45
cm;
O ccasionally
seen
in
Caught m ainly with bottom
longlines and handlines, som etim es speared.
Fig. 61
Local N am es: A U S T R A L IA : S potted sea bream ; JA P A N : T a m a -m e ich i;
roses.
L ite ra tu re:
N E W C A L E D O N IA :
B ossu b la n c à n a g eo ire s
M asuda et a f (1984, as L. le th rin o id e s ); Sato (1986).
R e m a rk s : T h is s p e c ie s a p p e a rs to be u n d e s c rib e d . It h a s s o m e tim e s been re fe rre d to as G. le th rin o id e s , a s yn o n y m o f
G. g ra n d o c u lis .
c lic k f o r n e x t p a g e
c lic k fo r p r e v io u s p a g e
33
L e th rin u s C uvier, 1829
LETH Leth
G en u s: L e th rin u s Cuvier, 1829: 184. Type species, S p a ru s c h o e ro ry n c h u s Bloch & Schneider, 1801
(Forsskál, 1775)], by subsequent species designation (Jordan & T hom pson, 1912).
[L. n e b u lo s u s
S y n o n y m s :G e n u s L e th r in e lla Fow ler, 1904; S u b g e n u s L e th rin ic h th y s Jordan & Thom pson, 1912.
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Medium to large-sized em perors w ith an oblong, laterally com pressed body. Profile o f head in
fron t o f eye convex, nearly straig h t or concave, th e snout slope fa irly steep or gradual. Mouth size moderate,
som etim es reaching to level o f anterior orbit; lateral teeth in ja w s conical or m olariform ; outer surface o f m axilla
w ith or w ith o u t a pronounced ridge, or w ith a knob; ascending process o f prem axilla longer than alveolar ramus.
S ubocular
sh e lf
absent;
e p io tic-p te ro tic
suture
broad; vertical
sphenotic
flange
entire.
Dorsal
fin
continous,
w ith
10
s p in e s and 9 soft rays; anal fin w ith 3 sp ines and 8 soft rays; pectoral fin w ith 13 rays; caudal fin strongly to
m oderately forked, with pointed or rounded lobes. Lateral-line scales 42 to 49, often w ith 2 additional tubed scales
e xte n d in g on to base o f ca u d al fin; sca le row s a b o ve la te ra l line to m id dle sp in e s at base o f d o rsa l fin 4 % to 5 %
(som e tim es recorded as 5 or 6 respectively); ch e e k naked; inner surface o f pectoral fin base d e nsely o r sparsely
scaled, o r w ith o u t scales. C o lou r: body co lo u r silvery, grey, olive, greenish, bluish, tan, brow n or reddish, often w ith
dark blotches or bars that can either be persistent or appear and disappear depending on the em otional state o f the
fish ; s o m e tim e s b righ t red m a rkin g s on o r n e a r base o f p e ctora l fin, on pelvic, on anal and d orsal fin m e m b ra n e s near
th e base o f th e fin, on o p e rc u la r and p re o p e rcu la r m argins, and on head, th e se m a rkin g s o fte n va ria b le w ith in species;
fin s clear, pale, bluish, yellow ish o r reddish, often blotched, the edge o f fin s often reddish.
Biology,
Habitat
and
D istribution:
Inhabits coastal
w aters,
often
o ve r sandy
bottom
and
including
se a g ra ss
beds,
m angrove sw am ps, coral reefs, rocky reefs, to depths o f 220 m. T he y usually o ccu r solitary o r in sm all groups and form
large a g g regations w hile spaw ning. The diet consists m ostly o f echinoderm s, crustaceans, m olluscs, fish and
p oliychaetes.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : T ropical eastern A tlantic, Indian and w estern Pacific O ceans.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : M o d e ra te to s ig n ific a n tly im p o rta n t in fis h e rie s ; in c e rta in c o u n trie s , m e m b e rs o f th is g e n u s
are
the
m ost
im portant
catch
by
w eight.
Caught
prim arily
by
handlines,
traps,
trawls,
shore
seines
and
vertical
m ostly on snout length.
Snout
longlines.
R e m a rk s :
length
and
Som e
shape
authors
va ries
separate
this
w id e ly
w ithin
genus
into
the genus
L e th r in e lla
how ever,
and L e th rin u s based
w ith
m any
interm ediates.
We
d e fe r
recognizing
any
su p ra sp e cific taxa w ithin th is group, pending detailed phylogenetic analysis.
K e y to th e s p e c ie s o f L e t h r i n u s
N o tes on th e u se o f th e k e y : T w o o f th e m ost u se fu l c h a ra c te rs in d iffe re n tia tin g s p e c ie s o f L e th rin u s are the
pre se n ce o r ab se nce o f sca le s in the axil o f th e pectoral fin and the n u m b e r o f sca le row s above the lateral line to the
m id dle s p in e s o f th e d o rsa l fin (T a b le 5). T hese ch a ra cte rs are re la tiv e ly c o n sta n t fo r m ost s p e cie s o f L e th rin u s but in a
fe w s p e c ie s th e y v a ry w id e ly . B e ca u se o f th is v a ria tio n , so m e o f th e p re vio u s ke ys h ave te n d e d to d e -e m p h a s iz e th e
use o f th e s e c h a ra c te rs . A fte r e xa m in in g th e v a ria tio n o f th e s e c h a ra c te rs in m an y s p e c im e n s h o w e ve r, w e have
fo u n d th a t th e a d v a n ta g e s o f using them fa r o u tw e ig h s th e d is a d v a n ta g e s o f th e ir va ria tio n . The stra te g y to to le ra te
th is v a ria tio n has b een to tre a t th e va ria b le sp e cie s e a rly in th e key, to h ave sp e cie s o ccu r m ore th a n o n ce in th e key
and, to add re d u n d a n t d ia g n o s tic c h a ra cte rs. D e sp ite th is stra te g y, th e id e n tific a tio n o f sp e c ie s o f L e th rin u s can still
be a fo rm id a b le ta sk. W e have a d d ed fre q u e n c y ta b le s o f m e ris tic c h a ra c te rs th a t have been in clu d e d in th is key as
a id s in v is u a liz in g th e d e g re e o f va ria tio n w ith in sp e cie s. T hese ta b le s are p a rticu la rly u seful fo r th o se ch a ra cte rs th a t
have not been used in p re vio u s keys to the sp e cie s o f L eth rin u s , i.e. la te ra l-lin e sca le s (T a b le 5), sca le row s b elow the
la te ra l line to th e o rig in o f th e a n a l fin (T a b le 6), s c a le s in th e s u p ra te m p o ra l sca le pa tch (T a b le 7) and, sca le row s in
th e lo w e r s e rie s o f s c a le s su rro u n d in g th e ca u d a l p e d u n cle (T a b le 6). T he se ta b le s w ill help v e rify an id e n tific a tio n
w h e n several s p e cim e n s o f a sp e cie s are available.
34
1a.
Second
dorsal spine
distinctly
longer than
other
canines
d orsal spines; ca n in e s o f lo w e r ja w su b sta n tia lly
curved outw ard (Fig. 62a) and, lateral teeth in
ja w s conical in adults (Fig 65a).. L. g e n iv itta tu s
(Fig. 63, Plate IV, 22)
1b.
Third, fourth, o r fifth dorsal spine the longest;
c a n in e s in fron t o f lo w e r ja w a lm ost straig h t or
curved backw ard s lig h tly (Fig. 62b) or, if curved
outw ard,
the
lateral
teeth
in ja w s
include
strong m olars
(Fig. 65c)
(other sp ecies w ith
c o nical, rounded o r slig h tly m olariform teeth).
2a.
Inner surface o f pectoral fin base w ith o u t
sc a le s (Fig. 64a) or, w ith a fe w sca le s
covering less than 1/2 the inner base o f
the fin
3a.
L o n gitudinal
scale
row s
betw een
lateral line
and base o f middle
dorsal spines 4 1/2*; lateral teeth
in ja w s conical (Fig. 65a)
a. L. g e n iv itta tu s
b. other L e th rin u s sp e cie s
A n te rio r view o f ca n in e s in lo w e r ja w
(teeth in u p p e r ja w not s h o w n )
pectoral fin
pectoral fin
fo ld e d fo rw a rd
fo ld e d fo rw a rd
Fig. 62
square dark blotch
often present
a. no sca le s on inner base
L. g e n iv itta tu s
Fig. 63
Inner su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin
rounded teeth
villiform teeth
m
w
b. sca le s on inner base
171701
n f
LteûdWt A
b.
a.
postero lateral
teeth conical
tubercles on m olars
distinct m olars
i^ m a
c.
conical teeth
T ypes o f teeth
Fig. 65
For method of counting scale rows see Glossary of Technical Terms, Fig. 17
(\ A û O -
Fig. 64
35
4a.
Head length less than or alm ost equal to body
depth (Figs 66-68)
5a.
Found
in Atlantic Ocean; 42 to 45
lateral- line scales; 13 or 14 scale row s
in.........lo w e r
series..around
caudal
pe­
duncle*
L. a tla n tic u s
(Fig. 66, Plate III, 13)
5b.
Found in the Indo-Pacific region; 47 to
50
lateral-line scales; 15 scale row s in
low er series around caudal peduncle*
6a.
4 % s c a le row s
Third
do rsa l spine
u su a lly
the
longest, its length 2.3 to 2.9 tim es
in
body
depth; snout
profile
concave;
in
life, red
markings
around eye .................. L. m in ia tu s
(Fig. 67, Plate VI, 32-34)
L. a tla n tic u s
Fig. 66
fin m em brane usually red
red
6b.
4b.
H ead
Fourth
dorsal
spine
usually the
longest, its length 2.8 to 3.7 tim es
in
body
depth; snout
profile
a pproxim ately
straight
or
slightly
concave;
in
life,
blue
m arkings
a round eye ..... L. h a e m a to p te ru s
(Fig. 68, Plate IV, 23)
le n g th
d is tin c tly
g re a te r
th a n
markings
body
depth (Figs 69, 70, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82)
7a.
Body ve ry slender, the depth 3.4 to 3.9
tim es in the standard length; scale rows
in tra n s v e rs e s e rie s b e lo w la te ra l line 13
L. m in ia tu s
Fig. 67
L. h a e m a to p te ru s
Fig. 68
or 1 4 * * ....................................... L. v a rie g a tu s
(Fig. 69, Plate VIII, 45)
7b.
Body depth 2.9 to 3.3 tim es in standard
length;
scale
row s
in
tra n sve rse
series
blue
markings
below lateral line 15 to 17**
L . v a rie g a tu s
Fig. 69
For m ethod o f counting scale row s around caudal peduncle see G lossary o f Technical Term s, Fig. 16
For m ethod o f counting scale row s below lateral line see G lossary o f Technical Term s, Fig. 17
36
8a.
Snout long, m easured w ithout the lip it is 1.3
to 1.4 tim es the cheek height; fourth dorsal
spine usually the longest; three dark streaks
radiating forw ard from eye on sn o u t usually
visible; inner surface o f pe ctora l-fin base
never red in life .......................... L. m ic ro d o n
(Fig. 70, Plates V, 30 and VI, 31)
8b.
Snout m easured w ithout the lip is 1.1 to 1.25
tim es the cheek height; third dorsal spine
usually
the
longest;
three
distinct
dark
streaks radiating from the eye not readily
apparent; in n e r surface o f pectoral fin base
som etim es red
9a.
L. m ic ro d o n
M em brane
betw een inner rays o f
pelvic fin m ostly covered w ith m elanophores (Fig. 71 a)
Fig. 70
a re a s w ith o u t
m elanophores
10a.
Interorbital
area
distin ctly
co n ­
vex (Fig. 72a); 9 to 11 scales in
supratem poral patch; 16 or 17
scales in tra n sve rse s e rie s below
lateral line ......... L.
a m b o in e n s is
(Fig. 73, Plate II, 11)
10b.
Interorbital
area
d istin ctly
co n ­
cave (Fig 72b); 5 to 8 scales in
supratem poral patch; 15 or 16
sca le s in tra n sve rse s e rie s below
lateral line .......... L. x a n th o c h ilu s
(Fig. 74, Plate VIII, 46)
m elanophores
Pectoral fin
Fig. 71
fla t
a
supratem poral
patch o f scales
b
c
16-17 s c a le row s
A n te rio r vie w o f head show ing shape o f interorbital region
Fig. 72
supratem poral
patch o f scales
15-16 s c a le ro w s
L. a m b o in e n s is
Fig. 73
lips ye llo w ish
L. x a n th o c h ilu s
Fig. 74
37
9b.
M em brane betw een pelvic fin
to
body w ith o u t
a
dense
m elanophores (Fig. 71 b)
11a.
concave
rays closest
covering
of
hump
straight
A rea on sn o u t d ire ctly in fron t o f eye
with
a
prom inent
hump,
snout
profile d istinctly concave (Fig. 75a)
12a.
12b.
B rig h t
red
s u b tria n g u la r
blotch
above
pectoral
fin
base; pectoral fin base, edge
o f opercle and lips also red in
life ................. L. c o n c h y lia tu s
(Fig. 76, Plate III, 15)
Posterior
edge
of
a
b
Snout profiles
Fig. 75
L. c o n c h y lia tu s
Fig.76
preopercle,
upper
p o s te r io r
edge
of
opercle, and base o f pectoral
fin red in life ... L e th rin u s sp.1
(Fig. 77, Plate VII, 43)
11b.
A rea on
snout
in
fron t
of
eye
w ithout
a
prom inent
hump,
profile
o f snout nearly straight or slightly
concave (Fig. 75b)
13a.
W ide
scaleless
area
on
upper
posterior
m argin
of
opercle
(Fig. 78a) ... L . ru b rio p e rc u latu s
(Fig. 79, Plate VII, 41)
13b.
Upper
posterior
o p e rcle
w ith o u t
m argin
of
w id e
scale-
less area (Fig 78b)
w id e sca le le ss
.
area
M
operculum
pectoral fin
a scaleless region
U
L e th rin u s s p 1
'
operculum
Fig. 77
pectoral fin
b fully scaled region
Posterior m argin o f opercle
Fig. 78
L. ru b rio p e rc u la tu s
Fig. 79
38
14a.
Interorbital area usu a lly concave
(Fig.
72b); base o f pectoral fin,
upper posterior edge o f opercle and
posterior edge o f preopercle red in
life ................................. L . re tic u la tu s
(Fig. 80, Plate VII, 40)
14b.
Interorbital area flat (Fig. 72c) or
convex (Fig. 72a); no red m arkings
in life
15a.
15b.
3b.
A n g le o f sn o u t relative
to
upper ja w 57 to 60 degrees*;
a large irregular black blotch
on sides, bordering u n d er the
lateral line and below the
so ft-ra ye d
portion
of
the
dorsal fin .... L. s e m ic in c tu s
(Fig. 81, Plate VII, 42)
red
L. re tic u la tu s
A n g le o f sn o u t relative
to
upper ja w 61 to 66; no large
black blotch on side . L. s p 2
(Fig. 82, Plate VIII, 44)
Fig. 80
black blotch
Longitudinal scale row s betw een lateral
line and base o f middle dorsal spines 5 %;
lateral teeth
in ja w s conical,
rounded,
m olars or m olars w ith a tubercle (Fig. 65)
16a.
Snout
lo n g ,
when
m e a s u re d
w ithout the tip it is 1.4 to 1.5 tim es
the cheek height; body relatively
stender, depth 3.0 to 3.2 tim es in
standard length; no red m arkings
on opercie or base o f pectoral fin in
life .............................
L . o liv a c e u s
(Fig. 83, Plate VII, 38)
L . s e m ic in c tu s
Fig. 81
L e th rin u s s p .2
Fig. 82
L . o liv a c e u s
Fig. 83
dark streaks
For measurement of snout angle see Glossary of Technical Terms, Fig. 5
39
16b.
2b.
S n o u t w h e n m e a su re d w ith o u t lip is 1.0
to 1.1 tim e s th e c h e e k h e ig h t; b o d y
deep, its
depth
2.6
to
2.8
tim es
in
standard
length;
posterior
m argin
of
opercle
red
and
base
o f pectoral fin
often red in life .......................... L. le n t ja n
(Fig. 84, Plate V, 26,27)
M ost o f the inner surface o f pectoral fin
covered w ith sca le s (Fig. 64b)
17a.
17b.
base
Sm all dark blotches around low er rim o f
orbit,
usually
persistent
in
preserved
m aterial
(longitudinal
scale
row s
bet­
w een lateral
line
and
base
of
fifth
dorsal spine variable, changing from
5
% to 4 % under the second to seventh
dorsal spines)
L. e n ig m a tic u s
(Fig. 85, Plate III, 17)
No
persistent
sm all
around low er rim o f orbit
dark
L. le n t ja n
Fig. 84
blotches
dark bars
18a.
A
large
b la ck blotch
bordering
below
the
lateral
line
and
centered on the posterior tip o f
the pectoral
fin,
usually
p e rsis­
tent
in
preserved specim ens
(lo ng itu d in a l
scale
row s betw een
lateral
line
and
base o f
fifth
dorsal spine variable, either 4 %
or 5 % scales) .................. L . h a r a k
(Fig. 86, Plate IV, 24)
18b.
19a.
No dark blotch below lateral line
dark blotches
Longitudinal
scale
row s
betw een
lateral
line
and
base o f m iddle dorsal spines
4 %
20a.
dark stripes
L. e n ig m a tic u s
The
third,
fourth
or
fifth anal rays usually
the
longest,
much
longer
than
the
length o f the base o f
the soft rayed portion
o f the anal fin, the
Fig. 85
black blotch
length o f the longest
anal ray 0.9 to
1.1
tim es
the
length
of
the entire anal fin*
L . harak
For measurement of anal fin base see Glossary of Technical Terms, Fig. 6
Fig. 86
40
21 a.
Lateral line scales usually 47 or 48,
som etim es 46; lateral teeth in jaw s
conical
or rounded
(Fig.
65a,b);
body depth 2.5 to 2.7 tim es in
47-48 scales
standard
length;
m em branes
bet­
w e e n inner rays o f pelvic fin usually
d e nsely covered w ith m elanophores
(Fig. 71 a) ........... L . e ry th ra c a n th u s
(Fig. 87, Plate IV,1 8 -2 0 )
21 b.
L a te ra l-lin e s c a le s 4 4 to 4 6 ; la te ra l
teeth in ja w s usually w ith distinct
m olars (Fig. 65c); body depth 2.3 to
2.6
tim es in
standard
length;
m em branes betw een inner rays o f
pelvic
fin
usually
not
densely
covered
with
m elanophores
(Fig.
71 b) ...................... L . e ry th r o p te r u s
often orange
spots
L. e ry th ra c a n th u s
44-46 scales
(Fig. 88, Plate IV,21)
20b.
The first or second
anal ray usually the
longest,
its length
either
less
than,
approxim ately equal to, or slightly longer
than the length o f the soft portion o f the
anal fin, its length 0.6 to 0.8 tim es in
length o f the base o f the entire anal fin
22a.
Fig. 87
often 2 light bars
red
Angle o f the snout relative to upper
ja w 52 to 62 degrees; lateral teeth
in
ja w s
conical (Fig.
65a);
the
third
dorsal
spine
usually
the
longest ............................ L . m in ia tu s
(Fig. 89, Plate VI, 32-34)
22b.
Angle o f the snout relative to
upper
L . e ry th r o p te r u s
Fig. 88
L . m in ia tu s
Fig. 89
ja w 65 to 80 degrees; lateral teeth
in ja w s rounded
or m olars (Fig.
65b,c); the fourth dorsal spine the
longest
23a.
Profile
of
head
around
eye
nearly straight; usually 4 or 5
(ra re ly 3 o r 6) sca le s in supratem poral patch ... L . m a h s e n a
52- 62'
(Fig. 90, Plate V, 28,29)
often d a rk bars
supratem poral
patch o f scales
often red
L. m a h s e n a
Fig. 90
41
23b.
19b.
Profile o f head around eye d is ­
tin c tly co n ve x and ang ular; u su a lly
6 o r 7 (ra re ly 4, 5 o r 8) sca le s in
su p ra te m p o ra l p a tc h ...L. a tk in s o n i
(Fig. 91, Plate III, 12)
Longitudinal
scale
row s
betw een
supratem poral
patch o f scales
lateral
line and base o f m iddle dorsal spines 5
1/ 2.
24a.
Body depth 2.2 to 2.4 tim es in
standard length; head length
0.8
to 0.9 tim es in body depth; profile
o f head around eye nearly straight
o r slig h tly concave
25a.
25b.
Profile o f snout straight or
nearly
straight;
lateral
teeth in ja w s rounded, or
m olars (Fig. 65b,c); no blue
stripe s in fro n t o f eye
in
life ..................
¡..c ro c in e u s
(Fig. 92, Plate III, 16)
Profile
of
sn o u t
ye llow band
L. a tk in s o n i
Fig. 91
concave;
lateral teeth in ja w s conical
(Fig. 65a); 3 blue stripes
radiating in fro n t o f the eye
in life .............. L . la tic a u d is
(Fig. 93, Plate V, 25)
24b.
Body depth either 2.5 to 2.9 tim es
in standard length and profile o f
head around eye e ith e r concave,
nearly straight, or slig h tly convex
or, body depth 2.4 to 2.6 tim es in
standard
length and
profile o f
head around eye d istin ctly convex;
head length e ith e r 0 .9 to 1.1 tim es
in body depth and profile o f head
around eye either concave, nearly
straight, or slig h tly co n ve x or, head
length 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in body
depth and profile o f head near eye
convex
L . c ro c in e u s
Fig. 92
blue stripes
L . la tic a u d is
Fig. 93
42
26a.
Posterior edge o f preopercle and opercle red
in
life;
snout
relatively
short
and
blunt,
preorbital w idth 0.7 to 0.8 tim es in cheek
height*; angle o f snout relative to upper ja w
64 to 73 degrees; outer surface o f m axilla
usually sm ooth, w ithout a prom inent ridge or
knob (Fig. 94a);
in body depth;
distinctly convex
26b.
sm ooth
27b.
knob
head length 0.8 to 0.9 tim es
profile o f head around eye
................................... L. o rn a tu s
(Fig. 95, Plate VII, 39)
Posterior edge o f preopercle not red, but edge
o f opercle and base o f pectoral fin so m etim es
red in L. le n tja n ', snout blunt or sharp, the
preorbital w idth 0.7 to 1.0 tim es in cheek
height, if the preorbital w idth is less than 0.8
tim es in cheek height, there is a prom inent
ridge (Fig. 94b) or knob (Fig. 94c) on the
surface o f the m axilla; angle o f snout relative
to the upper ja w 52 to 69 degrees; if this angle
is gre a te r than 64 degrees, there usually is a
ridge or knob on the surface o f the m axilla;
head length 0.9 to 1.1 tim es in body depth;
profile o f head around eye slightly concave,
nearly straight, or convex.
27a.
ridge
S cale row s in lo w e r se rie s aro u n d ca udal
peduncle
usually
13-14**;
lateral teeth
include distinct m olars (Fig. 65c); eye
relatively large, 3.4 to 4.0 tim es in head
length, and close to the dorsal profile;
profile o f head near eye often slightly
convex ................................
L. b o rb o n ic u s
(Fig. 96, Plate III, 14)
O uter surface o f left m axilla
Fig. 94
v;;-; ;-rr-2
L. o rn a tu s
usually yellow stripes
Fig. 95
S cale row s in lo w e r se rie s aro u n d ca udal
peduncle
m ost
frequently
15;
lateral
teeth in ja w s either rounded (Fig. 65b),
m o la rs w ith tu b e rc le s (F ig . 6 5 d ), or
sim ple m olars (Fig. 65c); eye 3.8 to 5.1
tim es in head length, usually not very
close to the dorsal profile; profile o f
head near eye nearly straight or slightly
13-14 scale
ro w s
L. b o rb o n ic u s
For m ethod o f m easuring cheek height and preorbital width, see Fig. 9
For m ethod o f counting scale rows, see Fig. 6
Fig. 96
43
28a.
28b.
M elanophores covering
m ost
o f pelvic fin
m em branes, including the area near inner
rays
(Fig. 71a); 16 or 17 scale row s in
tran sve rse series from origin o f anal fin to
lateral line; three blue lines and /o r row s o f
blue sp o ts radiating forw ard from
eye
on
snout in life .................................. L. n eb u lo s u s
(Fig. 97, Plate VI, 35,36)
16-17 scale rows
blue spots
and lines
M elanophores largely absent on m em branes
o f inner rays o f pelvic fin s (Fig. 71 b); 15 or 16
sca le row s in tra n sve rse s e rie s from origin o f
anal fin to lateral line; no prom inent blue
lines
radiating from eye in life
29a.
Posterior edge o f opercle
and som e­
tim es o uter base o f pectoral fin red in
life; surface
o f m axilla sm ooth or w ith
a
ridge
(Fig.94a,b); lateral
teeth
in
ja w s
e ith e r rounded,
m olars w ith
a
tubercle or sim ple
m olars (Fig.
65);
p rofile o f sn o u t stra ig h t
L . le n tja n
L. n e b u lo s u s
Fig. 97
(Fig. 84, Plate V, 26,27)
29.
Posterior edge o f opercle and outer
base o f pectoral fin never
red; m axilla
w ith a knob (Fig. 94c); lateral teeth in
ja w s
rounded
(Fig. 65b);
profile
of
snout
concave
L.
o b s o le tu s
(Fig. 98, Plate VI, 37)
ye llo w stripe
L. o b s o le tu s
Fig. 98
44
Table 5
V a riation in presence or a bsence o f pectoral axil scales, num ber o f scale row s in tran sve rse series above lateral
line to base o f m id-dorsal spines, and num ber o f lateral-line sca le s fo r sp e cie s o f L e t h r i n u s
P e c to ra l a x il
s c a le s
+
L . a m b o in e n s is
L . a tk in s o n i
L . b o r b o n ic u s
4%
4
4
6
L. e ry th ra c a n th u s
12
12
L . e ry th ro p te ru s
21
21
L . g e n iv itta tu s
44
L . la tic a u d is
2
L . le n tja n
148
L. m ah sen a
15
8
18
12
12
1
13
66
5
3
3
1
2
5
11
6
1
2
8
1
2
11
3
15
6
5
7
18
5
7
2
7
1
3
8
3
10
7
3
8
2
6
5
13
4
3
12
2
1
5
6
7
10
1
8
3
7
5
5
8
2
3
1
L . n e b u lo s u s
22
22
L . o b s o le tu s
18
18
1
12
18
18
L . re tic u la tu s
12
12
L . ru b rio p e rc u la tu s
13
13
L . s e m ic in c tu s
14
14
L e th rin u s s p . 1
5
5
L e t h r i n u s sp.2
5
5
L . v a rie g a tu s
13
13
L . x a n th o c h ilu s
13
12
2
10
10
12
49
12
3
15
1
48
1
3
8
L . o rn a tu s
1
47
1
L . m in ia tu s
L . o liv a c e u s
46
2
10
L . m ic r o d o n
1
5
9
16
45
1
5
L. h a ra k
44
12
2
L . h a e m a to p te ru s
42
6
16
12
L . e n ig m a tic u s
5%
N u m b e r o f la te r a l- lin e s c a le s
18
16
L . c o n c h y lia tu s
L . c ro c in e u s
-
18
L . a tla n tic u s
S c a le ro w s a b o v e
L a te ra l lin e
1
1
4
1
10
2
6
6
1
1
45
T a b le 6
V a r ia t io n in n u m b e r o f s c a le r o w s in t r a n s v e r s e s e r ie s b e lo w la t e r a l lin e to o r ig in o f a n a l f in a n d
s c a le r o w s a r o u n d lo w e r c a u d a l p e d u n c le f o r s p e c ie s o f L e t h r i n u s
S c a le r o w s b e lo w t h e l a t e r a l l i n e
13
14
15
L . a m b o in e n s is
4
L . a tk in s o n i
L. a tla n tic u s
4
12
16
17
3
1
2
12
10
L . b o r b o n ic u s
2
S c a le r o w s a r o u n d l o w e r c a u d a l
p e d u n c le
13
14
2
12
14
2
3
8
1
L . c o n c h y h a tu s
1
L . c r o c in e u s
2
4
L . e n ig m a tic u s
15
16
3
1
4
1
1
2
4
1
5
8
1
L. e ry th ra c a n th u s
3
7
2
11
1
L. e ry th ro p te ru s
5
15
1
20
1
L . g e n iv itta tu s
8
10
L. h a e m a to p te ru s
1
7
13
1
2
L. h a ra k
1
L . la tic a u d is
L . le n tja n
1
L. m ah sen a
1
4
8
1
4
13
8
6
1
7
7
1
8
2
1
5
2
L . n e b u lo s u s
1
13
8
L . o b s o le tu s
8
10
2
L . o liv a c e u s
14
4
L . r e tic u la tu s
7
L . r u b r io p e r c u la tu s
6
1
5
L e th r in u s s p .2
2
L . x a n th o c h ilu s
2
3
19
2
16
10
12
4
11
5
1
11
7
1
12
3
14
5
3
11
4
6
4
1
8
13
L e th rin u s s p . 1
L . v a r ie g a tu s
2
9
8
1
8
1
L . m in ia tu s
L . s e m ic in c tu s
11
9
L . m ic r o d o n
L. o rn a tu s
17
8
7
12
1
46
T a b le 7
F requency distribution o f scales in supratem poral (parietal) patch o f scales
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
L . a m b o in e n s is
L. a tk in s o n i
1
2
10
4
L . a tla n tic u s
1
8
4
3
3
8
L . b o r b o n ic u s
10
11
1
2
3
3
1
1
1
L . c o n c h y lia tu s
3
L. c ro c in e u s
6
1
1
2
1
L. e ry th ra c a n th u s
1
8
3
L. e ry th ro p te ru s
5
7
3
3
L . g e n iv itta tu s
10
5
2
1
L . h a e m a to p te ru s
6
4
1
1
5
6
3
L . e n ig m a tic u s
2
L. h a ra k
1
L. la tic a u d is
L. le n tja n
L. m ahsena
9
1
1
2
7
6
7
1
1
5
2
1
L . m ic r o d o n
1
L . m in ia tu s
L . n e b u lo s u s
2
L . o b s o le tu s
3
5
2
1
6
4
3
5
7
1
3
7
4
1
5
5
3
2
L . r e tic u la tu s
2
3
3
4
L . r u b r io p e r c u la tu s
4
5
3
1
L . o liv a c e u s
L . o rn a tu s
L . s e m ic in c tu s
1
1
1
11
7
5
1
2
L e th rin u s s p . 1
2
1
6
4
1
4
5
1
L e th rin u s s p . 2
L . v a r ie g a tu s
L. x a n th o c h ilu s
2
2
3
2
2
c lic k f o r n e x t p a g e
c lic k fo r p r e v io u s p a g e
47
Lethrinus amboinensis B le e k e r, 1854
Fig. 99, Plate II, 11
LETH Leth 21
L e th rin u s a m b o in e n s is B le e ke r 1854d, N a t.T ild s c h .N e d .ln d ië ., 6 :4 9 0 (A m bo n ).
S y n o n y m s : N one
FAO N am es: En - A m b o n e m p e ro r.
Fig. 99
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s : B o d y m o d e ra te ly e lo n g a te , its d e p th 3.1 to 3 .4 tim e s in s ta n d a rd le n g th . H ead le n g th 1.1 to
1.3 tim es in body depth, 2.6 to 2.8 tim e s in standard length, dorsal profile in fron t o f eye w ith a distinct hum p in large
in d iv id u a ls ; sn o u t m o d e ra te ly long, its le n g th a b o u t 1.7 to 1.9 tim e s in head le n g th, m ea su re d w ith o u t th e lip the
sn o u t is 0 .7 to 0 .9 tim e s in ch e e k height, its d o rsa l p ro file co n ca ve, sn o u t an g le relative to u p p er ja w b e tw e en 45 and
55 d e g re e s ; in te ro rb ita l sp a ce co n ve x; p o s te rio r n o stril an o b lo n g
lo n g itu d in a l o p e n in g , a b o u t h a lfw a y b e tw e en
o rb it and a n te rio r n o stril; eye not situ a te d dose to d o rsa l p ro file , its length 4 .9 to 6 .2 tim e s in head le n g th; c h e e k not
v e ry high, its le n g th 2 .6 to 2 .9 tim e s in head le n g th; la te ra l te e th in ja w s co n ica l; o u te r su rfa ce o f m axilla sm oo th , or
w ith a lo n g itu d in a l rid ge . D o rsal fin w ith 10 s p in e s and 9 so ft rays, th e th ird d o rsa l sp in e u s u a lly th e lo n g e s t, its
le n g th 2 .4 to 2 .7 tim e s in b o d y d e p th ; a n a l fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays, th e firs t so ft ray u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its
le n g th m uch le ss th a n th e base o f th e so ft p o rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0 .5 to 0 .6 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal
fin base; p e c to ra l ra ys 13; p e lvic fin m e m b ra n e s b e tw e e n th e ra ys c lo s e s t to th e b o d y w ith d e n se m e la n o p h o re s .
L a te ra l-lin e s c a le s 47 to 48; c h e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 4 % sca le row s b e tw e e n la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin
sp in e s; u s u a lly 16 o r 17 sca le row s in tra n s v e rs e se rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin and la te ra l line; 15 o r 16 (u su a lly 15)
row s in lo w e r s e rie s o f s c a le s a ro u n d ca u d a] p e d u n cle ; 9 to 11 s c a le s in s u p ra te m p o ra l patch; in n e r su rfa c e o f
p e c to ra l fin w ith o u t
sca le s; p o s te rio r a n g le o f o p e rcu lu m fu lly sca le d . C o lo u r:
B ody y e llo w is h w ith s c a tte re d
in d is tin c t d a rk b lo tch e s; head b ro w n , s o m e tim e s w ith lig h t s tre a ks; lip s red d ish ; th e p e cto ra l a xil o ra n g is h ; the
basal p o rtio n o f th e c e n te r rays o f p e cto ra l fin w h ite , th e o u te r e d g e s ye llo w ; p e lvic and anal fin s
w h ite o r ye llo w is h ;
dorsal and caudal fin s m ottled brow n or yellow w ith an orange o r reddish edge.
48
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
Indonesia,
northw est
Australia,
Philippines
to
southern
Japan,
eastw ard
through
the
Marshall Islands, Solomons, Sam oa and the
M arquesas (Fig. 100).
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits
deeper
w a te rs o f coral ree fs and a d ja ce n t sandy
bottom s.
Feeds
prim arily
on
fishes
and
crusta ce a n s. V e ry little is know n o f the
biology o f this fish, perhaps because it is
easily
m istaken
(particularly
larger
individuals) for either L. m ic ro d o n or L .
o liv a c e u s .
S iz e : M aximum reported size to about 70
cm total length, com m only 30 to 50 cm
total length.
In te re s t
to
F is h e rie s :
w ith h a n d lin e s .
Caught
p rim a rily
M arke te d fre sh .
Fig. 100
L ocal N a m e s : J A P A N : Y o k o s h im a fu e fu k i; P H IL IP P IN E S : B a tily a , K ila w a n , K a ta m b a k .
L ite ra tu r e :
M asu d a et a f (1 9 8 4 ); S a in s b u ry et a f (19 8 5 , as L. m ic ro d o n ).
R e m a rk s : T his sp e cie s is easily co n fuse d w ith L. m ic ro d o n although it can be distinguished on the basis o f snout
length and, w h e n sp e cim e n s are fresh, the axil o f the p e ctora l fin is red in L. a m b o in e n s is , w h ile L. m ic ro d o n lacks th is
red mark.
The type specim ens o f this species are sm all (3 syntypes, 56.0 to 83.7 mm SL) but th e ir characteristics agree w ell w ith a
num ber o f specim ens o f this species that I recently collected in the Philippines.
L e th rin u s a tk in s o n i S e ale , 1909
L e th rin u s
a tk in s o n i
Seale,
1909,
Phil.Jour
Fig. 101, Plate III, 12
Sei.,
4(6):515,
pi.11
LETH Leth 22
(Philippines).
S y n o n y m s : None
FAO N am es: En - P a cific y e llo w ta il e m p e ro r.
Æ
.
49
D ia g n o s tic Features: B ody m o d e ra te ly deep, its d e p th 2 .3 to 2 .6 tim e s in sta n da rd length. Head length 0 .8 to 0.9
tim e s in body d epth, 2 .7 to 3 .0 tim e s in sta n da rd length, do rsa l p ro file near eye d is tin c tly convex; sn o u t m od e ra tely
sh o rt and blunt, its length a b o ut 1.7 to 2.6 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t the lip th e sn o u t is 0.9 to 1.1 tim e s
in cheek height, its profile steep and nearly straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 65 and 70 degrees;
interorbital space co n ve x or slightly convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer or slightly closer
to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated dose to dorsal profile (except in very large individuals), its length 3.2 to
5.0 tim es
in head length; cheek high, its length 2.0 to 2.9 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s rounded or
m olars; o u te r su rfa ce o f m axilla sm ooth, o r w ith a slig h t lo n g itu dina l ridge. D orsal fin w ith 10 sp in e s and 9 soft rays,
th e third o r fo u rth d orsal sp in e u su a lly the longest, its length 2 .6 to 4.0 tim e s in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 sp in e s and
8 soft rays, th e first so ft ray u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its length lo n g e r th a n th e base o f the soft po rtio n o f th e anal fin and
0.7 to 0.9
tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the rays
closest to
the body w ith o u t dense m elanophores. Lateral-line sca le s 46 to 47; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % scale
rows
be tw e e n la te ra l line and base o f m iddle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; u su a lly 15 or 16 sca le row s in tra n s v e rs e se rie s b e tw een
origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 13 to 15 (usually 14) row s in low er series o f scales around caudal peduncle; 4 to 8
(usually 6 or 7) scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin d e n sely covered w ith scales; p o sterio r
angle o f operculum fully scaled. C o lo u r: upper sid e s bluish-grey, tan or yellow ish, w h ite ventrally, the caudal
p e d u n cle and s o m e tim e s a broad in d is tin c t band on s id e s y e llo w ; head brow n, lip s red d ish ; fin s pale, ye llo w is h ,
o ra n g e or reddish; the base o f p e ctora l fin, basal m em b ran e s o f anal fin and e d g e s o f pelvic, d o rsa l, anal and caudal
fin s often reddish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
Indonesia,
northern A ustralia, Philippines to southern
Japan,
w idespread
throughout
W est
Pacific to the Tuam otus (Fig. 102).
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits outer ree f
slopes, sa n d y areas in la g o o ns and seagrass
beds to depths o f around 30 m. Reported
as both typically solitary and swim m ing in
schools. Feeds prim arily on crustaceans,
m olluscs and fish.
O bservations
o f m aximum
age
(t m a x ) ,
and
e stim ates o f a sym ptotic
length
( U n fin ity ) ,
c o e ffic ie n t o f g ro w th (K), and rate o f
natural m ortality (M) have been made for
L . a tk in s o n i in N ew C a le d o n ia: t m a x = 23
y e a rs fo r m ales and 24 years fo r fem ales,
U n fin ity
= 32.7 cm standard length, K =
0.28, M = 0.73.
Fig. 102
S iz e :
M aximum size reported as around 40 to 50 cm total length, com m only 30 to 35 cm total length.
In te re s t
to
F is h e rie s :
Caught
prim arily
by
handline,
trawl,
shore
seine
and
gillnet.
eating but not as sought after as outer em perors in som e areas due to its sm all
handline. Reported to contribute around 4% to the total com m ercial catch in New Caledonia.
L ocal N a m e s : AUSTRALIA: Y e llo w -ta ile d
Iso-fuefuki;
NEW
CALEDONIA:
Bossu
POLYNESIA: Tamure, Tuamotu emperor
M arketed
size. Puts up
em peror, Tricky snapper, Yellow m orwong,
doré;
PHILIPPINES:
Batilya,
Katambak,
m ostly
a
fresh.
Good
good fight on
a
Reticulated em peror; JAPAN:
Kilawan,
Madas,
Sapingan;
L ite ra tu r e : Bagnis et a f (1972, as L. m ahsena)', Colem an (1981, as L. reticulatus)', Fourm anoir & Laboute (1976, as L.
m ahsena)', G loerfelt-Tarp & Kailola (1984, as L. mahsena)', G rant (1982, as L. mahsena)', Lee (1986, as L. mahsena)',
M asuda et aL (1984, as L. mahsena)', S ainsbury et a f (1985, as L. mahsena)', S ch ro e de r (1980, as L eth rin u s sp .)
R e m a rk s :
T h is s p e c ie s h a s m ost fre q u e n tly b e e n n a m e d L. m a h s e n a . T h e re a re m a n y c o n s is te n t d iffe re n c e s h o w e v e r,
in colour, body shape and m eristic counts. Although these form s appear to be allopatric, there is
little doubt that
th e y represent d ifferent species. It is surprising that an e a rlier nam e fo r this sp ecies has not been found, because it is
w idespread and com m on in the W estern and Central Pacific Ocean.
50
Lethrinus atlanticus Valeciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s a tla n tic u s
Fig. 103, Plate III, 13
LETH Leth 8
V a le n c ie n n e s in C. & V. 1830, H is t.n a t.p o is s , 6 :2 7 5 (C ape V e rd e Islands).
S y n o n y m s : N one.
FAO N am es: En
- A tla n tic e m p e ro r.
a i
Fig. 103
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : B o d y m o d e ra te ly d e e p, its d e p th 2 .5 to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n d a rd le n g th . H ead le n g th 0 .9 to 1.0
in b o d y d e p th , 2 .7 to 3 .0 tim e s in s ta n d a r d le n g th , d o rs a l p r o file
n e a r e y e n e a rly s tr a ig h t o r s lig h t ly co n v e x ;
snout m oderately long
and pointed, its length 1.9 to 2.4 tim es in head
length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is
0 .8 to 1.0 tim e s in c h e e k height, its p rofile fa irly ste e p and straig h t, sn o u t an g le relative to u p p er ja w b e tw e en 55 and
60 degrees; interorbital space nearly fiat or slightly convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer
to orbit than to a nterior nostril; eye situated close to dorsal profile, its length 3.4 to 4.3 tim es in head length cheek
m oderately high, its length 2.6 to 3.3 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s all conical; o uter surface o f m axilla
sm ooth, w ith o u t a knob or pronounced longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 spines and 9 soft rays, the fourth dorsal
sp in e u su a lly th e longest, its length 2.4 to 3 .0 tim e s in b ody depth; anal fin w ith 3 sp in e s and 8 soft rays, the firs t soft
ray the lo n g e st, its length g re a te r th a n the base o f th e so ft po rtio n o f the anal fin and 0.7 to 0 .8 tim e s in th e length o f
the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes usually w ith fairly dense m elanophores, except the
m e m b ra n e s b e tw e en th e rays clo se st to th e body. L a te ra l-lin e s c a le s 42 to 46; ch e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 4 % sca le row s
b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m id dle do rsa l fin spines; 13 o r 14 sca le row s in tra n sve rse se rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f
anal fin and lateral
line; 13 or 14 row s in low er series o f scales
around caudal peduncle; 4 to 7 scales in
supratem poral patch;
inner surface o f pectoral fin axil scaleless; p osterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled.
C o lou r:
olive green or brow n and pinkish, ch e e ks w ith a n e tw o rk o f fine reticu la tio n s below the eye.
51
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n : W e st coast o f A frica from
Senegal to
G abon, Cape Verde Islands, Principe Islands, Sao Tom é Islands and
Rôlas Islands (Fig. 104).
H abitat and B iology:
Inhabits sh allow coastal
50 m. It feeds primarily on bottom -living invertebrates.
S iz e : Maximum
30 cm.
total
length
to
about
50
cm;
w a te rs
com m on
to
to
about
around
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : C aught w ith bottom traw ls, set nets, purse
seines and on hook-and-lines. Usually m arketed fresh, sm oked,
and dried salted.
Local
Nam es:
JAP AN :
T a is e iy o - f u e fu k i;
GERMANY:
A tla n tik k e h re r; P O R T U G U E S E : Bica.
L ite ra tu r e : Fischer, Bianchi and Scott (eds) (1981).
R e m a rk s : The com bination o f teeth types, body shape and scale
co u n ts fo r th is sp e cie s are ve ry d iffe re n t from o th er sp e cie s o f
L e th rin u s . M oreover, th is unique com bination o f characters w as
found
to
be
consistent
am ong
all
specim ens
o f L e th rin u s
exam ined
from
m any
locations
in the
tropical
W est Atlantic
O cean; there is little doubt that only a single species o f L e th rin u s
exists in this ocean.
Fig. 104
Lethrinus borbonicus
V a le n c ie n n e s , 1830
LETH Leth 13
Fig. 105, Plate 1 1 1 ,1 4
L e th rin u s b o rb o n ic u s V alenciennes in C. & V.,1830, Hist.nat.poiss., 6:303 (Réunion).
Synonym s:
L e th rin u s b u n g u s V a le n cie n n e s (1830).
FAO Names: En - Snubnose emperor.
_________ b H
M
M
i
Fig. 105
52
Diagnostic Features: Body m oderately deep, its depth 2.5 to 2.8 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.9 to 1.0
tim es in body depth, 2.7 to 2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye nearly straight or slightly convex;
snout m oderately short and blunt, its length about 2.0 to 2.2 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout
is 0 .9 to 1.0 tim e s in c h e e k he ig h t, its d o rsa l p ro file n e a rly straig h t, sn o u t an g le re la tive to u p p e r ja w b e tw e e n 55 and
70 d e g re e s ; in te ro rbita l sp a ce u s u a lly co n ve x; p o s te rio r n o stril an o b lo n g lo n g itu d in a l o p e n in g , c lo s e r to o rb it th a n
to an terio r nostril; eye
usually situated dose to dorsal profile, its length 3.5 to 4.0 tim e s in head length; cheek
m o d e ra te ly high, its le n g th 2 .4 to 2.9 tim e s in head length; la te ra l te e th in ja w s w ith strong m olars; o u te r su rfa ce o f
m axilla w ith a d istin ct lo n g itu dina l ridge. D orsal fin w ith 10 sp in e s and 9 soft rays, the fo u rth o r fifth d orsal sp in e the
lo n g e st, its le n g th 2 .5 to 3.1 tim e s in b o d y d e p th ; a n a l fin w ith 3 sp in e s and 8 so ft rays, th e firs t so ft ray u su a lly th e
lo n g e st, its le n g th a lm o st e q u al to th e le n g th o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra ye d p o rtio n o f th e a n a l fin and 0 .6 to 0 .8 tim e s
in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body
w ith o u t dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 46 to 48; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 5 1/2 scale row s betw een lateral line
and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; usually 15 or 16 scale row s in tran sve rse se ries betw een origin o f anal fin and
lateral line; 13 or 14 (rarely 15) row s in lo w e r series o f scales around caudal peduncle; 6 to 8 scales in supratem poral
patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin d e n sely covered w ith scales; p o ste rio r angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. Colour:
body d a rk grey o r y e llo w -b ro w n , the centers o f sca le s lighter,
so m e tim e s an irregular pattern o f broken dusky bars,
w h itish on lo w e r body; head brow n-grey; pectoral and pelvic
fin s w h ite or pinkish; dorsal and anal fin s m ottled
w h ite or ye llo w ish w ith reddish edge; caudal w ith in distinct reddish bands.
Geographical Distribution:
W estern
Indian
Ocean,
including the
Red
Sea
and Arabian
(Persian)
G ulf to
Reunion (Fig. 106). R eports o f this species elsew here are
p ro b a b ly due to m isid e ntifica tio n .
Habitat and Biology:
Found
in
sandy
areas
near
reefs
during daytim e, to depths o f around 40 m, som etim es in
sm all
groups.
During
night-tim e
they
are
solitary
and
range o ve r re e f-fla ts and slopes in depths as shallow as 1 m
w here th e y feed prim arily on echinoderm s, m olluscs and
c ru s ta c e a n s .
E stim a te s
o f a s ym p to tic
length
( L in f im t y )
and
co e fficie n t
of
g ro w th (K), have been m ade fo r L. b o rb o n ic u s in the G u lf
o f A d e n : L i n f i m t y = 4 2 .6 cm to ta l le n g th , a n d K = 0 .4 8 .
Size:
Maximum size around 40 cm total length, com m only
to 20 to 30 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries: C a p tu re d m ostly in trap s, tra w ls and
handlines.
A
m inor
com ponent
of
fisheries
catch
in
most
co u n trie s w h e re it is landed.
Fig. 106
Local Names: JAPAN: Nise-hana-fuefuki; KUWAIT:
TANZANIA: Changu, Changu chole, Changu kidogo.
Sheiry;
SOUTH
AFRICA:
Snubnose
emperor,
Stom pneus-keiser;
Literature: Kuronum a & A be (1972, 1986, as L. fle tu s and L. k a llo p te ru s )', Randall, (1983, as L. m ah sen o id es); Sato in
Fischer & Bianchi
(eds) (1984, as L. m ah seno ides); Smith, J.L.B. (1959); Smith,
M.M. (1986); W heeler (1961, as L.
c h o e ro rh y n c h u s ).
Remarks :
The taxonom y o f th is species has been co n siderably confused. Sm ith (1959) listed
L. m a h s e n o id e s as a
ju n io r synonym o f L. b o rb o n ic u s . Valenciennes (1830) named L. m a h s e n o id e s from a description and specim en
collected by Ehrenberg, and L. b o rb o n ic u s from a Gaimard description and type. The nam e L. b o rb o n ic u s is clearly
available according to the present Code o f Zoological Nom enclature. Sato (1978)
however, later used the nam e L.
m a h s e n o id e s as the senior synonym and L. b o rb o n ic u s as the ju n io r synonym . A s first revisor, Sm ith's use o f the nam e
L. b o rb o n ic u s ta k e s p re ce d e n ce . T he re is a d d itio n a l ju s tific a tio n to reject the use o f L. m a h s e n o id e s b ecause th e re
appears to have been confusion in the designation o f typ e s for this nom inal species. There is no doubt that the types
cu rre n tly listed as L. m a h s e n o id e s and L. b o rb o n ic u s are in fact, the sem e species. The type description o f L.
m a h s e n o id e s how ever, clearly d e scrib e s th e co lo u rs o f the Red Sea sp ecies th a t w e recognize here as L. le n tja n . This
d e s c rip tio n in c lu d e s m en tio n o f th e red m arg in o f the o p e rcle , g re e n ish body c o lo u r and th e w h ite sp o ts in the angle
o f s c a le s th a t are c h a ra c te ris tic o f L. le n tja n and u n c h a ra c te ris tic o f L. b o rb o n ic u s . T his d e scrip tio n is p e rh a p s the
reason w h y so m e recent a cco u n ts o f L. m a h s e n o id e s (in reference to the form recognized here as L. b o rb o n ic u s )
m ention that the species som etim es has a red m argin o f the opercle w hen in fact, it never does. It is possible that
E h re n b e rg 's s p e c im e n s and d e s c rip tio n s o m e h o w b e ca m e c o n fu s e d . To c o m p lic a te m a tte rs fu rth e r, a fte r e x a m in a tio n
53
o f the type and translation o f the description, it becam e evident that another Valenciennes' name, L. b u n g u s is
sy n o n om o u s w ith L. b o rb o n ic u s . L. b u n g u s has m ost frequently been synom om ized w ith L. m a h s e n a , but it is clearly
not this species. In addition, it is likely that a third Valenciennes' name, L. e h re n b e rg ii, is also attributable to this
species. L. b u n g u s has page pre fe re nce o ve r L. b o rb o n ic u s ; how ever, in o rd e r to m aintain som e se m b la n ce o f stability,
I choose to follow Sm ith in recognizing L. b o rb o n ic u s as the name to represent this form.
L e th rin u s c o n c h y lia tu s (S m ith , 1959)
L e th rin e lla c o n c h y lia tu s
Fig. 107, Plate III, 15
LETH Leth 9
Smith, 1959, Rhodes Univ.Ichth.Bull., 17:292, pi.22 fig. E (Pinda).
S y n o n y m s : L e th rin u s flo rid u s W heeler, 1961.
F A O N am es:
B í - Redaxil emperor.
I
Fig. 107
D ia g n o s tic Features: Body fairly elongate, its depth 3.2 to 3.4 tim es in standard length. Head length about 1.1 tim es
in body d epth, a ro u n d to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n d a rd length, d orsal p ro file n e a r eye convex; sn o u t le n g th a b o u t 1.7 to 1.8
tim es in head length, measured w ithout the lip the snout is around 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile
concave w ith a hum p in front o f eye, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 50 and 60 degrees; interorbital space
convex; posterior nostril
a longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye rem oved from
dorsal profile, its length
around 4.6 tim es in head length; cheek length around 2.6 tim es in head
length; lateral
teeth in ja w s conical; o u ter surface o f m axilla sm ooth. Dorsal fin w ith 10 spines and 9
soft rays, the third or fourth
d o rsa l sp in e the longest; anal fin w ith 3 sp in e s and 8 soft rays, th e first soft ray usu a lly th e lo n g e st, its length sh o rte r
th a n th e le n g th o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra ye d p o rtio n o f th e anal fin and a ro u n d 0 .6 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire
a n a l fin ba se ; p e c to ra l
rays 13; p e lv ic fin m e m b ra n e s b e tw e e n th e rays c lo s e s t to th e b o d y
w ith o u t d e n se
m elanophores. Lateral line scales 47 or 48; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 1/2 scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f
m id dle do rsa l fin spines; u su a lly 15 sca le row s in tra n sve rse s e rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin and la te ra l line; usu a lly
15 row s in c o w e r se ries o f sca le s around caudal peduncle; about 8 sca le s in su p ra te m po ra l patch; inner surface o f
pectoral fin w ithout scales; p o sterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. Colour: body and head brow nish or grey,
lighter ventrally; lips, base and patch above base o f pectoral fin, and edge o f operculum red; fins orangish, dusky or
mottled.
c lic k f o r n e x t p a g e
c lic k fo r p r e v io u s p a g e
54
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
Indian
Ocean,
from
Tanzania,
northern
M adagascar,
Chagos,
A n d a m an s and southw estern Indonesia (Fig. 108).
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits reefs to de p th s o f
220 m. Feeds prim arily on fish and crustaceans.
G o n a d s in s p a w n in g s ta te h a ve b e e n re c o rd e d fo r
th is fish during the m onth o f O ctober.
S iz e : Maximum size to 76 cm, comm on to 50 cm.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : Caught m ostly by handlines,
tra p s and traw ls.
Local Nam es:
JAPAN:
Kataaka -fuefuki
M A U R IT IU S :
G u e u le
de vin ;
SOUTH
A F R IC A
R e daxil e m p e ro r, R o o isko f-k e is e r; S E Y C H E L L E S
Kaya la gueule rouge; Gueule de vin.
L ite ra tu r e :
G loerfelt-Tare
&
Kailola
Fischer & Bianchi (eds) (1984);
Smith, M.M. (1986).
R e m a rk s
:
T his
species
is
(1984);
Smith, J.L.B.
Sato
in
(1959);
Fig. 108
not
w ell
represented
in
m useum s
due
to
the
relatively
large
capture
size
fo r
most
specim ens.
Lethrinus crocineus Smith, 1959
L e th rin u s c ro c in e u s S m ith , 1959,
S y n o n y m s : None.
FAO Names: En - Yellow tail em peror.
LETH Leth 10
Fig. 109, Plate III, 16
R h o d e s U n iv., Ic h th .B u ll., 17:290, p i.21 fig s.
F,G (P inda).
55
D ia g n o s tic Features: Body fa irly deep, its d e p th 2.3 to 2 .4 tim e s in sta n da rd length. H ead length 0 .8 to 0 .9 tim e s in
b ody d epth, 2 .6 to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n d a rd le n g th, d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye n e a rly stra ig h t; sn o u t m o d e ra te ly sh o rt, its
length a b o ut 1.9 to 2.1 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t the lip th e sn o u t is 1.0 to 1.1 tim e s in ch e e k height, its
dorsal profile nearly straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 65 and 75 degrees; interorbital space
convex; p o sterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to a n terior nostril or about halfw ay
betw een orbit and a n terior nostril; eye situated close or relatively rem oved from dorsal profile, its length 3.8 to 4.6
tim e s in head length; c h e e k high, its length 2 .0 to 2.4 tim e s in head length; la te ra l te e th in ja w s rounded o r m olars;
ou ter surface o f m axilla sm ooth or w ith a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 spines and 9 soft rays, the fourth
do rsa l sp in e u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its length 3.2 to 3 .6 tim e s in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays, the
first or second soft ray u su a lly the longest, its length a lm ost equal to or slig h tly less th a n th e length o f th e base o f the
so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f the anal fin and 0 .6 to 0.7 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic
fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ith or w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral line sca le s 46 to
47; c h e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 5 % sca le row s b e tw e e n lateral line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; 15 to 17 scale
row s in tra n sve rse se ries betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 15 or 16 (usu a lly 15) row s in co w e r se rie s o f scales
around caudal peduncle; 6 to 8 scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin de n sely covered w ith
sca le s; p o s te rio r an g le o f o p e rcu lu m fu lly sca le d or s o m e tim e s w ith a w id e s c a le le s s a rea. C o lou r: b o d y ta n or
yello w ish , th e base o f sca le s so m e tim e s black; head brow n; fin s pale o r ye llo w ish , th e e dge o f the do rsa l fin reddish
or ye llow ish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
W estern
Indian
Ocean,
from
Natal to the Seychelles and Sri Lanka (Fig. 110), possibly more
w id e sp re a d .
H a b ita t and
B io lo g y :
In h a b its
co a sta l
a re a s
and
re e fs to
depths o f around 150 m .
S iz e : M aximum size around 45 cm total length.
In te re s t
to
F is h e rie s :
C aught
m a in ly
w ith
h a n d lin e s .
M arketed m ostly fresh.
Local Nam es: M O ZA M B IQ U E : C hangu; S E Y C H E L LE S : Lascar.
L ite ra tu r e :
(1959).
Sato
in
Fischer
&
Bianchi
(eds)
(1984);
Smith
R e m a rk s : T his species is sim ilar in body shape to L. m a h s e n a
and has previously been synonym ized w ith it. Scale counts are
co n siste n tly d iffe re n t in m any resp e cts w ith L. m a h s e n a , and
there is little doubt that these are tw o distinct species.
Fig. 110
L e th rin u s e n ig m a tic u s Smith, 1959
L eth rinu s enig m aticus
S y n o n y m s : None
Fig. 111, Plate III, 17
Smith, 1959, R hodes U niv.,Ichth.B ull., 17:291, pi.21 fig. E (Seychelles).
LETH Leth 23
56
FAO Names: En - Blackeye emperor.
Fig. 111
D ia g n o s tic
F ea tu re s : Body m oderately deep,
its depth 2.4 to
2.7 tim es
in standard
length.
Head
length
0.9 to
1.0
tim e s in body d e p th , 2 .6 to 2 .9 tim e s in sta n d a rd length, d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye n e a rly stra ig h t; sn o u t m o d e ra te ly
short, its length a b o u t 1.8 to 2.0 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t th e lip th e sn o u t is 0 .8 to 1.0 tim e s in ch e e k
height, its dorsal profile slightly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 65 and 75 degrees; interorbital
space convex; posterior nostril an elongate oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to anterior
nostril or
about halfw ay betw een orbit and a n terior nostril; eye situated fairly rem oved from dorsal profile, its length 3.9 to
4.9 tim es in head length; cheek m oderately high, its length 2.1 to 2.6 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s
rounded; ou ter surface o f m axilla w ith a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 spines and 9 soft rays, the third or
fo u rth d o rsa l sp in e the longest, the lo n g e st sp in e 3 .0 to 3.7 tim e s in body d epth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays,
the first soft ray usually the longest, its length alm ost equal to or slightly longer than the length o f the base o f the
so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f the anal fin and 0.7 to 0 .8 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13; pelvic
fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ith o u t dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 47 o r 48; cheek
w ith o u t sca le s; 4 1/2 o r 5 1/2 sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m iddle d orsal fin spines; 16 o r 17 sca le row s
in tran sve rse series betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 15 o r 16 (usu a lly 15) row s in low er se ries o f scales
around caudal peduncle; 4 to 6 scales in su p ra te m po ra l patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin de n sely covered with
s ca le s; p o s te rio r a n g le o f o p e rcu lu m fu lly sca le d . C o lo u r: b o d y y e llo w is h b ro n ze o r gre y, lig h te r v e n tra lly so m e tim e s
w ith three bronze stripe s on low er sid e s and seven to nine dark
bars on upper sides; head grey, brow n or bronze so m e tim e s w ith a
series o f yellow ish cross stripe s on upper head and snout, a light
s tre a k ra d ia tin g from eye to a n te rio r n o stril; th e lo w e r edge o f
th e o rb it w ith d a rk p u rp lish sp o ts; m a xilla re d d ish ; fin s pale,
yellow ish or bronze.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : Know n
Seychelles region (Fig. 112).
so
fa r
o n ly
from the
Habitat and B iology:
Inhabits se a g ra ss beds, coral reefs and
adjacent sandy areas to
depths o f 50 m.
Feeds prim arily on
echinoderm s, crusta ce a n s and fish, and to a lesser extent on
m olluscs. A peak in spaw ning w as noted in O ctober in Saya de
Malha, but this study did not sam ple all periods throughout
the
year. Smaller, m ore
abundant fem ales than
m ales have been
confirm ed for the Saya de M alha population.
Estim ates
of
asym ptotic
length
( U n fin ity )
and
co e fficie n t
of
grow th (K) have been m ade fo r L . en ig m a tic u s at Saya de M alha:
U n fin ity
= 53.9 cm standard length for m ales and 45.4 cm total
length fo r fem ales, and K = 0.15 for m ales and 0.18 fo r fem ales.
Fig. 112
57
Size:
M aximum size to around 55 cm total length, com m only 25 to 40 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries:
Caught m ostly
fisheries in M auritus and Saya de Malha.
by
handlines
and
traps.
M arketed
m ostly
fresh.
Contributes
substantially
to
Local Names: SEYCHELLES: Lascar.
Literature: Allen & Steene (1987); Smith (1959).
Remarks: Sato synonym ized this species w ith
L. m a h s e n a . I exam ined one o f Sm ith's (1959) sp e cim e n s w hich w as
in clu d e d in his typ e d e scrip tio n o f th is sp e cie s to g e th e r w ith an e xce lle n t s e rie s o f sp e cim e n s and p h o to g ra p h s from
the Indian Ocean, taken by L. Knapp o f the Sm ithsonian O ceanographic Sorting Center. It is clear that this species,
w ith its unique colour and com bination o f characters is distinct.
L e th rin u s ery th raca n th u s
L e th rin u s e ry th ra c a n th u s
V alen cien n es, 1830
Fig. 113, Plate IV, 18-20
LETH Leth 3
V alenciennes in C. & V., 1830 H ist.nat.poiss., 6: 314 (Luganor).
Synonyms: L e th rin u s c in n a b a rin u s R ichardson (1843); L e th rin u s k a llo p te r u s Bleeker (1856)
FAO Names: En - O range-spotted em peror.
A
b. subadu
c. juvenile
Fig. 113
58
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body m oderately deep, its depth 2.5 to 2.7 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.9 to 1.0
tim e s in body d epth, 2 .5 to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n d a rd length, d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye convex; sn o u t m o d e ra te ly sh o rt, its
length ab o ut 1.8 to 2 .4 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t th e lip the sn o u t is 0 .8 to 1.1 tim e s in c h e e k height, its
dorsal profile distinctly concave in large individuals and nearly straight in sm aller individuals, snout angle relative to
upper ja w betw een 55 and 70 degrees; interorbital space convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening,
closer to orbit than to a n terior nostril; eye situated close to or far rem oved from the dorsal profile, its length 3.2 to
5.0 tim es in head length; cheek m oderately
high, its length 2.0 to 3.3 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s
conical; ou ter surface o f
m axilla sm ooth or w ith a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp ines and 9 soft rays, the
fo u rth o r fifth d orsal sp in e the longest, its length 2.4 to 3 .4 tim e s in body d epth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 soft rays,
the third, fo u rth or fifth soft ray usually the longest, its length m uch longer than the length o f the base
o f the softrayed portion o f the anal
fin and 0.9 to 1.2 tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin
m em branes betw een the
rays closest to the body w ith or w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales usually 47
o r 48; c h e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 1/2 sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m iddle d orsal fin spines; 15 to 17 scale
row s in tra n sve rse se rie s b etw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usu a lly 15 row s in lo w e r se ries o f sca le s around
caudal peduncle; 5 to 7 scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin densely co ve re d w ith scales;
posterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. Colour: body brown d a rk grey, with indistinct scattered sm all dark and
light spots, w ith irregular light stripes so m e tim e s on low er sides; head brown o r grey, often w ith m any sm all orange
spots on cheeks in sm all adults; pectoral and pelvic fin w hite to orangish, dorsal and anal fin mottled
orange and
bluish; caudal fin often bright orange, especially in subadults.
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
W estern
Indian O cean to the Central
Pacific, from
East
Africa,
Seychelles,
C hagos
and
M aldives, to T hailand, P hilippines, Ryukyus,
Micronesia, northeastern Australia, Samoa,
Society Islands and Tuam otus (Fig. 114);
pre vio u sly recorded on ly as fa r east as
Samoa, I have exam ined specim ens o f this
s p e cie s from Tahiti and the Tuamotus.
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits
deep
lagoons and channels,
and
ou ter reef
slopes and ad ja ce nt soft-bottom areas at
depth o f 20 to 120 m. It feeds m ostly on
echinoderm s, crusta ce a n s and m olluscs.
S iz e :
Maximum total length
com m on to 50 cm total length.
to
70
cm,
Interest to Fisheries: Caught by handline,
vertical
longline,
trap s
and
trawls.
M arketed m ostly fresh. T his sp ecies w as
found
to be ciguatoxic in the M arshall
Islands.
L ocal
Nam es:
AUSTRALIA:
Y e llo w -sp o tted
Fig. 114
em peror;
PHILIPPINES:
Bakuktuk,
Katambak;
SEYCHELLES:
O ranjekol-keiser; TANZANIA: Changu, Changu tuku-m w ani.
Capitaine
JAPAN:
rouge;
L ite ra tu r e : All the follow ing listed as L. k a llo p te ru s . Allen & Steene
Sato in Fischer & Bianchi (eds) (1984); Smith, J.L.B. (1959); Smith, M.M. (1986).
Am a-kuchibi;
SOUTH
(1987);
KENYA:
AFRICA:
M asuda
Changu
tuku-m w ani;
Orange-spotted
et a f
(1984);
em peror;
M yers (1989);
R e m a rk s : T h e n a m e L . k a llo p te r u s h a s lo n g b e e n a p p lie d to th is s p e c ie s b u t th e d e s c rip tio n a nd m a n u s c rip t d ra w in g
o f L. e ry th ra c a n th u s is clearly diagnostic. In addition, L. c in n a b a r in u s R ichardson also appears to be synonym ous
w ith th is s p e c ie s . S ee R e m a rk s b e lo w u n d e r L. e ry th r o p te r u s fo r a fu rth e r e x p la n a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e ta x o n o m y o f
this sp e cie s.
59
L e th rin u s e ry th ro p te ru s V a le n c ie n n e s , 1830
Fig. 115, Plate IV, 21
LETH Leth 11
L e th rin u s e ry th ro p te ru s V a le n cie n n e s, 1830, in C. & V., 1830 H is t.n a t.p o is s ., 6: 3 1 3 (U lea).
S y n o n y m s : L e th rin u s s tria tu s S te in d a c h n e r (1866); L e th rin u s h y p s e lo p te ru s B le e ke r (1873).
FAO Nam es: En - Longfin emperor.
MMMii
Fig. 115
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body fairly deep, its depth 2.3 to 2.6 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in
body d e p th , 2 .5 to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n d a rd le n g th, d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye d is tin c tly convex; sn o u t m o d e ra te ly sh o rt, its
le n g th a b o ut 1.9 to 2 .2 tim e s in head length, m ea su re d w ith o u t th e tip th e sn o u t is 0 .9 to 1.0 tim e s in c h e e k height, its
dorsal profile d istinctly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 55 and 60 degrees; interorbital space
c o n v e x or a lm o s t fla t; p o s te rio r n o stril an o b lo n g lo n g itu d in a l o p e n in g , c lo s e r to o rb it th a n to a n te rio r n o stril; eye
s itu a te d d o s e to o r s lig h tly re m o ve d from th e d o rs a l p ro file , its le n g th 3 .6 to 4 .6 tim e s in head le n g th; c h e e k
m o d e ra te ly high, its le n g th 2.1 to 2 .6 tim e s in head le n g th; la te ra l te e th in ja w s o f a d u lts m o la rs o r rou n d e d ; o u te r
s u rfa c e o f m a x illa u s u a lly sm o o th . D o rsal fin w ith 10 s p in e s and 9 so ft
rays, th e fo u rth o r fifth d o rs a l sp in e the
longest, its length 2.8 to 3.3 tim e s in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 spines and 8 soft rays, the third, fourth or fifth soft
ray u s u a lly th e lo n g e st, its le n g th m uch lo n g e r th a n th e le n g th o f th e b ase o f th e s o ft-ra y e d p o rtio n o f th e anal fin
and 0 .9 to 1.0 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays
13; p e lvic fin m e m b ra n e s b e tw e en th e rays
c lo s e s t to th e body w ith o u t d e n se m e la n o p h o re s. L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 44 to 46; c h e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 4 % sca le row s
be tw e e n la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; u su a lly 15 o r 16 sca le row s in tra n s v e rs e se rie s b e tw e en
o rig in o f a n a l fin and la te ra l line; u su a lly 15 row s in lo w e r se rie s o f s c a le s a ro u n d ca u d a l p e d un cle ; 5 to 9 s c a le s in
s u p ra te m p o ra l patch; in n e r su rfa ce o f p e cto ra l fin d e n s e ly co ve re d w ith sca le s; p o s te rio r a n g le o f o p e rcu lu m fu lly
sca le d . C o lo u r: head and b o d y b ro w n o r rust red, lig h te r v e n tra lly ; s o m e tim e s tw o
tig h t b a rs on ca u d a l p e d u n cle ;
a re a a ro u n d eye, a broad s tre a k from eye to tip o f sn o u t, lips, and base o f p e cto ra l fin red; all fin s red d ish , o fte n a
bright red or orange.
60
Geographical
Distribution:
O cean
and
W est
P a c ific ;
M oza m b iq u e , C h a g o s, C e le b e s,
Papua N ew G u in e a, Palau, and
(Fig. 116).
W estern
Indian
T a n z a n ia
and
th e
P h ilipp in e s,
C a rolin e Isla n d s
Habitat and Biology:
Inhabits m ostly coral reefs
and a d ja ce n t sa n d y areas. O ccurs sin g ly o r in sm all
g ro u p s .
Feeds
on
e c h in o d e rm s ,
m o llu s c s ,
crusta ce a n s and sm all fish.
Size:
M aximum size to around 50 cm total length,
com m only around 30 cm.
Interest to Fisheries: Lim ited interest to fisheries
in th e co u n trie s w h e re it occu rs. C a u g h t m ostly by
handlines and traps. M arketed fresh.
Local
Names:
JAPAN:
Kuchibeni-fuefuki;
P H ILIP P IN E S : Batilya, K atam bak; SO U TH A F R IC A :
M oza m b iq u e e m p e ro r, M o sa m b ie kse keiser.
Literature: The follow ing listed as
Bianchi (eds) (1984); Sm ith (1986).
L. h yp selo p teru s. G loerfelt-Tarp & Kailola (1984); M yers (1989); Sato in Fischer &
Remarks : The nam e L. h y p s e lo p te ru s has long been a pplied to th is species. T here are how ever, tw o o ld e r nam es: L.
e ry th ro p te ru s V a le n cie n n e s and L. s tr ia tu s Steinciachner. There is no type specim en fo r L. e ry th ro p te ru s , the
description w a s based on a painting by the explorer, M ertens. V a le n cie n n e s m ade a copy o f this painting and
described the colours in the "H istoire naturelle des poissons" (1830). The d e scrip tio n o f the colours o f the fin s alone
in V a le nciennes' account are sufficiently diagnostic to dem onstrate that this is the sam e species as L . h yp selo p teru s.
The draw ing in V ale n cie n n e s' m anuscript confirm s this; no oth er species o f L e th rin u s o f the specim en size stated has
th e fin c o lo u rs and sn o u t p ro file o th e r th a n "h y p s e lo p te ru s ". S ato (1978) placed both L. e ry th ro p te ru s and L.
e ry th ra c a n th u s as syn o n ym y o f L. k a llo p te ru s . It is true th a t 'k a llo p te ru s " has a sim ilar fin colour, although this is
typically m ottled bluish as is clearly indicated in the description and m anuscript painting o f L . e ry th ra c a n th u s . The fin
c o lo u r o f "h y p s e lo p te ru s is typ ica lly all red w ith dark red or brow n blotches on the basal fin m em branes; this is
depicted in the m anuscript painting and in the description. M oreover, the snout profile is straight in the painting o f
L. e ry th ra e a n u s , w h ich is also ch a ra cte ristic o f "kallopterus" o f the spe cim e n size stated w h ile "hypselopterus" has a
co n ca ve sn o u t profile, also sh o w n in the painting o f L. e ry th ro p te ru s . It is cle a r th a t M ertens did in fa c t reco g n ize
and paint tw o distin ct species.
S te in d a ch n er's (1866) d e scrip tio n and draw ing o f L. s tria tu s also is clearly d ia g n o stic o f the sp e cie s th a t has long been
called "h y p s e lo p te ru s . His draw ing s h o w s the long dorsal and anal soft rays and a slig h tly concave profile o f the
snout (L. e ry th ra c a n th u s has a concave profile o f the snout only in ve ry large specim ens), that are typical o f L.
e ry th ro p te ru s . The description m entions m olar teeth in the lateral ja w s, and d a rk banding betw een the eyes and on
the snout that is ch a ra cte ristic o f L. e ry th ro p te ru s .
Sato (1978) placed the nam es L. e ry th ra c an th u s and L. ery th ro p te ru s in syn o n ym y w ith L. ka llo p te ru s and designated
the name L. k a llo p te r u s as the se n io r synonym , claim ing that neither L. e ry th ra c a n th u s or L. e ry th o p te ru s had been
used fo r a long tim e. The current Code on Zoological N om enclature no longer recognizes long periods o f disuse as a
justification for relegating a nam e to ju n io r synonom y. It is possible to apply fo r conservation o f the nam es
"h y p s e lo p te ru s and " k a llo p t e r u s based on an appeal o f com m on use and disuse. The presence o f tw o older
n a m e s fo r "h ypselopterus" and tw o o ld e r n a m e s fo r "kallopterus" m ake s th is so rt o f ap p ea l te n uo u s. For th e sake o f
long-term stability in this difficult and confused genus, I choose to forego appeal and apply the sim pler and more
co n cre te rule o f seniority.
c lic k f o r n e x t p a g e
c lic k fo r p r e v io u s p a g e
61
Lethrinus genivittatus Valenciennes, 1830
Fig. 117, Plate IV, 22
LETH Leth 6
L e th rin u s g e n iv itta tu s V alenciennes in C. & V., 1830 Hist.nat.poiss. , 6: 306, pi. 159 (Indian Ocean).
S y n o n y m s : L e th rin u s n e m a ta c a n th u s
B le e k e r (1 8 5 4 c).
FAO N am es: En - L o n g sp in e e m p e ro r.
D ia g n o s tic
F ea tu re s
: Body m oderately slender, its depth 2.9 to 3.5 tim es in standard
length. Head length 1.0 to 1.2
tim es in body depth, 2.8 to 3.0 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye slightly convex; snout m oderately
sh o rt and blunt, its length a b o u t 2.3 to 2 .5 tim e s in head length, m ea su re d w ith o u t th e lip th e sn o u t is 0.9 to 1.0 tim e s
in c h e e k he ig h t, its d o rsa l p ro file n e a rly
stra ig h t, sn o u t a n g le re la tive to u p p e r ja w b e tw e e n 60 and 70 d e g re e s;
interorbital space convex to flat; posterior
nostril an oblong nearly vertical opening, about halfw ay betw een orbit
and anterior nostril; eye situated dose to dorsal profile, its length 3.6 to 4.0 tim es in head length; cheek not high, its
length
2.6
to 3.1 tim es inhead
length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical; outer surface o f m axilla w ith adistinct knob.
Dorsal
fin
with 10 spines and 9
soft rays, the second dorsal spine the longest, som etim es m uch longer than other
d o rsa l spines, its length 1.3 to 1.9 tim e s in body d epth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays, th e firs t o r se co n d soft
ray usually the longest, its length alm ost equal to or slightly shorter than the length o f the base o f the soft-rayed
portion
of
the anal fin and 0.6
to 0.7 tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin
m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 46 or 47; cheek
w ith o u t scales; 4 1/2 sca le row s betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; 15 or 16 scale row s in
tran sve rse se ries betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 15 row s in low er series o f sca le s around caudal
peduncle; 5 to 8 sca le s in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t scales, p a rtia lly covered w ith
s c a le s
or,
d e n se ly co ve re d w ith
scales; posterior angle o f operculum fully scaled. C o lo u r: body tan o r brow n
u p p e r sides, lo w e r sid e s w h ite w ith th re e brow n o r ta n stripe s, sid e s often w ith sca tte re d irre g u la r b la ck o b liq u e bars
and a square black blotch above the pectoral fin and bordering below the lateral line; head brown or tan som etim es
w ith several broad, som ew hat indistinct
vertical and oblique
bands (the bands som etim es com posed o f fine
reticulations); fins pale, speckled w ith sm all w hite blotches.
on
62
Geographical Distribution:
Eastern
Indian
Ocean
and W estern Pacific,
including
Indonesia,
northern
Australia,
the
Philippines,
southern
Japan,
Papua
New Guinea and the Caroline Islands (Fig. 118).
Habitat
and
Biology:
Inhabits
prim arily
shallow
sandy and seagrass areas, and also found in m an­
grove sw am ps, lagoons, ch a n ne ls and o uter reefs
s lo p e s at d e p h s o f 5 to 25 m ; re p o rte d ly p e n e tra te s
in rive rs in som e areas. F eeds m ostly on cru sta ce a n s
and sm all fish. A prolonged peak spaw ning period
from July to D ecem ber is reported in New Caledonia.
T heir eggs are spherical and pelagic with a diam eter
o f 0.8
mm; hatching
tim e
is
1.6
days
at
a
tem perature
of
around
20
degrees
centigrade.
Significantly more and sm aller fem ales than m ales
has been confirm ed in populations in Australia.
E s tim a te s o f m axim u m age ( t m a x ) , a s y m p to tic le n g th
c o e ffic ie n t o f g ro w th (K ), a nd ra te o f
n a tu ra l m o rta lity (M ) h a ve b e e n m a d e fo r th e
p o p u la tio n in N ew C a le d o n ia t m a x — 7 y e a rs fo r
both m a le s and fe m a le s, L i n f i m t y = 16.0 cm sta n d a rd
le n g th fo r m a le s and 1 4 .0 cm s ta n d a rd le n g th fo r
fe m a le s , K = 0 .8 7 fo r m a le s and 0 .8 6 fo r fe m a le s,
and M = 1.82 fo r m ales and 1.87 for fem ales.
( U n fin ity ) ,
Size:
Fig. 118
Maximum total length to around 25 cm, com m only to around 15 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries: Caught m ostly by shore spines. This species is o f m inor im portance in fisheries due to its small
average size. M arketed fresh.
Local
Names: AUSTRALIA:
L a w a y-la w a y, Lum o-an, Palutput.
Lancer;
JAPAN:
Ito-fuefuki;
Literature: The follow ing listed as L. n e m a ta c a n th u s .
G ran t(1 98 2 ); M a s u d a e ta f (1984); S ainsbury et al. (1985).
Remarks :
T his species has long been recognized
NEW
CALEDONIA:
F ourm anoir & Laboute
Communard;
(1976);
as L. n e m a ta c a n th u s and the name
PHILIPPINES:
G loerfelt-Tarp
& Kailola
Kutot,
(1984);
L. g e n iv itta tu s m isassociated
w ith m any o th e r species. T here are tw o ch a ra cte ristics o f the typ e o f L. g e n iv itta tu s th a t have co n trib u te d to this
m isconception: (1) th e re are no scales in the pectoral axil and, (2) the second dorsal-fin spine is broken. The
populations o f " n e m a ta c a n th u s th a t previous a uthors have w orked w ith typ ica lly possess sca le s in the pectoral axil. I
have exam ined several populations o f th is sp ecies and found the presente o f pectoral axil scales to be variable. This
a cco u nts fo r the Ja ck o f sca le s in the pectoral axil o f the type o f L. g en iv itta tu s . The m ost easily reco gnizable ch a ra cte r
o f this species is the elongate second dorsal-fin and obviously, if th is spine is broken, the species w ill not be readily
recognizable. Despite the lack o f the key ch a ra cte r o f the elongate second dorsal spine, I have confirm ed the identity
o f th is sp ecies using three separate ch a ra cte rs and have exam ined the type o f L. g e n iv itta tu s on tw o separate
o c c a s io n s to confirm m y d ia g n o sis. T he typ e o f L. g e n iv itta tu s has a d is tin c tiv e knob on th e su rfa ce o f th e m axilla.
The on ly o th er sp ecies aside from "nem atacanthus" that co n siste ntly has th is d istin ctive knob is L. o b s o le tu s but there
are num erous o th er ch a ra cte rs w h ich confirm th a t L. g e n iv itta tu s cannot be L. obsoletus. The third dorsal spine
becom es the longest dorsal spine in "nem atacanthus" if the second dorsal spine is broken (in m any cases there is not
m uch difference in length o f the second and third dorsal spine in specim ens o f this species), and th is spine is elongate
com pared to o ther species o f L e th rin u s . The
ratio o f the longest dorsal spine to body depth in the type o f L.
g e n iv itta tu s is m uch less than all o ther species o f L e th rin u s (i.e . N e m a ta c a n th u s have generally longer dorsal spines)
exce p t p e rh a p s L . varie g a tu s , and there are o th e r ch a ra cte rs w h ich can confirm that L. v a rie g a tu s is not the sam e as L.
g en iv itta tu s . T he m ost co n vin cin g ch a ra c te r th a t c o n firm s g e n iv itta tu s = n e m a ta c a n th u s is th e shape o f the ca n in e s
in the an terio r part o f the low er ja w . In the
type, these flare outw ard d istinctively, such that the teeth noticeably
protrude out o f the m outh. In all other species
o f L e th rin u s , the teeth curve posteriorly and slig h tly outw ard (a little
m ore perhaps in L. b o rb o n ic u s ), but the outw ard flare is only noticeable on very large individuals. The type o f L.
g e n iv itta tu s is 159 mm standard length and I have only observed a distinctive outw ard flare o f the low er canines in
specim ens o f " n e m a ta c a n th u s , never in sp e cim e n s o f oth er L e th rin u s o f com parable size to the type o f L.
g en iv itta tu s . The sm alle st in d ivid u a ls o f L. n e m a ta c a n th u s do not a lw a ys e xh ib it th is fla re o f the lo w e r ca n in e s but it
is consistently present in large specim ens and individuals as sm all as about 100 mm standard length. The description
and fig u re given by V a le n cie n n e s fo r L. g e n iv itta tu s are co nsistent w ith this species, considering that the elongate
second d o rsa l-fin spine o f the type has been broken.
63
Lethrinus h aem atopterus Tem m inck & Schlegel, 1844
Fig. 119, Plate IV, 23
LETH Leth 24
L e th rin u s h a e m a to p te ru s T e m m in ck & S ch le g e l, 1844, P isces, in V o n S ie b o ld , Fauna J a p o n ic a . 3:74, p i.38 (Japan).
S y n o n y m s : L e th rin u s ric h a rd s o n i G unther (1859).
FAO Nam es: En - C h in e se em peror.
j
JL
Miß
Fig. 119
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s : Body relatively deep, its depth 2.2 to 2.5 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.8 to 0.9 tim es
in body depth, 2.6 to 2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye nearly straight; snout m oderatly short, its
length about 1.9 to 2.3 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.8 to 1.0 tim es in cheek height, it's
dorsal profile n early straight, snout
angle relative to upper ja w betw een 60 and 70 degrees; interorbital
space
convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated close
o r fa irly rem oved from d o rsa l p ro file , its le n g th 3.2 to 4 .4 tim e s in head length; c h e e k not v e ry high, its le n g th 2 .4 to
3.0 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical; outer surface o f m axilla sm ooth or w ith a slight longitudinal
ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 spines and 9 soft rays, the fourth dorsal spine usually the longest, its length 2.8 to 3.7 tim es in
body depth; anal fin w ith 3 sp ines and 8 soft rays, the first soft ray usually the longest, its length a lm ost equal to or
slightly longer than the length o f the
base o f the soft-rayed portion o f the anal fin and 0.7 to 0.8 tim es in the length
o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ith or
w ith o u t dense m e la n o p h o re s. L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 47 to 49; c h e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line
and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; u su a lly 16 or 17 sca le row s in tra n sve rse s e rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin and
lateral line; 15 or 16 (usu a lly 15) row s in co w e r series o f sca le s around caudal peduncle; 5 to 8 sca le s in supratem poral
patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin base w ith o u t scales; p osterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. C o lo u r:
body
olive-grey w ith scattered irregular d a rk blotches; head grey, so m e tim e s tw o blue stripe s radiating forw a rd from eye;
fin s pale or grey, the dorsal w ith a reddish edge.
64
Geographical Distribution:
R estricted
to
w a te rs
around southern China and southern Japan (Fig. 120).
Habitat and Biology:
Nothing
is
recorded
fo r
this
im portance
to
s p e cie s.
Size: Attains 45 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries:
Of
m inor
fish e rie s in China.
Local Names: CFIINA: Tseen tsuy tso, Tseen tsuy la;
JAPAN: Fuefuki-dai.
Literature: Lee (19 8 6 ); M asuda et a f (1984); S hen
(19 8 4 , as
la ,b ,c ).
G y m n o c ra n iu s
g ris e u s ,
in clu d in g
329-
Remarks: Sato (1978) listed L. g e n iv itta tu s a s a se n io r
s yn o n ym o f th is sp e c ie s but as e xp la in e d ab o ve, L.
g e n iv itta tu s c le a rly is not a ttrib u ta b le to th is species.
T he re has been so m e sp e cu la tio n th a t the A u stra lia n
sp e cie s L. la tic a u d is m ay be included w ith th is sp ecies
but th e re a re tre n c h a n t m o rp h o lo g ic a l d iffe re n c e s
b e tw e e n th e m . T h is sp e c ie s is c le a rly d is tin c t and
re s tric te d to th e se a s a ro u n d C h in a and s o u th e rn
Japan.
L e th rin u s h a ra k
(F o rs s k â l, 1775)
Fig. 121, Plate IV, 24
Fig. 120
LETH Leth 2
S c ia e n a h a ra k F o rs s k â l, 1 775 , D e s c rip .A n im a l., :xi, 52 (A ra b ia ).
Synonyms:
L e th rin u s a z u re u s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s rh o d o p te ru s Bleeker, 1852; L e th rin u s jo h n ii
C a s te ln a u (18 7 3 ); L e th rin u s b o n h a m e n s is G u n th e r (18 7 3 ); L e th rin u s p a p u e n s is A lle y n e & M a cle a y (1877);
L e th rin u s b le e k e ri Klunzinger (1884).
FAO Names: En - Thum bprint emperor.
,
/¡K M
/.
A
*
65
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body m oderately deep, its depth 2.6 to 2.8 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.9 to 1.0
tim es in body depth, 2.7 to 3.0 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye distinctly or slightly convex; snout
sh o rt and blunt, its length a b o ut 2.1 to 2 .6 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t the lip the sn o u t is 0.9 to 1.0 tim e s
in c h e e k
he ig h t, its d o rsa l p ro file n e a rly stra ig h t, sn o u t an g le
re la tive to u p p e r ja w b e tw e e n 60 and 70 d e g re e s;
interorbital space convex or a lm ost flat; posterior nostril a narrow longitudinal slit, closer to orbit than to anterior
nostril; eye situated close to dorsal profile, its length 3.6 to 4.2 tim es in head length; cheek not very high, its length
2 .5 to 3.0 tim es in head length; lateral
teeth in ja w s o f a d u lts m olars or rounded; o u ter surface o f m axilla sm ooth or
w ith a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp ines and 9 soft rays, the fourth or fifth dorsal spine the longest, its
length 2.5 to 3.1 tim es in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 sp ines and 8 soft rays, the first soft ray usually the longest, its
le n g th a lm o s t e q u al to or lo n g e r o r s h o rte r th a n th e le n g th o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra ye d p o rtio n o f th e a n a l fin and
0 .6 to 0 .8 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e cto ra l rays 13; p e lvic fin m e m b ra n e s b e tw e e n th e rays
clo s e s t to the b ody w ith o u t d ense m e lan o p h o re s. L a tera l-lin e sca le s u su a lly 46 o r 47; c h e e k w ith o u t scales; u su a lly 5
% but so m e tim e s 4 % sca le row s b e tw e en la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; u su a lly 15 sca le row s in
tran sve rse se ries betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 13 or 14 row s in lo w e r se ries o f scales around caudal
peduncle;
4 to 7
sca le s in su p ra te m po ra l
patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin d e n sely covered w ith scales; p osterior
angle o f operculum fully scaled. Colour: olive or grey above, shading to silvery w hite below; a large elliptical
black spot, often broadly edged in yellow, on side directly below lateral line and centered at a vertical near the
posterior tip o f the pectoral fin; som etim es tight blue dots bordering low er rim o f eye and around nostrils; pectoral,
pelvic, dorsal and anal fin w hite to pinkish; caudal fin orange or reddish; vertical fins som etim es lightly m ottled or
striped.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
Indian Ocean
and w estern Pacific, including the Red Sea,
East A frica , S eychelles, M aldives, Sri Lanka,
A ndam ans,
In d o n e sia ,
th e
P h ilip p in e s,
southern
Japan,
northeast
Australia,
Papua New Guinea, the Caroline Islands,
Solom ons, Vanuatu,
Fiji and Samoa (Fig.
122 ).
Habitat
and
Biology:
Inhabits
shallow
sandy, coral rubble, m angroves, lagoons,
channel and se a g ra ss areas inshore and
adjacent
to
coral
reefs.
Feeds
on
polychaetes,
crustaceans,
m olluscs,
echinoderm a and sm all fishes. Most often
observed solitary but som etim es in small
schools.
Reported
to
spaw n
throughout
the y e a r during the first five days o f the
lunar
month
in
large
aggregations
in
lagoons at Belau. M aximum age reported
fo r th is fish is 15 years.
Fig. 122
S iz e :
Maximum
total length to around
50 cm
(although
one unconfirm ed
report o f over 60 cm),
m ost com m only 20
to 30 cm total length.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
Caught m ostly by shore seines, gillnets, traps, and handlines. M arketed m ostly fresh.
Local
N a m e s : AUSTRALIA: Thumbprint em peror;
BELAU:
Itotch; GUAM:
Black-blotch emperor, Mafuti; JAPAN:
Mato-fuefuki;
KENYA:
Kawa,
M'cha
kufa;
LACCADIVES:
Filolu,
Makarimas,
Metti,
Chuttommette;
MAURITIUS:
Batardé,
Berri
bâtard, Battadet,
N EW
CALEDONIA:
Bossu taché;
PAPUA
N EW
GUINEA: Gwasawa,
Tabutu;
PHILIPPINES:
Bitilya, Kilawan,
Katambak;
SAMOA: Mata'ele'ele;
SAUDI
ARABIA:
Blackspot emperor,
Shaoor,
Sheiry;
SEYCHELLES:
E n-bas-la-cendre,
Lascar creole,
Portrait; SO M ALIA: G ahash-al-haraq, Gahash ma haraq,
Sinagub; SOUTH AFRICA: Blackspot em peror, Swarkoi-keiser; TANZANIA: Changu doa, Changu kabaka, Changu
kidra, Changu kole, Changu ndizi, Kibaba; YEM EN: Gahash harak.
L ite ra tu r e : A llen & Steene (1987); A m esbury & M yers (1982); G loerfelt-Tarp & Kailola (1984); Lee (1986); M asuda et
aL (1984); M yers (1989); Randall (1983); Sato in Fischer & Bianchi (eds) (1984); S chroeder (1980, as L. rhodopterus)-,
Smith (1959); Smith (1986).
Rem arks: Sato (1978) expressed doubt about the identity o f L . a z u re u s V a lenciennes.D espite the absence o f the dark
lateral spot, the com bination o f characters unique to L. h a r a k are readily recognizable on the type o f L. a zu re u s . The
d a rk lateral spot is very persistent in m any but not all old specim ens o f L. h a r a k and, this spot is som etim es only barely
v is ib le on fre sh s p e cim e n s o f th is species.
66
Lethrinus laticaudis
L e th rin u s
la tic a u d is
Alleyne & Macleay, 1877
Alleyne
&
Macleay,
Proc.Linn.Soc.
LETH Leth 25
Fig. 123, Plate V, 25
New
South
W a le s,
1:
276,
pi.
8,
fig.
2
(Percy
Island,
Q ueensland).
Synonym s:
L e th rin u s fle tu s W hitley (1943); L e th rin u s a n a rh y n c h u s Postel (1965).
FAO N am es:
B í - G rass em peror.
N
mÊÊBÊÊ
WÊÊÊKÊBÊÊÊKtÊÊMCM
■■
—
r
Ip
Fig. 123
D ia g n o s tic
F ea tu re s : Body relatively deep, its depth 2.2 to 2.4 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.8 to 0.9 tim es
in body depth, 2.7 to
2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye
nearly straight or, concave in large
individuals; snout length about 1.9 to 2.1 tim es in head
length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 1.0 to 1.1
tim es
in c h e e k he ig h t, its d o rsa l p ro file co n ca ve, sn o u t an g le re la tive to u p p er ja w b e tw e en 60 and 70 d e g re e s; in te ro rb ita l
space usually convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye
rem oved from dorsal profile, its length 4.2 to 5.1 tim es in head
length; cheek m oderately high, its length 2.2 to 2.5
tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical; ou ter surface o f m axilla w ith a
longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith
10 s p in e s and 9 soft rays, th e fo u rth do rsa l sp in e u su a lly the longest, its length 3.0 to 3.4 tim e s in body depth; anal fin
w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 soft rays, th e first soft ray u su a lly th e longest, its length a lm o st eq u al to o r s h o rte r th a n th e length
o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra ye d p o rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0 .6 to 0 .7 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal fin base;
pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ith
o r w ith o u t dense m elanophores.
L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 46 to 48; ch e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 5 % sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m iddle d o rsa l fin
sp in e s; 16 o r 17 sca le
row s in tra n sve rse se rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin and
lateral line; u su a lly 15 row s in lo w e r
s e rie s o f s c a le s around ca u d al pe d un cle ; 5 to 9 sca le s in s u p ra te m p o ra l patch; in n e r su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin d e n sely
co ve re d w ith sca le s; posterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled.
C o lou r: body tan,
brow n o r y e llo w w ith sca tte re d
irre g u la r d a rk blotches; head brow n or yellow w ith blue dots on ch e e ks and short blue stripe s radiating in fron t and
behind eye, som etim es a num ber o f blue cross stripe s betw een the eyes; fins pale or yellow , the vertical fins m ottled.
67
Geographical
Distribution:
Southern
Indonesia,
northw estern
and
northeastern
A ustralia,
Papua
New Guinea and the Solom ons (Fig. 124).
Habitat and Biology:
Juveniles
inhabit
seagrass
beds and m angrove sw a m ps w h ile adults are found
m ostly on coral reefs. F eeds m ainly on crusta ce a n s
and fishes. Significantly more and sm aller fem ales
than m ales has been confirm ed in populations in
Australia.
Size: M aximum reported total length reported
cm, com m only from 30 to 40 cm total length.
as 56
Interest to Fisheries:
Caught
prim arily
by
handlines. M ostly im portant as a sport fish and in
handline fish e rie s in A ustralia. A good food fish.
M arketed fresh.
Fig. 124
Local Names: A U S T R A L IA : G rass sw e e tlip , Brow n ke lp -fish , C oral bream , G rey sw e e tlip ,
finned emperor, Snapper bream; JAPAN: Kamoguchi-fuefuki; PAPUA NEW GUINEA: Carri-carri.
Piggy,
R e d -th ro a t,
Red-
Literature: G lo e rfe lt-T a rp & Kailola (1984, as L. fra e n a tu s ); G rant (1982, as L. fle tu s ); S a in sb u ry et a f (1985, as L.
fraenatus).
Remarks: There has been considerable confusion in the use o f nam es fo r this species, m ost often in recent literature it
is referred to as L. fra e n a tu s , or L. fletus. The form er name is clearly a ju n io r synonym o f L. n e b u lo s u s h o w e ve r and
th e la tte r a ju n io r syn o n ym o f L. laticaudis', W a lk e r (1975) w a s c o rre ct in his a s s e s s m e n t o f th e e a rlie s t nam e fo r th is
s p ecies as L. laticau d is. I have been unable to confirm the presence o f th is sp ecies outside Indonesian or A ustralian
waters. The nam e L. a n a rh y n c h u s w a s used by Sato (1978) to represent this sp e cie s, w h ic h w a s nam ed by Postel (1965)
from New C aledonia. There does not appear to be a type fo r L. a n a ry n c h u s and the draw ing and description in
Postel's publication appears to be o f an individual o f L. n e b u lo s u s that has a distended belly due to an expanded air
bladder, hence the deeper body profile. The specim en that Sato attributes to the name L. a n a ry n c h u s is indeed L.
la tic a u d is , but th e s p e c im e n is from A u s tra lia , not a P ostel s p e cim e n .
Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepède, 1802)
B o d ia n u s le n tja n
Fig. 125, Plate V , 26,27
LETH Leth 4
Lacepède, 1802, Hist.nat.po iss., 4: 281, 293 (Java).
Synonyms:
L e th rin u s a rg e n te u s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s c in e re u s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s
c ro c e o p te ru s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s fla v e s c e n s V a lenciennes (1830); L e th rin u s g e n ig u tta tu s V a le n c ie n n e s
(1830); L e th rin u s m a h s e n o id e s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s o p e r c u la r is V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s v ire s c e n s
V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s n u b ilis Cantor (1849); L e th rin u s c o c o s e n s is Bleeker (1854a); L e th rin u s g ly p h o d o n
G unther (1859); L e th rin u s fu s c ic ep s M acleay (1878).
FAO Names: En - Pink ear emperor.
Diagnostic Features: Body m oderately deep, its depth 2.6 to 2.8 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.9 to 1.0
tim es in body depth, 2.6 to 3.0 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye nearly straight; snout m oderately
short, its length about 2.0 to 2.4 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.9 to 1.0 tim es in cheek
height, its dorsal profile nearly straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 60 and 70 degrees; interorbital
space convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated
dose to or fa r rem oved from the dorsal profile, its length 3.9 to 4.8 tim es in head length; cheek not high, its length
2.5 to 3.0 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s either rounded, rounded with tubercles, sim ple m olars or m olars
w ith tubercles; ou ter surface o f m axilla w ith a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp in e s and 9 soft rays, the fourth
d o rsa l sp in e u s u a lly th e lo n g e st, its le n g th 2 .7 to 3 .4 tim e s in body d epth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays, the
firs t s o ft ray u s u a lly th e lo n g e st, its le n g th a lm o s t e q u a l to o r s h o rte r th a n th e le n g th o f th e base o f th e s o ft-ra y e d
p o rtio n o f th e a n a l fin and 0 .6 to 0 .7 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e cto ra l rays 13; p e lvic fin
m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales usually 46 or 47;
ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 5 1/2 scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; 15 o r 16 scale row s in
tran sve rse se ries betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 15 row s in low er se ries o f sca le s around caudal
peduncle; 4 to 9 scales in su p ra te m po ra l patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin d e n sely covered w ith scales, w ith a few
scales or, naked; posterior angle o f operculum fully scaled. Colour: body greenish or grey, shading lo w h ite below,
ce n te rs o f sc a le s on u p p er sid e s o fte n w h ite ; p o ste rio r m arg in o f o p e rcle and s o m e tim e s b ase o f p e ctora l fin red;
pectoral fin white, yellow or pinkish; pelvic and anal fin s w hite to orange; dorsal fin w hite and orange m ottled w ith
a reddish m argin; caudal fin m ottled orange or reddish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : W idespread in the IndoW est Pacific, including the Red Sea, Arabian (Persian)
Gulf, East Africa to the Ryukus and Tonga (Fig. 126).
Habitat
and
Biology:
Found
over
sandy
bottom
in
coastal areas, deep lagoons and near coral reefs, to
depths o f around 50 m. Juveniles and sm all adults
com m only in loose aggregations over seagrass beds,
m angrove sw a m ps and sh a llo w sandy a re a s w h ile
adults are generally solitary and found
in deeper
w aters. C ru sta ce a n s and m ollu scs are the p rim ary food
item but e ch in o d e rm a , p o lych a e te s and fish e s are also
consum ed in considerable quantities.
Peaks
in
spaw ning
have
been
reported
in
January,
April and May in the Red Sea, from Decem ber to
February and June to A ugust in southern India and,
from Septem ber to Decem ber in New Caledonia. Size
and age at m aturity w ere found to be 3 0 cm standard
length and three years respectively in India. A verage
le n g th at 5 0 % m a tu rity w a s d e te rm in e d at 3 . 8 v e a rs in
the Red
Sea. A single fem ale is estim ated to release betw een 1 2 , 0 0 0 and 7 8 , 0 0 0 eggs per year. Spawning in Belau is
reported
to take piace during the first half o f the lunar m onth. Significantly more and sm aller fem ales
than m ales
have been observed in populations in Australia.
M aximum observed age ( t m a x ) , a sym ptotic length ( U n f i n i t y ) , co e fficie n t o f grow th (K) and, rate o f natural m ortality
(M) have been d e te rm in e d fo r a n u m b e r o f p o p u la tio n s o f L. le n tja n . In th e Red Sea th e se w e re ca lcu la te d as: t m a x =
9
y e a rs ,
U n fin ity
=
5 1 .1
cm T L , K = 0 . 1 7 a n d , M = 0 . 4 2 . In s o u th e rn In d ia , e s tim a te s w e re : t m a x = 5 y e a rs , L i n f i m t y = 6 4
cm to ta l length and, K = 0 . 2 7 . In New C a le d o n ia th e se w e re estim a te d as: t m a x = 1 1 years, U n f i n i t y = 2 9 . 2 cm
sta n d a rd le n g th, K = 0 . 3 3 and, M = 0 . 8 2 . T he w e ig h t - le n g th re la tio n s h ip w a s d e te rm in e d as W (g) = 0 . 0 1 0 7 * L 3 0 9 0 4
( L = standard length in cm ) for the Red Sea population.
Size: M aximum size to about 50 cm total length, com m only to around 30 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries: Caught prim arily by handlines, traps, trawls, beach seines, and gillnets. M arketed m ostly fresh.
An im p orta n t fis h e ry resource in som e areas. In Saudi A ra b ia , th is sp e cie s cla im s the h ig h e st m arke t price fo r fin fish .
In Tuw w al, Saudi A rabia, separate catch statistics have been gathered fo r this species; annual to ta ls for 1981 and 1982
w e re 2 1 .4 and 2 8 .4 to n n e resp e ctive ly. T his ca tch rep re se n te d 8.1% and 9.8% re sp e ctive ly o f th e to ta l la n d in g s fo r
the area and a sto ck assessm ent indicated that the stocks w ere fu lly exploited.
Local Names: AUSTRALIA: Pink-eared emperor, Purple-eared emperor; BELAU: Metngui; INDIA: Pig-face bream;
JAPAN:
Shim ofuri-fuefuki;
KUW AIT: Sheiry;
M ADAGASCAR: Tsangou;
PAPUA NEW GUINEA:
Dragi,
Gwasawa;
PHILIPPINES:
Batilya,Kilawan,
Katambak;
SAUDI
ARABIA:
Shaoor,
Sheiry;
SOUTH
AFRICA:
Redspot
emperor,
Rooikol-keiser; TANZANIA: Changu, Changu n'jana.
Literature: G loerfelt-Tarp & Kailola (1984); Grant (1982); Lee (1986, as L. m a h s e n o id e s and L . lentjan)', M asuda et a f
(1984); Randall (1983); Sainsbury et a f (1985); S chroeder (1980); Sm ith (1959, 1986).
Remarks: There has been speculation that L. o p e rc u la ris should be recognized as a separate species because it lacks
sca le s in th e pectoral axil and d oes not have a red m ark on the base o f the p e ctora l fin. I have exa m in e d h u n dre d s o f
fre sh s p e cim e n s o f the 'o p e rc u la ris ' and 'le n tja n ' fo rm s in the P hilippines, T hailand, and, th e A ra b ia n G u lf and, looked
at m useum specim ens from m any localities. There are no consistent differences in red m arkings as all populations
o b se rve d had a red p o ste rio r m argin o f th e o p e rcle and u su a lly but not a lw a ys a red m ark at th e base o f th e pectoral
fin. There are co n siste nt d iffe re n ce s in scalation o f the pectoral axil fo r diffe re n t location w ithin th is species.
L e th rin u s le n tja n populations around the Indian O cean m ost frequently have the axil o f the pectoral fin densely
scaled. In th e P h ilipp in e s, th e pectoral axil is m ost fre q u e n tly naked, s o m e tim e s w ith a fe w sca le s in the lo w e r part o f
the axil. In eastern Australia it is variable, specim ens having a densely scaled, partially scaled or a naked pectoral axil.
A ll o th e r c h a ra c te rs are c o n sta n t b e tw e e n p o p u la tio n s o f L. le n tja n . T he a llo p a tric d iffe re n c e s in p e cto ra l axil
scalation appear to be population variation.
L e th rin u s m ah s en a (F o rs s k â l, 1775)
LETH Leth 12
Fig. 127, Plate V, 28,29
S c ia e n a m a h s e n a Forsskâl, 1775, Descrip. A n im a l., :xi, 52 (Arabia).
Synonyms: L e th rin u s a b b re v ia tu s
s a n g u in e u s Smith (1955).
FAO Names: En - Sky emperor.
a. s a n g u in e u s
pattern
V a le n cie n n e s
(1830);
L e th rin u s
c a e ru le u s
V a le n cie n n e s
(1830);
L e th rin u s
b. m a h s e n a
pattern
Fig. 127
I
I.
D ia g n o s tic Features: B ody re la tive ly deep, its de p th 2.3 to 2.5 tim e s in sta n da rd length. Head length 0.8 to 0 .9 tim e s
in body d epth, 2 .7 to 2 .9 tim e s in sta n d a rd length, d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye n e a rly straig h t; sn o u t m o d e ra tly sh o rt, its
length a b o ut 1.7 to 2.3 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t the lip th e sn o u t is 1.0 to 1.1
tim e s
in c h e e k height, its
d o rsa l p ro file n e a rly s tra ig h t o r s lig h tly co n ca ve , sn o u t a n g le re la tive to u p p e r ja w b e tw e e n 60 and 80 d e g re e s;
in te ro rb ita l sp a ce convex; p o s te rio r n ostril an oblo n g lo n g itu d in a l op e ning , c lo se r to o rb it th a n to a n te rio r n ostril or
s lig h tly c lo s e r to a n te rio r n o stril th a n to orbit; eye situ a ted clo se to o r rem oved from th e d o rsa l p ro file , its le n g th 3.3
to 5.5 tim e s in head le n g th; c h e e k high, its length 1.9 to 2 .5 tim e s in head length; la te ra l
te e th
in ja w s rou n d e d or
m olars; o u te r s u rfa ce o f m axilla u su a lly w ith a lo n g itu d in a l ridge. D orsal fin w ith 10 s p in e s and 9 so ft rays, th e third
or fo u rth d o rsa l sp in e th e lo n g e st, its length 2.9 to 3.8 tim e s in body d epth; anal fin w ith 3 sp in e s and 8 soft rays, the
firs t soft ray u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its le n g th a lm o st eq u al to o r g re a te r th a n th e le n g th o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra y e d
portion o f the anal fin and 0.7 to 0.8
tim es in the length o f the entire analfin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin
m em branes betw een the rays closest to
the body w ith or w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-fine scales usually 46
to 48; c h e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 1/2 sca le row s b e tw e en la te ra l fin e
and base o f m iddle do rsa l fin sp in e s; u su a lly 15 or
16 sca le row s in tra n sve rse se ries b etw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 14 o r 15 row s in lo w e r series o f
scales around caudal peduncle; 3 to 6 scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin d e n sely covered
w ith s c a le s ; p o s te rio r a n g le o f o p e rc u lu m fu lly s c a le d . C o lo u r: head p u rp lis h g re y, s o m e tim e s w ith a red b lo tc h on
nape; body ye llow to greenish-blue, lighter ventrally, usually
w ith n in e o r te n d u s k y y e llo w -g re e n o r b ro w n b a rs; b a se o f
s c a le s s o m e tim e s d a rk; a red b a r at b a se o f p e c to ra l fin ,
som etim es extending broadly below and above pectoral fin base
to edge o f operculum ; base o f upper and som etim es cow er rays
o f pectoral fin red; base and tip s o f pelvic fin often red;
m em b ran e s o f dorsal fin red (som e tim es restricte d to base o f fin);
anal fin w hitish, w ith the m em b ran e s b etw een the fo rw a rd rays
often red; caudal fin, e specially the tips, reddish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : W estern Indian Ocean,
Red Sea, East Africa to Sri Lanka (Fig. 128).
including the
H abitat and B iology:
Inhabits coral reefs and a d jacent sandy
and seagrass areas to depths o f 100 m. Feeds prim arily on
e ch in o de rm s (m ost freq u e n tly sea urchins), crustaceans, and
fis h e s ;
m olluscs,
tunicates,
sponges,
polychaetes
and
other
w o rm s are consum ed in lesser quantities.
A t Saya de M alha, th is sp ecies w as observed to be a p rotogynous
herm aphrodite.
Sex change w as found
to co m m o n ly occur
b e tw een th e ages o f 5 and 6 years. F ecu n d ity ranged betw een
26 700 and
166 200 eggs per mature female.
Peaks in
reproductive m aturity w ere observed in O ctober and Novem ber
but this w as variable depending on locality.
71
Estim ates o f asym ptotic length ( U n f i n i t y ) and c o e fficie n t o f gro w th (K) have been m ade fo r the G u lf o f A den:
58.9 cm fo rk length and K = 0.32.
Size:
[ i n f in i t y =
Maximum reported size 65 cm total length, com m only 35 to 45 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries: Caught m ainly w ith handlines, traps, and traw ls. C onsidered
a re a s o f the Red Sea but in so m e a re a s around the Indian O cean it s o m e tim e s has
taste. M arketed m ostly fresh. C onsiderably im portant in fish e rie s w h e re it occurs.
fisheries. A t Saya de M alha it is the m ain species fished by handlines (annual landings around
an excellent food fish in m ost
an u n p le a sa n t 'co ra l' sm ell and
An im portant species in som e
2 0 0 0 1).
Local
Names: JAPAN: Iso-fuefuki; KENYA: Changu tuku; LACCADIVES: Filolu, Metti; MAURITIUS: Dame berri,
Dame berri blanc; SAUDI ARABIA: Shaoor, Sheiry; SEYCHELLES: Lascar; SOUTH AFRICA: Sky emperor, Hemelkeiser; TANZANIA: Changu.
Literature: Randall (1983); Sato in Fischer & Bianchi (eds) (1984); Smith, J.L.B. (1959); Smith, M.M. (1986).
Remarks: The nam e L. s a n g u in e u s is so m e tim e s a pplied to the form o f th is sp e cie s w ith a b righ t red ob liq u e stre a k
from above to below the pectoral fin base. I have exam ined the types o f both L. m a h s e n a and L. s a n g u in e u s and
num erous specim ens that have been recorded as one colour type or the oth er and can find no m orphological
diffe re n ce s betw een the tw o form s. M oreover, I have exam ined a num ber o f co lo u r photographs and find the red
m arking to be highly v a ria b le w ith in te rm e d ia te s b etw een the 'red sa sh ' (s a n g u in e u s ) and th e red pectoral base form
(L. m ah sena). The in te n sity o f red on the fin m em b ran e s a lso w a xe s and w a n e s co n co m m ita n tly w ith the in te n sity o f
th e 'red sash'. I have no d e fin ite h yp o th e sis fo r th e cause o f va ria tio n in th e red co lo u r form s; v a ria tio n could perhaps
be due to a p o p u la tio n , e n viro n m e n ta l o r re p ro d u ctive m ech a n ism . B ecause o f th e va ria tio n in c o lo u r and no
apparent m orphological differences, I recognize only one species.
Lethrinus microdon V a le n c ie n n e s , 1830
L e th rin u s m ic ro d o n
Fig. 129, Plate V, 30 and Plate VI, 31
LETH Leth 14
V alenciennes in C. & V., 1830 H ist.nat.poiss., 6: 295 (Bourou).
Synonyms: L e th rin u s e lo n g a tu s Valenciennes, 1830; L e th rin u s acu tu s Klunzinger, 1884.
FAO Names: Bí - Smalltooth emperor.
Fig. 129
72
Diagnostic Features: Body relatively elongate, its depth 2.9 to 3.4 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.1 to 1.2
tim e s in body d epth, 2 .6 to 3.0 tim e s in sta n da rd length, d orsal p rofile n e a r eye n early straig h t; sn o u t m o d e ra tly long,
its length a b o u t 1.8 to 2 .2 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t th e lip the sn o u t is 0.7 to 0 .8 tim e s in ch e e k height,
its dorsal profile slightly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 47 and 57 degrees; interorbital space
convex to flat; p o sterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to a n terio r nostril; eye situated
dose to o r rem oved from th e d o rsa l profile, its le n g th 4 .0 to 6 .2 tim e s in head length; c h e e k not high, its length 2.7 to
3.4 tim e s in head length; la te ra l te e th in ja w s co n ica l; o u te r su rfa ce o f m axilla sm oo th . D orsal fin w ith 10 sp in e s and
9 soft rays, th e th ird or fo u rth d o rsa l sp in e the longest, its length 2 .4 to 3 .0 tim e s in b ody d epth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s
and 8 s o ft rays, th e firs t so ft ray u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its length a lm o st eq u al to or sh o rte r th a n th e length o f th e base
o f th e so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f the anal fin and 0.6 to 0 .7 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13;
pe lvic fin m e m b ra n e s b e tw e en th e rays clo se st to th e body w ith or w ith o u t d e n se m elan o p h o re s. L a te ra l-fin e sca le s
47 or 48; c h e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 4 % sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; 16 o r 17
sca le row s in tra n s v e rs e se rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f a n a l fin and la te ra l line; u su a lly 15 row s in lo w e r se rie s o f s c a le s
aro u n d ca u d a l p e d un cle ; 9 to 11 (ra re ly fe w e r) sca le s in su p ra te m p o ra l patch; in n e r su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin d e n se ly
covered w ith scales; p osterior angle o f operculum fully scaled. Colour: body bluish grey or brow n o fte n w ith
scattered irregular dark blotches on sides; so m e tim e s three dark streaks radiating forw ard from eye; fins pale or
orangish.
Geographical Distribution:
W ide-spread
in
the
Indo-W est Pacific, including the Red Sea, Arabian
(P e rs ia n ) G ulf, East A fric a to Sri Lanka, to th e R yukyu
Islands and Papua New Guinea (Fig. 130).
Habitat and Biology: In h a b its s a n d y a re a s n e a r
coral re e fs to d e p th s o f a ro u n d 80 m. S w im s in sm all
schools,
som etim es
to g eth e r
w ith
L e th rin u s
o liv a c e u s .
Feeds
prim arily on fish , crustaceans,
cephalopods and polychaetes during both night and
day. Spaw ning in Belau occurs thro u g h o u t m ost o f
the year, during the first five days o f the lunar
m onth, near the edge o f reefs.
E stim a te s o f a s ym p to tic le n g th ( L m f m i t y ) , co e fficie n t
o f g ro w th (K) and rate o f na tura l m o rta lity (M) have
been m ade for the population in the w aters around
D jib o u ti: L i n f i n i t y = 8 2 cm to ta l le n g th , K = 0 .2 1 3 ,
and M = 0.4.
Fig. 130
Size: Maximum size to around 70 cm, com m only 30
to 50 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries: C aught m ostly w ith handlines, traps, gili nets and traw ls. An excellent food fish. M arketed
m ostly fresh.
Local
Names:
longue;
SAUDI
myamvi, Roba.
BELAU:
ARABIA:
Literature: G loerfelt-Tarp
Mechur;
Shoor,
&
JAPAN:
Sheiry;
Kailola (1984);
Oo-fuefuki;
SEYCHELLES:
M asuda
et a f
KENYA: Nyavi,
Gueule longue;
(1984); Randall
Nyamvi;
MAURITIUS:
TANZANIA:
Changu
(1983,
Capitaine
n'domo,
gueule
Changu
as L e th rin u s elongatus)',
Shen
(1984).
Remarks: The syn o n ym s fo r th is sp ecies are often co n fuse d w ith w h a t is recognized here as L. o liv a c e u s . The cause o f
this confusion is the m isconception that the num ber o f scales above the lateral line to the base o f the m iddle dorsal
spines is variable in L. olivaceus. I find that this ch a ra cte r is very consistent but that snout length varies allom etrically;
there is considerable overlap in the ratio o f length o f snout from a n terior nostril m easured w ithout the lip, to cheek
length, betw een sp e cie s o f L. m ic ro d o n and L. o livaceus, depending on the overall size o f the specim en exam ined.
A n o th e r ch a ra cte r w hich I have found useful (but not 100% reliable) in confirm ing the identity o f this sp ecies is the
num ber o f scales in the supratem poral patch. There are usually 9 to 11 o f these in L. m ic ro d o n and 7 o r 8 in L.
o liv a c e u s (Table 8).
L e th rin u s e lo n g a tu s is the sam e species as L. m ic ro d o n and w ould seem to have page priority o ve r L. m ic ro d o n . A s
firs t re v is o rs h o w e ve r w e ch o o se the nam e L. m ic ro d o n to take precedence, since it has been used m ore often in the
literature (R andall and W h e e le r have a paper currently in press that fo llo w s th is sam e precedence).
73
L e t h r i n u s m i n i a t u s (Schneider, 1801)
Fig. 131, Plate VI, 32-34
LETH L e th 26
Sparus m iniatus S chneider in Bloch & Schneider, 1801, S yst.lch th y., : 281 (New Caledonia).
Synonyms: Lethrinus chrysostomus R ichardson (1848); L eth rin u s im p e ria lis DeVis (1884a); L eth rinu s am am ianus
A kazaki (1962).
FAO Names:
En - T ru m p e t e m p e ro r
a. silve ry pattern
b.
barred pattern
Fig. 131
Diagnostic Features: Body fairly deep, its depth 2.4 to 2.8 tim es in standard length. Head length 0.9 to 1.0 tim es in
body depth, 2.6 to 2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye slig h tly convex; snout m oderatly long, its
length a b o u t 1.8 to 2 .2 tim e s in head length, m ea su re d w ith o u t th e lip th e sn o u t is 0 .9 to 1.0 tim e s in c h e e k height, its
dorsal profile slightly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w between 50 and 65 degrees; interorbital space
convex to flat; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to a n terior nostril; eye situated
c lo s e to d o rs a l p ro file , its le n g th 4 .0 to 5 .4 tim e s in head le n g th; c h e e k m o d e ra tly high, its le n g th 2.1 to 2 .9 tim e s in
74
head length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical; o uter surface o f m axilla sm ooth or with a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin
w ith 10 spines and 9 soft rays, the third dorsal spine usually the longest, its length 2.3 to 2.9 tim es in body depth; anal
fin w ith 3 spines and 8 soft rays, the first or second soft ray usually the longest, its length alm ost equal to or slightly
longer than the length o f the base o f the soft-rayed portion o f the anal fin and 0.7 to 0.8 tim es in the length o f the
e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13; pe lvic fin m e m b ra n e s b e tw e en the rays clo se st to th e body u su a lly w ith dense
m elan o p h o re s. L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 47 or 48; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % sca le row s b e tw e en la te ra l line and base o f
m iddle d orsal fin spines; 15 to 17 sca le row s in tra n sve rse s e rie s b etw een o rig in o f anal fin and lateral line; u su a lly 15
row s in lo w e r s e rie s o f sca le s a ro u n d ca u d al pe d un cle ; 4 to 6 sca le s in su p ra te m p o ra l patch; in n e r su rfa ce o f pectoral
fin w ith o u t scales, p a rtia lly covered w ith sca le s or, d e n sely covered w ith scales; po sterio r angle o f operculum fully
scaled. Colour: body silvery, tan o r yellow ish, the base o f sca le s often black, often a series o f eight or nine d a rk bars;
base o f pectoral fin red; som etim es a red streak originating on upper operculum , passing beneath eye and on to
snout; tw o red spots often on upper rim o f eye; lips reddish; fins pale or reddish, som etim es brilliant red on
m em branes near base o f pelvic fin, and betw een spinous rays o f dorsal and anal fin.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : N o r t h e r n
A u s tr a lia ,
Coral Sea and New Caledonia, and the Ryukyu Islands
(Fig. 132).
Habitat
and B iology: Inhabits coral reefs during
the
daytim e
w h e re
it
fe e ds o cca sio n ally in sand
and
rubble areas betw een coral heads. A t night-tim e they
m ove out o ve r the sandy sea flo o r sourrounding the
re e f and fora g e actively. Found at d ephs betw een 5
and 30
m, usually in sm all schools. The major food
item s are crustaceans, echinoderm s, m olluscs and fish,
w ith
cra b s
and
sea
sp e cie s sp aw ns an n ua lly
u rch in s
b etw een
predom inating.
This
July and A u g u st in
Australia.
Mean
m aximum
egg
diam eters
are
recorded as
0.91 mm in the breeding season. A
predom inance o f fe m a le s and average sm aller size o f
fem ales
than
m ales
have
been
observed
in
the
A ustralian
population.
Sexual
m aturity
is
reached
b e tw e en th e a g e s o f tw o and th re e years.
O bservations o f m axim um
age ( t m a x ) , and e s tim a te s
o f a s y m p to tic le n g th ( L m f m i t y ) , c o e ffic ie n t o f g ro w th
(K), and rate o f na tura l m o rta lity (M) have been m ade
fo r tw o p o p u la tio n s . In A u s tra lia (G ra n t B a rrie r R e e f)
Fig. 132
th e y are: L m f m i t y = 5 8 .5 cm sta n da rd length, K = 0.17. In New C a le d o n ia th e y are: t m a x = 22 ye a rs fo r m ales and 14
ye a rs fo r fe m a le s, L m f m i t y = 4 8 .9 cm sta n da rd length fo r m ales and 45 .7 cm sta n da rd length fo r fe m a le s, K = 0 .2 6 fo r
m ales and 0.27 for fem ales, and M = 0.60 for m ales and 0.63 for fem ales. The w eight-length relationship w as
determ ined as W (g) = 0.1003* L 2.8125 ( L = s ta n d a rd le n g th in cm ) fo r m a le s and W (g) = 0 .2 0 2 0 * L 3.0904 ( L =
standard length in cm ) fo r fem ales in the Grant Barrier R eef population.
S iz e : M a x im u m s iz e re p o rte d to a ro u n d 90 cm to ta l le n g th a n d a b o u t 9 kg.
In te re s t to Fisheries: C aught p rim a rily by han dlin es or dro p lin e s. One o f the fa vo urite food and sport fish e s around
the G rant Barrier Reef. L e th rin u s m in ia tu s has contributed around 4% to the total com m ercial catch o f New
Caledonia although it is o ccasionally im plicated in case o f fish poisoning (ciguatoxin). Around som e o f the islands o f
New C aledonia th is species is regularly discarded because o f the high freq u e n cy o f to xic specim ens. The dropline
fishery at N orfolk Island is dom inated by this species.
L ocal
N a m e s : AUSTRALIA: Red-throated emperor,
rouge; NO R FO LK ISLAND: Sweetlip emperor, Trumpeter.
L ite ra tu r e : Listed as L. chrysostom us. A llen
(1982); S ainsbury et al. (1985).
Sweetlip,
& Steene
Upper,
(1987);
Tricky
snapper;
Burgess & Axelrod
N EW
(1976);
CALEDO NIA:
Colem an
(1981);
Gueule
Grant
R e m a rk s : The nam e m ost frequently applied to this species has been L. c h rysostom us and the name L. m in ia tu s has
m ost often been used fo r w hat is recognized here as L. o liv a c e u s . Randall & W heeler (in press) exam ined the
iconotype o f L. m in ia tu s and found the colour pattern incontrovertibly recognizable as the species previously
recognized as L. chrysostom us.
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75
Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskâl, 1775)
Fig. 133, Plate VI, 35, 36
LETH Leth 15
S c ia e n a n e b u lo s a Forsskâl, 1775, D e scrip .A n im a L xi, 52 (Arabia).
Synonym s:
L e th rin u s c h o e ro ry n c h u s Bloch & S chneider (1801); L e th rin u s a lb o g u tta tu s V a le n cie n n e s (1830);
L e th rin u s
c e n tu rio V a le n cie n n e s
(1830);
L e th rin u s
e ry th ru ru s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s e s c u le n tu s
V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s fa s c ia tu s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s fra e n a tu s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s
g o th o fre d i V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s k a rw a V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s k o r e ly V a le n cie n n e s (1830);
L e th rin u s m a c u la tu s V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L e th rin u s c y a n o x a n th u s R ichardson (1843); L e th rin u s a n a ta riu s
Richardson (1844); L e th rin u s g u n th e ri Bleeker (1873); L e th rin u s a u r o lin e a tu s M acleay (1883); L e th rin u s s c o p a riu s
Gilchrist & Thom pson (1908); L e th rin u s c a rin a tu s W e b e r (1913); L e th rin u s d e v is ia n u s W hitley (1929); L e th rin u s
p e rs e le c tu s W hitley (1933).
FAO N am es: En - S p a n g le d e m p e ro r.
a. adult
b. juvenile
Fig. 133
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body m o d e ra te ly deep, its d e p th 2 .5 to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n da rd length. Head length 0 .9 to 1.0
tim e s in body d epth, 2 .6 to 2 .9 tim e s in sta n da rd length, d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye n e a rly straig h t, or in large ind ivid u a ls,
d is tin c tly co n ca ve; sn o u t m o d e ra tly long, its le n g th a b o ut 1.8 to 2 .3 tim e s in head length, m ea su re d w ith o u t th e lip
the snout is 0.8 to 1.0 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile nearly straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w
betw een 50 and 65 degrees; interorbital space usually convex; posterior nostril an oblong longitudinal opening,
clo se r to orbit than to a n terior nostril or, about halfw ay betw een orbit and a n terior nostril; eye rem oved from dorsal
p ro file e xce p t in so m e sm all in d ivid u a ls it is situ a ted fa irly dose to do rsa l profile, its length 3 .8 to 5.5 tim e s in head
length; cheek m oderatly high, its length 2.6 to 3.0 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s rounded w ith points or
m olars that often have tubercles; outer surface o f m axilla sm ooth or with a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10
s p in e s and 9 s o ft rays, th e fo u rth or fifth d o rsa l sp in e u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its le n g th 2 .8 to 3 .5 tim e s in body depth;
anal fin w ith 3 spines and 8 soft rays, the first soft ray usually the longest, its length a lm ost equal to or slig h tly shorter
th a n th e length o f the base o f th e so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0 .6 to 0 .8 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire
anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em b ran e s betw een the rays closest to the body usually w ith dense
m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 46 to 48; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 5 % scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f
m iddle dorsal fin spines; 16 or 17 scale row s in tran sve rse series betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 15
row s in lo w e r s e rie s o f s c a le s a ro u n d ca u d a l p e d u n cle ; 5 to 9 s c a le s in s u p ra te m p o ra l patch; in n e r su rfa c e o f p e c to ra l
76
fin d e n sely covered w ith scales; p o ste rio r angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. Colour: body ye llo w ish o r bronze, lighter
below, centers o f m any scales w ith a w h ite or light blue spot, som etim es irregular d a rk indistinct bars on sides and a
square black blotch above pectoral fin bordering below the lateral line; three blue streaks o r series o f blue spots
radiating forw ard and ve n tra lly from eye; fins w h itish o r yellow ish, th e pelvic dusky, the edge o f the dorsal fin
reddish.
Geographical
Distribution
W id e ­
spread
in
the
Indo-W est
Pacific
including Red Sea and Arabian (Persian)
Gulf, East A frica to southern Japan and
Sam oa (Fig. 134).
Habitat
and
Biology:
Inhabits
n e a rsh o re
and
o ffsh ore
coral
reefs,
coralline
lagoons,
se a g ra ss
beds,
m angrove sw a m ps and, coastal sand
and rock areas, to depths o f 75 m.
A dults occur alone or in sm all schools;
ju v e n ile s form large schools in shallow,
sheltered sandy areas. Feeds prim arily
on
e c h in o d e rm s ,
crustaceans, and to
m o llu s c s
and
a lesser extent on
p o lych a e te s and fish.
Fig. 134
Spaw ning activity has been reported to peak betw een April and July in the northern Red Sea, in March to May and
S eptem ber in the G u lf o f Aden, betw een M ay and June in the northern Arabian (Persian) Gulf, in July and A ugust in
A u s tra lia and, b e tw e en Ju ly and O cto b e r in New C a le d o n ia. M ean age at firs t se xual m a tu rity w a s fo u nd as 4 .6 ye a rs
for m ales and 5.9 years for fem ales in
the northern Red Sea. In the northern Arabian (Persian) Gulf, m aturity is
reached at aro u n d age th re e fo r m ales and a ge fo u r fo r fe m a le s. Length o f larval life w a s fo u nd
to be 37 d a ys (19.1
mm SL) for one individual that first settled on a coral re e f o f the G reat Barrier Reef, Australia.
E stim a te s o f m axim um age ( t m a x ) , a s y m p to tic length ( L m f m i t y ) , c o e ffic ie n t o f g ro w th (K), and rate o f n a tu ra l m o rta lity
(M) have been m ade fo r a n u m b e r o f p o p u la tio n s. In the n o rth e rn Red S ea th e se are: L m f m i t y = 86 cm to ta l le n g th, K
= 0.11, M = 0.3. In th e G u lf o f A d e n th e y have
b een e s tim a te d
as: t m a x = 21 ye a rs, L m f m i t y =
7 1 .6 cm fo rk length,
8 5 .9 cm fo rk length, 8 7 .0 cm fo rk length and 9 9 .9 cm to ta l length, K = 0.21, 0.101, 0.1 and 0.09, and M = 0 .8 8 and M
= 0.44. In the northern Arabian (Persian) G u lf they are:
tm a x
= 20 years, L i n f i n i t y = 6 2 .7 cm to ta l le n g th , K = 0 .1 9 ,
and M = 0.36. In Papua New G uinea
th e y are estim ated as: L i n f i n i t y = 54 .7 and 55.8 cm fo rk length, K = 0.41 and
0 .3 1, and M = 0 .7 4 and 0.56. In Fiji th e y are: L i n f i n i t y = 8 0 .0 cm fo rk le n g th, K = 0.23, M = 0.5 1. In New C a le d o n ia
th e y are : t m a x = 24 ye a rs fo r m a le s and 27 y e a rs fo r fe m a le s , L i n f i n i t y = 5 0 .9 cm sta n d a rd le n g th fo r m a le s and 5 4 .3 cm
sta n d a rd le n g th fo r fe m a le s, K = 0 .2 2 fo r m ales and 0.21 fo r fe m a le s, and M = 0 .5 4 fo r m ales and 0.51 fo r fe m a le s.
Le n gth - w e ig h t re la tio n s h ip s h ave b een e stim a te d as: to ta l w e ig h t W (g) = 0 .0 1 7 3 *L 301 (L = to ta l le n g th in cm ) in
the Arabian (Persian Gulf) and, total w eight W (g) = 0.0161 *L2 97 (L = total length in cm) in the northern Red Sea.
S iz e : M aximum total length to around 80 cm, com m only between 20 and 50 cm total length.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : T aken by handlines, traps, traw ls, seines and gili nets. It is considered one
o f the best food
fishes in m any countries, although in a few areas in the Indian O cean it is said to som etim es have a disagreeable
coppery or iodine taste and sm ell. M arketed m ostly fresh. A favorite sport fish in Kuwait and A u stra lia because it is a
pow erful and determ ined a dversary on
a line. A ve ry
im portant com m ercial fish in som e countries. In
New
C a ld e d o n ia it is th e m ost im p o rta n t c o m m e rc ia l fis h , re p o rte d to c o m p ris e a ro u n d 2 5 % o f th e to ta l c o m m e rc ia l ca tch .
In Japan, research has been conducted that indicates this species m ay be used in aquaculture. In China, this species is
being cultured in sea cages. It has been show n that L. n e b u lo s u s can survive fo r long periods in salin itie s as low as 10
parts per thousand and therefore it is a potential estuarine aquaculture species.
L ocal N a m e s : AUSTRALIA: Spangled em peror, Sand snapper, N or'-w est snapper, Y e llo w sw eetlip;
JA P A N :
H a m afuefuki;
KENYA:
Changu
nyamvi,
Tukwana,
Kiuwa; KUW AIT:
Sheiry; MAURITIUS:
Créole,Capitaine
créole,
Capitaine;
MOZAMBIQUE:
Husutoni,Ladrao,
Tsongue,
Phelele;
NEW
CALDEDONIA: Bec
de
cane,
Lethrinus
nuageux;
PAKISTAN:
Gadeer,
Mulla,
Starry
pigface bream;
PHILIPPINES:
Bitilya,
Katambak, Kilawan;
SAUDI
ARABIA: Shaoor m ehseny, Sheiry; SEYCHELLES:
Capitaine
rouge, Eclair; SOUTH AFRICA: Blue emperor,
Blou keiser;
SRI LANKA: Pulii vella meen, Vella meen; TANZANIA: Changu tewa, Changu m'zizi, Changu koko, M'changu.
77
Literature: G loerfelt-Tarp & Kailola (1984); Fourm anoir & Laboute (1976); Grant (1982); Lee (1986);
(1984); Randall (1983); Sainsbury et aL (1985); Schroeder (1980); Smith, J.L.B. (1959); Smith, M.M. (1986).
M asuda
et aL
Remarks: T his sp e cie s has had m ore n a m e s ap p lie d to it th a n any o th e r lethrinid. It is w id e sp re a d and ve ry com m on
thro u g h o u t its range w hich is the perhaps the mai n reason fo r the long list o f synonym s; it is easily recognizable both
fresh and preserved.
See also rem arks under L . la tic a u d is .
L e th rin u s o b s o le tu s (Forsskâl, 1775)
Fig. 135, Plate VI, 37
LETH Leth 16
S c ia e n a o b s o le ta Forsskâl, 1775, Descrip.Anim al , :xi, 52 (Arabia).
Synonyms: S c ia e n a ra m a k Forsskâl (1775); L e th rin u s c u ta m b i Seale (1909 ).
FAO Names: En - O range-striped emperor.
Jm .
Fig. 135
Diagnostic Features : Body m oderately deep, its depth 2.6 to 2.9 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.0 to 1.1
tim es in body depth, 2.6 to 2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye nearly straight or slightly convex;
snout length about 1.8 to 2.3 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek
height, its dorsal profile slightly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 50 and 60 degrees; interorbital
space convex; p o sterio r n ostril an longitudinal opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated close to
or rem oved from dorsal profile, its length 3.5 to 5.0 tim es in head length; cheek length 2.5 to 3.2 tim es in head
length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical or rounded; o uter surface o f m axilla w ith a distinct knob. Dorsal fin w ith 10
s p in e s and 9 soft rays, th e fo u rth o r fifth d orsal sp in e th e
lo n g e st, its length 2 .5 to 3 .4 tim e s in body d epth; anal fin
w ith 3 sp ines and 8 soft rays, the first soft ray usually the
longest, its length e ith e r alm ost equal to, longer, o r shorter
th a n th e le n g th o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra ye d p o rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0 .7 to 0 .8 tim e s in th e le n g th o f the e n tire
anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes b e tw e e n th e rays closest to the body w ith o u t dense
m elan o p h o re s. L a te ra l-lin e sca le s 45 to 48; c h e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 5 % sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f
m iddle dorsal fin spines; 15 or 16 scale row s in tran sve rse series betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 15
row s in co w e r se ries o f sca le s around caudal peduncle; usually 5 to 7 sca le s in su p ra te m po ra l patch; inner surface o f
pectoral fin densely covered with scales; posterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. Colour: body light tan or olive to
brow n, lig h te r below ; c e n te rs o f sca le s often lig h te r th a n
b a ckg ro u n d co lo u r; an o ra n g e -y e llo w strip e on lo w e r side
at the level o f the pectoral fin base, w ith tw o a d ditional m ore fa in t ora n g e -yellow stripe s above and one below this
stripe; head often w ith several broad indistinct vertical and diagonal light and dark bands; som etim es w hite spots
below eye; posterior edge o f operculum dark brown; fin s w hitish or tan, som etim es m ottled.
78
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n
W id e sp re a d
in th e In d o-W e st P a cific inclu d in g th e Red
Sea, East Africa to the Ryukyu Islands,
Tonga and Sam oa (Fig. 136).
Y
»•
,i}y
Habitat and B iology:
Inhabits
seagrass
beds,
and
sand
and
rubble areas
of
lagoons and reefs to depths o f
around 30
m. Feeds m ostly on crustaceans, m olluscs
and echinoderm a. In Belau it is reported
to spaw n at the o u ter re e f edge on the
first five days o f the lunar m onth, from
November
through
April.
Maximum
reported age fo r th is sp e cie s is 14 years.
S iz e :
Maximum
60 cm, com m only
total length.
total length
between 20
reported as
and 30 cm
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
Caught
m ostly
by
trap s and shore seines, o cca sio n ally by
gillnets,
handlines
and
trawls.
Marketed
m ostly fresh.
Fig. 136
Local
N a m e s : AUSTRALIA:
O range-striped
emperor;
BELAU:
Chudch;
JAPAN:
Tateshim a-fuefuki;
LACCADIVES:
Metti;
NEW
CALEDONIA:
Bossu
d'herbe;
PHILIPPINES:
Bitilya,
Katambak,
Kilawan;
SAMOA:
Magauli,
Mailafo'u;
SEYCHELLES: Dame berry, Lascar; SOUTH AFRICA: Orange-stripe em peror, O ranjestreep-keiser; SRI LANKA: Hini
gadeya, Velia meen; TANZANIA: Changu, Njana.
L ite ra tu r e : G rant (1982);
M asuda et a f
(1984, as
L. ramak)', M yers (1989, as
L. ramak)', S ch ro e de r (1980, as
L.
variegatus)', S m ith (1 9 5 9 ); S m ith (1 9 8 6 , as L. ram ak).
R e m a rk s : T h e re h a s b e e n d o u b t e x p re s s e d as to th e c o rre c t d e s ig n a tio n o f th e F o rs s k â l ty p e fo r th is s p e c ie s . I h a ve
exam ined the type however, and found it to have the distinctive knob on the o uter surface o f the m axilla. There is
little doubt that the type has been designated correctly.
T he nam e Lethrinus ram ak has m ost fre q u e n tly been used fo r th is sp e cie s. S m ith (1959) how ever, d e m o n stra te d that
Forsskâl intended the term 'ram ak' as a listing o f the com m on nam e and obsoletus w a s intended fo r the sp ecies
name. The confusion occurred because Forsskâl first included the nam e in a species list (page xii) as: "Sciaena
o bsoleta : fla ve o -vio la ce o lineata. Ram ak.", and subsequently described the species on page 52: "Sciaena ram ak,
obsoleta" and ends the description: "Arab. Ram ak", w ith the nam e R am ak w ritten w ith A rabic letters. The inclusion
o f 'ra m a k ' w ith the genus nam e w as apparently a m anuscript error. Despite the obvious m anuscript error, the nam e
ram ak could still be co n stru e d as being a va ila b le to rep resent th is sp e cie s. Both n a m e s could be co n sid e re d a va ila b le ,
and both nam es are in the sam e publication; therefore, according to the Code o f Zoological Nom enclature, the first
re v is o r should ch o o se w h ich nam e to use. Sato (1971, 1978) chose to use L. ram ak based on the m ore co m m o n usage
o f this name, and because it had not been used fo r a period o f 50 years. The C ode o f Zoological N om enclature no
lo n g e r re c o g n iz e s th is as a p ro p e r ju s tific a tio n to releg a te a nam e to ju n io r syn o n ym y. S m ith w a s first re viso r and his
use o f L. obsoletus should be follow ed.
Lethrinus olivaceus Valenciennes, 1830
Fig. 137, Plate VII, 38
LETH Leth 5
Lethrinus olivaceus V alenciennes in C. & V., 1830 Hist.nat.Poiss., 6: 295 (Java).
Synonym s:
Lethrinus rostratus V a le n cie n n e s (1830); Lethrinus w aigiensis V a le n cie n n e s (1830); Lethrinus
xanthopterus (?) V a le n cie n n e s (1830); L eth rinu s lo n g iro s tris Playfair & G unther (1866); Lethrinus rostratus specificus
Borodin, 1932.
79
FAO Names: En - Longface em peror.
Diagnostic Features : Body m oderately elongate, its depth 3.0 to 3.3 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.1 to 1.3
tim es
in
body depth,
2.4 to
2.9 tim es
in standard
length, dorsal
profile
near eye
nearly
straight; snout length about
1.8 to 2.0 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.65 to 0.7 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal
profile slightly concave, in large individuals there is som etim es a
hum p on snout directly in front o f the eye, snout
angle relative to upper ja w betw een 40 and 50 degrees; interorbital space convex to flat; posterior nostril a
longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated close to or rem oved from dorsal
profile, its length 4.4 to 6.2 tim es in head length; cheek length 3.0 to 3.6 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s
c o n ica l; o u te r s u rfa ce o f m axilla sm oo th . D orsal fin w ith 10 s p in e s and 9 so ft rays, th e th ird or fo u rth d o rsa l sp in e the
lo n g e st, its length 2 .5 to 2.8 tim e s in body depth; anal fin w ith
3 s p in e s and
8 soft rays, th e firs t so ft ray u su a lly the
lo n g e st, its le n g th a lm o st e q u al to o r slig h tly s h o rte r th a n th e length o f th e base o f th e so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f th e anal
fin and 0.6 to 0.7 tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the
rays clo se st to th e body w ith d e n se m e la n o p h o re s. L a te ra l-fin e sca le s 46 to 48; c h e e k w ith o u t sca le s; 5 % sca le row s
b e tw e en lateral fin e and base o f m id dle do rsa l fin sp in e s; 16 or 17 (u su a lly 17) sca le row s in tra n sve rse se rie s betw een
origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 15 row s in low er series o f scales around caudal peduncle; usually 7 to 9 scales in
su p ra te m po ra l patch;
inner surface o f pectoral fin w ithout scales; p osterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. Colour:
b o d y grey, lig h te r v e n tra lly , o fte n w ith sca tte re d irre g u la r d a rk b lo tch e s; sn o u t w ith w a vy d a rk strea ks, u p p e r ja w ,
especially near corner o f m onth som etim es edged behind w ith red.
Geographical
Distribution : W idespread
in the Indo-W est Pacific, including the
Red Sea, East A frica to th e Ryukyu Islands
and Samoa (Fig. 138).
Habitat and Biology: Inhabits sandy
coastal areas, lagoons and re e f slopes,
occurring to depths o f 185 m; juveniles
are found in sh allow sa n d y areas. O ften
occurs in large schools. Feeds m ostly on
fish,
crusta ce a n s and
cephalopods.
In
Belau it sp aw ns thro u g h o u t the year on
the first fe w days o f the lu n a r m onth
along the e dges o f reefs.
Estim ates o f asym ptotic length ( L i n f i n i t y ) ,
c o e ffic ie n t o f g ro w th (K) and rate o f
natural m ortality (M) have been made for
a
population
in
Papua
New
Guinea:
L in fin ity
= 75.0 cm standard length, K =
0.25, and M = 0.59.
Fig. 138
80
Size:
Total length to 100 cm, com m only to 70 cm total length.
Interest to Fisheries: C a u g h t m ostly w ith h a n d lin e s and trap s, o c c a s io n a lly by tra w ls and g illn e ts. Large in d iv id u a ls
are often c ig u a to xic in New C a le d o n ia, th e T ua m o tus, th e M arq u e sa s, th e M arshall Islands, and p o ssib ly e lse w h e re in
O ceania. It is the object o f one o f the m ost im portant fisheries in Belau w here they are reportedly overfished. In both
Belau and Tahiti this species is actively fished in locations and tim es known to h ave la r g e s p a w n in g a g g r e g a t io n s .
Thirty-tw o specim ens o f this species from M ourea and the M arquesas w ere introduced to Hawaii in 1956 to enhance
fisheries, but three apparently did not becom e established.
Local
Names: A U S T R A L IA : Long-nosed em p e ro r; BE LAU : M langm ud; JA P A N : K itsu n e -fu e fu ki; KE N YA : Nyavi
Nyanvi; MAURITIUS: Kaya la gueule rouge; NEW CALEDONIA: Bec de cane malabar, Lethrinus à m useau long;
PAKISTAN: Gadeer, Mulla, Longnose pigface bream; PAPUA N EW GUINEA: Adia, Gawasa, Vanaka; PHILIPPINES
Batilya,
Katambak,
Kilawan, Sapingan;
POLYNESIA: Aaravi,
Guitora,
Meko, Odeo
uturoa, Tipuake;
SEYCHELLES:
Capitaine gueule longue; Gueule de vin; SOUTH AFRICA: Longnose emperor, Langneus-keiser; SRI LANKA: Hota
ula, Palu hakka, Thinan, Ura hota; TANZANIA: Changu-m dom o, Changu, Roba.
Literature: Bagnis et aL (1972, as L. m iniatus)', Fourm anoir & Laboute (1976, as L. m iniatus)', G loerfelt-Tare & Kailola
(1984, as L. elo n g a ta )', Lee (1986, as L. minutus)', M asuda et a f (1984 as L. m iniatus)', M yers (1989, as L. elongatus)',
Smith (1959, as L. m iniatus)', Smith (1986, as L. e lo n g a tu s ).
Remarks: The nam es m ost frequently applied to this species are L. e lo n g a tu s and L. m in ia tu s . A s mentioned
previously, the nam e L. m in ia tu s properly belongs to the species m ost com m only called L. chrysostom us. I have
e xa m in e d th e ty p e o f L. e lo n g a tu s and it is u n d o u b te d ly th e sa m e sp e cie s as L. m ic ro d o n . Two, and p o ssib ly th re e
o th e r n a m e s are a va ila b le fo r th is sp e cie s: L. ro s tra tu s , L. w a ig ie n s is , and p o ssib ly L. x a n th o p te ru s . The ty p e o f L.
o liv a c e u s is in e xce lle n t shape, w h ile th e typ e s o f L. w a ig ie n s is and L. ro s tra tu s are not and, th e re is no typ e spe cim e n
fo r L. x a n th o p te ru s . A s firs t revisor, I ch o o se th e nam e L. o liv a c e u s on th e b a sis o f page p rio rity and th e a d va nta g e o f
having a type specim en in good condition (this is also being follow ed in a paper currently in press by Randall and
W heeler).
L e th rin u s o rn a tu s Valenciennes, 1830
Fig. 139, Plate VII, 39
LETH Leth 7
L e th rin u s o rn a tu s V a le n cie n n e s in C. & V., 1830 H ist.nat.poiss., 6: 310 (Java).
Synonyms: L e th rin u s x a n th o ta e n ia Bleeker(1851 b); L e th rin u s in s u lin d ic u s Bleeker (1873)
FAO Names: En - O rnate emperor.
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81
D ia g n o s tic Features: Body re la tive ly deep, its d e p th 2 .4 to 2 .6 tim e s in sta n d a rd length. Head length 0 .8 to 0 .9 tim e s
in body depth, 2.7 to 3.0 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye convex; snout length 2.0 to 2.5 tim es in
head length, m easured w ith o u t the tip th e sn o u t is 0.9 to 1.0 tim e s in ch e e k height, its do rsa l profile ne a rly stra ig h t or
slightly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 65 and 75 degrees; interorbital space convex; posterior
nostril a longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated close to dorsal profile, its
length 3.4 to 3.7 tim es in head length; cheek length 2.3 to 2.9 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s rounded
w ith points or m olars; o u ter surface o f m axilla usually sm ooth, so m e tim e s w ith a lo n gitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith
10 s p in e s and 9 soft rays, the fo u rth or fifth d orsal spine the longest, its length 2.7 to 3.2 tim e s in body depth; anal fin
w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 soft rays, th e first soft ray usu a lly th e longest, its length lo n g e r th a n the length o f the base o f the
so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0 .7 to 0.8 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13; pelvic
fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales usually 46 or
47; c h e e k w ith o u t scales; 5 1/2 sca le row s b e tw e en lateral line and base o f m iddle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; 15 o r 16 scale
row s in tra n s v e rs e se rie s b etw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 13 to 15 row s in co w e r s e rie s o f sca le s around
caudal peduncle; usually 6 to 8 sca le s in
supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin de n sely covered w ith
scales; p o sterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. C o lour: body dusky w hitish, lig h te r below, w ith fo u r or six orange
stripes; p o sterior edge o f operculum and preoperculum bright red (the fo rm e r m ore conspicuous);
head brown or
tan, som etim es a red spot on cow er front
edge o f eye; pectoral fin orangish; pelvic, anal and m ost o f dorsal fin
w h itis h ; edge o f dorsal fin and caudal fin reddish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
Eastern
Indian
Ocean
and W estern Pacific, from Sri Lanka to the Ryukyu
Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Northeast Australia
(Fig. 140).
Habitat and B iology:
Inhabits
sandy
and
soft
bottom s and se a g ra ss beds in inshore bays, lagoons
and areas ad ja ce nt to reefs. F eeds on crustaceans,
molluscs, echinoderm s, polychaetes and sm all fishes.
S iz e : Maximum total length to 40 cm.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
C aught
by
traps,
shore
seines,
traw ls
and
handlines.
im portance in fis h e rie s w here it occurs.
L ocal
N am es:
Y e llo w -strip ed
emperor;
Hana-fuefuki;
PAPUA
NEW
GUINEA:
PHILIPPINES: Bitilya, Katambak, Kilawan.
handlines,
Of
m inor
JAPAN:
Daryya;
L ite ra tu r e :
G loerfelt-Tarp
&
Kailola
(1984);
Lee
(1986); M asuda et aL (1984); Saio in Fischer &
Bianchi (eds) (1984); S chroeder (1980).
R e m a rk s : T h is is a d is tin c tiv e s p e c ie s a n d h a s n o t b e e n c o n fu s e d w ith o th e r s p e c ie s in re c e n t lite r a tu r e .
Lethrinus reticulatus Valenciennes, 1830
Fig. 141, Plate VII, 40
LETH Leth 27
L e th rin u s re tic u la tu s V alenciennes in C. & V., 1830 H ist.nat.poiss., 6: 298 (New Guinea).
S y n o n y m s : None.
FAO Names: En - Red snout emperor.
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s : Body m oderately elongate, its depth 2.9 to 3.2 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.1 to 1.2
tim es in body depth, 2.5 to 2.8 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye distinctly convex; snout length about
1.9 to 2.3 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is contained 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its
dorsal profile d istinctly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 50 and 60 degrees; interorbital space flat
or concave; posterior nostril a longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated
close to dorsal profile, its length 3.3 to 4.3 tim es in head length; cheek length 2.7 to 3.3 tim es in head length; lateral
teeth in ja w s conical; ou ter surface o f m axilla usually sm ooth. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp ines and 9 soft rays, the third
d o rs a l s p in e th e lo n g e st, its le n g th 2 .0 to 2 .8 tim e s in b o d y d e p th ; a n a l fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays, th e firs t soft
82
ray usually the longest, its length alm ost equal to, shorter
or slightly longer than the length o f the base o f the so ftrayed portion o f the anal fin and 0.6 to 0.7 tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin
m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ith o u t dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 46 to 48; cheek
w ith o u t sca le s; 4 % sca le row s b e tw e e n la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; 15 o r 16 sca le row s in
tran sve rse se ries b e tw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 15 row s in low er series o f scales around caudal
peduncle; 7 to 10 scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t
scales; p osterior angle o f
operculum fully scaled. Colour: body olive-grey or tan, o fte n
w ith scattered irregular
b la ck blotches; base
of
pectoral, upper edge o f operculum and som etim es posterior edge o f preoperculum red; head brown or olive w ith a
som ew hat indistinct reddish band on snout, originating m idw ay betw een eye and snout and term inating on tip o f
snout; lips red; fins pale or orangish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
Thailand, Ryukyu Islands, the
Guinea (Fig. 142).
Chagos,
W est
Philippines to New
-BE.
H a b ita t and B io lo g y :
Nothing specific
is
reported on the habitat or biology o f th is species.
It is thought to occur on s o ft bottom s near reefs.
The
d ie t
p re s u m a b ly
c o n s is ts
of
b e n th ic
in ve rte b ra te s and fish.
S iz e : Maximum size around 40 cm total length.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
C aught
and handlines. M arketed fresh.
m ostly
by traw ls
Local
Nam es:
JAPAN:
Yaeyam a-fuefuki;
Phil LIPPI NES: Bitilya, Katambak, Kilawan.
L ite ra tu r e : M asuda et a f (1984).
R em arks: The ty p e sp e cim e n o f th is sp e cie s is
small
and
it
is
difficult
to
com pare
the
m orphom etries o f the type w ith the sp e cie s being
reco g n ize d here as L. re tic u la tu s . The evid e n ce
a va ila b le how ever, su g g e sts th a t Sato (1978) w a s
correct in assigning this nam e to the present
sp e cie s.
Fig. 142
83
L e th rin u s ru b rio p e rc u la tu s
S ato , 1978
Fig. 143, Plate VII, 41
LETH Leth 17
L e th rin u s ru b rio p e rc u la tu s Sato, 1978, Univ.M us., Univ.Tokyo Bull., 15:58, pi. 12, fig. A (Okinawa).
S y n o n y m s : None.
FAO N am es:
En - Spotcheek emperor.
Fig. 143
D ia g n o s tic F e a tu re s :
Body m oderately elongate, its depth 3.0 to 3.4 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.1 to
1.2 tim e s in body d epth, 2 .7 to 3 .0 tim e s in sta n d a rd length, do rsa l p rofile n e a r eye d is tin c tly co n ve x; sn o u t length
ab o ut 1.8 to 2.1 tim e s in head length, m easured w ith o u t th e lip the sn o u t is 0.8 to 0 .9 tim e s in ch e e k height, its dorsal
profile nearly straight o r slightly concave, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 55 and 65 degrees; interorbital
space flat or slig h tly convex; posterior nostril a longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril;
eye s itu a ted clo se to o r rem oved from d o rsa l profile, its length 3 .9 to 4 .7 tim e s in head length; c h e e k length 2.4 to
2.9 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical; outer surface o f m axilla sm ooth or with a longitudinal ridge.
Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp in e s and 9 soft rays, th e th ird d orsal sp in e th e longest, its length 2.4 to 2.7 tim e s in body depth;
anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft rays, th e firs t so ft ray u su a lly the longest, its length s h o rte r th a n th e le n g th o f the
base o f th e so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0 .6 to 0 .7 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l
rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ith o u t dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales
47 to 49; c h e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % sca le row s b e tw e en la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d o rsa l fin sp in e s; 15 o r 16
sca le row s in tra n s v e rs e se rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin and la te ra l line; u su a lly 15 row s in lo w e r se rie s o f sca le s
around caudal peduncle; 7 to 10 scales in su p ra te m po ra l patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t scales;
p o s te rio r angle o f op e rcu lu m w ith a w id e sca le le ss area. C o lour: body o liv e -g re y or brow n, w ith sca tte re d irre g u la r
small black blotches; lips and a spot on upper edge o f operculum usually red; fins pale or pinkish.
84
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : W idespread in
the
Indo-W est
Pacific,
including
East
A frica
to
southern
Japan
and
the
M arquesas (Fig. 144).
Habitat and Biology: Inhabits sand and
rubble
areas
o f o ther
re e f slopes to
depths o f 160 m. Feeds m ostly on c ru s ­
taceans, fish echinoderm s and m olluscs. In
New C aledonia there are spaw ning peaks
in D ecem ber and a fairly high percentage
o f g onads in advanced sta g es o f m aturity
o ccu rs betw een O cto b er and February.
S iz e : Maximum
reported total length
50 cm, comm only to 30 cm total length.
of
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : Caught
m ostly
by
handlines,
traps
and
traw ls.
M arketed
m ostly fresh. An e xcellent food fish. One
o f the m ost abundant species taken in
bottom fisheries in the Marianas.
Fig. 144
L ocal
N a m e s : AUSTRALIA:
Red-ears;
GUAM:
Red-gilled
emperor,
Mafuti; JAPAN:
Hôaka-kuchibi; MAURITIUS:
Kaya, Cailla, Baxou; NEW CALEDONIA: Bossu varié, Bossu rond; PHILIPPINES: Bitilya, Katambak, Kilawan; SOUTH
AFR ICA: Spotcheek emperor; Kolwang-keiser; SEYCHELLES: Baxou; TANZANIA: Changu, C hangu nyamvi.
L ite ra tu r e : A m e sb u ry & M yers (1982); B urgess & Axelrod (1972, as L. reticulatus)', Fourm anoir & Laboute (1976, as
Lethrinus variegatus)', G loerfelt-Tarp & Kailola (1984); Lee (1986); M asuda et a f (1984); M yers (1989); Sainsbury et
a f (1985); Sm ith (1959, as L. variegatus)', Sm ith (1986).
R e m a rk s : T his is a com m on and w idespread species and it is surprising that it w a s described and nam ed as late as
1978. It has been assum ed by m ost taxonom ists dealing w ith L eth rinu s that this sp ecies represented the adult form o f
L. variegatus. Lethrinus variegatus how ever, is a sm all sp e cie s w ith distin ctive sca le co u n ts th a t are ve ry diffe re n t
from L. rubrioperculatus.
The only other possible nam e for L. ru b riop ercu latus that I have been able to find is L. ja g o r ii w h ich w a s d e scrib e d
from th e P h ilipp in e s w h e re L. rubrioperculatus is a b undant. Sato e xam ined the typ e and rem arked that it w a s in ve ry
bad c o n d itio n, th e o n ly re co g n iza b le fe a tu re on th is 48 mm sta n d a rd le n g th sp e cim e n w a s th a t th e head is longer
than the body depth and that there are 5 scale row s above the lateral line. Peters' (1868) description o f the species
states that the body depth is 3.5 in standard length and therefore it is m ost likely one o f the slender em perors w ith
co n ica l te e th. T he o n ly sp e cie s o f th e re e m p e ro rs th a t has a head le n g th a lm o st e q u al to b ody d e p th in sm a lle r
specim ens is L. rubrioperculatus. T his possib ility w ill never be tested how ever, as the type a p p are n tly w a s destroyed.
A t m y request, N. D ow ning (fo rm e rly o f th e K uw ait In stitu te fo r S cie n tific R ese a rch ) w ho w a s e xa m in in g o th e r typ e s
in th e Z oo lo g is c h e s M useum an d e r H u m bo ld t U n ive ristat in Berlin in January, 1989, requested to see the typ e o f L.
ja g o r ii. He w a s inform ed th a t th e records show ed th a t the typ e w a s discarded because it had becom e severly dried
out.
Lethrinus semicinctus V a le n c ie n n e s , 1830
Fig. 145, Plate V11, 42
LETH Leth 18
Lethrinus sem icinctus V alenciennes in C. & V., 1830 H ist.nat.poiss., 6: 294 (Bourou).
S ynonym s:
Lethrinus sordidus V a le n cie n n e s (1830); Lethrinus m oensii
Bleeker (1855).
FAO Names: En -B lack blotch emperor.
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s : Body m oderately elongate, its depth 2.9 to 3.1 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.1 to 1.2
tim e s in b ody d epth, 2.5 to 2 .8 tim e s in sta n d a rd length, th e d o rsa l p ro file n e a r eye co n ve x ; sn o u t length a b o ut 1.9 to
2.0 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile
nearly straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 55 and 65 degrees; interorbital space flat or slightly
85
Fig. 145
'¿»g!
convex; posterior nostril a longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated close to
dorsal profile, its length 3 .6 to 4 .3 tim e s in head length; c h e e k length 2 .5 to 2 .9 tim e s in head length; lateral te e th in
ja w s conical; o uter surface o f m axilla sm ooth o r w ith a longitudinal ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 spines and 9 s o ft rays,
the third or fourth dorsal spine the longest, its length 2.3 to 2.7 tim es in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 spines and 8 s o ft
rays, the firs t s o ft ray usually the longest, its length approxim ately equal to or shorter than the length o f the base o f
th e so ft-ra y e d p o rtio n o f th e a n a l fin and 0.6 to 0 .8 tim e s in th e le n g th o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13;
pelvic fin m em b ran e s b etw een the rays clo se st to the body w ith o u t dense m elan o p h o re s. L a teral-line sca le s 46 to 48;
c h e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % sca le row s b e tw een lateral line and base o f m id dle do rsa l fin spines; 14 o r 15 sca le row s
in tra n s v e rs e s e rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin and lateral line; 15 row s in co w e r se rie s o f sca le s a ro u n d caudal
peduncle; 4 to 7 scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t scales; p osterior angle o f
o p e rcu lu m fu lly sca le d . C o lo u r: b ody b row n or tan, w ith sca tte re d irre g u la r sm all b la ck b lo tch es, a large oblong
b la ck blotch below soft-rayed portion o f dorsal fin and bordering below the lateral line; fins pale or pinkish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : Eastern Indian Ocean
and
W estern
Pacific,
including
Sri
Lanka,
Indonesia, northern Australia, the Ryukyu Islands
to the Marshall and Solom on Islands (Fig. 146).
Habitat and B iology: Inhabits sh allow seagrass
beds, re e f flats, lagoons and sa n d y areas near
coral reefs. Feeds on benthic invertebrates and
sm all fish.
S iz e : Maximum
length.
size
to
around
35
cm
total
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
Caught by shore seines,
traw ls,
trap s
and
handlines.
M arketed
fresh
This species is o f m inor im portance to fisheries
w h e re it o cc u rs .
Local N a m e s :
JA P A N :
A m i- f u e f u k i;
P H IL IP P IN E S : B itily a , K a ta m b a k , K ila w a n .
Fig. 146
L ite ra tu r e :
G loerfelt-Tarp
&
Kailola
(1984);
G rant (1982, as L. variegatus)', M asuda et a f
(1984); S ainsbury et a f (1985); Sato in Fischer &
Bianchi (eds) (1984).
Remarks: See Remarks under Lethrinus sp. 2.
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86
L e th rin u s sp.1
Fig. 147, Plate VII, 43
LETH Leth 28
Possibly undescribed species.
S y n o n y m s : L e th rin u s sp. G lo e rfe lt-T a rp & K ailola (1984)
FAO Nam es: En - M aldive em peror.
147
D ia g n o s tic F eatu res: B ody m o d e ra te ly e lo n g ate , its d e p th 3 .0 to 3 .3 tim e s in sta n d a rd length. Head length 1.1 to 1.2
tim es in body depth, 2.6 to 2.8 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye convex; snout length about 1.8 to 2.0
tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the tip the snout is 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile concave
w ith a hum p in fron t o f eye, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 50 and 60 degrees; interorbital space fla t or
c o n ve x; p o s te rio r n o stril a lo n g itu d in a l oblo n g o p e ning , c lo s e r to o rb it th a n to a n te rio r n o stril; eye situ a te d clo se to
or rem oved from dorsal profile, its length 4.2 to 4.7 tim es in head length; cheek length 2.4 to 2.7 tim es in head
length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical; ou ter surface o f m axilla sm ooth. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp ines and 9 soft rays, the
third dorsal spine the longest, its length 2 .5 to 2.8 tim es in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 spines and 8 soft rays, the first
s o ft ray u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its length a p p ro xim a te ly s h o rte r th a n the length o f the base o f th e so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f
th e a n a l fin and aro u n d 0 .6 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13; p e lvic fin m e m b ra n e s
be tw e en th e rays clo se st to the body w ith o u t d e n se m elan o p h o re s. L a tera l-lin e sca le s 47 o r 48; c h e e k w ith o u t scales;
4 % scale row s betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin spines; usually 15 scale row s in tran sve rse series
betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; usually 15 row s in low er series o f sca le s around caudal peduncle; 8 to 10
scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t scales; p o sterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled.
C o lo u r: b ody tig h t g re y or tan, head d a rke r; base o f
pectoral
fin, spot
on upper
posterior
m argin
of
opercle,
posterior
edge
of
preoperculum
and
indistinct area on snout in front o f eye usually
reddish; fins pale or reddish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n :
Southw est Indonesia (Fig. 148).
The
Maldives
and
Habitat
and Biology:
Inhabits
sandy areas near
coral reefs. Presum ably fe e d s m ostly on crustaceans
and fish.
S iz e :
M aximum size recorded around 32
length, but presum ably attains a m uch larger size.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
O ccasionally caught
lines in the M aldives and by traw ls in Indonesia.
L ite ra tu r e :
G loerfelt-Tarp
&
Kailola
cm
total
by hand­
(1984,
as
L e th rin u s s p.).
Fig. 148
87
R em arks: F urth e r w o rk is n e ce ssary to confirm th a t th is sp e cie s does not rep re se n t a co lo u r form o f L. con chyliatu s.
L e th rin u s s p . 2
Fig. 149,Plate VIII, 44
LETH Leth 29
Possibly undescribed species.
S y n o n y m s : None.
FAO Names: En - Drabemperor.
Fig. 149
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s :
Body m oderately elongate, its depth 2.9 to 3.1 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.0 to
1.2 tim es in body depth, 2.7 to 2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye convex; snout length about 1.9 to
2.0 tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile
nearly straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 60 and 70 degrees; interorbital space fla t or convex;
posterior nostril a longitudinal oblong opening, closer to orbit than to anterior nostril; eye situated close to dorsal
pro file , its length 3 .6 to 4.1 tim e s in head length; c h e e k length 2.4 to 2 .9 tim e s in head length; lateral te e th in ja w s
co n ica l; o u te r s u rfa ce o f m axilla sm oo th o r w ith a lo n g itu d in a l ridge. Dorsal fin w ith 10 s p in e s and 9 so ft rays, the
third dorsal spine the longest, its length 2.4 to 2.6 tim es in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 spines and 8 soft rays, the first
soft ray usually the longest, its length shorter than
the length o f the
b ase o f th e soft-rayed portion o f the anal fin and
0.6 to 0.7 tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin m em branes betw een the rays
closest to the body w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 48 or 49; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % sca le row s
betw een lateral line and base o f m iddle dorsal fin
spines; 15 or 16
scale row s in tran sve rse series betw een origin o f
anal fin and lateral line; usually 15 row s in low er series o f scales around caudal peduncle; 6 to 8 scales in
su p ra te m po ra l patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ithout scales; p o sterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled. C o lou r:
body tig h t grey o r tan w ith scattered irregular d a rk blotches; head brow n or tan; fin s pale.
Habitat and Biology: Nothing is recorded about the
biology o f th is species. All th a t is know n is that in the
Philippines
it
is
caught
to g eth e r
w ith
sm aller
s p e cim e n s o f such sp ecies as Lethrinus olivaceus, L.
re tic u la tu s and
L. semicinctus, it presum ably has
habitat charactestics sim iliar to these species.
-»
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : So fa r know n only from
the Philippines, the Ryukyu Islands and the Loyalty
Islands (Fig. 150)
\
S«
o f around
to
F is h e rie s :
L ocal
Kilaw an.
N am es:
C aught
PHILIPPINES:
by
shore
"
vK y
Bitilya,
seines
/M
\ \
* vh«
and
« s*
5?
r'-v
Katambak,
R e m a rk s : S ato's (1978) acco u nt o f L. sem icinctus
in c lu d e s w h a t he sh o w s as tw o b o d y typ e s belo n ging
to the sam e species. Lethrinus s p .2 w ill key out to L.
sem icinctus using
Sato's
key. I
have
collected
Lethrinus
s p .2 in
Philippines together
with
L.
sem icinctus and the c o n siste n t d iffe re n ce s in presence
o f the b la ck blotch, head shape, and n u m ber o f scales
in the su p ra te m po ra l patch o f sca le s has co n vinced me
th a t th e y are d istin ct species. F urther research is
«*
a
.."Ü
•
txl 1
27
* -
In te re s t
tra w ls .
,
-V. V.
Î
S iz e :
Maximum recorded total length
cm, probably attains a slightly larger size.
■*
88
........... ....... » <;•
t» *
A .
t 5*
■¿L............— .
S •
9
-
s*
V
« o-
Fig. 150
ne ce ssary to confirm th a t th is sp e cie s is undescribed.
Lethrinus variegatus Valenciennes, 1830
Fig. 151, Plate VIII, 45
LETH Leth 19
Leth rinu s variegatus V a lenciennes in C. & V., 1830 H ist.nat.poiss., 6: 287 (M assuah, Red Sea).
S y n o n y m s : L eth rinu s latifro n s Ruppeli (1840).
FAO Names: En - Stender emperor.
Fig. 151
89
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s :
Body slender, its depth 3.4 to 3.9 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.2 to 1.4 tim es in
body depth, 2.6 to 2.9 tim es in standard length, dorsal profile near eye convex; snout length about 2.3 to 2.7 tim es in
head length, m easured w ithout the lip the snout is 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile nearly straight,
snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 50 and 60 degrees; interorbital space flat or convex; posterior nostril a
vertical oblong opening, closer to anterior nostril than to orbit, or closer to orbit than anterior nostril; eye situated
close to dorsal profile, its length 3.5 to 4.4 tim es in head length; cheek length 3.0 to 3.8 tim es in head length; lateral
teeth in ja w s conical; o uter surface o f m axilla sm ooth. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp in e s and 9 soft rays, the fourth dorsal
spine usually the longest, its length 2.0 to 2.5 tim es in body depth; anal fin w ith 3 sp ines and 8 soft rays, the first soft
ray usually the longest, its length approxim ately equal to o r sh o rte r than the length o f the base o f the soft-rayed
portion o f the anal fin and 0.6 to 0.8 tim es in the length o f the entire anal fin base; pectoral rays 13; pelvic fin
m em branes betw een the rays closest to the body w ithout dense m elanophores. Lateral-line scales 45 to 47; cheek
w ith o u t sca le s; 4
% sca le row s b e tw e e n la te ra l line and base o f m id d le d o rs a l fin s p in e s ; 13 o r 14 s c a le ro w s in
tra n sve rse se ries betw een origin o f anal fin and lateral line; 14 or 15 row s in co w e r se ries o f sca le s around caudal
peduncle; 4 to 7 scales in supratem poral patch; inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t scales; p osterior angle o f
operculum fu lly scaled. Colour: body brow n and grey, lighter ventrally, w ith scattered irregular dark spots; often
tw o d a rk b ands below eye, one to low er rim o f preopercle and one to co rn e r o f m outh, a n o th e r d a rk band across
interorbital space; dorsal, anal, pectoral and pelvic fins light or translucent; caudal fin light and dark striped.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : W idespread in the IndoW est Pacific, including the Red Sea, East Africa to the
Ryukyu Islands and New Caldedonia (Fig. 152).
Habitat and
B iology: Inhabits sandy and
areas near coral reefs.
Feeds on sm all
invertebrates.
S iz e :
w e edy
benthic
Maximum total length to around 20 cm.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : C aught m ostly by shore seines
and traw ls. T his species is only o f m inor im portance
to fis h e rie s w h e re it occurs.
L ocal
N am es:
JAPAN:
Hoso-fuefuki;
MAURITIUS:
Soudanné;
PHILIPPINES:
Bitilya,
Katambak,
Kilawan;
SEYCHELLES: Baxou goem on; TANZANIA: Sororo.
Literature: Lee (1986, as L . sem icinctus)-, M asuda et
al. (1984); R andall (1983); S ato in F isch e r & Bianchi
(eds) (1984); S ch ro e d e r (1980, as L. re tic u la tu s ).
Fig. 152
R e m a rk s : See Rem arks under L . ru b rio p e rc u la tu s .
Lethrinus xanthochilus K lu n z in g e r, 1870
Fig. 153, Plate VIII, 46
LETH Leth 20
L e th rin u s x a n th o c h ilu s Klunzinger, 1870, V e rh .Z ool.-B ot.G es.M ein., 20:753 (Red Sea).
S y n o n y m s : None.
FAO Names: En - Yellow lip em peror.
D ia g n o s tic F ea tu re s :
Body m oderately elongate, its depth 2.9 to 3.4 tim es in standard length. Head length 1.0 to
1.2
tim es in body depth, 2.6 to 2.9 tim es in
standard length, dorsal
profile near eye convex; snout length about
1.8
tim es in head length, m easured w ithout the tip the snout is 0.8 to 0.9 tim es in cheek height, its dorsal profile nearly
straight, snout angle relative to upper ja w betw een 50 and 60 degrees; interorbital space concave; posterior nostril
a
longitudinal or vertical oblong opening, closer to orbit than
to anterior
nostril; eye situated close to dorsal profile, its
length 3.4 to
5.1 tim es in head length;
cheek length 2.3 to 3.3 tim es in head length; lateral teeth in ja w s conical;
outer surface o f m axilla sm ooth. Dorsal fin w ith 10 sp ines and 9 soft rays, the third dorsal spine usually the longest, its
le n g th 2 .2 to 2 .8 tim e s in b o d y
d epth; anal fin w ith 3 s p in e s and 8 so ft
rays, th e firs t s o ft ray u su a lly th e lo n g e st, its
to 2.3
A s;í ;
'
Fig. 153
length a p p ro x im a te ly equal to o r sh o rte r th a n th e length o f th e base o f the so ft-ra ye d po rtio n o f th e anal fin and 0.6
to 0.7 tim e s in th e length o f th e e n tire anal fin base; p e ctora l rays 13; pe lvic fin m em b ran e s b e tw e en th e rays clo se st
to the body w ith dense m elanophores. Lateral-line sca le s 47 o r 48; ch e e k w ith o u t scales; 4 % scale row s betw een
la te ra l line and base o f m id dle d orsal fin sp in e s; 15 or 16 sca le row s in tra n sve rse se rie s b e tw e en o rig in o f anal fin
and la te ra l line; 15 row s in lo w e r se rie s o f
sca le s a ro u n d ca u d a l p e d un cle ; 5 to 8
sca le s
in s u p ra te m p o ra l patch;
inner surface o f pectoral fin w ith o u t scales; p o sterior angle o f operculum fu lly scaled or rarely
w ith a naked patch.
C o lo u r: b ody y e llo w is h g re y w ith sca tte re d irre g u la r d a rk sp o ts; lip s y e llo w is h , th e u p p e r lip m ore in te n se ; a red
sp o t at u p p e r base o f p e ctora l fin; fin s bluish g re y and m ottled, th e bases o f fin s lig h te r and
th e e d g es o f the d orsal
and caudal fins reddish.
G e o g ra p h ic a l D is trib u tio n : W idespread in
the Indo-W est Pacific, including the Red
Sea, East Africa, Central Indian Ocean,
Indonesia
to
the
Ryukyu
Islands,
the
Caroline Islands to the M arquesas, New
Caledonia and Vanuatu (Fig. 154).
Habitat and
B iology: Inhabits seagrass
beds and, sand and rubble a re a s o f coral
reefs, deep channels, and lagoons. Often
found in sh a llo w w a te r but recorded to
depths o f 150 m. O ccurs
groups.
Feeds
prim arily
fishes, and echinoderm s.
usually in small
on
crustacea,
Estim ates
of
asym ptotic
length
( L in f in it y )
and c o e ffic ie n t o f gro w th (K) have been
made for a population in Papua
New
Guinea:
L in fin ity =
5 5 .0
cm
fo rk
le n g th ,
and K = 0.30.
S iz e : M aximum size to around 60 cm total length.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : C a u g h t m o s tly w ith h a n d lin e s, tra p s and tra w ls.
L ocal
Nam es:
JA P A N :
M u n e a k a -k u c h ib i;
L A C C A D IV E S :
K ilu k k a m -m e tti,
M A U R IT IU S : B a rro is; P H IL IP P IN E S : B itilya, K a ta m ba k, K ilaw an; P O L Y N E S IA :
R y th u n g -filo lu ; K E N Y A :
O eo utu po to , O eo tia m u ,
V ip u a k e ,
M a n u ke n a ;
S A U D I A R A B IA : S h a o o r,
S h e iry;
TANZANIA: Changu m'domo, Changu n'yavi, Changu n'doba.
Y e llo w lip
L ite ra tu r e : Allen & Steene (1987, as
SOUTH
A F R IC A :
L. variegatus)', Bagnis et a f (1972); M asuda et a f
K ibora;
N inuki,
e m p e ro r, G e e lip -k e is e r;
(1984); Randall (1983); Sato
in Fischer & Bianchi (eds) (1984).
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91
M o n o ta x is B e n n e tt, 1830
LETH M ono
Genus: M o n o ta x is Bennett, 1830: 688. T ype -sp e cie s M o n o ta x is in d ic a Bennett, 1830 ( =
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis
[Forsskâl, 1775]), by m onotypy.
Synonyms: S p h a e ro d o n Ruppeli, 1840.
A single species in the genus - see M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis .
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis (F o rs s k â l, 1775)
LE TH M o n o 1
Fig. 155, Plate VIII, 47-49
S c ia e n a g ra n d o c u lis F o rs s k â l, 1 7 7 5; D e s c rip .A n im a l.: xi, 5 3 (A ra b ia ).
Synonyms: M o n o ta x is in d ic a
Bennett
(1830);
L e th rin u s
la tid e n s V a le n cie n n e s
(1830);
P a g ru s
h e te ro d o n
Bleeker
(1854b).
FAO Names: En - Humpnose big-eye bream.
a. adult
b. juvenile
Fig. 155
Diagnostic
Features: Body
oblong,
its
depth
2.1
to
2.7 tim es in standard length. Head profile strongly
co n ve x in fro n t o f eye, th e sn o u t sloping steeply; eye
large, its diam eter about equal to length o f snout or
2.5 to 3.2 tim es in head length; interorbital space
wide
and
flat;
hind
m argin
o f preopercle
finely
serrated; p o sterio rm o st part o f ja w s reaching beyond
vertical through anterior m argin o f eye; a broad patch
o f sm all teeth in ja w s anteriorly, fo llo w e d by a series
o f 6 o r 7 round, fla t m olars on each side and preceded
by c a n in e s in fron t o f each jaw ; m axilla w ith a
longitudinal
denticulated
ridge.
Dorsal fin
w ith
10
sle n d e r s p in e s and 10 soft rays, th e first spine h a lf the
length o f second otherw ise rem aining spines about
equal; anal fin w ith 3 sp in e s and 9 soft rays; pectoral
rays 14 including splint-like upperm ost ray; caudal fin
forked w ith pointed tips. Lateral-line scales 44 to 47,
about 4 or 5 horizontal scale row s above lateral line;
canine teeth
villiform
teeth
denti
culated
ridge
molar
•teeth
inner surface o f pectoral fin base d e nsely scaled.
lateral view o f m outh (lateral
teeth not show n)
Fig. 156
ro o f o f m outh
Fig. 157
92
C o lou r: g round c o lo u r g e n e ra lly b lu ish -g re y g ra d in g to w h itish on ve n tra l parts; lips ye llo w to p inkish; a re a around
eye often ye llow or orange; fin s g e n e ra lly w ith o u t d istin ctive m arkings, the m em b ran e s cle a r o r dusky, but often
reddish to ye llo w -o ra n g e ; base o f u p p er pectoral fin rays and inner base (i.e. body side) o f pectoral axil black; caudal
fin fre q u e n tly w ith b la ckish rays con tra ste d a g a in st p aler m em b ran o u s part o f fin. Sm all ju v e n ile s w h itish on low er
h a lf and w ith 3 pro m in e n t b la ck sa d d le s se parated by n a rro w e r w h ite bars on u p p er half; a pro m in e n t b la ck bar
th ro u g h eye; fin s cle a r to w h ite e xce p t th e do rsa l fin w h ich in clu d e s th e co n tin u a tio n o f 2 o f the b la ck sa d d le s o f the
u p p er side and the o u ter e d g es o f th e ca u d al fin lo b e s w h ich are ye llo w -b ro w n . The ju ve n ile pattern o f bars is often
seen in relative ly large (20 to 30 cm ) in d ividuals. Even the la rge st adults, alth o ug h usu a lly seen w ith o u t m arkings, are
able to rap id ly a ssu m e d a rk bars or sa d d le s on the body.
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
W idespread
in the Indo-W est and Central Pacific from
the
H awaiian
Islands
and
southeastern
O ceania to the east coast o f A frica and Red
Sea and from
A u stra lia
n o rth w a rd s to
Japan (Fig. 158).
H abitat and B iology:
G enerally found in
the v ic in ity o f coral reefs, often on, the
sandy
periphery
of
individual
ree f
com plexes or in sand and rubble areas.
Solitary fish are often encountered, but
large adults frequently form aggregations
o f up to about 50 individuals. Two distinct
c o lo u r fo rm s are seen w h ich has lead to
s p e c u la tio n th a t 2 s p e cie s m ay be in volved:
a d a rk v a rie ty w ith broad b la ck sa d d le s on
th e
back
se p a ra te d
by
narrow
w h ite
interspaces and a paler va riety having the
s a ddles m ore w idely separated.
Fig. 158
O bservations on the G reat Barrier R eef indicated that dark-phase individuals are usually associated w ith the higherco n tra st en viro n m e n t o f the coral re e f w h e re a s the light-phase fish are generally seen o ve r sand or light-coloured
rub b le . M oreover, th e lig h te r fis h w e re seen to q u ickly a ssu m e th e d a rk p a tte rn w h e n h a rra sse d w ith a sp e a r gun.
T he depth range is b e tw e en a b o ut 3 and 60 m, a lth o u g h it a p p e a rs to be m ost co m m o n b etw een a b o ut 5 and 30 m.
The diet consists m ainly o f gastropod m olluscs, ophiuroids, and echinoids. Items o f lesser im portance include pagurid
and brachyuran crabs, polychaetes, tunicates, and holothurians.
S iz e : Maximum total length about 60 cm; com m on to 40 cm.
In te re s t to F is h e rie s :
F requently found in m arkets. Caught m ainly w ith gillnets, traps, spears, and handlines.
A verage quality flesh that is m arketed m ostly fresh. In the M arshall Islands, this species w a s found som etim es to be
ciguatoxic.
Local
N a m e s : AUSTRALIA:
Hum pnose
bigeye-bream;
INDONESIA:
Levovangan
(Simalur);
JAPAN:
Yokoshim akurodai; LACCADIVE ISLANDS: Dathi, Palian; MALAYSIA: Ikan gigi oran; NEW CALEDONIA: Brème aux gros yeux;
PAKISTAN: Tailgi; PAPUA NEW GUINEA: Budia (Port Moresby); PHILIPPINES: Dapak, G apas-gapas, M alaking-mata;
SOUTH AFRICA: Bigeye barenose; SRI LANKA: Angana; TAHITI: Mu; USA: Hawaii: Mu, Mamamu.
L ite ra tu r e : Sato in Fischer & Bianchi (eds.) (1984); Sato (1986); A llen & Sw ainston (1988)
W a tts ia Chan & C h ilv e rs , 1974
G e n u s : W a tts ia
designation.
Chan
&
Chilvers,
L E T H W a tt
Fig. 159, Plate VIII, 50
1974:85.
T ype -sp e cie s
S y n o n y m s : None
A single species in the genus - see W a tts ia m o s s a m b ic a
G n a th o d e n te x
m o s s a m b ic u s
Smith,
1957,
by
original
93
Wattsia mossambica (Smith, 1957)
LETH W att 1
Fig. 159, Plate VIII, 50
G n a th o d e n te x m o s s a m b ic u s Smith, 1957, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. X II,10 (110): 121-124 (Mozam bique).
S y n o n y m s : None
FAO Names: En - Mozambique large-eye bream.
w
i*F
Fig. 159
x t|
D iagn ostic
Features: Body
relatively
deep,
roughly
rhom boid,
its
depth
1.9
to 2.2 tim es in standard length. Head profile slightly convex; eye m oderate
in size, its d iam eter m uch sh o rte r
than snout length; ja w teeth in a narrow,
villiform band bordered by an ou ter series o f conical teeth; anteriorly 4
m oderate-sized ca nines in upper ja w and 6 in lo w e r ja w ; m axilla w ith a
longitudinal denticulated
ridge;
a
pair o f close-set nasal openings, the
posterior one slit-like, ending dose
to eye. Dorsal fin with 10 long, strong
s p in e s and 10 s o ft rays; firs t sp in e a b o u t 2 /3 th e le n g th o f th e se co n d, the
second spine slightly longer than
eye diam eter, the fourth to sixth spines
lo n g e st; anal fin w ith 3 strong sp in e s and 10 so ft rays; th ird sp in e tw ice as
long as eye d ia m e te r; a n a l fin base 1.4 to 1.6 tim e s lo n g e r th a n lo n g e st anal
fin ray; caudal fin slig h tly forked w ith broadly rounded lobes. Lateral-line
sc a le s 41 to 47; 5 sca le row s b e tw e en la te ra l line and base o f m id dle do rsa l
fin sp in e s; in n e r su rfa ce o f p e ctora l fin axil sca le le ss. C o lo u r: o ve ra ll
s ilv e ry -g re y w ith
ye llo w ish
su ffu sion ;
sca le
m arg in s
n a rro w ly
brow nish;
indistinct d a rk blotches or bars som etim es apparent on body; lips w hitish to
yellow ; fin s yellow , fa in t brow n sp o tting m ay be p resent on soft dorsal,
anal, and caudal; a narrow blackish bar across base o f pectoral fin.
o n ic a l< T
teeth
û ô Ô
h
villiform
teeth
ro o f o f m outh
Fig. 160
denti­
culated
ridge
Fig. 161
94
G e o g ra p h ic a l
D is trib u tio n :
Tropical Indian Ocean
and w e s te rn P acific. It is kn o w n o n ly from a few
scattered
localities
including
M ozam bique,
Malay
Peninsula, New Guinea, southern China, and Japan
(Fig. 162).
Habitat and B iology:
Inhabits the outer edge o f
the continental sh e lf at depths betw een 100 and 180
m. It feeds on bottom -living invertebrates and small
fis h e s .
S iz e :
Maximum
total
length
about
55
cm;
comm on
In te re s t to F is h e rie s : O ccasionally seen in
m ainly fresh. Caught m ainly with bottom
and bottom traw ls.
markets,
longlines
to 35 cm.
L ocal N a m e s : JAPAN: Koke-nokogiri.
w ________
L ite ra tu r e : Sato in Fischer & Bianchi (eds.) (1984),
M asuda
et a f
(1984); Sm ith & Heemstra (eds.)
(1986); Sato (1986).
t r _________j p ________ f r ___________
tj*“_______ « £ __________
2*>L
Fig. 162
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95
3.
L IS T OF N O M IN A L S P E C IE S OF L E T H R IN ID A E
The follow ing list gives in ord e r (i) the scientific nam e as it originally appeared in alphabetical ord e r according to the
specific
name;
(ii) the author(s) - V alenciennes = in Cuvier & Valenciennes; Schlegel = in T em m inck & Schlegel; Gil.
& Thom p. = G ilchrist & Thom pson; (iii) date o f publication; and (iv) present identification.
(a)
G enera G nathodentex, G ym nocranius, M o n o ta xis and W a ttsia (provisional list by G.R. Allen)
M o n o ta x is a ffin is W hitely, 1943
G ym nocranius euanus
G ym no cra n iu s audleyi Ogilby, 1916
G ym nocranius audleyi
S parus au re o lin e a tu s Lacepède, 1802
G n a thodentex aurolineatus
G ym no cra n iu s b ito rq u a tu s Cockerell, 1916
G ym no cra n iu s audleyi
Pentapus curtus Guichenot, 1865
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
Pentapus dux V a le n cie n n e s 1862
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
G ym no cra n iu s elongatus Senta, 1973
G ym nocranius elongatus
Sphaerodon euanus Gunther, 1879
G ym nocranius euanus
G ym no cra n iu s frenatus Bleeker, 1873
G ym no cra n iu s frenatus
S ciaena g ra n d o c u lis Forsskál, 1775
M o n o ta xis g ra n d o cu lis
C a n th aru s g ra n d o cu lis V a lenciennes 1830
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
D e n te x g ris e u s Schlegel, 1844
G ym no cra n iu s g riseu s
P a g ru s heterodon Bleeker, 1854b
M o n o ta xis g ra n d o cu lis
M o n o ta x is in d ic a Bennett, 1830
M o n o ta xis g ra n d o cu lis
G ym no cra n iu s ja p o n ic u s Akazaki, 1961
G ym nocranius euanus
L e th rin u s la tid e n s V a lenciennes 1830
M o n o ta xis g ra n d o cu lis
D e n te x le th rin o id e s Bleeker, 1851a
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
D e n te x lyco g e n is Bennett, 1831
G n a thodentex a u rolineatus
P a ra d en te x m a rs h a lli W hitley, 1936
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
D e n te x m icro d o n Bleeker, 1851 c
G ym no cra n iu s m icro d o n
L o b o te s m ic ro p rio n Bleeker, 1851b
G ym no cra n iu s g rise u s
G nathodentex m o s sa m b icu s Smith, 1957
W attsia m o s s a m b ic a
G nathodentex o cu m aculatus Herre, 1935
G n a thodentex aurolineatus
G ym nocranius olivaceus Formanoir, 1961
W a ttsia m o s s a m b ic a
G ym no cra n iu s o rb is Fowler, 1938
G ym no cra n iu s g riseu s
D e n te x rivu la tu s Ruppeli, 1838
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
D e n te x ro b in s o n i Gil. & Thomp., 1908
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
G ym n o cra n iu s ru p p e llii Smith, 1941
G ym n o cra n iu s g ra n d o cu lis
D e n te x xa n th o p te ru s Bleeker, 1845
nomen nudum
(b) G enus Lethrinus by K.E. Carpenter
Lethrinus a b b re v ia tu s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s m ahsena
L e th rin u s a cu tus Klunzinger, 1884
L e thrin u s m icro d o n
L e th rin u s a lb o g u tta tu s Valenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s n e b ulosu s
L e th rin u s am am ianus Akazaki, 1962
L e thrin u s m in ia tu s
Lethrinus a m b o in e n s is Bleeker, 1854d
L e th rin u s a m b o in e n sis
L e thrin u s an a rh yn ch u s Postel, 1965
L e th rin u s la tic a u d is
L e thrin u s a n a ta riu s Richardson, 1844
L e th rin u s n e b ulosu s
L e thrin u s a rg e n te u s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s le ntjan
L e th rin u s a tkin so n i Seale, 1909
L e th rin u s a tkin so ni
L e th rin u s a tla n ticus V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s atla n ticus
L e thrin u s au ro lin e a tu s Fourmanoir, 1961
ju n io r homonym
L e thrin u s au ro lin e a tu s Macleay, 1883
L e th rin u s n e b ulosu s
L e thrin u s azureus V alenciennes, 1830
Le thrin u s h a ra k
96
L e t h r in u s b le e k e r i K lunzinger, 1884
L e t h r in u s h a r a k
L e t h r in u s b o n h a m e n s is G ü n th e r , 1 8 7 3
L e t h r in u s h a r a k
L e t h r in u s b o r b o n ic u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s b o r b o n ic u s
L e t h r in u s b u n g u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s b o r b o n ic u s
L e t h r in u s c a e r u le u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s m a h s e n a
L e t h r in u s c a r in a t u s W e b e r , 1 9 1 3
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s c e n t u r io V alenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s c h o e r o r y n c h u s B lo c h & Schneider, 1801
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s c h r y s o s t o m u s Richardson, 1 8 4 8
L e t h r in u s m in ia t u s
L e t h r in u s c in e r e u s V a le n c ie n n e s , 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s c in n a b a r in u s Richardson, 1 8 4 3
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r a c a n t h u s
L e t h r in u s c o c o s e n s is B le e k e r , 1 8 5 4 a
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in e lla c o n c h y lia t u s S m ith , 1 9 5 9
L e t h r in u s c o n c h y lia t u s
L e t h r in u s c r o c e o p t e r u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s c r o c in e u s S m ith , 1 9 5 9
L e t h r in u s c r o c in e u s
L e t h r in u s c u t a m b i S e a le , 1 9 0 9
L e t h r in u s o b s o le tu s
L e t h r in u s c y a n o x a n t h u s Richardson, 1 8 4 3
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s d e v is ia n u s W h itle y , 1 9 2 9
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s e h r e n b e r g ii V a le n c ie n n e s , 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s b o r b o n ic u s ?
L e t h r in u s e lo n g a t u s V a le n c ie n n e s , 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s m ic r o d o n
L e t h r in u s e n ig m a t ic u s S m ith , 1 9 5 9
L e t h r in u s e n ig m a t ic u s
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r a c a n t h u s V alenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r a c a n t h u s
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r o p h t h a lm u s K it t litz , 1 8 5 8
nom en nudum
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r o p te r u s V a le n c ie n n e s , 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r o p t e r u s
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r u r u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s e s c u le n tu s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s f a s c ia t u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s f la v e s c e n s V alenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s f le t u s W h itle y , 1 9 4 3
L e t h r in u s la t ic a u d is
L e t h r in u s f lo r i d u s W h e e le r , 1961
L e t h r in u s c o n c h y lia t u s
L e t h r in u s f r a e n a t u s V alenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s f u s c ic e p s M a c le a y , 1 8 7 8
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s g e n ig u t t a t u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s g e n iv it t a t u s V a le n c ie n n e s , 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s g e n iv it t a t u s
L e t h r in u s g ly p h o d o n G ü n th e r , 1 8 5 9
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s g o t h o f r e d i Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s g u e n t h e r i B le e k e r , 1 8 7 3
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s h a e m a t o p t e r u s T e m m in c k & S c h le g e l 1 8 4 2
L e t h r in u s h a e m a t o p t e r u s
S c ia e n a h a r a k F o r s s k á l, 1 7 7 5
L e t h r in u s h a r a k
L e t h r in u s h y p s e lo p t e r u s B le e k e r , 1 8 7 3
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r o p t e r u s
L e t h r in u s im p e r ia lis D e V is , 1 8 8 4 a
L e t h r in u s m in ia tu s
L e t h r in u s in s u lin d ic u s B le e k e r , 1 8 7 3
L e t h r in u s o r n a tu s
L e t h r in u s j a g o r i i P e te r s , 1 8 6 8
n o m e n d u b iu m
L e t h r in u s j o h n i i C a s te ln a u , 1 8 7 3
L e t h r in u s h a r a k
L e t h r in u s k a llo p t e r u s B le e k e r , 1 8 5 6
L e t h r in u s e r y t h r a c a n t h u s
L e t h r in u s k a r w a V alenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s k o r e ly V a le n c ie n n e s , 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s la c h r y m a n s S a v ilie - K e n t , 1 8 9 3
nom en nudum
L e t h r in u s la t ic a u d is A lle y e n e & M a c le a y , 1 8 7 7
L e t h r in u s la t ic a u d is
L e t h r in u s la t if r o n s R ü p p e ll, 1 8 4 0
L e t h r in u s v a r ie g a tu s
B o d ia n u s le n t ja n L a c e p è d e , 1 8 0 2
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s lo n g ir o s t r is P la y fa ir & G ü n th e r , 1 8 6 6
L e t h r in u s o liv a c e u s
L e t h r in u s m a c u la t u s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
S c ia e n a m a h s e n a F o r s s k á l, 1 7 7 5
L e t h r in u s m a h s e n a
L e t h r in u s m a h s e n o id e s Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s le n t ja n
L e t h r in u s m a r g a r i t i f e r S a v ilie - K e n t , 1 8 9 3
nom en nudum
L e t h r in u s m ic r o d o n Valenciennes, 1 8 3 0
L e t h r in u s m ic r o d o n
L e t h r in u s m in ia t u s Schneider, 1801
L e t h r in u s m in ia tu s
L e t h r in u s m o e n s ii Bleeker, 1 8 5 5
L e t h r in u s s e m ic in c t u s
S c ia e n a n e b u lo s a F o r s s k á l, 1 7 7 5
L e t h r in u s n e b u lo s u s
L e t h r in u s n e m a t a c a n th u s B le e k e r , 1 8 5 4 c
L e t h r in u s g e n iv it t a t u s
97
P e n ta p o d u s n u b ilis Cantor, 1849
L e th rin u s le n tja n
S ciaena ob so le ta Forsskál, 1775
L e th rin u s obso le tu s
L e th rin u s o liva ce u s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s o liva ce u s
L e th rin u s o p e rc u la ris V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s le n tja n
L e th rin u s o rn a tu s D e Vis 1884b
Junior homonym
L e th rin u s o rn a tu s V alenciennes, 1830
L e thrin u s ornatus
L e th rin u s p a p u e n sis Al ley ne & Macleay, 1877
L e thrin u s h a ra k
L e th rin u s p e rs e le ctu s W hitley, 1933
L e th rin u s ne b ulosu s
L e th rin u s p u n c tu la tu s Macleay, 1878
L e th rin u s le n tja n
S ciaena ra m a k Forsskál, 1775
L e th rin u s obso le tu s
L e th rin u s re g iu s Savilie-Kent, 1893
nom en nudum
L e th rin u s re tic u la tu s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s reticu la tu s
L e thrin u s rho d o p te ru s Bleeker, 1852
L e thrin u s h a ra k
L e th rin u s ric h a rd s o n i G ünther, 1859
L e thrin u s haem atopterus
L e th rin u s ro s tra tu s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s o liva ce u s
L e th rin u s ro s tra tu s sp e c ific u s Borodin, 1932
L e th rin u s o liva ce u s
L e th rin u s ru b rio p e rc u la tu s Sato, 1978
L e th rin u s rub rio p e rcu la tu s
L e th rin u s s a n g u in e u s Smith, 1955
L e thrin u s m ahsena
L e th rin u s s c o p a riu s Gilchrist & Thom pson, 1908
L e th rin u s ne b ulosu s
L e th rin u s s e m ic in c tu s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s se m icin ctu s
L e th rin u s s o rd id u s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s se m icin ctu s
L e th rin u s s tria tu s Steindachner, 1866
Le thrin u s erythropterus
L e th rin u s u n d ulosu s Monroe, 1955
nom en nudum
L e thrin u s va rieg a tu s V alenciennes, 1830
L e thrin u s variegatus
L e th rin u s vire scen s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s le n tja n ?
L e th rin u s virid is Savilie-Kent, 1893
nomen nudum
L e th rin u s w a ig ie n sis V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s o liva ce u s
L e th rin u s x a n th o c h ilu s Klunzinger, 1870
L e th rin u s x a n th o ch ilu s
L e thrin u s xa n th o p te ru s V alenciennes, 1830
L e th rin u s o liva ce u s ?
L e thrin u s xa n tho ta e n ia Bleeker, 1851b
L e thrin u s ornatus
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98
4.
LIST OF SPECIES BY MAJOR MARINE FISHING AREAS
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
MAJOR MARINE FISHING AREAS FOR
STATISTICAL PURPOSES
PAGE
34
G n a th o d e n te x a u ro lin e a tu s
51
57
61
71
77
81
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
G y m n o c ra n iu s a u d le y i
•
•
G y m n o c ra n iu s eu a n u s
•
•
G y m n o c ran iu s fre n a tu s
•
•
•
G y m n o c ra n iu s e lo n g a tu s
•
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ra n d o c u lis
•
•
•
•
G y m n o c ra n iu s griseus
?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
G y m n o c ran iu s m ic ro d o n
G y m n o c ra n iu s
sp.
?
L e th rin u s a m b o in e n s is
•
•
•
•
L e th rin u s a tk in s o n i
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
L eth rin u s a tla n tic u s
•
L e th rin u s b o rb o n ic u s
•
L e th rin u s c o n c h y lia tu s
•
L e th rin u s crocineus
•
L e th rin u s e n ig m a tic u s
•
L e th rin u s e ry th ra c a n th u s
•
•
L e th rin u s e ry th ro p te ru s
•
•
L e th rin u s g e n iv itta tu s
L e th rin u s h a e m a to p te ru s
•
•
•
•
•
•
99
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
PAGE
MAJOR MARINE FISHING AREAS FOR
STATISTICAL PURPOSES
34
L e th rin u s h a ra k
51
57
61
71
77
•
•
•
•
•
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m ah se n o id e s
espèces
the
in
inner
coral
the
and
nouvelles
le n tja n
L a ce pè d e . In d ia n
Indian w a te rs
L e th rin u s
de
re e f flat
a
note
S ect.
on
envoyées
T ulear
de
Bourbon
(M adagascar).
A,
Lethrinus
sanguineus. Res.Bull.Panjan
poissons
in
w ith
J .F is h .,
U niv.Sci.,
par
M.
Morei.
J .M ar.B io l.A ss.In d ia ,
W a lk e r, M.H., 1975.
A sp e cts o f the
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in
North Q ueensland
.................. , 1978. F ood and fe e d in g h a b its o f L e th rin u s c h ry s o s to m u s R ic h a rd s o n
lethrinids in the Great Barrier Reef. A u st.J.M ar.F resh.R es., 29(5):623-30
(P is c e s :P e rc ifo rm e s )
B arrier
Reef
and
o th e r
W e b e r, M., 1913. Die Fische der Siboga-Expedition. Siboqa Rep., 57:1-710, 12 pis
W e b er, M. & L.F. de B eau fo rt, 1936. The Fishes o f the Indo A ustralian Archipelago, 7. Perciform es (continued). E.J. Brill,
Leiden, 607 p., 106 figs
W h e ele r, J .F.G ., 1961. The genus L e th rin u s in the W estern Indian Ocean. Coi. Off.Fish.Pub., London, 15:1-51, 3 pis
W h e e le r , J.F.G . & F.D. O m m a n n e y i953. Report on the Mauritius - S e ych e lle s
b o tto m fis h e s o f econom ic im portance. Coi. O ff.Fish.Pub., London, 1 (3): 1-145
fish e rie s
su rve y
1948-1949.
I: The
W h ite , A. W . & M. A. B arw an i, 1971. Com m on sea fishes o f the Arabian G u lf and G u lf o f Oman, 170 p.
W h ite h e a d ,
P.J.P., 1969.
233, 30 pis
The
R eeves
collection
of
Chinese
fish
drawings.
B ull.B r.M us.nat.H ist.(hist.
W h itley, G .P., 1929.
Studies in ichthyology. No. 3. Rec. Austral. M us., 17(3): 101 -43, pis 30-34
..................., 1932.
Studies in ichthyology. Rec. Austral. M us., 18(6):321-48
S er.),
3(7):193-
..................., 1933. Studies in ichthyology. No. 7. Rec. Austral. M us., 19:60-112
..................., 1936. More ichthyological miscellanea. M em .Queensland M us., 11(1 ):21 -52
..................., 1943.
Ichthyological descriptions and notes. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South W a le s, 68:114-44, pis 3-4
W illia m s , D. McB. & A.I. Hatcher, 1983. Structure o f fish com m unities on ou ter slopes o f inshore, m id -sh e lf and o uter
s h e lf reefs o f th e G reat Barrier Reef. M ar.Ecol.P rog.Ser., 10(1983):239-50
W in te rb o tto m , R., A .R . E m e ry & E. Holm , 1989. An annotated checklist o f the fish e s o f the Chagos A rchipelago, Central
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W ray , T. (ed .). 1979.
Commercial fishes o f Saudi Arabia. W hite Fish Authority, U.K., 120 p.
W u, R.S.S. & N.Y.S. W oo,
1983.
T ole ra n ce o f h yp o -o sm o tic sa lin itie s
im plications for estuarine fish culture. A q u a cu ltu re , 32:175-81
Y o un g, P.C. & R.B. M artin, 1982.
2 1 :475-84
Evidence
for
protogynous
in
herm aphroditism
th irte e n
in
sp e cie s
som e
of
lethrinici
adult
fishes.
m arine
fish:
J.Fish.B iol.,
click for next page
click for previous page
111
6.
INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC AND VERNACULAR NAMES
EXPLANATION OF THE SYSTEM
T he in d e x a p p lie s e x c lu s iv e ly to th e g e n era and sp e cie s a cco u n ts
(Section 2.3 Inform ation by Species)
Type fa ce s used:
Italic s (bold)
V alid scientific nam es (double en try by genera
and species)
Ita lic s
S ynonym s (double en try by genera and species)
R om an (bold)
International (FAO) species names
Roman
Local species nam es
112
A
Blou keiser
76
Blue em peror
76
B lu e-lined la rg e -e y e b re a m
27
B lu e -s p o tte d la rg e -e y e b re a m
30
Bondu
18
bonham ensis, Le thrin u s
64
80
b o r b o n ic u s , L e t h rin u s
Bossu blanc à nageoires roses
51
A a ra vi
ab b re via tu s, L e th rin u s
69
Bossu blanc à points noirs
25
acutus, L e thrin u s
71
Bossu bla n c g ro sse ra ce
28
Adia
80
Bossu d'herbe
78
affinis, M on o ta xis
24
Bossu doré
49
alboguttatus, L e th rin u s
75
Bossu rond
84
Am a-kuchibi
58
Bossu taché
65
am am ianus, Le thrin u s
73
Bossu varie
84
a m b o in e n s is , L e th rin u s
A m b o n e m p e ro r
AÍ
Brème aux gros yeux
92
AÍ
Brown k e lp -fish
67
A m i-fuefuki
85
Budia
92
anarhynchus, L e th rin u s
66
bungus, L e thrin u s
51
anatarius, L e thrin u s
75
Angaria
92
argenteus, Le thrin u s
67
a tk in s o n i, L e t h r i n u s
48
A tla n tic e m p e ro r
50
a tla n tic u s , L e t h rin u s
A tlantikkehrer
50
caeruleus, Le thrin u s
69
51
Cailla
84
22
C a n th aru s g ra n d o cu lis
27
aureo-lineatus, S parus
17
Capitaine
76
a u r o lin e a t u s , G n a t h o d e n te x
17
Capitaine blanc
28
aurolineatus, L e thrin u s
15
Capitaine créole
azureus, L e thrin u s
64
Capitaine gueule longue
72,80
Capitaine rouge
58,76
a u d le y i, G y m n o c r a n i u s
B
32
P
76
Carandine
18
carinatus, L e thrin u s
75
Carri carri
67
centurio, Le thrin u s
Changu
75
52,55,58,69,
71,78,80,84
Bakuktuk
58
Bariadiva
28
Changu choie
52
28
Changu doa
65
Barrois
90
Changu kabaka
65
Batardé
65
Changu kidogo
52
48,49, 60, 69, 80
Changu kidra
65
Battadet
65
Changu koko
76
Baxou
84
Changu kole
65
89
Changu m'domo
90
Bee de cane
76
Changu m'zizi
76
Bec de cane m alabar
80
Changu mdomo
80
Berri bâtard
65
Changu myamvi
72
Bica
51
Changu n'doba
90
Bigeye barenose
92
Changu n'domo
72
65,76,78,81,82,
Changu n'jana
69
84,85,88,89,90
C hangu n'yavi
90
Barialava
Batilya
Baxou goem on
Bitilya
b ito rq u a tu s, G ym nocranius
22
C hangu ndizi
Black-blotch em peror
65
Changu nyamvi
65
B la c k b lo tch e m p e ro r
84
C h a n g u tew a
76
B la c k e y e e m p e ro r
56
Changu tuku
71
B la c k n a p e la rg e -e y e b re a m
31
Changu tuku-m w ani
58
Blackspot em peror
65
Cheekkani
18
b le e k e ri, L e th rin u s
64
C h in e s e e m p e ro r
63
76,84
113
choerorynchus, L eth rinu s
75
chrysostom us, L eth rin u s
73
C hudch
78
C h u tto m m e tte
65
cinereus, L eth rinu s
67
c in n a b a rin u s , L eth rin u s
57
co co sen sis, L e th rin u s
67
C o l la r e d l a r g e - e y e
22
b re a m
C o lla r e d s e a b re a m
23
C o m m u n a rd
62
c o n c h y lia tu s , L e th rin u s
C o ra l b re a m
53
67
C ré o le
76
cro ceop terus, L eth rin u s
67
c ro c in e u s , L e th rin u s
54
c urtu s , P e n t a p u s
27
cu tam b i, L e th rin u s
cyano xan th u s, L eth rinu s
77
75
F
fasciatus, Leth rinu s
F ilo lu
flavescens, L ethrinus
fle tu s , L e t h r i n u s
f lo r id u s , L e t h r i n u s
F o r k t a il l a r g e - e y e b r e a m
66
53
23
fra e n a tu s , L eth rinu s
75
fre n a tu s , G y m n o c ra n iu s
F u e fu k i- d a i
fusciceps, L eth rinu s
25
64
67
G
G adeer
7 6 ,8 0
G a h a s h - a l- h a r a q
65
G a h a s h h a ra k
65
G a h a s h m a h a ra q
G a p a s -g a p a s
D
75
6 5 ,7 1
67
65
1 8 ,3 0 ,9 2
G aw asa
80
G e e lip k e is e r
90
g en ig u ttatu s, L eth rinu s
67
61
D a m e b e rri
71
D a m e b e rri b la n c
71
g e n iv itta tu s , L e th rin u s
G lo w f is h
D a m e b e rr y
78
g ly p h o d o n , L e t h r i n u s
67
Dapak
92
G n a th o d e n te x
17
D a ry y a
81
G n a th o d e n te x a u ro lin e a tu s
17
D a th i
92
G n a th o d e n te x m o s s a m b ic u s
93
D e n te x g riseus
28
G n a th o d e n te x ocu m acu latu s
17
D e n te x le th rin o id e s
27
G o ld - lin e d s e a b re a m
18
D e n te x ly c og e nis
17
g o t h o fr e d i , L e t h r i n u s
75
D e n te x m icrodon
30
g rand ocu lis, C a n th a ru s
27
D e n te x rivu latu s
27
g ra n d o c u lis , G y m n o c ra n iu s
27
D e n t e x ro b in s o n i
27
g ra n d o c u lis , M o n o ta x is
91
devisianu s, L eth rinu s
75
grand ocu lis, S c ia e n a
91
D ra b e m p e ro r
87
66
D ra g i
69
G ra s s e m p e ro r
G r a s s s w e e t lip
dux, P e n t a p u s
27
G re y b a r e n o s e o f G r y s k a a ln e u s
30
G re y la r g e -e y e b re a m
28
G r e y s w e e t lip
67
g ri s e u s , D e n t e x
28
E
g ris e u s , G y m n o c ra n iu s
E c la ir
76
e lo n g a tu s , G y m n o c ra n iu s
23
elongatus, L eth rinu s
71
E n - b a s - la - c e n d r e
65
e n ig m a tic u s , L e th rin u s
55
e ry th ra c a n th u s , L e th rin u s
57
e ry th ro p te ru s , L e th rin u s
59
erythrurus, L e th rin u s
75
esculentu s, L eth rinu s
75
euan u s, G y m n o c ra n iu s
24
18
67
28
G u e u le de v in
5 4 ,8 0
G u e u le lo n g u e
72
G u e u le ro u g e
74
G u ito ra
80
g uenth eri, L eth rinu s
G w asaw a
75
6 5 ,6 9
G y m n o c ra n iu s
18
G y m n o c ra n iu s a u d le y i
22
G y m n o c r a n i u s b it o r q u a t u s
22
G y m n o c ra n iu s e lo n g a tu s
23
G y m n o c ra n iu s eu an u s
24
G y m n o c ra n iu s fre n a tu s
25
114
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ra n d o c u lis
27
K a ta a k a -fu e fu k i
K a ta m b a k
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ris e u s
28
G ym n ocran ius ja p o n ic u s
24
G y m n o c ran iu s le th rin o id e s
31
6 9 , 7 6 , 7 8 , 8 0 ,8 1 ,8 2 ,
8 4 , 8 5 ,8 8 , 8 9 ,9 0
30
Kawa
28
Kaya
G y m n o c ran iu s rü p pellii
27
Kaya la gueule r o u g e
G y m n o c r a n i u s sp
31
Kibaba
G y m n o c ra n iu s m ic ro d o n
G y m n o c r a n i u s o rb is
Ki b o ra
Ki la w a n
H
54
4 8 , 4 9 ,5 8 , 6 0 ,6 5 ,
65
84
5 4 ,8 0
65
90
4 8 , 4 9 ,6 5 ,6 9 ,7 6 , 7 8 , 8 0 ,
8 1 , 8 2 ,8 4 ,8 5 ,8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0
K ilu k k a m -m e tti
90
K it s u n e - fu e f u k i
80
h a e m a to p te ru s , L e th rin u s
H a m a - fu e f u ki
63
Ki uw a
76
76
K o k e - n o k o g ir i
94
H a n a - fu e fu k i
81
K o lw a n g -ke iser
84
64
k o r e ly , L e t h r i n u s
75
71
K u c h ib e n i- fu e f u k i
60
heterodon, P ag ru s
91
K u to t
62
H in i g a d e y a
78
H ó a k a -k u c h ib i
84
H o s o -fu e fu k i
89
h a ra k , L e th rin u s
H e m e l-k e is e r
H o ta u la
80
H u m p n o s e b ig - e y e b re a m
91
H u s u to n i
76
hypselopterus, L ethrinus
59
L
L a d ra o
76
Lancer
62
L a n g n e u s - k e is e r
Lascar
80
5 5 ,5 7 ,7 1 ,7 8
L a s c a r c r é o le
65
la tic a u d is , L e th rin u s
66
latid ens, L eth rin u s
91
l a ti f r o n s , L e t h r i n u s
88
L a w a y la w a y
62
92
le n tja n , L e th rin u s
67
im p e r ia lis , L eth rinu s
73
L eth rin e lla
33
ind ica, M o n o ta x is
91
L eth rinich th ys
33
insulindicus, L eth rin u s
80
le th rin oid e s, D e n te x
27
Io d in e s e a b re a m
24
l e t h r i n o i d e s , Gymnocranius
31
L e th rin u s
33
Ik a ri g ig i o ra n
Is o -fu e fu k i
4 9 ,7 1
It o - f u e f u k i
62
Lethrinus à m u s e a u lo n g
80
Ito tc h
65
Leth rinu s a b b re v ia tu s
69
Leth rinu s acutus
71
Leth rinu s a lbo gu ttatus
75
L ethrinus a m a m ian u s
73
L e th rin u s a m b o in e n s is
47
L ethrinus anarhyn ch u s
66
Leth rinu s an a ta riu s
75
L ethrinus a rg enteus
67
L e th rin u s a tk in s o n i
48
50
64
J
jag o rii, Leth rinu s
84
J a p a n e s e la r g e -e y e b re a m
24
J a p a n e s e s e a b re a m
25
ja p o n ic u s , G y m n o c ran iu s
24
L e th rin u s a tla n tic u s
Leth rinu s au ro lin e atu s
jo h n ii, L eth rinu s
64
Leth rinu s a zu re u s
K
75
L eth rin u s b le e k e ri
64
L eth rinu s b o n h a m e n s is
64
L e th rin u s b o rb o n ic u s
Leth rinu s bungus
51
L eth rinu s c a e ru le u s
69
51
kallop terus, Leth rinu s
57
L eth rinu s carin atu s
75
K a m o g u c h i- fu e fu k i
67
L eth rin u s centurio
75
karw a, Leth rinu s
75
Leth rinu s choero ryn ch u s
75
115
Lethrinus chrysostomus
73
Lethrinus rostratus specificus
78
Lethrinus cinereus
67
L eth rinu s ru b riop ercu latu s
83
Lethrinus cinnabarinus
57
lethrinus sanguineus
69
Lethrinus cocosensis
67
Lethrinus scoparius
75
L e t h r i n u s c o n c h y lia tu s
53
84
Lethrinus croceopterus
67
L e th rin u s s e m ic in c t u s
Lethrinus sordidus
L e t h rin u s c ro c in e u s
Lethrinus cutambi
54
L e t h r i n u s sp. 1
86
77
L e t h r i n u s sp. 2
87
Lethrinus cyanoxanthus
75
Lethrinus striatus
59
Lethrinus devisianus
75
88
Lethrinus elongatus
71
L eth rinu s variegatus
Lethrinus virescens
L eth rinu s enigm aticus
55
Lethrinus waigiensis
78
L eth rinu s erythracanthus
57
89
L e t h r i n u s e ry t h r o p te r u s
59
L e t h rin u s x a n t h o c h i l u s
Lethrinus xanthopterus
Lethrinus erythrurus
75
Lethrinus xanthotaenia
80
Lethrinus esculentus
75
Levovangan
92
Lethrinus fasciatus
75
Upper
74
Lethrinus flavescens
67
Lobotes microprion
28
Lethrinus fletus
66
Long-nosed em peror
80
Lethrinus floridus
53
L o n g fa c e e m p e r o r
79
Lethrinus fraenatus
75
L o n g fin e m p e r o r
59
Lethrinus fusciceps
67
longirostris, Lethrinus
78
Lethrinus geniguttatus
67
Longnose em peror
80
L e t h rin u s g e n i v i t t a t u s
Lethrinus glyphodon
61
Longnose pigface bream
80
67
L o n g s p in e e m p e r o r
61
Lethrinus gothofredi
75
Lumo-an
62
Lethrinus guentheri
75
lycogenis, Dentex
17
L eth rinu s h aem ato pteru s
63
L eth rinu s harak
Lethrinus hypselopterus
64
Lethrinus imperialis
73
Lethrinus insulindicus
80
Lethrinus johnii
64
M 'cha kufa
65
Lethrinus kallopterus
57
M 'changu
76
Lethrinus karwa
75
maculatus, Lethrinus
75
Lethrinus korely
75
Madas
49
L e th rin u s latic a u d is
Lethrinus latidens
66
Maene
91
Mafuti
Lethrinus latifrons
88
Magauli
78
L e t h r i n u s le n t j a n
67
m a h s e n a , L e t h rin u s
69
Lethrinus longirostris
78
mahsenoides, Lethrinus
67
Lethrinus maculatus
75
Mailafo'u
78
L e th rin u s m a h s e n a
69
Makarimas
65
Lethrinus mahsenoides
67
Malaking-mata
92
L eth rinu s m icrodon
71
M a ld iv e e m p e r o r
86
L e t h r i n u s m i n i a tu s
Lethrinus moensii
73
Mamamu
92
84
Manahala
18
L e t h rin u s n e b u lo s u s
75
Manukena
90
Lethrinus nematacanthus
61
marshalli, Paradentex
27
Lethrinus nuageux
76
Mata'ele'ele
65
Lethrinus nubilis
67
M ato-fuefuki
65
L e t h rin u s o b s o le tu s
77
Mechur
72
L e t h r i n u s o liv a c e u s
Lethrinus opercularis
78
Meichidai
30
67
Meko
80
L e t h r i n u s o rn a t u s
Lethrinus papuensis
80
Metngui
64
Metti
Lethrinus perselectus
75
microdon, Dentex
30
L e t h r i n u s re t i c u l a t u s
81
m icrod on , G ym n ocran ius
30
Lethrinus rhodopterus
64
m icrodon, Leth rinu s
71
Lethrinus richardsoni
63
microprion, Lobotes
28
Lethrinus rostratus
78
m iniatu s, L eth rin u s
73
59
84
67
78
M
18
65,84
69
65,71,78
116
Mlangmud
80
m oensii, Lethrinus
84
M o n o ta x is
91
P
M o n o ta x is a ffin is
24
P a c ific y e llo w ta il e m p e ro r
48
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis
M o n o ta x ix in d ic a
91
91
P agrus heterodon
91
Palian
92
Mosam biekse keiser
60
Palu hakka
80
m o s s a m b ic a , W a tts ia
m o s s a m b ic u s , G nathodentex
93
93
Palutput
62
papuensis, L e thrin u s
64
Mozambique em peror
60
P aradentex
18
M o z a m b iq u e la rg e -e y e b re a m
93
P a ra d e n te x m a rs h a lli
27
92
P entapus curtus
27
Pentapus dux
27
Mu
Mulla
M uneaka-kuchibi
76,80
90
N
Perche à lignes d'or
18
perselectus, L e th rin u s
75
Phelele
76
Pig-face bream
69
67
67
Naked-headed sea bream
30
Piggy
P in k e a r e m p e r o r
neb u lo s u s , L e th rin u s
nem atacanthus, Le thrin u s
75
61
Pink-eared em peror
69
Portrait
65
Ninuki
90
N ise-hana-fuefuki
52
Njana
78
Pulii vella meen
76
Purple-eared em peror
69
Nokogiridai
18
N or'-w est s n a p p e r
76
nuageux, Le thrin u s
76
nubilis, L e th rin u s
67
ram ak, Sc ia e na
77
Nyamvi
72
Red-ears
84
Nyanvi
80
Red-finned em peror
67
Red-gilled em peror
84
R e d s n o u t e m p e ro r
81
Nyavi
72,80
o
R
Red-throat
67
Red-throated em peror
74
R e d a x il e m p e ro r
53
o bs ole tus , L e th rin u s
77
Redaxil em peror
54
obsoleta, S ciaena
77
Redspot em peror
69
ocum aculatus, G n a thodentex
17
Reticulated em peror
49
O deo uturoa
80
81
64
63
Oeo tiamu
90
re t ic u la t u s , L e t h r i n u s
rhodopterus, Lethrinus
Oeo utupoto
90
richardsoni, L e th rin u s
o liv a c e us , L e t h r i n u s
Ome-meichidai
78
31
Rippled barenose o f Gerim pelde
Onaga meichidai
24
rivulatus, D entex
O o-fuefuki
72
Roba
op e rcu la ris, L e thrin u s
67
R obinson's sea bream
28
rob in so n i, D e n te x
27
O ra n g e -s p o tte d e m p e r o r
O range stripe em peror
O ra n g e -s trip e d e m p e r o r
57,58
78
77,78
kaalneus
28
27
72,80
Rooikol-keiser
69
Rooiskof-keiser
54
O raniekol-keiser
58
rostratus, L e thrin u s
78
O ranjestreep keiser
78
ro stra tu s sp e cificu s, L e th rin u s
78
orbis, G ym no cra n iu s
28
O rn a te e m p e ro r
80
ru b r i o p e r c u l a t u s , L e t h r i n u s
ruppellii, G ym nocranius
83
27
o rn atu s, L e t h r i n u s
80
Rythung-filolu
90
117
T ricky sn a p pe r
S
Sand s n a p p e r
76
s a n g u in e u s , L e t h r in u s
69
S a p in g a n
4 9 ,8 0
S a z a n a m id a i
28
S c ia e n a g r a n d o c u lis
91
S c ia e n a o b s o le tu s
77
S c ia e n a r a m a k
77
s c o p a r iu s , L e t h r in u s
75
s e m ic in c tu s , L e th rin u s
Shaoor
S haoor m ehseny
S h e ir y
84
6 5 ,6 9 ,7 1 ,9 0
76
7 2 ,7 6 ,9 0
69
S h ir o d a i
25
Shoor
72
S in a g u b
65
6 9 ,7 1
S te n d e r e m p e ro r
88
S m a llto o th e m p e ro r
71
S n a p p e r b re a m
S n u b n o s e e m p e ro r
69
T s e e n ts u y la
64
T s e e n ts u y ts o
64
T s iv a r a v a r a m e n a
28
Tsongue
76
T u a m o tu e m p e r o r
49
Tukw ana
76
u
U ra h o ta
80
V
V anaka
v a rie g a tu s , L e th rin u s
V e lla m e e n
80
88
7 6 ,7 8
V ip u a k e
90
v ire s c e n s , L e th rin u s
67
67
84
S o r o ro
89
Soudanné
89
7 5 ,7 6
S p a r u s a u r e o - lin e a t u s
17
S p h a e ro d o n
91
S p o tc h e e k e m p e ro r
74
Tsangou
5 1 ,5 2
s o r d id u s , L e t h r in u s
S p a n g le d e m p e r o r
73
T r u m p e te r
5 2 , 6 5 ,6 9 ,7 1 ,
S h im o f u r i- f u e fu k i
S k y e m p e ro r
49,74
T ru m p e t e m p e ro r
W
w a ig ie n s is , L e t h r in u s
78
W a tts ia
92
W a tts ia m o s s a m b ic a
93
8 3 ,8 4
S p o tte d s e a b re a m
32
S t a r r y p ig f a c e b re a m
76
S to m p n e u s k e is e r
52
s t r ia t u s , L e t h r in u s
59
S trip e d la rg e -e y e b ream
17
x a n th o c h ilu s , L e th rin u s
x a n t h o p t e r u s , L e t h r in u s
89
78
S w a ll o w t a il s e a b re a m
24
x a n t h o t a e n ia , L e t h r in u s
80
S w a r k o l- k e is e r
65
S w e e t lip
74
S w e e tlip e m p e r o r
74
T
X
Y
Y a e y a m a -fu e fu k i
82
Y e llo w m o r w o n g
49
Y e llo w - s p o t t e d e m p e r o r
58
T a b u tu
T a ilg i
65
92
T a is e iy o - f u e f u k i
51
Y e llo w - s t r ip e d e m p e r o r
81
T a m a -m e ic h i
T a m u re
32
49
Y e llo w s w e e t lip
76
T a t e s h im a - f u e fu k i
78
Y e llo w lip e m p e ro r
T h a n g u -c h a a
T h in a n
T h u m b p r in t e m p e r o r
T ip u a k e
28
80
6 4 ,6 5
80
Y e llo w - t a ile d e m p e r o r
49
8 9 ,9 0
Y e llo w s n o u t la r g e -e y e b re a m
26
Y e llo w ta il e m p e ro r
54
Y o k o s h im a f u e f u k i
48
Y o k o s h im a - k u r o d a i
92
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118
7. C O LO U R P LA T E S
PLATEI
PLATE VII
1.
G n a th o d e n te x a u ro lin e a tu s
38.
L e th rin u s o liv a c e u s
2.
G y m n o c ra n iu s a u d le y i
39.
L e th rin u s o rn a tu s
3.
40.
L e th rin u s re tic u la tu s
4.
G y m n o c ra n iu s e lo n g a tu s
G y m n o c ra n iu s e u a n u s
41.
5.
G y m n o c ra n iu s fre n a tu s
42.
L e th rin u s ru b rio p e rc u la tu s
L e th rin u s s e m ic in c tu s
43.
L e th rin u s sp. 1
PLATE II
PLATE VIII
6.
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ra n d o c u lis
7.
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ris e u s (a d u lt)
44.
L e th rin u s sp. 2
8.
45.
L e th rin u s v a rie g a tu s
9.
G y m n o c ra n iu s g ris e u s ( ju v e n ile )
G y m n o c ra n iu s m ic ro d o n
46.
10.
G y m n o c ra n iu s sp.
47.
L e th rin u s x a n th o c h ilu s
M o n o ta xis g ra n d o c u lis (a d u lt)
11.
L e th rin u s a m b o in e n s is
48.
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis (s u b a d u lt)
PLATE III
12.
L eth rinu s a tk in s on i
13.
Lethrinus atlanticus
14.
L e th rin u s b o r b o n ic u s
15.
L ethrinus conchyliatu s
16.
L ethrinus c ro cineus
17.
L ethrinus e n ig m a t ic u s
P L A T E IV
18.
Lethrinus e ry th ra c an th u s (a d u lt)
19.
L ethrinus e ry th ra c a n th u s ( ju v e n ile )
20.
Lethrinus e ry thra c an thu s
21.
Lethrinus e ry thropte rus
22.
Lethrinus genivittatus
23.
L eth rinu s h a e m a t o p t e r u s
24.
L ethrinus h a r a k
PLATE V
25.
L ethrinus laticaudis
26.
Lethrinus lentjan (a d u lt), s ilv e r y p a tte rn
27.
L ethrinus le ntjan (a d u lt), b a rre d p a tte rn
28.
Leth rin u s m a h s e n a (a d u lt) , fo rm m a h s e n a
29.
L eth rinu s m a h s e n a ( a d u lt), fo rm s a n g u i n e u s
30.
Lethrinus m ic rod on (a d u lt), s ilv e r y p a tte rn
P L A T E VI
31.
Lethrinus m ic rod on (a d u lt), m o ttle d p a tte rn
32.
Lethrinus m in ia tu s (a d u lt), s ilv e r y p a tte rn
33.
Leth rinu s m in ia tu s (a d u lt), b a rre d p a tte rn
34.
Lethrinus m in ia tu s (a d u lt), re d ta il p a tte rn
35.
Leth rinu s n e b u lo s u s ( a d u lt)
36.
Leth rin u s n e b u l o s u s ( ju v e n ile )
37.
Leth rinu s o b s o le tu s
49.
M o n o ta x is g ra n d o c u lis (ju v e n ile s )
50.
W a tts ia m o s s a m b ic a
PLATE I
1.
Gnathodentex aurolineatus
(ill. Swainston)
2.
3.
Gymnocranius elongatus
(iii. Swainston)
4.
5.
Gymnocranius audleyi
(iii. Swainston)
Gymnocranius frenatus
(iii. Swainston)
Gymnocranius euanus
(iii. Swainston)
PLATE II
6.
Gymnocranius grandoculis
(ill. Swainston)
■ *V '
9.
7.
Gymnocranius griseus (adult)
(iii. Swainston)
8.
Gymnocranius griseus (juvenile)
(iii. Swainston)
Gymnocranius microdon
(iii. Swainston)
10.
11.
Lethrinus amboinensis
(iii. Swainston)
Gymnocranius sp.
(iii. Swainston)
PLATE III
12.
Lethrinus atkinsoni
(ill. Swainston)
13.
14.
Lethrinus atlanticus
(iii. Swainston)
Lethrinus borbonicus
(iii. Swainston)
15.
16.
Lethrinus conchyliatus
(iii. Swainston)
Lethrinus crocineus
(iii. Swainston)
17.
Lethrinus enigmaticus
(iii. Lastrico)
PLATE IV
18.
Lethrinus erythracanthus (adult)
(iii. Swainston)
19.
Lethrinus erythracanthus (juvenile)
(iii. Swainston)
20. Lethrinus erythracanthus
(iii. Swainston)
21.
Lethrinus erythropterus
(iii. Swainston)
Lethrinus genivittatus
(iii. Swainston)
23.
Lethrinus haematopterus
(iii. Swainston)
24.
Lethrinus harak
(iii. Swainston)
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PLATE V
25.
Lethrinus laticaudis
(ill. Swainston)
26.
27.
Lethrinus lentjan (adult), silvery
pattern (ill. Swainston)
Lethrinus lentjan (adult), barred
pattern (ill. Swainston)
28.
Lethrinus mahsena (adult), form
mahsena (ill. Swainston)
Lethrinus mahsena (adult), form
sanguineus (ill. Swainston)
30.
Lethrinus microdon (adult), silvery
pattern (ill. Swainston)
PLATE VI
31.
Lethrinus microdon (adult), mottled
pattern (iii. Swainston)
Lethrinus miniatus (adult), silvery
pattern (iii. Swainston)
33. Lethrinus miniatus (adult), barred
pattern (iii. Swainston)
34.
Lethrinus miniatus (adult), redtail
pattern (iii. Swainston)
36.
35.
Lethrinus nebulosus (juvenile)
(iii. Swainston)
Lethrinus nebulosus (adult)
(iii. Swainston)
37. Lethrinus obsoletus
(iii. Swainston)
PLATE VII
U i i / '/
38.
Lethrinus olivaceus
(iii. Swainston)
39. Lethrinus ornatus
(iii. Swainston)
40. Lethrinus reticulatus
(iii. Swainston)
41. Lethrinus rubrioperculatus
(iii. Swainston)
42.
Lethrinus semicinctus
(iii. Swainston)
43.
Lethrinus sp. 1
(iii. Lastrico)
PLATE VIII
44.
Lethrinus sp. 2
(iii. Lastrico)
45.
Lethrinus variegatus
(iii. Swainston)
46. Lethrinus xanthochilus
(iii. Swainston)
47. Monotaxis grandoculis
(adult) (iii. Swainston)
48.
49.
Monotaxis grandoculis (subadult)
(¡II. Swainston)
Monotaxis grandoculis (juvenile)
(¡II. Swainston)
50.
Wattsia mossambica
(iii. Swainston)