FOREWORD
This is the th ird issue o f The State o f W orld Fisheries and A quaculture. It fo llo w s the
pattern set by the previous issues, published in 1996 and 1998. The purpose
continues to be to provide policy-m akers, civ il society and those w ho derive th eir
liveliho od from the sector a comprehensive, objective and global v ie w o f capture
fisheries and aquaculture, in clu d in g associated p o lic y issues.
The concerns o f consumers and fishers, w h ich are central to the state o f w orld
fisheries and aquaculture, are reflected in a num ber o f topics exam ined in The State
o f W orld Fisheries and A quaculture 2000. A discussion o f current issues is
com plem ented by summ ary reports on national and international activities
undertaken to address them . Some issues are w ell know n and figure prom in en tly in
the international debate - the issue o f fish q ua lity and safety, for instance, and that
o f genetically m odified organisms and fisheries. Also discussed are tw o im portant
issues that are much less know n and understood: the first is fishers' safety; the
second is the culture o f fishing com m unities. It is not co m m on ly known that fishing
at sea is probably the most dangerous occupation in the w o rld . The State o f W orld
Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000 reports on this issue in the hope that a more
widespread realization o f this aspect o f fisheries w ill lead to effective measures to
im prove fishers' safety. Recent developm ents in fisheries governance seem to lead to
a larger role for fishers in fisheries management. However, for fishers to become
effective partners in management, a better understanding o f their com m unities'
culture is essential. H ighlights from a recently com pleted FAO study o f this subject
are included in this pub lica tion on the premise that reaching a better understanding
o f such cultures is a key to fisheries management and food security in most artisanal
and sm all-scale fisheries.
Sustainable exploitation continues to be a desirable goal for all fisheries and
aquaculture operations. This year, we report on some aspects o f the progress made
by the international fisheries co m m un ity tow ards achieving this goal. Summary
inform ation is provided on the state o f fisheries management, and several factors
to be considered in efforts to im prove management are discussed, for exam ple:
i) property rights - seen as a means for defining and specifying the entitlem ents,
privileges and responsibilities created by d ifferent types o f fisheries management
regimes; ¡i) the role o f indicators o f sustainable developm ent and th e ir integration
w ith the precautionary approach, as the use o f such indicators is set to become a
practice leading tow ards an ecosystems fram ew ork for management; iii) a plausible
approach for dealing w ith illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; and
iv) ecolabelling, the basic principles o f w h ich are described, together w ith the
somewhat controversial standing o f this practice and its potential co ntribu tion to
fisheries m anagem ent.
As in the past, The State o f W orld Fisheries and A quaculture 2000 begins by
review ing recent developm ents in the status o f resources, production from
capture fisheries and aquaculture, u tiliza tio n and trade. Recent advances in
fishing technology are also covered. This inform ation is com plem ented by a
report - in Part 3 - on the econom ic v ia b ility o f selected com m ercial fishing fleets.
A general o u tlo o k is provided in Part 4, w h ich examines recent trends and their
possible im pact on the nature and character o f the fishing industry, as w ell as on the
level and d istribution o f future fish consum ption.
It is m y hope that The State o f W orld Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000 w ill generate
awareness o f the increasing global interaction inherent in the sector. In turn, this
greater awareness should stim ulate global, regional and national efforts to im prove
responsible practices and prom ote sustainability in fisheries and aquaculture.
Ichiro Nomura
Assistant D irector-G eneral
FAO Fisheries D epartm ent
V
CONTENTS
Foreword
A cknow le dg em en ts
G lossary
¡ü
xi i
xi i i
Part 1
W O R L D REVIEW OF FISHERIES A N D A Q U A C U LTU R E
Fisheries resources: trends in production, utilization and trade
O v e rv ie w
Capture fisheries production
The status o f fisheries resources
The status o f the ecosystems
The status o f the fishing fleet
Fishing te chn olo gy developm ent
Fisheries p o licy and m anagem ent
A q ua cu lture
Fish u tiliz a tio n
Fish trade
3
3
6
10
12
12
13
17
23
28
32
PART 2
SELECTED ISSUES FA C IN G FISHERS A N D A Q U A C U LTU R ISTS
Fishers' safety
The issue
Possible solutions
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
Fish quality and safety
The issue
Possible solutions
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
Property rights and fisheries management
The issue
Possible solutions
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
The issue
Possible solutions
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
Indicators of sustainable development and the
precautionary approach in marine capture fisheries
The issue
Possible solutions
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
M onitoring the impact of fishing on marine ecosystems
The issue
Possible solutions
G lobal perspective
41
41
43
43
46
47
47
48
48
49
52
52
52
55
56
57
57
57
59
59
60
60
60
60
66
66
66
70
71
vi
Genetically modified organisms andfisheries
The issue
Possible solutions
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
Ecolabelling in fisheries management
The issue
H ow ecolab elling w orks
Recent actions
G lobal perspective
71
71
75
76
77
77
77
78
80
83
PART 3
H IG H L IG H T S O F SPECIAL FAO STUDIES
Understanding the cultures of fishing communities: a key to fisheries
management and food security
Background
H ighlights from case studies
H ighlights o f main findings
The economic viability of marine capture fisheries
Background
Findings
O u tlo o k: sustainability and e con om ic v ia b ility
Trends in world fisheries and their resources: 1974-1999
Introduction
Relative p ro du ction levels
G lobal levels o f exploita tion
The state o f stocks by region
G lobal trends
Discussion
87
87
87
90
91
91
92
96
98
98
98
98
101
101
101
PART 4
O U TLO O K
Recent trends and possible consequences for world fisheries and
aquaculture
O v e rv ie w
Fish as food
Fish as a source o f incom e
Medium-term outlook: fish consumption in 2010
Long-term outlook: some plausible structural changes in production
and demand
107
107
107
111
113
115
PART 5
FISHERI ES A C T IV IT I ES O F C O U N T R Y G R O U P IN G S
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Caribbean Community and Common M arket
Commonwealth of Independent States
Economic Community of West African States
European Community
Latin American Economic System
League of Arab States
North American Free Trade Agreement
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Southern African Development Community
South Pacific Forum
119
121
123
125
127
131
133
135
136
138
140
vi
BOXES
BOX 1
Registration and reflagging o f fishing vessels
14
BOX 2
O b jective and reliable fishery status and trends reporting
18
BOX 3
Regional fishery bodies: IO T C and NEAFC
21
BOX 4
Cyclone in India
42
BOX 5
Accidents
42
BOX 6
Safety and survival training
44
BOX 7
Small boats going offshore
45
BOX 8
Self-help groups
46
BOX 9
Risk policy: the case of ciguatera control in Cuba
50
BOX 10
The economics o f fish safety
50
BOX 11
Factors affecting the concept o f property rights in fisheries management
53
BOX 12
Property rights and conflict m inim ization
54
BOX 13
IU U fishing in th e C C A M L R region
58
BOX 14
Nom enclature
72
BOX 15
Labelling for origin and species
82
BOX 16
FAO statistical areas
99
BOX 17
The relationship between fish consumption, w ealth and econom ic growth
109
BOX 18
Rent and rent extraction
113
BOX 19
Fish consumption and long-term incom e elasticities
115
viîî
TABLES
TABLE 1
W orld fisheries production and utilization
6
TABLE 2
Top ten countries in inland fisheries production
11
TABLE 3
Inland fisheries production by econom ic class
11
TABLE 4
Indicators for the main dimensions o f sustainable developm ent
61
TABLE 5
Some aquatic G M O s (transgenic species) being tested for use in
aquaculture
73
TABLE 6
ASEAN : fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
119
TABLE 7
C A R IC O M : fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
121
TABLE 8
CIS: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
123
TABLE 9
ECOWAS: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
125
TABLE 10
EC: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
127
TABLE 11
LAES: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
131
TABLE 12
League o f Arab States: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance
and trade
133
TABLE 13
NAFTA: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
135
TABLE 14
SAARC: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
136
TABLE 15
SADC: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
139
TABLE 16
SPF: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
141
¡X
FIGURES
FIGURE 1
W o rld capture fisheries and aquaculture production
4
FIGURE 2
W o rld fish utilization and supply, excluding China
4
FIGURE 3
China's fish utilization and supply
5
FIGURE 4
W o rld fishers and fish farmers (including full-tim e, part-tim e and
occasional workers)
5
FIGURE 5
M arin e and inland capture fisheries production: top producer
countries in 1998
7
FIGURE 6
Capture fisheries production by principal fishing areas in 1 9 9 8 , com pared
w ith 1996
8
FIGURE 7a
Capture fisheries production: top species in 1 99 8, com pared w ith 1996
9
FIGURE 7b
Fisheries production trends in selected m ajor fishing areas
9
FIGURE 8
Fisheries production in the N orthw est Pacific
10
FIGURE 9
Aquaculture production in 1998: breakdown by environment
24
FIGURE 10
G lobal aquaculture production by species groups in freshwater, brackish
w ater and m arine environments in 199 8
25
FIGURE 11
Global aquaculture production: m ajor species groups in 1 99 8
25
FIGURE 12
Aquaculture production: m ajor producer countries in 1 99 8
26
FIGURE 13
Trends in aquaculture production volum e
26
FIGURE 14
Aquaculture production: contribution o f LIFDCs in 1998
27
FIGURE 15
U tiliza tio n o f w orld fisheries production (breakdown by percentage),
1989-1998
29
X
FIGURE 16
U tilizatio n o f w orld fisheries production (breakdown by volum e),
1989-1998
29
FIGURE 17
Food fish supply by continent and econom ic grouping in 1997
30
FIGURE 18
Food fish supply by species groups in 199 7
31
FIGURE 19
Contribution o f food fish to animal protein supply in 1 99 7
33
FIGURE 20
W orld fishery exports by m ajor com m odity groups
34
FIGURE 21
Imports and exports o f fishery products for different regions, indicating
the net deficit or surplus
35
FIGURE 22
Flierarchical subdivision of a sustainable developm ent fram ew ork
62
FIGURE 23
Kite diagram
63
FIGURE 24
Type o f precautionary plot used to m onitor fisheries in ICES or N A FO
65
FIGURE 25
Precautionary plot position o f several N o rth A tlantic stocks in 1 97 0
65
FIGURE 26
Northeast A tlantic: piscivore-zooplanktivore index
67
FIGURE 27
Average log-landings
69
FIGURE 28
Smoothed index of the variation between landings categories
69
FIGURE 29
Example areas showing the trends between the average and variation
o f landings categories
70
FIGURE 30
Cost structure o f bottom traw l fisheries
93
FIGURE 31
O peration costs per US dollar o f gross earnings in bottom traw l
fisheries
94
FIGURE 32
Cost structure for small-scale fishing vessels
95
xi
FIGURE 33
O peration costs per US dollar o f gross earnings for small-scale fishing
vessels
95
FIGURE 34
Productivity and financial perform ance o f bottom traw l fisheries
96
FIGURE 35
Productivity and financial perform ance o f small-scale fishing vessels
97
FIGURE 36
Ratio between recent (19 98 ) and m axim al production
99
FIGURE 37
The state o f stocks in 1999
100
FIGURE 38
Percentage, by FAO Fishing Area, o f stocks exploited at or beyond MSY
levels (F + O + D + R ) and below M SY levels (U + M )
102
FIGURE 39
Percentage, by FAO Fishing Area, o f stocks exploited at or below M SY
levels (U + M + F ) and beyond M SY levels (O + D + R )
102
FIGURE 40
Global trends in the state of w o rld stocks since 197 4
103
FIGURE 41
Trends in the percentage o f stocks exploited beyond M SY levels (O + D + R )
in the N orthern A tlantic and Pacific Oceans
103
FIGURE 42
Trends in the percentage o f stocks exploited beyond M SY levels (O + D + R )
in the tropical (Central and Southern) A tlantic and Pacific Oceans
104
FIGURE 43
Total food fish supply and per capita food fish supply in LIFDCs,
1961-1997
110
FIGURE 44
Total food fish supply and per capita food fish supply in Africa,
1961-1997
110
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The State o f W orld Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000 was
prepared by FAO Fisheries Departm ent staff, led by a team
com prising U. W ijkstrom , A. G um y and R. Grainger.
General d irection was provided by the departm ent's
management staff, inclu ding : L. A babouch; J. Csirke;
S.M. G arcia; J. Jiansan; Z. Karnicki; I. N om ura; B. Satia;
J. Valdemarsen; and G. Valdimarsson.
The preparation o f Part 1, W orld review o f fisheries and
aquaculture, was the overall e ditorial responsibility o f
P. M edley and R. Grainger, w h o coordinated the
contributions made by R. G rainger (production, capture
fisheries); J. Csirke (resources); P. M edley (ecosystems,
management); I. Orzsesko (managem ent inform ation);
A. Smith (fishing vessels); J. Valdemarsen (fishing
technology); R. Subasinghe (aquaculture); D .M . Bartley
(inland fisheries); A. Cris po Id i (consum ption); and
S. V annuccini (trade).
C ontributors to Part 2, Selected issues facing fishers
and aquaculturists, included: J. Turner (fishers' safety);
H .M . Lupin (fish q ua lity and safety); R. M etzner, w ho is
w ith Fisheries Western Australia (property rights and
fisheries management); D. D oulm an (illegal, unreported
and unregulated fishing); S.M. G arcia (indicators o f
sustainable developm ent and the precautionary approach
in m arine capture fisheries); P. M edley (m onitoring the
im pact o f fishing on the marine ecosystems); D .M . Bartley
(genetically m odified organisms and fisheries); and
R. W illm a n (ecolabelling in fisheries management).
C ontributors to Part 3, H ighlights o f special FAO studies,
included: J.R. M cG o o d w in (understanding the cultures o f
fishing com m unities: a key to fisheries management and
food security); U. Tietze (econom ic v ia b ility o f m arine
capture fisheries); and S. Garcia and J. de Leiva M oreno
(trends in w o rld fisheries and th eir resources).
Part 4, O u tloo k, was w ritten by U. W ijkstrom .
Part 5, Fisheries activities o f country groupings, was
w ritten by A. Gumy.
Several other staff members as w ell as non-FAO authors
have contributed texts on specific issues, and they are
cited in the relevant boxes throughout the p ublication.
Inform ation o f relevance for all five parts has been
provided by FAO staff in the Regional and Subregional
O ffice s.
The Editorial G roup o f the FAO Inform ation D ivision was
responsible for the editing, design and production o f The
State o f W orld Fisheries and A quaculture 2000.
GLOSSARY
ACFR
Advisory Com m ittee on Fisheries
Research (FAO)
CECAF
Fishery C om m ittee for the Eastern
Central A tla n tic
ACP
African, Caribbean and Pacific G roup o f
States (EU)
CEMARE
Centre for the Economics and
M anagem ent o f A q ua tic Resources (UK)
AFFP
Arab Federation o f Fish Producers
CFP
Com m on Fisheries Policy (EC)
AIS
autom atic id e n tifica tio n system
CFRAMP
C AR IC O M Fisheries Resource
Assessment and M anagem ent Program
AMA F
Asian M inisters o f A griculture and
Fisheries (ASEAN)
APFIC
Asia-P acific Fisheries Com m ission
ASEAN
Association o f Southeast Asian Nations
ASFA
A q ua tic Sciences and Fisheries
Abstracts
CAC
Codex A lim entarius Com m ission
CAP
Com m on A gricultural Policy (EC)
C A RICO M
Caribbean C om m unity and Com m on
M a rke t
CCAMLR
Com m ission for the Conservation o f
A n ta rctic M arine Living Resources
CCSBT
Com m ission for the Conservation o f
Southern Bluefin Tuna
CDC
Centers for Disease C ontrol and
Prevention (USA)
CDQ
co m m un ity developm ent quota
Cl DA
Canadian International D evelopm ent
A gency
CIS
C om m onw ealth o f Independent States
COFI
Com m ittee on Fisheries (FAO)
COMESA
Com m on M arket for Eastern and
Southern A frica
CPUE
catch per unit effort
CSD
Com m ission on Sustainable
D evelopm ent (UN)
D A N ID A
Danish International Development Agency
DWFN
Distant W ater Fishing Nations
EC
European C om m unity
ECOWAS
Econom ic C om m unity o f West African
States
EEC
European Econom ic C om m unity
(superseded by EC)
EEZ
exclusive e co n o m ic zone
EU
European U nion
FAD
fish attraction device
FCA
fisheries cooperative association
FFA
South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency
IBSFC
International Baltic Sea Fishery
Com m ission
ICCAT
International Com m ission for the
Conservation o f A tla n tic Tunas
ICES
International C ouncil for the Exploration
o f the Sea
ICLARM
International Centre for Living A quatic
Resources M anagem ent
FIFG
Financial Instrum ent for Fisheries
G uidance (EC)
IFPRI
International Food Policy Research Institute
FIGIS
Fisheries G lobal Inform ation System
IFQ
individual fishing quota
GAA
G lobal A quaculture A llian ce
ILO
International Labour O rganization
GFCM
General Fisheries Com m ission for the
M editerranean
IM O
International M a ritim e O rganization
GIS
geographic inform a tion system
GMDSS
G lobal M a ritim e Distress Safety System
IOTC
Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
IPHC
International Pacific H a lib u t Com m ission
GMO
gen etica lly m od ifie d organism
IPTP
Indo-Pacific Tuna D evelopm ent and
M anagem ent Programme
GPS
global position ing system
IQ
individual quota
CRT
gross registered ton
ISO
International O rganization for
Standardization
GT
gross tonnage, or tonnage (abbrev.)
HACCP
Hazard Analysis and C ritical Control
Point (system)
HP
horsepower
IASR
Icelandic Association for Search and
Rescue
ITE
in d ivid u a l transferable effort
ITLOS
International Tribunal for the Law o f the
Sea
ITQ
ind ivid ua l transferable quota
ITSQ
ind ivid ua l transferable share quota
lU C N
W orld Conservation U nion
NAFTA
N orth Am erican Free Trade Agreement
IU U
illegal, unreported and unregulated
(fishing)
NASCO
N orth A tla n tic Salmon Conservation
O rg a n iza tio n
IV Q
ind ivid ua l vessel quota
NCM
N ordic C ouncil o f M inisters
IW C
International W h a lin g Com m ission
NEAFC
N ortheast A tla n tic Fisheries Com m ission
LAES
Latin A m erican Econom ic System
NGO
non-governm ental organization
LIFDC
low -in co m e fo o d -d e ficit country
OECD
Organisation for Econom ic Co-operation
and D evelopm ent
LMIS
Lloyd's M a ritim e Inform ation Services
LM O
livin g m odified organism
MAC
M arine A quarium C ouncil
OLDEPESCA
Latin Am erican O rganization for
Fisheries D evelopm ent
PSR
pressure-state-response (fram ew ork)
MAGP
M ulti-A nn u al G uidance Programme (EC)
QM P
Q u a lity M anagem ent Programme
(Canada)
MCS
m onitoring, control and surveillance
RFS
Responsible Fisheries Society (USA)
M HLC
M u ltila te ra l H igh-Level Conference on
the Conservation and M anagem ent o f
H igh ly M igratory Fish Stocks in the
Central and Western Pacific
SAARC
South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation
MLTAY
m axim um long-term average yield
MSC
M arine Stewardship C ouncil (WWF)
SA DC
Southern A frican D evelopm ent
C om m unity
SCRS
Standing C om m ittee on Research and
Statistics (ICCAT)
MSY
m axim um sustainable yield
seu
NACA
N etw ork o f A quaculture Centres in
A sia -P a cific
SEAFDEC
Southeast Asian Fisheries D evelopm ent
Centre
NAFO
N orthw est A tla n tic Fisheries
O rg a n iza tio n
SEAFO
Southeast A tla n tic Fisheries
O rg a n iza tio n
Sector C oordinating U n it (SADC)
SPF
South Pacific Forum
STCW-F
C onvention for the Standards o f Training,
C ertification and W atchkeeping for
Fishing Vessel Personnel
U N DP
U nited Nations D evelopm ent
Programme
USDA
U nited States D epartm ent o f Agricu
SURFS
stock use rights in fisheries
USFDA
U nited States Food and Drug
A d m in istra tio n
TAC
total a llo w a b le catch
VMS
Vessel M o n ito rin g System
TRIPS
(Agreem ent on) Trade-Related
Aspects o f Intellectual Property
Rights (WTO)
WECAFC
Western Central A tla n tic Fisheries
Com m ission
TURFS
te rrito rial use rights in fisheries
UNCED
U nited Nations Conference on
Environm ent and D evelopm ent
UNCLOS
U nited Nations Conference on the Law
o f the Sea
WHO
W orld Health O rganization
WRI
W orld Resources Institute
W TO
W orld Trade O rganization
WWF
W orld W ide Fund for Nature
PART 1
World review of fisheries and aquaculture
World review of fisheries and aquaculture
FISHERIES RESOURCES:
TRENDS IN P R O D U C T IO N ,
U T IL IZ A T IO N A N D TRADE
OVERVIEW
Despite fluctuations in supply and dem and,
caused by the changing state o f fisheries
resources, the e con om ic clim ate and
environm ental co nditions, fisheries and
aquaculture remain very im portant as a source
o f food, em ploym ent and revenue in many
countries and com m unities.
Reported global capture fisheries and
aquaculture production contracted from a
figure o f 122 m illio n tonnes in 1997 to 11 7
m illio n tonnes in 1998. This was m ainly ow in g
to the effects o f the clim ate anomaly, El N iño,
on some m ajor m arine capture fisheries
(Figure 1, p. 4 and Table 1, p. 6). However,
production recovered in 1999, for w h ich the
pre lim ina ry estimate is about 125 m illio n
tonnes. The production increase o f 20 m illio n
tonnes over the last decade was m ainly due to
aquaculture, as capture fisheries production
rem ained re la tive ly stable.
For the tw o decades fo llo w in g 1950, w orld
m arine and inland capture fisheries production
increased on average by as m uch as 6 percent
per year, treb lin g from 18 m illio n tonnes in
1 950 to 56 m illio n tonnes in 1969. D uring the
1970s and 1980s, the average rate o f increase
declined to 2 percent per year, fa llin g to
alm ost zero in the 1990s. This levelling o ff o f
the total catch fo llo w s the general trend o f
most o f the w orld's fishing areas, w h ich have
apparently reached th e ir m axim um potential
for capture fisheries production, w ith the
m ajority o f stocks being fu lly exploited. It is
therefore very u n like ly that substantial
increases in total catch w ill be obtained. In
contrast, grow th in aquaculture production has
shown the opposite tendency. Starting from an
insignificant total production, inland and
m arine aquaculture production grew by about
5 percent per year between 1950 and 1969 and
by about 8 percent per year during the 1 970s
and 1980s, and it has increased further to 10
percent per year since 1990.
The global patterns o f fish production owe
m uch to the activities o f China, w h ich reports
production in w eight that accounts for 32
percent o f the w o rld total. O ther m ajor
producer countries are Japan, India, the United
States, the Russian Federation and Indonesia.
W hen China is excluded, however, the
production o ffis h used as food for humans has
rem ained relatively stable (Figure 2), but the
production o f fish destined for animal feed has
decreased in recent years - the decline
registered in 1998 was largely due to the El
N iño effect, particula rly on the anchoveta
fishery w h ich supplies a significant proportion
o f the fish used for fishmeal and fish o il.
However, the event had m uch less im pact on
the supply o f fish for food, w h ich declined o nly
slightly to 11.8 kg per capita. O utside China,
the w orld's population has been increasing
more q u ic k ly than total fish production and the
per capita fish supply has declined since the
m id-1980s.
In contrast, China has reported increases in
fish production and shows little sign o f slow ing
grow th (Figure 3). M ost o f the production is
used dom estically and for human consum ption,
but there has also been a recent expansion in
the production o f feed. There has been a m ajor
grow th o f aquaculture, w h ich now dom inates
China's production, although capture fisheries
have also seen increases. Per capita fish
supply, based on reported production, has
increased d ra m a tically over the last 20 years,
indicating the g row ing im portance o f fish as
food. This increased supply has been helped by
China's slow ing population grow th.
Em ploym ent in the prim ary capture fisheries
and aquaculture production sectors in 1998 is
estimated to have been about 36 m illio n
people, com prising about 15 m illio n fu ll-tim e ,
13 m illio n part-tim e and 8 m illio n occasional
workers. For the first tim e, there is an
indication that grow th in em ploym ent in the
prim ary sectors o f fisheries and aquaculture
has ceased (Figure 4). Em ploym ent in inland
and m arine aquaculture has been increasing,
and is now estimated to account for about 25
percent o f the total. M arine capture fisheries
account for about 60 percent and inland
capture fisheries for the rem aining 15 percent.
International trade in fishery com m odities
fell back from a peak o f US$53.5 b illio n
dollars (f.o.b.) in 1997 to U S$51.3 b illio n in
1998. This is probably the result o f a
com bination o f factors, in clu d in g a recession
in East Asia w h ich weakened dem and,
4
FIGURE 1
W orld capture fisheries and aquaculture production
Million tonnes
140
Aquaculture
120
Capture
fisheries
100
80
60
1950
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
Note: Aquaculture quantities prior to 1 984 are estimates
Source: FAO
Fish utilization
(million tonnes)
and food supply (kg/capita)
FIGURE 2
World fish utilization and supply, excluding China
100
Food
80
Feed
60
Population
40
Per capita
supply
20
lili III11III
NIMM
tiLLLL1111iT
1950
Source: FAO
1954
1958
1962
0
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
Population
(billions)
5
FIGURE 3
Fish utilization
and foc^'suppíy"(kg/capita)
China's fish utilization and supply
40
2.0
J
30
Food
Feed
20
1950
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
Source: FAO
FIGURE 4
W orld fishers and fish farmers (including full-tim e,
part-time and occasional workers)
Millions
40
30
20
10
0
1965
Source: FAO
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
1998
1.0
Population
0.5
Per capita
supply
Population
(billions)
6
p articula rly in Japan, and low er fishmeal
production and trade resulting from decreased
catches o f anchoveta. Prelim inary 1999 data
indicate a 4 percent grow th in the value o f
w o rld fishery trade (US$53.4 b illion ).
However, there are no indications o f increased
capture fisheries production in the long term ,
so any long-term rise in the value o f exports is
like ly to depend on increased aquaculture
production or product prices. D eveloping
countries registered a net fishery trade surplus
o f US$16.8 b illio n , slightly dow n from the 1997
level o f US$1 7.3 b illio n .
percent o f w o rld capture fisheries production.
The rem ainder comes from inland water
fisheries, w h ich have increased their o utp ut by
alm ost 0.5 m illio n tonnes per year since 1994.
W orld marine capture fisheries production
dropped to 78 m illio n tonnes in 1998 (Table 1),
representing a 9 percent decline w ith respect
to the all-tim e production highs o f about 86
m illio n tonnes in 1996 and 1 997. The decline
appears to have been caused essentially by
c lim a tic conditions. However, it does not
affect the previously reported slow dow n in the
rate o f increase o f m arine catches for the last
decade. The estimated first sale value o f the
landings also decreased, from about US$81
b illio n in 1996 and 1997 to US$76 b illio n in
1998.
M ost o f the decline in the w orld's marine
fisheries landings in 1998 can be attributed to
changes in the Southeast Pacific, w h ich was
severely affected by the El N iñ o event in 19971998. Total capture fisheries production from
this area dropped from 1 7.1 m illio n tonnes in
1996 to 14.4 m illio n tonnes in 1 997,
decreasing even more d ra m a tically to 8
m illio n tonnes in 1998. These figures represent
annual declines o f 15 and 44 percent,
CAPTURE FISHERIES P R O D U C T IO N
Total capture fisheries production in 1998
amounted to 86 m illio n tonnes, a noticeable
decline from the m axim um o f about 93 m illio n
tonnes recorded in 1996 and 1997, although
there was a considerable recovery to an
estimated 92 m illio n tonnes in 1999. In 1998,
China, Japan, the United States, the Russian
Federation, Peru, Indonesia, C hile and India (in
that order) were the top producing countries,
together accounting for more than half o f total
capture fisheries production by w eight for 1998
(Figure 5). A lthough in decline, m arine capture
fisheries continue to account for more than 90
TABLE 1
W o rld fisheries production and u tilization
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1 99 91
(m illio n tonnes)
PRODUCTION
IN L A N D
C apture
6.7
7.2
7.4
7.5
8.0
8.2
A q u a c u ltu re
12.1
14.1
16.0
17.6
18.7
19.8
Total inland
18.8
21.4
23.4
25.1
26.7
28.0
84.7
84.3
86.0
86.1
78.3
84.1
8.7
10.5
10.9
11.2
12.1
13.1
Total marine
93.4
94.8
96.9
97.3
90.4
97.2
Total capture
91.4
91.6
93.5
93.6
86.3
92.3
Total a q u a c u ltu re
20.8
24.6
26.8
28.8
30.9
32.9
112.3
116.1
120.3
122.4
117.2
125.2
M A R IN E
C apture
A q u a c u ltu re
Total world fisheries
UTILIZATION
Hu man c o n sum ptio n
79.8
86.5
90.7
93.9
93.3
92.6
R eduction to fishm eal and o il
32.5
29.6
29.6
28.5
23.9
30.4
5.6
5.7
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
14.3
15.3
15.8
16.1
15.8
15.4
P opu la tion (b illio n s)
Per cap ita foo d fish s up ply (kg)
1Preliminary estimate.
FIGURE 5
Marine and inland capture fisheries production: top producer countries in 1998
Philippines
1.8
Korea, Rep.
2.0
Norway
2.9
Thailand
2.9
Ind ia
3.2
Chile
3.3
Indonesia
3.7
Peru
4.3
Russian Fed.
4.5
United States
4.7
Japan
5.3
China
17.2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Million tonnes
60
Cumulative catches as
percentage of world total
0
u)
<D
20
0
«
c
c
"C
3
«
4i
«
"C
C
Q_
Note: For statistical purposes, data for China do not include Taiwan Province and Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Source: FAO
respectively, o ccurrin g over tw o consecutive
years in one o f the most im portant fishing
areas o f the w o rld . Apart from the Southeast
A tla ntic, the Southwest Pacific and the
Western Central Pacific, w h ich have shown
positive trends in catches in recent years, all
o f the w orld's m ajor fishing areas showed
m in or changes or declines in landings.
The N orthwest Pacific had the largest
reported landings in 1998, fo llo w ed by the
Northeast A tla n tic and the Western Central
Pacific (Figure 6). Typically, high landings are
dependent on one or tw o productive stocks,
such as Alaska p o llo ck and Japanese anchovy
in the N orthwest Pacific, A tla n tic herring in
the Northeast A tla n tic and skipjack and
ye llo w fin tunas in the Western Central Pacific.
The dependence o f some areas on the
production o f a few species is illustrated by the
lo w ranking o f the Southeast Pacific, w hich
was the result o f the 1 998 El N iño event. This
area w o u ld usually rank second after the
N orthw est Pacific.
Alaska p o llo c k from the North Pacific had
the highest landings in 1998 (Figure 7a). This,
too, is unusual, as anchoveta landings
generally exceed this quantity and those o f
Chilean ja c k mackerel equal it. However, the
fisheries for both these species were severely
affected in 1998. Alaska p o llo c k catches have
fallen by 0.5 m illio n tonnes since 1996,
contin uing a general decline in production
since the m id-1980s, w hen landings exceeded
6 m illio n tonnes.
The Western Central Pacific shows an
overall trend o f increasing production, w ith no
8
FIGURE 6
Capture fisheries production by principal fishing areas in 1998, compared with 1996
1998
Atlantic, Southwest
Pacific, Northeast
Atlantic, Eastern Central
1996
Indian Ocean, Western
Indian Ocean, Eastern
Asia, Inland waters
Pacific, Southeast
Pacific, Western Central
Atlantic, Northeast
Pacific, Northwest
15
10
25
20
30
Million tonnes
80
60
40
Cumulative catches as
percentage of world total
20
0
♦ il
u«
u
:1
if 2
<
c
c
PS
u«
u
:1
i S
<1
Note: Fishing areas listed are those w ith a production volume of more than 2 million tonnes in 1998
Source: FAO
evidence o f levelling o ff in the near future.
This overall trend depends not o n ly on the
m ajor tuna stocks but also on very w ide
categories o f m arine fish, w h ich makes it
d iffic u lt to assess the underlying trends o f
different species and stocks. In contrast to
these tw o regions, production in the Northeast
A tla n tic has remained stable at around 11
m illio n tonnes since the m id-1970s (Figure 7b),
although the biomass o f cod stocks is currently
at a very lo w level.
It is w orth noting that production from the
N orthwest Pacific has shown a constant
overall increase since 1950. H owever, since
1992, this has continued o n ly because China's
reported increases in production have more
than made up for com bined declines o f
all the other countries in the area (Figure 8).
M ajor fluctuations have been recorded for
some individual species over the last three
years. O f particular relevance are the
increases in landings between 1997 and 1998
for some o f the 30 highest-producing species,
such as Patagonian grenadiers (up by 285
percent), blue w h itin g (up by 67 percent),
Japanese Spanish mackerel (up by 51 percent),
South Am erican pilchard (up by 30 percent)
and Japanese anchovy (up by 26 percent).
However, overall, the increases in production
o f some species have been outw eighed by the
production declines for others, particula rly
those o f m ajor high-producing species, such as
anchoveta (down by 78 percent), Chilean jack
mackerel (down by 44 percent), capelin (down
9
FIGURE 7a
Capture fisheries production: top species in 1998, compared with 1996
1.2
1
Yellowfin tuna
1998
1.2
Blue w hiting
0.6
1.2
1.3
Atlantic cod
1996
1.4
1.3
Largehead hairtail
1.7
Anchoveta
1.9
1.6
Skipjack tuna
1.9
2.2
Chub mackerel
2.0
Chilean jack mackerel
2.1
Japanese anchovy
1.3
Atlantic herring
2.3
Alaska pollock
10
Million tonnes
20
u
Cumulative catches in 1998 as
percentage of world total
j*u
rs
DC
{J
■c
JS
DC
rs
rs
Note: Species listed are those with a production volume of more than 1 m illion tonnes in 1998
FIGURE 7b
Fisheries production trends in selected major fishing areas
Million tonnes
25
Pacific,
Western
Central
20
Atlantic,
Northeast
Pacific,
Southeast
1950
Source: FAO
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
10
Million tonnes
FIGURE 8
Fisheries production in the Northwest Pacific
Other
countries
1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998
Source: FAO
by 38 percent), Japanese flyin g squid (down by
37 percent), Argentine shortfin squid (down by
33 percent), A tla n tic horse mackerel (down by
22 percent) and chub mackerel (down by 21
percent).
In 1998, production from inland capture
fisheries was 8 m ilio n tonnes, w h ich represents
a 6 percent increase over 1997 levels. The top
ten countries w ith regard to inland fisheries
production are listed in
Table 2. These countries account for 65
percent o f the w orld's total inland catch. M ore
than 90 percent o f this production in 1998
came from developing countries, and o n ly 3.5
percent from industrial countries.
M uch o f the inform ation on harvests o f
inland fisheries is not broken dow n by
ind ivid ua l species. Some 46 percent o f the
catch comprises freshwater fish that are not
identified by species, w h ile unidentified
crustaceans and m olluscs contribute 7.6 and
7 percent, respectively, to pro du ction . O ve ra ll,
80 percent o f the catch in inland waters is not
identified by species.
THE STATUS O F FISHERIES RESOURCES
A lthough the situation regarding some o f the
highest-producing stocks has worsened, global
exploita tion o f the main m arine fish stocks for
w h ich assessment inform ation is available
continues to fo llo w the general trend observed
in previous years. O ve ra ll, the num ber o f
underexploited and m oderately exploited
fisheries resources continues to decline
slightly and, as fishing pressure increases,
the num ber o f fu lly exploited stocks remains
relatively stable w h ile the num ber o f
overexp loite d, depleted and recovering
stocks is increasing slightly.
Am ong the m ajor m arine fish stocks or
groups o f stocks for w h ic h inform ation is
available, an estimated 25 to 27 percent are
underexploited or m oderately exploited and
thus represent the main potential source for
expansion o f total capture fisheries production.
A b ou t 47 to 50 percent o f stocks are fu lly
exploited and are, therefore, producing
catches that have either reached or are very
close to th e ir m axim um lim its, w ith no room
expected for further expansion. A nother 15 to
18 percent are overexploited and have no
potential for further increase. M oreover, there
is an increasing likeliho od that catches from
these stocks w ill decrease if remedial action is
not taken to reduce or revert overfishing
conditions. O n ly then w ill sustained higher
catches be possible. The rem aining 9 to 10
percent o f stocks have been depleted or are
recovering from depletion. As they are less
productive than usual, depleted and recovering
stocks tend to have ample potential for
recuperation that is commensurate w ith their
pre-depletion catch levels. R ealizing this
potential, however, can be a m ajor
11
undertaking and usually im plies the adoption
o f drastic management measures in order to
revert unco ntro lle d and excessive fishing
pressure as w ell as any other cond itio n that
could have contributed to the stock's
overexp loita tion or depletion.
Total catches from the N orthwest and the
Southeast A tla n tic are levelling o ff after
reaching th e ir m axim um levels a decade or
tw o ago. In the Eastern Central A tla n tic and
the N orthw est Pacific, total catches are
increasing again, after a short decline
fo llo w in g th eir m axim um production levels o f
a decade ago. M ost o f these changes result
from increases in landings o f small pelagios. In
the Northeast A tla ntic, the Western Central
A tla n tic, the Northeast Pacific, the
M editerranean and Black Sea, the Eastern
Central Pacific and the Southwest Pacific,
annual catches have stabilized or are
d e clin in g slightly, having reached th eir
m axim um potentials a fe w years ago. In the
Southwest A tla n tic and the Southeast Pacific,
total annual catches have declined sharply
o n ly a fe w years after reaching th eir a ll-tim e
highs. These tw o areas have been seriously
affected by the decline, and in some cases the
serious depletion, o f im portant stocks. Am ong
such stocks are Argentine shortfin squid and
Argentine hake in the Southwest A tla n tic and
anchoveta and horse mackerel in the
Southeast Pacific.
The areas w here total catches are still
tending to grow, and w here - at least in
p rin cip le - there is the highest potential for
TABLE 2
T o p ten countries in inland fisheries
production
C ountry
P roduction
in 1998
Percentage o f
w orld production
(tonnes)
(6 5% fo r to p ten
countries)
C hina
TABLE 3
Inland fisheries production by econom ic
class
Economic class
Production
in 1998
Percentage of
w orld production
(tonnes)
D e v e lo p in g
7 347 000
91.8
Econom ies in tra nsition
cou ntries or areas
370000
4.6
Industrial cou ntries
284000
3.6
Total
8 0 0 3 000
production increases, are the Eastern and
Western Indian Ocean and the Western
Central Pacific. These areas tend to have a
low er incidence o f fu lly exploited,
overexploited, depleted or recovering fish
stocks, and a prevalence o f underexploited or
m oderately exploited stocks, although they
also have the highest incidence o f stocks
whose state o f exploitation is unknow n or
uncertain and for w h ich overall production
estimates are consequently less reliable.
Inland aquatic resources continue to be
under pressure from loss or degradation o f
habitat and overfishing. Freshwater species are
reported to be the most threatened group o f
vertebrates harvested by humans; however,
accurate data are d iffic u lt to co lle ct. In areas
where studies have been carried out, about 20
percent o f freshwater species are threatened,
endangered or e x tin c t.1 Inland fisheries
statistics reflect the poor state o f inform ation
on m any inland fisheries resources; o n ly three
o f the top ten taxa in terms o f production are
identified by species, and these three account
for less than 8 percent o f total production. As
has already been noted,2 in m any areas, the
actual yield from inland fisheries may be
several tim es higher than reported, but w o rk is
under w ay to correct this situation. The
M ekong River Com m ission has revised its
unofficial estimates o f fisheries production
from the M ekong basin, increasing them from
approxim ately 300 000 to 1.2 m illio n tonnes by
in clu d in g fa m ily and sm all-scale fishers whose
catches were previously not counted. It is
2 280 000
28.5
India
650000
8.1
Bangladesh
538000
6.7
Indonesia
315 00 0
3.9
Tanzania, U n ite d Rep.
300000
3.7
Russian Federation
271 00 0
3.4
1 M . B ruton. 1995. H ave fishes had th e ir chips? The d ile m m a o f
Egypt
253 0 0 0
3.2
threatened fishes. E nvironm ental B io lo g y o f Fishes, 4 3 : 1-27;
and W o rld Resources Institute at w w w .w ri.o r g /w ri/w r2 0 0 0 /
U ganda
220000
2.8
Th ailand
191 00 0
2.4
in d e x .h tm l/.
B razil
180000
2.3
2 FAO. 1999. Fisheries C irc u la r N o. 94 2. Rome.
12
extrem ely d iffic u lt to assess the state o f inland
fisheries resources w hen reporting does not
include all the sectors o f the fishery and when
the catch is not broken dow n by species.
THE STATUS OF THE ECOSYSTEMS
In addition to the concerns expressed about
ind ivid ua l stocks, there is increasing interest in
ecosystems and the im pact that fishing may be
having on th eir structure and fu nctio n. There is
a shortage o f general inform ation on the
relationship between the state o f marine
ecosystems and fishing. Broad indicators o f
change are available from data on capture
fisheries production in the m ajor fishing areas
but it is usually d iffic u lt to separate changes in
exploita tion patterns from changes in the
u n d e rlyin g ecosystem.
The trend has been for the variety o f
resources being exploited to increase,
probably reflecting the reaching o f production
lim its for m ajor stocks and an expansion o f
markets for a w id e r range o f fishery products.
Indicators regarding the ecologies in w hich
fisheries can develop suggest that the
ecosystems in most areas are close to full
e xploita tion . The Eastern Indian Ocean and the
Western Central Pacific are the o n ly areas
show ing little sign o f stress, and hence the
potential for continued developm ent o f
resources.
The Northeast A tla n tic has fo llo w e d a trend
o f d eclin in g catches together w ith a shift
tow ards landings o f fish from low er levels in
the food w eb, w h ich may indicate an
u nderlying ecological change (see M o n ito rin g
the im pact o f fishing on m arine ecosystems,
Part 2, p. 65). The indices that were developed
to m on itor such change suggest that
ecosystems may be shifting away from the
unexploited state, giving cause for concern
that continued heavy fishing may lead to more
w idespread changes.
Rivers, lakes and w etlands account for less
than 1 percent o f the global surface area, but
yield at least 8 percent o f global fisheries
p roduction. However, these productive
ecosystems are under pressure from the needs
o f a g row ing human population. The W orld
Resources Institute (WRI)3 reported that half o f
the w orld's w etlands were lost in the last
century and that dams, diversions and canals
fragm ent alm ost 60 percent o f the w orld's
largest rivers. Per capita w ater consum ption
increased by 50 percent between 1950 and
1990, and human use o f available water
resources is expected to increase from its
current level o f about 54 percent to more than
70 percent by 2025.4 A lthough inland w ater
ecosystems have im proved in some areas o f
North Am erica and Europe, th e ir cond itio n is
co ntin uing to deteriorate in much o f the w o rld .
THE STATUS O F THE F IS H IN G FLEET
Large fishing vessels
Since the last issue o f The State o f W orld
Fisheries and Aquaculture (1998), 1 124 fishing
vessels have been added to Lloyd's database o f
vessels over 100 tons,5 548 o f w h ich were b u ilt
in the period 1997-1999. The rem ainder were
b u ilt earlier and th eir inclusion in the database
represents an im provem ent in its coverage
rather than a real increase in the fleet. The
trends are sim ilar to those identified in 1998,
w ith decreased numbers o f vessels in
developed countries' fishing fleets and
increased numbers in some developing
countries. Late reporting is still a problem so,
although the data should refer to 1998 and
1999, it is more practical to consider the
period as m id-1997 to m id-1999. There were
955 deletions from the database, but this is
probably an underestimate as some o f the
vessels scrapped w ere o f unknow n flag. The
estimated decrease in the fleet (i.e. the vessels
removed from the database m inus the vessels
b u ilt in 1998-1999) is 407 vessels, giving a
total o f 23 014 vessels at the end o f 1999.
The U nited States shows an increase o f
roughly 10 percent, m ainly because about 300
vessels that should have been in the 1997 and
earlier databases w ere added in 1998-1999. In
fact, the U nited States fleet really decreased
by 26 vessels. Belize showed an increase in
flagged fishing vessels from 158 to 427. New
vessels and flagging in from other countries
contributed to this increase. The Panama fleet
decreased from its m axim um o f 574 vessels in
1994 to 226 in 1999. The recent decrease
follow ed efforts by the International
Commission for the Conservation o f Atlantic
Tunas (ICCAT) to control the activities o f the
4 S.L. Postel et al. 1996. H um a n a p p ro p ria tio n o f renew able
freshw ater. Science, 27 1.
5 Figures are as o f January 2 0 0 0 and refer to gross ton nag e (GT).
In fo rm a tio n d ra w n fro m Lloyd's Register o f S hippin g is provided
3 W o rld R esources In s titu te a t w w w .w r i.o r g /w r i/w r 2 0 0 0 /
u n d e r e x c lu s iv e lic e n c e b y L lo y d 's M a ritim e In fo rm a tio n
freshw ater, h tm l/.
S ervices (LMIS).
13
high seas tuna fleet. The Philippines increased
its fleet from 367 to 436 (16 percent) by b uilding
new vessels and flagging in. The Cuba fleet
decreased from 113 to 49 through the scrapping
o f a fleet o f vessels b uilt m ainly in the 1960s.
Some countries prepared fishing capacity
reduction plans according to the International
Plan o f A ction for the M anagem ent o f Fishing
C apacity.
share o f vessels over 40 years o f age is slightly
more than 1 percent o f the total. The average
age o f vessels scrapped or lost was 30.6 years
compared w ith 27.3 tw o years ago, and the
average age o f the fleet was 21.3 years,
against 22.1 years tw o years ago. The average
age decreased because, although very few
new vessels were b uilt, some very old vessels
were removed from the fleet.
N e w vessels built
The database records 548 new vessels b u ilt in
the tw o-year period since the previous study
reported in The State o f W orld Fisheries and
Aquaculture 1998, inclu ding 171 vessels b u ilt
in 1997 but reported late, 243 in 1998 and 134
in 1999 (this w ill probably increase o w in g to
late reporting). Five countries made up 58
percent o f this to ta l: the U nited States (75
vessels), Belize (47), Spain (99), N orw ay (43)
and Japan (56). The other countries o f the
European C om m unity (EC) account for a further
82 vessels, bringing th e ir co ntribu tion up to 73
percent o f the total. The significant num ber o f
new vessels b u ilt under the Belize flag means
that 15 percent o f the total new buildings are
recorded in open registers. Despite the num ber
o f vessels b u ilt during the tw o-year period, the
U nited States, Japan and Spain achieved
reductions in th eir national fleets by scrapping
and flagging out.
The decrease in b u ild in g since the early
1990s is significant, not o n ly in terms o f
numbers, but also in terms o f average and
aggregate tonnage. In the period 1991-1993,
2 126 vessels were b uilt, w ith an aggregate
tonnage o f 990 000 tons. In the period 19971 999, 1 127 fishing vessels were b u ilt w ith an
aggregate tonnage o f 418 000 tons. The
average tonnage dropped from 465 to 370 tons,
although this decrease is h ighly likely to be an
underestimate because there was also a
change in the u nit o f measurement during this
period from gross registered tonnage (CRT) to
gross tonnage (GT).
Reflagging
D uring the tw o-year period, 1 216 vessels
were reflagged. The most sign ifican t reflagging
was to the Belize flag (182), w h ich also
acquired a large num ber o f new vessels (47).
The num ber o f fishing vessels under the Belize
flag increased from 211 to 427. Honduras, St
Vincent, Vanuatu and Cyprus slightly increased
the numbers o f vessels registered in th eir open
registers. O n the other hand, fo llo w in g ICCAT
measures for im proved flag state responsibility,
Panama showed a significant decrease, from
321 to 226 vessels. Registration and reflagging
o f fishing vessels are described in Box 1.
Scrapping and loss
Some 955 vessels were removed from the
database in the tw o-year period, i.e. fewer
than were predicted in The State o f W orld
Fisheries and Aquaculture 1998. However,
there has been a substantial increase in the
num ber o f vessels changing th e ir flags to
"u n k n o w n "; from six in 1994, to 694 in 1997
and 931 in 1999. The average age o f these
vessels is 27 years, so it is like ly that most are
intended to be scrapped. Nevertheless, the
• traw ls are non-selective and can take
considerable by-catch, w h ich is often
discarded. In a dd itio n, traw ls sometimes
interact w ith the bottom , leading to
irreversible m od ifications to bottom
ecosystem s.
• purse seines can catch mammals and
ju v e n ile fish.
• longlines and gil I nets catch seabirds and
lost gil I nets can continue to catch and kill
fish uninten tion ally.
F IS H IN G T E C H N O L O G Y D EVELOPM ENT
Fishing technologies evolve in response to a
w id e variety o f factors. D em and-driven
developm ents are p a rtic u la rly im portant.
Another, and probably even more prom inent
factor, is developm ent resulting from general
technical innovations in disciplines that are
not always d ire c tly related to fisheries. The
fo llo w in g recent developm ents w ill probably
have a significant im pact on fisheries in the
future.
Limiting the environm ental impact
o f fishing
The im pact o f fishing on the environm ent is a
global issue o f g row ing concern. Various gears
and fishing methods have attracted attention
for their potential im pact on the environm ent.
Concerns are m ostly related to gear selectivity
and habitat damage, the m ajor issues being:
14
BOX 1
Registration and reflagging o f fishing vessels
To avoid d u p lic a tio n in ad m inistration, it is
"open registers" and "fla g o f convenience
com m on practice fo r m ost states to in clud e large
registers".
fishing vessels on th e ir shipping registers as a
O w ners choose to register the ir fishing vessels
separate class o f vessel. It is less im p ortan t for
under foreign flags fo r a variety o f reasons. S im ilar
states to in clud e sm aller vessels that fish w ith in
patterns o f registration in the trading and fishing
the ir national ju ris d ic tio n on the register, although
fleets w o u ld suggest that a m ajor reason for
m any have made registration com pulsory.
Increasingly, shipping and fishing regulations
require vessels to carry national certificates o f
registering under a p a rticular flag m ay be to avoid
taxation. Some countries w ith open registers are
also w e ll-k n o w n offshore tax havens. However,
registry, pa rticu la rly on the high seas and in
increasingly, the reflagging o f fishing vessels in
waters under the ju ris d ic tio n o f another state. This
particular fisheries has been d ire c tly associated
requirem ent is sum m arized as fo llo w s in the UN
w ith the avoidance o f fisheries managem ent
C onvention on the Law o f the Sea, Part V II, High
measures, and the share o f large fish in g vessels
Seas:
registered in open registers has increased to
around 6 percent o f the global total.
Article 91
Nationality of ships
1. Every State shall fix the con ditions fo r the
grant o f its n a tio n a lity to ships, fo r the
registration o f ships in its territory, and fo r the
rig ht to fly its flag. Ships have the n a tio n a lity of
the State w hose flag they are en titled to fly.
There must exist a genuine lin k between the
State and the ship.
2. Every State shall issue to ships w h ic h it has
granted the right to fly its flag docum ents to
that effect.
The international standards fo r the registration o f
ships have been co d ifie d in the UN C onvention on
the C o nd ition s fo r the Registration o f Ships (1 986).
A ltho ug h this C onvention is not yet in force and
exempts fishing vessels, it cle arly describes the
procedures to be fo llo w e d in order to avoid any
misuse o r fra u d u le n t practice associated w ith
registration. For instance, it describes the
procedures to be fo llo w e d in bare-boat chartering
w hen the vessel is subject to dual registry.
The issue o f "open registers" stems from the
stipu la tion quoted above: "There must exist a
genuine lin k between the State and the ship".
W h ile m any states have im plem ented regulations
and requirem ents to establish such a genuine lin k
fo r registration, there have been no agreed
international criteria fo r w h a t constitutes a
"genuine lin k ". Regulations usually establish
linkages through n a tio n a lity o f o w ne rship and/or
o f the crew. It then becomes a question o f the
degree o f linkage, described in vaguely defined
terms - in decreasing degree o f linkage - as
"genuine national registers", "offshore registers",
Source: A. S m ith, FAO Fisheries D epartm ent.
15
M uch has been done recently to address
such problems, and gear and techniques are
being m odified to reduce the possible impacts.
The selective perform ance o f traw l gear is
being im proved continuously and selective
grids have, to a large extent, elim inated the
by-catch o f fish in the northern shrim p
fisheries. Selective grids and square meshes
are used in several traw l fisheries to reduce
the capture o f sm all-sized individuals.
Technologies that depend on behaviour
differences between shrim p and fish are
increasingly being introduced in tropical
shrim p fisheries, resulting in reduced fish
by-catches. A nother pre vailing tendency in
tropical shrim p fisheries is an increase in
landings o f fish by-catches.
The im pact o f tra w lin g on the bottom habitat
is being investigated in many countries. Except
for the obvious damage caused to coral reefs
by large trawlers, for exam ple in some areas
o ff the coast o f Norway, little is know n about
the long-term effects. In 1999, N orw ay
introduced non-traw ling areas w here the risk
o f damage to deep-water coral reefs was high.
One widespread practice is to encircle drifting
objects - fish attraction devices (FADs) - w ith
purse seines when fishing for tuna. FADs often
attract many small fish, and the capture o f small
tunas and other fish species around FADs are
now considered a major problem in some purse
seine fisheries. No w ay o f mitigating this
problem has yet been found, apart from reducing
the use o f such practices. One possible solution
now being investigated is to insert selective
devices made from panels o f larger meshes or
sorting grids into the purse seine.
A num ber o f measures can be adopted to
reduce the incidental catch o f seabirds by
longlines, in clu d in g attaching extra w eig ht to
the line w h ile setting; setting during darkness;
and the use o f scaring devices w hen setting
longline gear. Such m itigation techniques are
being introduced in several longline fisheries,
either as part o f national regulations or through
vo lu ntary adoption by fishers w ho recognize
the benefits o f not having bait stolen from their
hooks by seabirds. The International Plan o f
A ction for Reducing Incidental Catch o f
Seabirds in Longline Fisheries adopted by
FAO's members in 1999 w ill most likely
accelerate the im plem entation o f measures to
reduce seabird by-catch in longline fisheries.
N e w fibres
Since the introduction o f such synthetic fibres
as polyam ide, polyester and polypropylene to
fishing gear in the 1950s, there were no m ajor
introductions o f new fibres in fishing gear until
the arrival o f Dynema fibre - a polyethylene o f
ultra-high m olecular w eight. The fishing
industry now has a material that m ight have a
significant im pact on the catching
perform ance o f fishing gear. The basic
property o f Dynema fibre is that it has a
density o f slightly less than 1, w h ich makes it
float in water. Its tensile strength on a diameter
basis exceeds that o f steel by 50 to 1 00
percent and that o f polyam ide (nylon) by 300
to 400 percent. Another feature o f Dynema is
its lo w elongation compared w ith other
synthetic fibres, w h ich makes it nearly as
inelastic as steel.
A t present, the fibre is relatively expensive
and its a pplication is therefore lim ited.
However, there are several signs o f increased
use, p articula rly in pelagic traw ls, w here
th inn er tw ine results in reduced to w in g
resistance and can therefore be used to save
fuel (by using a similar-sized traw l) or, when
the traw l size is increased, improves the
catching e fficien cy o f the vessel compared
w ith others o f its size. This latter feature is
used to develop viable traw l fisheries on
scattered fish concentrations, w h ic h require
large traw l m outh areas. O ther fisheries for
w h ich the fibre m ight make profitable
im provem ents are those aim ed at smaller
individuals, such as small crustaceans and
m esopelagic fish, w h ic h require large volum es
o f w ater to be filtered.
M u ltirig traw lin g
The to w in g o f tw o or more traw ls
sim ultaneously was, until recently, o n ly
practised by outrigger shrim p traw lers.
Thousands o f such traw lers fish penaeid
shrimps in tropical waters. Towards the end o f
the 1990s, m u ltirig tra w lin g was successfully
introduced into fisheries o f such species as
nephrops, deepwater shrim p and, to some
extent, flatfishes. P articularly in Iceland and
Norway, large traw lers equipped for to w in g
tw o traw ls have been b u ilt for harvesting
deepw ater shrim p. The catching e fficien cy o f
vessels using m u ltirig traw ls increases by 50 to
100 percent, clearly indicating an expanded
capacity to e x p lo it shrim p resources. M u ltirig
tra w lin g is now w id e ly used in the North Sea
nephrops fishery and is increasingly replacing
single-otter traw ling . An im portant innovation
that facilitates the operation o f tw in traw ls is
the sym metry sensor, w h ich m onitors the tw o
traw ls during to w in g.
16
Electronic aids for navigation and fishing
In the last few years, the Introduction o f
satellite com m unications, w h ic h are replacing
m edlum -frequency radios, has had a great
Im pact on skippers' a b ility to manage all
aspects o f the fishing operation. The new
equipm ent Is controlled by microprocessors,
In cluding an In b u ilt global positioning system
(GPS) m odule. Some o f the better known
app lications o f satellite com m unications
equipm ent Include the G lobal M aritim e
Distress Safety System (GMDSS) or the Vessel
M o n ito rin g System (VMS). W hen the GMDSS
Is activated, a distress message Is sent by
pushing a button. An ele ctron ic message,
w h ich Includes the Identity o f the vessel and
Its position, Is sent to all other vessels and
radio stations In the Im mediate area. The crew
o f the vessel can then concentrate on the
emergency, secure In the know ledge that the
distress message w ill be effective. The
message activates alarms on the other vessels
and allow s them to go straight to the
emergency w ith o u t having to search for It.
VMS Is used by fisheries management
authorities to observe the positions o f vessels.
A t predeterm ined Intervals, the satellite
com m unications system a u to m a tica lly sends a
message, containing the Identity and position
o f each vessel to the fisheries m onitoring
centre. The sequence o f positions o f an
Individual vessel can be stored and
subsequently displayed on a m onitor, to give
an Indication o f that vessel's activities. If the
vessel Is considered to be acting suspiciously,
a patrol craft can be sent d ire ctly to
Investigate further.
VMS Is playing an Increasingly Im portant
role In m onitoring, control and surveillance
(MCS), and It makes such activities more costeffective. The EC's Im plem entation o f the VMS
scheme for most o f Its fishing vessels over
24 m w ill bring the total num ber o f vessels
reporting th e ir Identity and position to
fisheries m anagem ent authorities
using VMS technology to around 8 000
w o rld w id e .
Satellite surveillance o f fishing vessels Is
becom ing a tool for MCS. Longline vessels are
p a rticu la rly easy to locate by m icrow ave
sensors because they carry radar reflectors on
th e ir buoys. The com plem entary Inform ation
from VMS and satellite surveillance w ill make
It possible to locate n on-com pllant vessels,
w h ich are more likely to be Involved In Illegal
fishing. Satellite surveillance could be
Im plem ented far more q u ickly than VMS has
been because It Is com pletely Independent o f
the vessel and does not rely on cooperation.
The Integration o f three separate m odules o f
equipm ent Into one u nit (I.e. computer, GPS
and a satellite com m unications system) Is
expected to Increase e fficiency. Electronic
fishing logbooks are being tested, and w ill
make It possible to send Inform ation, at
predeterm ined Intervals or on dem and, through
a satellite lin k to the fisheries management
authorities. The Inform ation can also be sent to
fish markets, resulting In a quicker, more
efficien t sales process and a better q ua lity o f
product because o f m inim al handling. Even
fish stock assessment and fisheries
management w ill benefit from the alm ost real­
tim e reporting o f fish catches and more
detailed Inform ation on w here the fish are
caught. One fishery In Australia Is already
being managed by these means. A ttaching
video cameras w ith a w ide enough band to the
satellite com m unications systems a llow s the
transmission o f video Images. This could be
used to assist In treating Injured or sick
personnel on fishing vessels. The repair o f
equipm ent such as engines, w inches or
e le ctron ic equipm ent, w h ic h n orm ally requires
the Intervention o f specialized engineers, can
also be undertaken fo llo w in g advice given
over the satellite link. This w o u ld avoid the
costly and tim e-consum ing travel that Is
cu rren tly needed fo r specialized engineers.
The most up-to-date navigation equipm ent,
GPS, now has an accuracy o f +/-10 m because
the satellite signal Is no longer a rtific ia lly
degraded. However, the size o f other pieces o f
equipm ent and their dependence on
microprocessors mean that they can be linked
together to become more Interactive. M onitors
are already being used to provide displays or
readouts from m ultiple pieces o f equipm ent.
M onitors can also overlay the Inform ation
obtained from radar, sonar and navigation
equipm ent.
These developm ents may lead to some o f
this new equipm ent becom ing a legal
requirem ent for larger vessels over 300 tons
w ith in the next decade. An exam ple Is voyage
data recorders, w h ic h are sim ilar to the flig h t
recorders carried on aircraft. The use o f an
autom atic Identification system (AIS) w ill also
become m andatory In busy sea lanes for this
size o f fishing vessel. AIS uses autom atic
Interrogation by satellite co m m un icatio n, so
that the name, type and size o f the ship, along
w ith details o f Its course and speed, can be
displayed on the radar In the traffic control
17
centre. This is pote ntia lly useful for fisheries
patrol vessels w hen they are passing through
areas w ith a high density o f fishing vessels
because it w o u ld obviate the necessity o f
boarding and checking the licences o f each
fish in g vessel.
FISHERIES PO LICY A N D M A N A G E M E N T 6
Objectives
M ost countries have sim ilar management
objectives, although the emphasis differs
between developed and developing nations.
Developed countries are usually faced w ith
fu lly or overexploited stocks, so th eir
m anagem ent objectives concentrate on stock
rebuildin g and capacity reduction, although
most countries also have significant aims
regarding markets and social co n flict. The
most urgent objective is to scale fleet sizes so
that they become commensurate w ith
sustainable e xploita tion o f the resources.
M anagem ent plans also increasingly recognize
the need for a p o licy that integrates fisheries
w ith management o f the coastal zone or inland
w aters.
In contrast, developing countries tend to
concentrate on fisheries developm ent in terms
o f new resources and technology. A lthough it
is recognized that some stocks are overfished,
objectives are concentrated more on
enhancing and dive rsifyin g fisheries rather
than on lim itin g fishing efforts. This is perhaps
because the underlying concern for many
countries is the relatively im portant role
fisheries play in em ploym ent and food security
for some o f th eir poorest people. M ore specific
aims include b u ild in g infrastructure
(pa rticu larly for processing to reduce post­
harvest losses and increase the value added);
fishery enhancem ent, through restocking; and
reducing social conflicts, not o n ly among
different fishing groups but also between
fisheries and other sectors.
m aking the best social use o f resources.
Explicit recognition o f risk and consideration
o f longer-term production, for exam ple in the
adoption o f the precautionary approach (see
Indicators o f sustainable developm ent and the
precautionary approach in marine capture
fisheries, Part 2, p. 60), are increasingly
reflected in decision-m aking, and there has
been g row ing recognition o f the need to
protect the ecosystem as w ell as individual
stocks, through measures that include the
provision o f m arine reserves. Technical
innovations for im proving management advice
have been developed rapidly, but
im plem entation has been slow because o f the
short-term e con om ic and political
consequences. As a result, the rate o f real
change in management has been slow, and it
is debatable w hether im provem ents have kept
pace w ith the increasing pressures on
resources. Nevertheless, there are situations
where management has im proved and clear
benefits are apparent. Some countries have
reported the successful im plem entation o f
property rights schemes for fisheries (see
Property rights and fisheries management, Part
2, p. 52).
It is becom ing increasingly clear that
effective fisheries management, at both the
p o licy-m akin g and the im plem entation
stages, depends c ritic a lly on consensus
and p articipation that u tilize objective
and reliable reporting o f fishery status and
trends (see Box 2).
The current state o f management
Fisheries m anagem ent is w id e ly considered to
be ineffective because o f the poor state o f
m any im portant fish stocks. However, in many
respects, m anagem ent has im proved a great
deal over recent years. Policies and objectives
appear more realistic, concentrating more on
management and less on developm ent, and
Administration
The FAO Code o f C onduct for Responsible
Fisheries7 is being used as a foundation on
w h ich to base fisheries p o licy and
management. Together w ith the guidelines for
its im plem entation, the Code contains a broad
set o f principles and methods for developing
and managing fisheries and aquaculture. It is
w id e ly recognized by governments and non­
governm ental organizations (NGOs) as setting
the aims for sustainable fisheries over the next
few decades and as a basis for national
legislation as w ell as industry-supported Codes
o f C onduct.
Some countries have no o ffic ia lly approved
fisheries management policy. W h ile such an
approach appears to leave fisheries
6 This section is based on in fo rm a tio n p rovided to the FAO
7A do p te d b y th e 2 8 th Session o tth e FAO C onference in O cto b e r
Fisheries D e p a rtm e n t by m e m ber c ou ntries. M o st o f it w as
1995, th e C ode o f C o n d u c t tor Responsible Fisheries is referred
o b ta in e d over th e last tw o years.
to th ro u g h o u t th is p u b lic a tio n as "th e C ode''.
18
management w ith a free licence, the result is
often a lack o f transparency and effectiveness.
The problem arises in both developed and
developing countries and leads to management
authorities having poor a ccou nta b ility to the
fisheries sector and the p ublic. It is being
addressed s p e c ific a lly through extensive
consultation procedures am ong stakeholders
(e.g. in Australia and N ew Zealand), and by
emphasis on comanagement systems in many
countries. Participatory approaches, w here
fishing com m unities are involved in the
BOX 2
O b jective and reliable fishery status and trends reporting
Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture require
facilitated by an international plan o f action on
inform ed decisions and actions at all levels, from
fishery status and trends reporting, w h ic h states
policy-m akers to in d ivid u a l fishers, as w e ll as
w o u ld adopt through FAO's C om m ittee on
environm entalists - w h o are increasingly
Fisheries (COFI). As envisaged, the plan o f action
concerned ab ou t fisheries - consumers and the
w o u ld be a vo lu n ta ry instrum ent that w o u ld
p u b lic. D ecisio n-m a king based on the best
specify actions and procedures to be undertaken
scie ntific evidence requires reliable, relevant and
by states, both in d iv id u a lly and through regional
tim e ly in fo rm atio n. There are g ro w in g demands
fishery bodies o r arrangements, and by FAO to
fo r ob je ctive, unbiased, peer-reviewed and
im prove fishery status and trends reporting. The
transparent in fo rm atio n on the status and trends o f
plan o f action cou ld be b u ilt around the fo llo w in g
fisheries and fisheries resources as a basis for
principles:
p o licy-m a kin g and fisheries m anagem ent. The
d riv in g forces behind such demands in clud e
S ustainability and security. States w o u ld
increasing reco gn ition that overfishing is
dem onstrate th e ir co m m itm e n t to sustainable
pervasive and effective m anagem ent often
de velopm e nt o f fisheries resources and fisheries
lacking; the w idespread adoption o f the
by pro vid in g , inter alia, the best inform ation
precautionary approach to fisheries managem ent
possible on the status and trends o f fisheries w ith in
as em bodied in the U nited Nations Fish Stocks
the ir ju risd ictio n s and in other areas in w h ic h they
Agreem ent1 and the FAO Code o f C o nd uct for
participate.
Responsible Fisheries; e co la b e llin g issues; and
Best scie ntific evidence. States w o u ld seek to
concerns ab ou t rare o r endangered species and
im prove the ir co lle ctio n , co m p ila tio n and
the environm ent.
dissem ination o f the best scie ntific evidence
Status and trends reporting has becom e an issue
because o f the risk o f m isinform atio n. A study by
available on the nature and c o n d u ct o f fisheries,
in clu d in g environm ental and socio-e cono m ic
the U n iversity o f W ashington2 evaluated the
info rm atio n, in c o n fo rm ity w ith the U nited Nations
v a lid ity o f 14 statements co m m o n ly made about
Conference on the Law o f the Sea (UNCLOS).
the state o f m arine fisheries resources and found
P articipation and cooperation. States w o u ld
that ten o f these w ere unsupportable or
adopt mechanism s fo r inclusion o f all relevant
questionable, whereas o n ly fo u r were supportable.
participants in the preparation, analysis and
(M ost o f the supportable statements and o n ly a few
presentation o f fisheries in fo rm atio n, in clu d in g
o f the unsupportable ones w ere attributed to FAO.)
fishers, governm ent and N G O s. States w o u ld
Irrespective o f w h ethe r such inaccurate
cooperate w ith other states in de veloping and
in fo rm atio n is generated delib era te ly to prom ote a
m aintainin g such in fo rm atio n either d ire c tly or
specific cause o r inadvertently through ignorance,
through regional fishery bodies o r arrangements,
it can have a m ajor im pact on p u b lic o p in io n and
as appropriate.
p o licy-m a kin g that may not be in the best interests
O b je c tiv ity and transparency. States w o u ld
o f either sustainable use o f fisheries resources or
in d ivid u a lly, and through regional fishery bodies
the conservation o f aquatic ecosystems.
and FAO, prepare and dissem inate fisheries
FAO is addressing this issue by proposing the
inform ation in an o b je ctive manner, taking into
im p rovem e nt o f fishery status and trends reporting
acco un t the best scie ntific evidence available
using a m ultifaceted approach as ou tlin e d by the
(in clu d in g uncertainty), the precautionary
FAO A dvisory C om m ittee on Fisheries Research
approach and national and international
(ACFR). ACFR has proposed that this cou ld be
obligations related to it, and a p plying q u a lity
19
planning, im plem entation and evaluation o f
m anagem ent systems, are w id e ly supported,
at least in principle.
Fishing controls
Total a llow able catches (TACs) are probably
the most com m on fisheries management tool,
at least for m ajor fisheries and those in the
Northern Hem isphere. There is a g row ing
recognition o f the need to control capacity,
inclu ding fleet sizes, in order to protect stocks
and im prove econ om ic perform ance. Gear
criteria and q u a lity assurance protocols. The plan
between FIGIS and FAO regional inform ation
o f action w o u ld be im plem ented in a transparent
systems, such as those fo r M editerranean capture
m anner in co n fo rm ity w ith A rtic le 6.1 3 o f the
fisheries and aquaculture o r a geographic
Code.
in fo rm atio n system (CIS) pro je ct fo r the W est
A frican coast, w ill be given precedence durin g
A m echanism to collate and exchange fisheries
the early phases o f the FIGIS in itia tive . Likewise,
in fo rm atio n, in clu d in g status and trends reports is
software fo r the co lle ctio n and processing of
under de velopm e nt at FAO, and it cou ld serve as
fisheries statistics has been im plem ented in m any
the key v e h icle fo r im plem entation o f the plan of
d e veloping countries to im prove the q u a lity o f
action. FAO is m aking a m ajor e ffort to develop a
national statistics and fa cilita te the ir exchange at
Fisheries G lob al Inform ation System (FIGIS),
the regional and global levels.
w h ic h w ill fa cilita te the exchange o f fisheries
in fo rm atio n from a w id e variety o f dom ains such
as fisheries statistics, exp lo ited species, fisheries
resources and stocks, the fisheries themselves,
fishing methods, fish in g fleets, fish processing and
food safety, fish m arketing and trade, species
in tro du ctions and fish diseases. The inform ation
architecture w ill be designed so that the com p le x
system can be presented in a sim p lifie d w ay
through logical navigation channels. FIGIS w ill
not be ju st a dissem ination system, but also a
means fo r partners to co n trib u te info rm atio n. The
in fo rm atio n w ill be exchanged according to
arrangements specified in partnership agreements
in v o lv in g FAO, regional fishery bodies and
national centres o f excellence, and using agreed
protocols. Thus, the m ain no velty w ill be the m ore
systematic and transparent assembly and synthesis
o f in fo rm atio n from national to regional and then
to global scales, w ith users having the po ssib ility
o f accessing a much m ore com prehensive range
o f in fo rm atio n. A no ther m ain focus and
beneficiary o f this approach w ill be the synthesis
o f the global state o f m arine fisheries resources.
FAO has a m ajor resp on sibility to support
capacity b u ild in g in d e veloping countries, thereby
a llo w in g users to access, u tiliz e and co n trib u te to
1A greem ent to r the Im p le m e n ta tio n o f the P rovisions o f
fisheries inform ation and know ledge systems,
th e U n ite d N ation s C o n ve n tio n on th e Law o f th e Sea
in c lu d in g FIGIS. For exam ple, the A quatic
o f 10 D ecem ber 1982 R elating to th e C onservation and
Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA)
M a nage m en t o f S traddling Fish Stocks and H ig h ly
b ib lio g ra p h ic database may be linked to FIGIS,
M ig ra to ry Fish Stocks.
and w o rk is under w a y to provide lo w -in co m e
2 D .L. A lverson and K. D u n lo p . 1998. Status o f w o rld
fo o d -d e fic it countries (LIFDCs) w ith access to
m a rine fish stocks. U n ive rsity o f W ashing ton School o f
ASFA as w e ll as to ensure m ore in p u t to the
Fisheries, U n ite d States.
database from those countries. C o m m unicatio n
Source: R. Grainger, FAO Fisheries D epa rtm e nt.
20
Controls are also a com m on conservation
measure and Include the p ro h ib itio n o f
destructive methods such as fish poisons and
dynam ite, the Introduction o f gears that reduce
by-catch, such as tu rtle excluder devices and
mesh size restrictions.
There Is also concern about gears that have
attracted criticism from environm entalists,
such as d rift nets, longllnes and demersal
traw ls, and such gears are likely to be more
selectively used. M any countries have a p o licy
o f developing fishery enhancem ent through
restocking heavily fished resources, thereby
avoiding the need to rebuild stocks through
reductions In fishing. This Is done p articularly
In Inland fisheries, w here enhancem ent,
rehabilitation o f habitat and reduction o f
p o llu tio n are m ajor alms, alongside the
reduction o f fishing In order to conserve
resources.
Fishing capacity control and reduction Is a
feature o f m any countries' policies.
Approaches Include licensing, buy-back
schemes or Individual transferable quotas (see
Property rights and fisheries management, Part
2, p. 52). Reducing the access o f other
countries Is also seen as a useful m ethod o f
conserving resources, and Is often adopted
before controls and lim its are Imposed on the
national effort capacity. D iversifyin g fisheries
by encouraging vessels to e xp lo it underutilized
resources w here these are available Is seen as
the best alternative to fleet reduction, even
though such resources are very scarce and,
w ith o u t control o f the fishing effort, cannot be
e xploite d sustainably.
C onflicts among user groups are resolved
through zoning, stock enhancem ent, p u b lic
education, better enforcem ent o f legislation
and, too rarely, resource allocation and control
o f access. A com m on problem Is c o n flict
between Industrial and artisanal fleets. The
artisanal sector Is p a rticu la rly vu ln era ble as
It often depends on set gears that are
Incom patible w ith tow ed gears, such as
Industrial traw ls. The solution Is often clear I.e. Introduce zones that separate the gears
(particularly w hen stocks do not move) - but
enforcem ent may be d iffic u lt.
Social and econom ic developm ent
Im proved post-harvest processing Is seen as a
w ay o f developing the fishing Industry w ith o u t
Increasing harvests. As w ell as reducing losses
through poor handling, Im proved processing
can raise the value added o f fish products and
establish uses for otherw ise discarded catch.
Food safety remains Im portant and has become
Increasingly stringent for exported products; In
m any cases Hazard Analysis and C ritical
C ontrol Point (HACCP) procedures must be
applied by processors. The d istribution o f
m arine fish to Inland areas, distant from the
coast, appears to be a problem for m any o f the
countries that depend on capture fisheries and
have poor Infrastructure. This Is often a reason
fo r d eveloping freshwater aquaculture closer
to markets.
For low -ln co m e fo o d -d e flclt countries
(LIFDCs), food security, em ploym ent, poverty
alle via tion and equitable access to resources
are seen as p rio rity concerns. W om en and
e c o n o m ic a lly disadvantaged groups are
Identified In many management plans for
special consideration In the provision o f
finance and training.
Budget and general resource constraints are
seen as a significant problem for management.
W h ile there Is a general shortage o f human
and financial resources for fisheries
management In developing countries, other
countries are concentrating on methods to
cover management costs from resource
revenue.
Regional and global management
Regional cooperation has m any other benefits
In addition to cost savings. M any fishery
p olicies e x p lic itly concern themselves w ith the
need to harm onize management measures
among and even (In the larger ones) w ith in
countries. Benefits stem m ainly from Im proved
MCS, w h ich Is one o f the most expensive
aspects o f management. Regional cooperation
can greatly reduce these costs. The sharing o f
Inform ation and technical expertise, as w ell as
the jo in t management o f shared stocks, are
also o f Increasing Interest to m ultilateral
cooperation. To support these there Is a need to
strengthen regional fisheries m anagem ent
organizations and make them more e fficient
(see Box 3 for examples o f activities In
regional fishery bodies).
Although there has been a general decline In
dlstant-w ater fishing, some developing
countries still rely on long-range fleets, usually
from developed countries, to e x p lo it their
offshore resources. Because o f the need to
share Inform ation on foreign fleets, regional
managem ent Is p a rticu la rly valuable In
dealing w ith fisheries that have a large foreign
com ponent.
However, regional bodies Im prove the
cooperation between states even w hen distant-
21
w ater fishing is in decline. Regional fisheries
management bodies have an im portant role to
play in com bating illegal, unreported and
unregulated (IU U) fishing (see the section on
IU U fishing, Part 2, p. 57).
Inland fisheries management
M anagem ent o f inland fisheries is constrained
BOX 3
Regional fishery bodies:
IO T C and NE AFC
by the same factors that make accurate
data co lle ction d iffic u lt: the diverse and
diffuse nature o f the fisheries; incom plete
or inaccurate reporting; and
com petition for w ater resources from other
sectors such as agriculture and energy
production. In efforts to rebuild fisheries or to
add value to the catch o f certain w ater bodies,
Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
The A tla n tic and the Eastern Pacific O ceans have
had tuna m anagem ent bodies fo r several decades.
Discussions leading to the creation o f the Indian
O cean Tuna C om m ission (IOTC) started in 1986.
The agreem ent establishing IOTC entered into
force w ith the accession o f the tenth m em ber in
1 996. This body was established under A rtic le XIV
o f the FAO C onstitution and n o w has 18 members,
in clu d in g the EC and 1 7 states. M em bership is
open to coastal countries o f the Indian O cean as
w e ll as non-riparian countries that are fishing for
tuna in this ocean. The com m ission's o b je ctive is
the o p tim u m u tiliz a tio n o f 1 6 species o f tuna and
tu n a -like fishes in its area o f com petence, w h ic h is
defined as the Indian O cean and adjacent seas.
This com m ission is the first o f its kind in FAO, as it
has m anagem ent powers and is funded to ta lly
from m em ber party c on tribu tions.
In itia lly, tuna catches in this area w ere half
those o f the A tla n tic o r the Eastern Pacific Oceans,
but they have increased ra p id ly and n o w account
fo r m ore than a quarter o f w o rld tuna landings.
The value o f the annual catch o f 1.2 m illio n tonnes
is also very high (estimated to be between
US$2 b illio n and US$3 b illio n ), as there is a large
p ro po rtion o f valua ble fish caught by longi ¡nes.
A no ther sig n ifica n t fa ct is that nearly half the
catch comes from artisanal fisheries, whereas in
the other oceans m ost o f the catch comes from
long-range industrialized operations.
The technical activities that gave rise to IOTC
started in 1 982 through the Indo-P acific Tuna
D e velo pm e nt and M anagem ent Programme
(IPTP), w h ic h was funded by the U nited Nations
D e velo pm e nt Programme (UN DP) and executed
by FAO. The program m e was entrusted w ith the
c o lle ctio n o f statistical data on tuna fisheries and
provided p a rticip ating countries w ith a forum for
research and the discussion o f stock status.
S cientific support was provided th ro u g h o u t the
life tim e o f IPTP through a pro je ct funded by Japan.
22
stocking (often o f exotic species) and other
enhancem ent measures have been adopted.
Aquaculture can also be an enhancem ent
measure, but in m any rural areas aquaculture
production accounts for o n ly a small fraction
o f inland fisheries production and should not
be seen as a substitute for fisheries
management. Access to fishing areas is often
controlled by pow erful individuals w ith in the
com m unity. As recreational fisheries become
an increasingly valuable source o f revenue in
developing countries (e.g. through access
charges and tourism ), local subsistence and
com m ercial fishers are losing access to many
w ater bodies. This poses a problem for the
management o f individual fisheries, so there is
As o f 1 986, m em ber parties provided all the
Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission
fu n d in g fo r the operation o f the program m e.
The fou n d a tio n o f NEAFC can be traced back to
The IOTC secretariat has been operational at its
the period between the First and Second W orld
headquarters in Seychelles since the beginning o f
Wars. In the 1930s, several conferences were held
1 998. D u ring this period, staff have been
to address the issue o f rational e x p lo ita tio n o ffis h
appointed, statistical databases have been
resources, but attempts to organize an
constituted, data from tuna fish in g countries have
international agreem ent w ere interrupted by the
been collected and the dissem ination o f data and
Second W orld War. In 1 946, the U nited Kingdom
in fo rm atio n through the Internet and electron ic
organized an International C onference on
and p rin t m edia has been organized. The
O verfishing , w h ic h resulted in the establishm ent of
secretariat also provides support in data
a Permanent C om m ission.
co lle c tio n , tra in in g and scie ntific activities to
This com m ission, founded in 1 953, was the
con tra cting and cooperating parties. The
foreru nn er o f NEAFC. Its first m eeting was
secretariat takes an active role at the international
attended by delegations from 1 2 con tra cting
level, cooperating closely w ith FAO and other
parties and dealt m a in ly w ith m in im u m fish size
regional fishery bodies in such fields as status and
and the use o f various fish in g gears. In 1 955, the
trends reporting, the establishm ent o f statistical
com m ission set up an ad hoc scie ntific com m ittee
standards, the exchange o f data and inform ation
to look into the issues under discussion and seek
and the international plans o f action on seabird
advice from the International C o u n cil fo r the
by-catch, sharks and fishing capacity. A
Exploration o f the Sea (ICES).
co o rd in a tio n m echanism has been introduced
am ong tuna m anagem ent bodies in all the oceans
D u ring its first years o f op eration, it was
apparent that the measures it cou ld establish were
in order to counter the threat posed by illegal,
in sufficie nt to protect stocks adequately. Between
unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing.
1 954 and 1 958 several inform al discussions too k
The com m ission meets every year. A d vice on
tech nica l and scie ntific matters is provided
place to consider new types o f international
regulation. In 1959, a conference resulted in the
through a scie ntific com m ittee and scie ntific w o rk
Northeast A tla n tic Fisheries C onve ntion , w h ich
is undertaken through w o rk in g parties. To date,
entered into force in 1963. NEAFC, w h ic h was
w o rk in g parties have been constituted fo r statistics
form ed under this con ven tion , succeeded the
and tagging, as w e ll as fo r tro p ica l, tem perate and
perm anent com m ission. The new com m ission was
n e ritic tunas and b illfish . In the short tim e since its
given a d ditiona l powers and was able to establish
creation, IOTC has already taken decisions on
stricter conservation and m anagem ent measures.
m in im u m data reporting standards, the
c o n fid e n tia lity o f data and measures to regulate
NEAFC form ed the fram ew ork fo r international
cooperation in the area o f fisheries regulation
IU U fishing. It has also created a new status of
beyond national fishing lim its. Its m ain purpose
C ooperating Party, intended to fa cilita te the
was to recom m end measures to m aintain the
accession o f countries that m ig ht be hesitant to
rational e xp lo ita tio n o ffis h stocks in the
jo in o r m ig ht not have the necessary fin a n cia l
convention's area, taking scie ntific advice from
resources. It is anticipated that resource
ICES. In 1 967, NEAFC established a Scheme of
m anagem ent measures w ill be taken at the next
Joint Enforcem ent that contained rules fo r m utual
session.
inspection and con tro l outside national fishery
ju risd ictio n s. A ltho ug h all decisions regarding
ju d ic ia l processes w ere the resp on sibility o f the
Source: D. A rd ill, IOTC Secretary.
flag state, this scheme was considered a
23
a move to manage watersheds and
habitats instead. Protecting the habitat in
watersheds and developing access and
ow nership schemes for inland water
bodies are tw o measures that could help
prom ote responsible inland fisheries, even
w hen there is no accurate inform ation on
species catch.
AQUACULTURE
Production and value
M ost aquaculture has developed in freshwater
environm ents (Figure 9), and m ainly in Asia.
The developm ent o f inland aquaculture is
seen as an im portant source o f food security
in Asia, p articula rly in land-locked countries.
Freshwater aquaculture production is
sig n ifica n t achievem ent. In 1 969, the com m ission
fisheries m anagem ent fo llo w in g UNCLO S, in
recom m ended a com plete ban on salmon fisheries
p a rticular the Rio D eclaration and the U nited
outside national lim its. It also agreed to enforce a
Nations Agreem ent on the Conservation and
closed season fo r the N orth Sea herring fishery
M anagem ent of Straddling Fish Stocks and H ig h ly
from 1 971. In 1975 a recom m endation to ban
M ig ra to ry Fish Stocks, resulted in a new daw n for
directed industrial fishing fo r N orth Sea herring
NEAFC. The com m ission decided to consider the
was agreed.
future o f NEAFC in the lig h t o f recent
D u rin g this period, the com m ission's powers
increased, as it was allow ed to set lim its fo r total
a llo w a b le catches (TACs) and e ffort lim itations,
developm ents in the legal fra m e w o rk fo r fish in g in
waters outside national ju ris d ic tio n .
Recent years have seen increased fishing
in c lu d in g the a llo ca tio n o f quotas. The first quota
a ctivity and NEAFC has becom e responsible for
recom m endation was on North Sea herring in
m anaging several stocks in the con ven tion area.
1974 and, the fo llo w in g year, NEAFC
In 1 998, the current con tra cting parties -
recom m ended TACs and quota allocations for
D enm ark (in respect o f the Faroe Islands and
15 stocks. By the end o f 1976, NEAFC was aware
G reenland), the EC, Iceland, N orw ay, Poland and
that developm ents taking place after the Third
the Russian Federation - agreed to strengthen
U nited Nations C onference on the Law o f the Sea
NEAFC by establishing an independent secretariat
(UNCLO S III) w o u ld result in the extension of
in London. An agreem ent was reached on a new
fishing lim its to 200 m iles. In 1 977, w hen the
Scheme on C ontrol and Enforcem ent to be applied
coastal states in the N orth A tla n tic declared 200
to waters outside national ju ris d ic tio n . This permits
m iles ju ris d ic tio n o ff th e ir coasts, most o f the areas
the m utual inspection o f con tra cting parties'
o f stocks regulated by NEAFC becam e national
vessels. C ontracting parties are also required to
zones. The m anagem ent o f jo in t stocks became a
n o tify the secretariat o f vessels authorized to fish
m atter o f bilateral o r m ultilateral responsibility,
in international waters and report the catches
instead o f NEAFC's responsibility.
taken.
An agreem ent on m em bership o f the
C ontracting parties have agreed that, as from
organization was reached between NEAFC's
1 January 2000, they require the satellite tracking
con tra cting parties and the European Econom ic
o f vessels fish in g outside national ju ris d ic tio n in
C o m m u n ity (EEC) in 1 980, enab lin g the EEC to
the Northeast A tla n tic. The secretariat w ill supply
becom e a signatory. The 1 980 m eeting resulted
up-to-date in fo rm atio n about on go ing fishing
in the C onvention on Future M u ltila te ra l
activities to con tra cting parties w ith an inspection
C o-operation in the Northeast A tla n tic Fisheries.
presence in the area. NEAFC's contracting parties
A new com m ission was established in 1 982.
The duties and obligations o f the new
have also agreed measures to be taken w hen
dealing w ith no n-co ntractin g parties fish in g in the
com m ission w ere sim ilar to those o f the form er: it
area; fo r exam ple, if fish in g o f NEAFC-regulated
should serve as a fo ru m fo r consultation and the
stocks takes place contrary to NEAFC
exchange o f in fo rm atio n on fish stocks and
recom m endations, no n-co ntractin g parties may
m anagem ent and it had the pow er to make
face p ro h ib itio n o f the landing o f catches.
recom m endations con cern ing fisheries in
international waters in the convention area.
How ever, since most fisheries activities too k
place inside coastal state ju ris d ic tio n , NEAFC
lacked any real resp on sibility fo r m anaging them .
The de velopm e nt o f the legal fra m e w o rk for
Source: S. Engesaeter, NEAFC Secretary.
24
Percentage
FIGURE 9
Aquaculture production in 1998:
breakdown by environment
Freshwater
culture
58.7
35.0
(10 .8
million tonnes)
i11ion tonnes)
Brackish water
culture
Mariculture
m illion tonnes)
Note: Data do not include aquatic plants
Source: FAO
dom inated by finfish, p articula rly silver, grass
and other carps (Figures 10 and 11). Brackish
w ater aquaculture has most frequently been
developed for shrim p production, notably the
giant tiger prawn, w h ich accounts for the
grow th in shrim p export markets. M i I kfish
production dom inated brackish w ater finfish
aquaculture in the 1980s, but has subsequently
grow n more slow ly. In volum e terms,
m ariculture has been dom inated by seaweeds,
notably Japanese kelp, and molluscs, m ainly
the Pacific cupped oyster. However, as
production figures are given in live w eight
(in clud ing the high w ater content o f seaweeds
and the heavy shells o f molluscs), the statistics
give the impression that these products are
greater sources o f food and em ploym ent than
they a ctu a lly are.
Brackish and saltwater aquaculture has seen
a grow th in high-value salmon in particular,
and in brackish water, shrim p is the m ajor
high-value product. Both these types o f
aquaculture are oriented tow ards the export
market. Shrim p (crustaceans) and salmon
(diadrom ous fishes) make up a low er volum e
than freshwater fishes such as tila p ia and carp
but attract a high price, m aking them a
significant com ponent in value terms.
Production is dom inated by Asian countries
(Figure 12), p a rticu la rly C hina w h ic h has
reported increases in p ro du ction o f 0.7
m illio n tonnes per year u ntil 1992 and 2.6
m illio n s tonnes per year thereafter. For the
rest o f the w o rld , com bined grow th in
p ro du ction has averaged 0.4 m illio n tonnes
per year. W ith in the last decade, LIFDCs,
e x c lu d in g C hina, have shown an encouraging
overall upw ard trend in p ro du ction and, in
term s o f quantity, the increase has kept pace
w ith that reported in non-LIFDCs (Figure 13).
China and other Asian countries dom inate
LIFDC aquaculture p ro du ction (Figure 14)
because they have been m uch more active in
p ro m o tin g a quaculture, p a rtic u la rly for
subsistence. W h ile Asia, the Am ericas and
Europe have seen an expansion in
a quaculture p ro d u ctio n , A frica has been slow
to develop its p ote ntia l. U n lik e Asia, A frica
has little aquaculture tra d itio n and has been
affected by a num ber o f external problem s
that have prevented proper m anagem ent and
d e ve lo p m e n t despite investm ent.
Nevertheless, aquaculture p ro d u ctio n in
A frica has risen from 37 000 tonnes in 1984 to
1 89 000 in 1998, the m a jo rity o f w h ic h is
freshw ater carp and tila p ia .
Developm ent and policy
In the Asia region, aquaculture has developed
m ainly as a rural a ctivity integrated into
existing farm ing systems. Rural aquaculture,
in c lu d in g enhancem ent and culture-based
fisheries, has made significant co ntributions to
the a lleviation o f poverty, d ire c tly through
sm all-scale household farm ing o f aquatic
organisms for dom estic consum ption or
Percentage
FIGURE 10
Global aquaculture production by species groups in freshwater (A),
brackish water (B) and marine (C) environments in 1998
(A)
(B)
^
Finfish
J
Crustaceans
^
Molluscs
J
Aquatic
plants
8
■
i
(Q
Source: FAO
FIGURE 11
Global aquaculture production: major species groups in 1998
Q u a n tity
V alue
Freshwater fish
17355
Molluscs
19 737
8 479
9 143
Aquatic plants
5 377
8 568
Diadromous fish
5 907
1 909
Crustaceans
9 234
1 564
Marine fish
3 396
781
Other aquatic
animals
0
5 000
Thousand tonnes
Source: FAO
10 000
15 000
20 000
0
5 000
US$ millions
10 000
15 000
20 000
26
FIGURE 12
Aquaculture production: major producer countries in 1998
Q u a n tity
V alue
China
■ 27 072
India
Japan
■ 2 030
■
2 223
■ 1 290
4 126
Philippines
1 955
1 639
Indonesia
1 814
■
Korea, Rep.
1 797
1 766
Bangladesh
1 584
■
1 494
Thailand
1 570
■
1 807
V iet Nam
1 538
■ 1 357
Other countries
2 150
4 782
0
■ 12 448
10 000
20 000
30 000
0
Thousand tonnes
5 000 10 0 0015 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
US$ millions
Note: Data include aquatic plants. Countries listed are those w ith a production volume of more than 500 000 tonnes
Source: FAO
Million tonnes
FIGURE 13
Trends in aquaculture production volume
30
China
LIFDCs,
excluding
China
20
Non-LIFDCs
1984
1986
1988
Note: Data include aquatic plants
Source: FAO
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
27
Percentage
FIGURE 14
Aquaculture production:
contribution of LI FDCs in 1998
China
2 1 1
India
Note: Data do not include aquatic plants
j
Philippines
I
Indonesia
I
Bangladesh
I
Korea, Dem.
People's Rep.
j
Other countrte
Source: FAO
incom e, and in d ire ctly by p roviding
em ploym ent for the poor or low -cost fish for
poor rural and urban consumers. Recent
experiences in these countries indicate that
there are w ide o pportunities for the poor, w ho
can integrate aquaculture into th e ir existing
fa rm ing systems.
A ll countries in the region have a large
u n fu lfille d potential for g ro w th, although rural
a quaculture is far better developed in
countries such as C hina and India. In China,
sig n ifica n t expansion and inten sifica tion o f
aqu acu lture are ta kin g place. Intensive
systems, based increasingly on form ulated
feeds, are more com m on in coastal provinces,
w here sm all-scale farms a ccount for 60
percent o f p ro d u ctio n , w h ile in poorer and
rem oter p rovinces tra d itio n a l integrated
systems, based m a in ly on m anuring, still
predom inate. In India, rural aquaculture using
extensive to sem i-intensive m odes o f
p ro du ction in ponds and tanks contributes
sig n ifica n tly to rural household incomes. In
the P hilippines, sm all-scale holders dom inate
coastal seaweed and m ollusc farm ing. In
Bangladesh, w here most fish farmers are
rela tive ly poor, there is vast potential for the
poorest m embers o f society to becom e new
entrant aquaculture farmers. In N epal, poor
fishers are the ow ner-operators o f fish cages,
w h ile in the P hilippines poor farm ers are
more lik e ly to be hired to operate such
systems and are less lik e ly to be owners. In
Indonesia, about 78 percent o f farm ing
households cu ltiva te fish in small ponds o f
less than 500 m2, and aquaculture is the main
source o f incom e fo r 66 percent o f the
households that cu ltiva te fish in paddies and
ponds. A q ua cu lture is also the m ain source
o f incom e fo r 65 percent o f households w ith
brackish w ater ponds o f an area less than
1 ha. It has been reported that the tra d itio n a l
integrated farm ing system in V iet Nam may
co ntribu te as m uch to household incom e as
rice c u ltiv a tio n , w h ile o cc u p y in g a far
s m aller area.
However, the co ntribu tion o f rural
aquaculture to developm ent is uneven,
suggesting that there is still significant
u n fu lfille d potential. Rural aquaculture is
increasingly recognized as a w ay to im prove
the livelihoods o f poor people, and many
governm ents and developm ent agencies attach
im portance to this sector in the Asia and
Pacific region.
Aquaculture still faces a num ber o f
problems. A m ong these are access to
technology and financial resources for the
poor; environm ental impacts; and diseases.
The p rio rity areas for further research include:
• the adoption o f aquaculture by poor rural
households;
• technologies for sustainable stock
enhancem ent, ranching programmes and
open ocean aquaculture;
• the use o f aquatic plants and animals for
nutrient stripping;
28
• integrated systems to im prove
e nvironm ental perform ance;
• managing the health o f aquatic animals;
• nutrition in aquaculture;
• the q ua lity and safety o f aquaculture
products;
• em erging technologies, in clu d in g
re circu la tin g systems, offshore cage
culture, integrated w ater use, a rtificia l
u pw elling and ecosystem food w eb
m anagem ent, dom estication and selective
breeding and genetic im provem ent.
A lthough m any policies are developed
sp ecifically for aquaculture, the resulting plans
are often integrated w ith those o f the capture
fisheries sector. A quaculture is seen not o nly
as having greater developm ent potential than
capture fisheries, but also as an im portant tool
for increasing food security. M any countries
have identified a future shortfall in the supply
o f fishery products and support aquaculture
developm ent in order to avoid the im portation
o f scarce fishery products.
Aquaculture is often proposed as a w ay o f
pro vid ing fish to non-coastal com m unities,
high-value exports, seed stock for replenishing
resources and bait for fisheries. As w ell as the
developm ent o f new areas, most plans for
aquaculture include support for areas that are
underutilized as a result o f inefficiencies in
production, a com m on problem for many
d eveloping countries. O ther significant issues
addressed by management and developm ent
plans include disease control, co n flictin g land
uses and general environm ental problems
arising from aquaculture developm ent, such as
critica l habitat loss, species introductions and
p o llu tio n .
The future developm ent o f aquaculture w ill
depend on im provem ents in new and adaptive
research and management. A fram ew ork for
such cooperation, provided in the Bangkok
D eclaration and Strategy for A quaculture
D evelopm ent Beyond 2 00 0,8 is p articularly
im portant to developing countries, w h ich need
to share expertise and technology. Regional
management o f aquaculture is being
developed for the M editerranean region
through the application o f A rticle 9 o f the
Code. This is the first institutional attem pt to
harm onize the different national principles
connected w ith the Code. The principles
8 A v a ila b le at w w w .fa o .o rg /fi/d e fa u lt.a s p .
address integrated and im proved planning w ith
the participation o f all sectors, environm ental
conservation and econom ic and trade issues.
FISH U T IL IZ A T IO N
Since 1994, there has been a tendency to
increase the proportion o f fisheries production
used for direct human consum ption rather than
for other purposes (Figure 1 5). O f the products
for human consum ption, fresh fish showed
significant grow th during the 1990s,
com plem ented by a decline in the use o f
canned fish. This pattern has largely been
driven by grow th in consum ption, w hich
increased the dem and for fresh fish and caused
a slight decline in other uses (Figure 16).
Fish has a significant capacity for
processing. In 1 998, o n ly 36 percent o f w orld
fisheries production was marketed as fresh
fish, w h ile the rem aining 64 percent
underw ent some form o f processing. Fish for
human consum ption had a 79.6 percent share,
w h ile the rem aining 20.4 percent w ent to non­
food purposes, alm ost exclusively for reduction
to meal and o il. O f the fish destined for direct
human consum ption, fresh fish was the most
im portant product, w ith a share o f 45.3
percent, fo llo w ed by frozen fish (28.8 percent),
canned fish (13.9 percent) and cured fish (12
percent). Fresh fish increased in volum e from
25 m illio n tonnes in 1988 to 42 m illio n tonnes
in 1998, live w eight equivalent. Processed fish
(frozen, cured and canned) increased from 46
m illio n tonnes in 1988 to more than 51 m illio n
tonnes, live w eight equivalent, in 1998.
Consumption
The total food fish supply has been g row ing at
a rate o f 3.6 percent per annum since 1 961,
w h ile the w orld's population has been
expanding at 1.8 percent per annum . The
proteins derived from fish, crustaceans and
m olluscs account for between 13.8 and 16.5
percent o f the anim al protein intake o f the
human population.
Total food fish supply grew from 27.6 m illion
tonnes in 1961 to more than 93 m illion tonnes at
the end o f the twentieth century. Average
apparent per capita consumption increased from
about 9 kg per annum in the early 1960s to 16 kg
in 1997. The per capita availability o ffis h and
fishery products has therefore nearly doubled in
40 years, outpacing population growth, w hich
also nearly doubled in the same period.
In industrialized countries, w here diets
generally contain a more diversified range o f
anim al proteins, the supply increased from
FIGURE 15
Utilization of world fisheries production
(breakdown by percentage), 1989-1998
Human consumption
Other purposes
1989
I
Marketing
as fresh
produce
j
Freezing
I
Curing
I
Canning
1990
1991
1992
■
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
■
1
■
■
■
80
60
40
20
20
40
Percentage
Source: FAO
FIGURE 16
Utilization of world fisheries production
(breakdown by volume), 1989-1998
Million tonnes
(live weight)
50
Marketing as
fresh produce
40
Freezing
30
Non-food
purposes
20
Canning
Curing
1989
Source: FAO
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
30
13.2 m illio n tonnes in 1961 to 26.7 m illio n
tonnes in 1997, im p lyin g a rise in per capita
provision from 19.7 to 27.7 kg. This represents
a grow th rate close to 1 percent per annum . In
this group o f countries, fish contributed an
increasing share o f total protein intake until
1989 (accounting for between 6.5 and 8.5
percent), but its im portance has gradually
declined since then and, in 1997, its
percentage co ntribu tion was back to the level
prevailing in the m id-1980s.
In the early 1960s, per capita fish supply in
LIFDCs was, on average, one-fifth o f that o f
the richest countries. The gap has gradually
lessened, however, and in 1997 average LIFDC
fish consum ption was close to half that o f the
more affluent econom ies. If China is excluded,
per capita supply in LIFDCs increased from 4.9
to 7.8 kg over the period - an annual growth
rate o f 1.3 percent.
Despite the relatively lo w consum ption by
w eight in LIFDCs, the co ntribu tion o f fish to
total animal protein intake is considerable
(nearly 20 percent). O ver the last four
Total food fish
supply in live weight
(million tonnes)
decades, however, the share o f fish proteins to
anim al proteins has exhibited a slight negative
trend o w in g to faster grow th in the
consum ption o f other animal products.
As w ell as incom e-related variations, the
role o ffis h in nutrition shows marked
continental, regional and national differences
(Figure 17). For exam ple, o f the 93.9 m illio n
tonnes available w o rld w id e for consum ption in
1997, o n ly 5.2 m illio n tonnes were consumed
in A frica (w ith a per capita supply o f 7.1 kg),
whereas tw o -th ird s o f the total were consumed
in Asia - 31.7 m illio n tonnes in Asia excluding
China (13.7 kg per capita) and a sim ilar
am ount in China alone (where the apparent
supply amounted to 25.7 kg per capita).
Currently, tw o -th ird s o f the total food fish
supply are obtained from fishing in m arine and
inland waters; the rem aining one-third is
derived from aquaculture. The co ntribu tion o f
inland and m arine capture fisheries to per
capita food supply has stabilized (at 10 to l 1 kg
per capita in the period 1984-1998). Recent
increases in per capita a v a ila b ility have,
FIGURE 17
Food fish supply by continent and economic grouping in 1997
100
50
Total food
fish supply
80
40
27.7
60
40
30
I
17.7
16.1
18.5
50
19.9
16.7
20
10
20
m
0 Per capita food fish
supply (kg)
00 u
C
X
•S «
Source: FAO
Per capita
food fish
supply
31
therefore, been obtained from aquaculture
p roduction, from both traditional rural
aquaculture and intensive com m ercial
aquaculture o f high-value species. On
average, for all countries in the w o rld except
China, aquaculture's co ntribu tion to per capita
food a va ila b ility grew from 1.2 kg in 1984 to
2.1 kg in 1998 - at an average rate o f 4.1
percent per annum . In China, w here fish
farm ing practices have long trad ition al roots,
the per capita supply from aquaculture is
reported to have increased from 6 kg to nearly
1 7 kg in the same period, im p lyin g an annual
average grow th o f 15 percent.
The total am ount o f fish consumed and the
species com position o f the food supply vary
according to region and country, reflecting the
d ifferent levels o f natural a va ila b ility o f
aquatic resources in adjacent waters, as w ell
as diverse food traditions, tastes, dem and and
incom e levels. Demersal fish are much
preferred in northern Europe and North
Am erica, and cephalopods are consumed in
several M editerranean and Asian countries,
but to a m uch lesser extent in other regions.
Despite the fast-grow ing co ntribu tion o f
aquaculture to p roduction, crustaceans are still
high-priced com m odities and their
consum ption is m ostly concentrated in affluent
econom ies. O f the 16.1 kg o f fish per capita
available for consum ption in 1997, the vast
m ajority (75 percent) was finfish (Figure 18).
Shellfish supplied 25 percent - or 4 kg per
capita, subdivided into 1.4 kg o f crustaceans,
2.2 kg o f m olluscs and 0.4 kg o f cephalopods.
In terms o f total supply, 25 m illio n tonnes
were made up o f freshwater and diadrom ous
species. M arine finfish species provided 45
m illio n tonnes, subdivided into 16 m illio n
tonnes o f demersal species, 19 m illio n tonnes
o f pelagios and 10 m illio n tonnes o f
unidentified and m iscellaneous m arine fish.
The rem aining 20 percent o f the food supply
was shellfish, com prising 8 m illio n tonnes o f
crustaceans, 2.5 m illio n tonnes o f cephalopods
and 1 3 m illio n tonnes o f other molluscs.
H istorically, there have not been dram atic
changes in most o f the broad groups' shares in
FIGURE 18
Food fish supply by species groups in 1997
Total food fish
supply in live weight
(million tonnes)
50
j Total food
fish supply
40
Per capita
food fish
supply
30
26
20
10
0.4
0
Source: FAO
■<uD
Per capita food fish
supply (kg)
32
average w o rld consum ption: demersal fish
species have stabilized at about 2.7 kg per
capita and pelagic fish at 3.2 kg. Two groups
are exceptions in that they showed
considerable increases between 1961 and
1997: the a va ila b ility o f crustaceans per capita
more than trebled from 0.4 to 1.4 kg, largely
because o f the production o f shrimps and
prawns from aquaculture practices; and
m olluscs sim ila rly increased from 0.6 to 2.2 kg
per capita.
Fish contributes up to 180 calories per capita
per day, but reaches such high levels o n ly in a
fe w countries w here there is a lack o f
alternative protein foods grown lo ca lly and
w here a preference for fish has been
developed and m aintained (examples are
Japan, Iceland and some small island states).
M ore typ ically, fish provides about 20 to 30
calories per day. Fish proteins are essential
and critica l in the d ie t o f some densely
populated countries, w here the total protein
intake level may be lo w (e.g. fish contributes
more than or close to 50 percent o f total
proteins in Bangladesh, the D em ocratic
People's Republic o f Korea, the R epublic o f
Congo, Ghana, G uinea, Indonesia, Japan and
Senegal), and it is very im portant in the diets
o f m any other countries (e.g. Cam bodia, Benin,
Angola and the Republic o f Korea).
W o rld w id e , about 1 b illio n people rely on
fish as th eir m ain source o f animal proteins.
Dependence on fish is usually higher in
coastal than in inland areas. A bout 20 percent
o f the w orld's population derives at least 20
percent o f its animal protein intake from fish
(Figure 19), and some small island states
depend on fish alm ost exclusively.
FISH TRADE
Fish is traded w id e ly - m ostly as a frozen food,
and increasingly less as a canned or heavily
dried food. Its trade has been stim ulated by the
econom ic conditions prevailing in most
consum er markets and by notions about the
health benefits o f seafood consum ption. In
response to higher prices in recent years,
production from aquaculture has had a positive
influence on supply and consumer prices.
However, in 1998 im port demand in some
im portant markets was sharply reduced.
A lthough, in some cases, the w eak im port
demand for certain species resulted from
increased dom estic pro du ction , more generally
it was a result o f the financial crisis affecting
some o f the more rap id ly g row ing industrial
econom ies. In addition, the global econom ic
crisis, w h ich began in the summer o f 1997 and
spread rapidly through East Asia to the Russian
Federation and Latin Am erica, dom inated the
w o rld econom y and resulted in reduced trade
and low er co m m od ity prices in seafood
products. In Japan, the w orld's largest fish­
consum ing country and im port market,
dom estic supply remained at more than 8
m illio n tonnes w ith small fluctuations until
1995, but since then the trend has been to
decrease.
O ver the last tw o years, the consum ption o f
fish and fishery products has been strongly
influenced by the econom ic crisis in the Asian
countries, in particular Japan. The crisis and
the subsequent lo w value o f the yen led to a
decline in im ports and consum ptionin 1998.
The main supplying countries had to reduce
prices and find alternative outlets for their
production. In 1999, the Japanese econom y
started to recover, but not as q u ic k ly as
o rig in a lly forecast because Japanese people
were not spending as freely as they had done
before the crisis. Food items that consumers
consider to be expensive have had d iffic u lty in
regaining th e ir pre-crisis m arket shares. On
the other hand, the U nited States econom y has
been particula rly strong, and consum ption o f
fish continues to increase in that country. The
northern European m arket was strong in the
second part o f 1 999 because o f good econom ic
conditions and higher consum ption in
restaurants. Europe is not the o n ly region to be
experiencing a general trend o f increased fish
consum ption in restaurants as people spend
more on eating out. D ietary habits are
changing, especially in developed countries.
Markets have become more fle xib le and new
products and species have found market
niches. The trend is for fish to receive greater
value added in the catering and retail markets,
thus m aking it easier for consumers to prepare.
Alongside trad ition al preparations,
developm ents in food science and technology,
com bined w ith im proved refrigeration and the
use o f m icrow ave ovens, are m aking
convenience foods, ready meals, coated fish
products and other value-added items a fastgro w in g industry, especially in the EU and in
the U nited States. The reasons for this rapid
expansion include changes in social factors
such as the increasing role o f w om en in the
w orkforce, the fragm entation o f meals in
households as w ell as the general decrease in
average fa m ily size, and the increase in
single-person households. The need for simple
meals that are ready to eat and easy
33
Population
(billions)
FIGURE 19
Contribution of food fish to animal protein supply in 1997
j
99.0
95.1
2.0
81.9
83.4
85.2
86.9
89.9
99.4
Population
100
Cumulative
100
by class of
consumption
as percentage
of world
total
75
57.0.
50
1.0
34.4.
25
0.5
’■+
Percentage share
offish in total animal
protein supply
o
”■+
Source: FAO
to co ok has thus become more im portant.
A n othe r trend is the increasing im portance o f
fresh fish. U n like m any other food products,
fish is still more fa vou ra b ly received on the
m arket w hen it is fresh rather than processed.
H ow ever, h istorically, fresh fish has been o f
little im portance in international trade o w in g
to its perishable nature and very lim ite d shelflife. Im provem ents in packaging, reduced air
freig ht prices, and more e ffic ie n t and reliable
transport have created a d d itio n a l sales outlets
fo r fresh fish. Food chains and departm ent
stores are also ta king an increasing share o f
the fresh seafood sector, and m any have
opened fresh seafood counters w ith an
extensive va riety o f fish and freshly prepared
fish dishes or salads next to th e ir frozen food
counters. Social changes have greatly
influenced the structure o f the fish and retail
markets. Large food chains and departm ent
stores are increasingly co m m on . M ore and
more consumers are lim itin g th e ir shopping to
one day a w eek and tend to prefer larger food
outlets fo r the sake o f convenience.
The United States and EU markets for fishery
products are expected to expand in com ing
years as a result o f consumer health
consciousness and belief in the positive impact
that fish consum ption can have on health.
Healthy food is a grow ing concern in developed
countries, and calorie counts, dietary and
nutritional plans and recipes on packed fish are
a useful addition to value-added products.
O utside Japan, the consum ption o f sashimi
and sushi is increasing in other Asian
countries, the U nited States and Europe. In
addition, the consum ption o f farmed species
such as tila p ia , catfish and salmon is an
alternative to traditional products that are
characterized by lo w supplies and high prices.
The structure o f the fish industry in
developed countries is also changing. Large,
v e rtic a lly integrated m u ltin a tio n a l com panies
are buying sm aller producers.
Am ong the factors that could influence future
dem and for seafood products are population
grow th; changes in econom ic and social
co n d itio n s (such as lifestyle and fa m ily
structure); developm ents in fish p ro du ction ,
processing, d is trib u tio n and m arketing
34
strategies; and the prices o f fish com pared
w ith those o f com peting foodstuffs. The price
o f chicken, for exam ple, is m aking it
increa sing ly a ttractive on all m ajor markets,
resulting in a shift in consum er interest away
from fish and tow ards chicken. Furtherm ore,
g lo b a liz a tio n and increasing interna tion al
trade in seafood com m odities, as w e ll as
interna tion al agreements on trade rules,
tariffs, q u a lity standards (see Fish q u a lity and
safety, Part 2, p. 47) and fisheries
m anagem ent are all having an im pact. Long­
term global trends in supply and dem and,
in c lu d in g developm ents in d istrib u tio n and
consum ption, have broad im p lica tio n s fo r the
d om estic industry and fo r dom estic
consumers. Projections o f dem and based on
p op ulatio n and incom e grow th p o in t to an
increasing gap between supply and dem and,
w h ic h could lead to an increase in prices.
This, in tu rn , co uld lead to a w id e n in g o f the
existing gap in average fish consum ption
between developed countries and LIFDCs.
The co nsum ption trend, as far as species are
concerned, points increasingly tow ards
farm ed species, w h ite fis h , crustaceans and
m olluscs in the developed countries and to
lo w -va lu e species, such as small pelagics, in
d e ve lo p in g countries.
A large share o f fish production enters
international trade, w ith about 33 percent
exported in 1998 (live weight equivalent).
LIFDCs play an active part in this trade and,
at present, account for almost 20 percent of
exports. Developing countries as a w hole supply
nearly 50 percent o f total exports in value terms.
In 1998, total exports o f fish and fishery products
were US$51 300 m illion in value terms, a 3.8
percent decrease compared w ith 1997.
M ore than 90 percent o f trade in fish and
fishery products consists o f processed products
in one form or another (i.e. e xcluding live and
fresh w h o le fish). Frozen, fresh and ch illed fish
make up the m ajority o f exports (Figure 20).
A lthough live, fresh or ch illed fish represents
o n ly a small share o f w o rld fish trade o w in g to
its perishability, trade is g row ing, reflecting
im proved logistics and increased dem and.
In 1998, total imports o ffis h and fishery
products were US$55 000 m illio n , representing
a slight decline o f 2.8 percent compared w ith
1997 and 3.9 percent compared w ith 1996.
Japan was again the largest im porter o f fishery
products, accounting for some 23 percent o f
total imports, but Japanese im ports o ffis h and
fishery products have declined recently as a
result o f the econom ic recession (Figure 21).
The EC further increased its dependence on
im ports for its fish supply. The United
States, despite being the w orld's fifth m ajor
exporting country, was also its second main
importer. M ore than 77 percent o f the total
w o rld im port value is concentrated in these
three areas.
FIGURE 20
W orld fishery exports by major commodity groups
Million tonnes
14
Fresh, chilled
or frozen fish
12
10
Fishmeals
8
6
Fresh or chilled
crustaceans
and molluscs
4
2
0
Canned fish
Dried, salted
or smoked fish
0.5
Fish oil
1976
Source: FAO
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Canned
crustaceans
and molluscs
35
FIGURE 21
Imports and exports of fishery products for different regions,
indicating the net deficit or surplus
US$ billions
Africa
j
Asia excluding China
Export valu
30
Trade surplus
Trade deficit
20
Import value
o
co
oo
so
oo
00
oo
o
so
o
so
Europe
C hina
30
20
o
oo
Canada and United States
oo
oo
so
oo
Latin Am erica and the Caribbean
12
9
6
3
0
o
oo
Tf
oo
so
oo
Oceania
2.0
1.5
1.0
Source: FAO
o
00
oo
so
oo
oo
oo
oo
36
Shrimp
Shrim p is the main fish trade co m m od ity in
value terms, accounting for some 20 percent o f
the total value o f internationally traded fishery
products. The international econom ic crisis in
the main producer countries and in their
markets, together w ith disease problem s,
caused setbacks for shrim p producers, traders
and investors in 1998 and 1999. The main
producers had to reduce prices and look for
alternative outlets in order to sell their
p roduction.
In 1998 and 1999, m any shrim p-producing
countries, p articula rly in South Am erica,
experienced a decline in production m ainly
o w in g to disease or weather problems. In
Ecuador, Peru, M exico, Bangladesh and India,
shrim p production and exports were
d isappointing com pared w ith previous years.
In contrast, shrim p o utp ut in Thailand picked
up in 1998 and 1999 after the disease problems
o f 1996 and 1 997. This country continues to be
the main sh rim p-culturing nation in the w o rld .
After poor trading in 1998, the Japanese
shrim p m arket recovered in 1999, particula rly
in the second half o f the year. The strong yen
and high demand were the main reasons for
this upturn. The U nited States market for
shrim p was very active in 1999, w ith record
shrim p consum ption o f 400 000 tonnes,
330 000 tonnes o f w h ich were im ported.
After a slow start, the European shrim p
market was strong in the closing m onths o f
1999. Trade im proved in the northern part o f
the continent as a result o f good econom ic
conditions and higher consum ption in
restaurants. Spain is the main fresh and frozen
shrim p im porter among the EC countries,
fo llo w e d by France, the U nited Kingdom
and Italy.
Tuna
Tuna catches in 1999 were w ell ahead o f those
o f 1998 in p ra ctically all m ajor fishing areas.
Catches in the Eastern Pacific, in particular (up
by 40 percent on 1998), continued the positive
trend experienced in 1998. Estimates put the
1999 tuna catch at close to a record o f 4
m illio n tonnes. The international tuna market
was oversupplied during 1999 and this led to
unprecedented lo w prices, w h ich had already
started to decline in m id-1998. In N ovem ber
1999 skipjack was quoted in Bangkok at a low
o f US$400 per tonne.
Japanese im ports o f fresh and frozen tuna
were 307 400 tonnes in 1999, a 9.7 percent
decrease compared w ith 1998. Japanese
imports o f canned tuna expanded slightly in
1999 to reach 21 000 tonnes.
The tw o main markets for canned tuna are
the United States and the EC. W h ile United
States imports increased in 1999, the European
m arket was rather w eak. U nited States imports
o f canned tuna reached 151 700 tonnes in
1999, 32 percent more than the 1998 figure.
Canned w hitem eat still represents o n ly a small
share o f U nited States canned tuna imports,
but the product is expanding its presence. The
U nited States accounts for about one-third o f
the w orld's canned tuna consum ption, but
consum ption has decreased in recent years.
The overall q ua lity o f canned tuna in the
U nited States is d eclining , although the higherq u a lity segment is grow ing.
Italian canners' use o f tuna loins as raw
material is increasing, and loins account for
about 60 percent o f Italy's total canned tuna
production. Spain is now the m ajor tuna
processor in Europe, having overtaken Italy.
After the U nited States, Thailand is the
second largest producer o f canned tuna in the
w o rld , and Thai tuna canning com panies are
prom oting this product on dom estic markets by
hig hlighting its lo w cholesterol content.
Groundfish
A num ber o f the main groundfish species have
experienced reduced stocks and decreased
quotas for several consecutive years. In the
U nited States this developm ent has made the
m arket entry o f new farmed species such as
catfish and tila p ia much easier, and in Europe
salmon seems to be replacing groundfish. Low
supplies o f cod have increased the industry's
interest in farm ing cod. However, there are
not m any alternatives on the m arket for
such traditional products as salted and
dried groundfish. Prices in the United
States and Europe were relative ly depressed
in 1999, w ith an increase tow ards the end o f
the year.
Reduced supplies o f traditional groundfish
species seem to be compensated by increased
sales o f other products, especially ready-to-eat
meals and farmed salmon. In general, w orld
consum ption o f salmon is rising and farmed
A tla n tic salmon is becom ing more popular, in
fresh, smoked and canned forms. Farmed
salmon production grew considerably in 1999,
reaching nearly 890 000 tonnes compared w ith
798 000 tonnes in 1998. C hile experienced
several problem s w ith its farmed salmon
production during 1999, and N orw ay increased
its share in the U nited States market.
37
Cephalopods
Cephalopod fisheries performed w ell in 1999,
especially for Illex catches, and supplies on
the w o rld m arket were very strong. The
increased supply o f squid was in itia lly
absorbed w ith o u t problems, w ith a strong
buying interest reported in Spain and Japan.
However, at the end o f the year, demand
declined suddenly and m arket prices started to
drop.
Squid imports into Japan reached a high o f
62 500 tonnes in 1999, alm ost 30 percent more
than in 1998.
In 1999, Japanese cuttlefish imports dropped
by 3.1 percent to 43 400 tonnes, w ith Thailand
supplying nearly half o f this total. O ctopus
catches in the Eastern Central A tla n tic were
good in 1999, leading to higher exports to
Japan and low er prices on the w o rld market.
In many o f the countries that are not
trad ition al cephalopod eaters, squid
consum ption is increasing. The best exam ple is
the U nited States, w here "ca la m a ri" is now
w ell established in fast-food chains. In
countries w ith a lo w seafood consum ption,
such as Argentina, squid has found a market
niche in the fried fast-food sector.
Small pelagics
The Russian Federation's financial problems
led to a strong price drop in 1998, fo llo w ed by
an upwards trend in mackerel prices during
the second half o f 1999. N orw egian mackerel
exports to the Russian Federation and the
Baltic states fell by alm ost 50 percent between
1998 and 1999. N orw ay began to focus more
on Asia and Eastern European countries such
as Poland, Turkey and U kraine.
In 1999, EC exports o f A tla n tic mackerel to
Eastern Europe dropped compared w ith 1998,
so the EC strongly increased its exports
tow ards A frican markets (p a rticu la rly N igeria).
A t the end o f 1998, the w o rld herring market
collapsed as a result o f an oversupply from the
1997/98 season and the econ om ic crisis in the
Russian Federation and Japan, the tw o m ajor
markets for herring. The w o rld m arket price for
herring dropped substantially, in some cases
by 75 percent. In 1999, imports into Central
and Eastern Europe started to p ick up and it
appears that the Russian Federation w ill again
become the m ajor im porter o f herring. Prices
increased slightly in 1999.
Fishmeal
Fishmeal production for 1999 is estimated at 6.6
m illio n tonnes, close to the annual average for
1976-1997 o f 6.5 m illio n tonnes. This is 29
percent up on the 4.8 m illio n tonnes produced
in 1998, w hich was one o f the worst production
years ever. Increased production was due to the
recovery o f fishing in South Am erica after the El
N iño phenomenon. Peruvian fishmeal
production in 1999 was more than tw ice the
1998 figure o f 815 000 tonnes, representing a
return to normal levels. Export earnings from
fishmeal increased by 35 percent in 1999
compared w ith 1998, reaching US$534 m illio n .
On the other hand, the situation in Chile did not
com pletely return to normal. Total fishmeal
output from this country was 980 000 tonnes in
1999, up from 640 000 tonnes in 1998, but still
lower than the 1.2 m illio n tonnes recorded in
1997. Chilean fishmeal exports in 1999 were
close to 600 000 tonnes, some 100 000 tonnes
more than in 1998.
Increased production led to a strong
reduction o f prices during 1999. Prices
im proved som ewhat at the end o f the year,
but com petition w ith soybean meal is still in
fishmeal's favour. The present price ratio o f
2:1 is one o f the lowest in recent history.
Fishmeal exports from the five main
exporting countries doubled in 1999, to reach
2.85 m illio n tonnes. China was the main
importer, fo llo w ed by Japan, Taiwan Province
o f China and Germany.
Fish oil
W orld fish o il production reached 1.2 m illio n
tonnes in 1999, up from 0.8 m illio n tonnes in
1998. Latin Am erican producers, Peru in
particular, reported a strong increase in output,
and fish o il production levels w en t back to preEl N iñ o levels. The increase in fish oil
a v a ila b ility was coupled w ith price reductions
and, in Decem ber 1999, fish o il prices were
around US$290 per tonne, com pared w ith
US$740 per tonne in m id-1998.
Fish oil use is now dom inated by
aquaculture, w h ich takes 60 percent o f total
production. Low production levels in 1998 had
a negative im pact on the use o f edible fish o il,
w h ile 1 999 saw a recovery in the use o f fish
o il for direct human consum ption.
Live ornam ental fish
Trade in ornam ental fish has been increasing
since the 1980s. A t present, total w holesale
trade is estimated at US$900 m illio n and total
retail trade at about US$3 b illio n (live animals
for aquarium s only). Asia represents more than
50 percent o f the w orld's total ornam ental fish
supply. Singapore is by far the leading
38
exporter, fo llo w e d by the U nited States, Hong
Kong Special A d m inistrative Region, Japan,
M alaysia, the Czech R epublic, Israel, the
Philippines and Sri Lanka. Fish farm ing is a
leisure a ctivity that is practised m ainly
in industrialized countries because it is
relatively costly. The m ain importers are
the U nited States, Japan and Europe,
p articula rly Germany, France and the U nited
Kingdom . ♦
PART 2
Selected issues facing fishers and aquaculturists
41
Selected issues facing fishers and aquaculturists
FISHERS' SAFETY
THE ISSUE
Fishing at sea is the most dangerous
occupation in the w orld. The data gathered
from countries that keep accurate records
show that occupational fatalities in those
countries' fishing industries far exceed the
overall national averages. For exam ple, in the
U nited States the fatality rate among fishers is
25 to 30 times the national average;1 in Italy it
is more than 21 times the national average;2
and in Australia it is 143 per 100 000,
compared w ith the average o f 8.1 per 100 000.
However, very fe w countries are able to
supply these data. Although the members of
the International M aritim e O rganization (IM O )
agreed that the co lle ction and analysis of
statistical inform ation on casualties, inclu ding
fishing vessels and fishers, should be prepared
on an annual basis,3 they acknowledged in
1999 that there had been o nly a very lim ited
response to their appeal.4
It seems plausible that the fatality rate in
countries for w h ich inform ation is not
available m ight be higher than it is in those
that do keep records. Thus, the International
Labour O rganization's (ILO) estimate of 24 000
fatalities w o rld w id e , per year, may be
considerably low er than the true figure.
O f the 36 m illio n people engaged in fishing
and fish farm ing, FAO estimates that roughly
15 m illio n fishers are em ployed aboard decked
or undecked fishing vessels operating in
m arine capture fisheries, and that more than
90 percent of these fishers are w orking on
vessels that are less than 24 m in length.
The consequences of loss of life fall heavily
on dependants. In developing countries, the
consequences can be devastating: w ido w s
have a lo w social standing; there is no w elfare
state to support bereaved fam ilies; and,
lacking an alternative sources o f income,
w id o w s and children may face destitution.
O f particular concern are the reports from
fishing administrations and fishers' organizations
1U n ite d States B u re a u o f L a b o r S ta tistics, 1 9 9 8 .
“ IL O . 1 9 9 8 . Y e a rb o o k o f L a b o u r S ta tistics, 1 9 9 8 . G e n e v a .
I M O . M S C /C irc .5 3 9 /A d d .2 a n d FSI 6 /6 /1 .
4IM O . FSI 7 /6 /2 .
indicating that fatality rates are increasing in the
artisanal sector of developing countries. In most
cases, the increase in fatalities can be traced
back to changes in the basic nature of fishing
operations: overexploitation of coastal resources;
advances in vessel and fishing technologies,
including motorization and new types of fishing
gear; lack of training, experience and skills;
comm ercial pressure; and new fisheries
management regimes.
W here inshore resources have been
overexploited, fishers are often opting to w ork
farther away from shore, sometimes for
extended periods, in fishing craft that are
based on designs for inshore fishing, w h ich is
lim ited to d aily operations. Such vessels are
often b u ilt by untrained builders w ho copy
traditional and im ported craft, and cost-cutting
practices and the builders' lack of experience
result in vessels that are unsound. Frequently,
they do not co m p ly w ith national regulations.
Furthermore, older generations have no
experience of fishing offshore, so there is a
lack of traditional know ledge for today's crews
about such essential issues as navigation,
w eather forecasting, co m m unications, living
habits during extended periods at sea (several
days instead of o nly one) and the vital culture
o f safety at sea. The problem is com pounded
by fishing being a potential source of income
for casual workers and the landless or urban
unem ployed; the fishing industry frequently
provides em ploym ent for those w ho have no
hope of an alternative source of income.
International vo lu ntary guidelines do not
have m uch effect on artisanal fisheries, largely
because standards are directed towards
decked vessels of more than 12 m. The
Torrem olinos Protocol, w h ich is the o nly
international instrum ent form ulated
s p e c ific a lly for fishing vessels (decked fishing
vessels o f at least 24 m in length), is u nlikely
to come into force because its provisions are
seen as being either too stringent or too lenient
by the countries whose signatures are
required. In the absence o f an international
instrument, fishers must often rely on national
legislation to ensure the safety of their craft,
p articula rly w hen the vessel ow ner does not
participate as a crewm em ber. W h ile most
countries have regulations concerning the
design, construction and equipm ent of vessels,
BOX 4
Cyclone in India
O n the night o f 6 N ovem ber 1996, du rin g a severe
bu ilt, yet sig n ifica n t num bers o f s im ila r vessels are
cyclone, ap pro xim ately 1 435 fishers perished in
still being constructed. Few, if any, o f the vessels
the state o f A ndhra Pradesh on the east coast o f
w ere equipped w ith safety e q uipm en t or even
India. O f these fishers, 569 w ere lost w h ile fishing
sim p le transistor radios. Thus, despite the media's
in m echanized boats at sea and 830 w ere lost
transm ission o f c yclo n e warnings, the fishers were
w h ile carrying o u t shrim p seed c o lle c tio n and
unaw are o f the intensity o f the approaching
other shore-based a ctivities in areas rem ote from
cyclo n e and o f its speed o f advance.
the villages. The causes o f death differed between
the tw o groups; the form er w ere lost at sea in
co n d itio n s o f high w in d s and heavy seas, and the
latter w ere lost on land, largely as a result o f the
storm surge.
The 569 fishers w h o were reported lost at sea
w ere w o rk in g on 110 trawlers, w h ic h foundered
w hen struck by the cyclone. They had departed
from Kakinada port several days before the
cyclo n e struck and w ere fishing in an area to the
southeast o f Kakinada, along the coast o f the
G odavari delta. These traw lers were ty p ic a lly 11
to 15 m long and engaged in fishing trip s o f 10 to
15 days du ratio n. They w ere p o o rly designed and
BOX 5
Accidents
Coastal fisheries and coastal sea transport in
causes associated w ith the fatalities were given
G uinea (West Africa) depend on open, planked
(in order o f im portance) as capsizing, w in d ,
canoes ranging from 6 to 22 m in length. The
disorie ntatio n (in w in te r m onths the sun can
larger boats are pow ered by outboard motors o f up
becom e in visib le through dust clouds blo w n o ff
to 40 HP.
the desert), overloading, waves and m otor failure.
In 1991, G uinea established a N ational Sea
A num ber o f other countries along the West
Safety W orkin g G roup, w h ic h brought together the
A frican coast, w here sim ila r studies have been
national Fisheries Departm ent, the Port A uthority,
done, appear to have artisanal canoe fa ta lity rates
the G uinean Navy, national fishe rs'g rou ps and
in the range o f 0.3 to 1 percent o f fatalities per
associated fisheries projects. As its first action, this
year.
group established a system atic survey o f artisanal
canoe accidents along the G uinean m arine coast.
In the first three years o f the survey, 110 people
died in canoe accidents along the coastal stretch
o f 120 nautical m iles - that is nearly one person
fo r each m ile o f coast. A b o u t h a lf o f the deaths
occurred in fishing canoes, w h ile the other half
resulted from transport canoe operations.
C om paring deaths at sea w ith the num ber o f
registered sm all-scale fishers gave an in dica tive
fa ta lity rate o f 0.53 percent, o r ap pro xim ately 500
deaths per 100 000 fishers per year. Principal
Source: J. Johnson, FAO Fisheries D epartm ent.
43
in developing countries these are sometimes
outdated, inappropriate and inadequately
enforced. In developed countries, the
a pplication o f more stringent regulations has
not always led to any significant decrease in
fatalities; it seems that, as vessels are made
safer, operators take greater risks in th eir everincreasing search for good catches.
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
There are a num ber of areas w here
im provem ents can be made, including:
provision and analysis of data that identify the
cause of accidents; training o f crews and
trainers; and form u la tion of regulations that are
enforced through increased co lla bo ra tion
among fishers, fishers' organizations and the
authorities.
It has been argued that the root and causes
of accidents in the fishing industry are easy to
discern intuitively. W h ile this may often be the
case, reliable quantified data w o u ld show how
the trends vary according to different regions,
countries and fisheries, thereby contributing to
an understanding of the main causes of
fatalities. In order to focus and p rioritize the
actions to be taken to increase fishers' safety,
the most frequent causes of danger and vessel
losses must be investigated fully. Vastly
im proved accident reporting is therefore seen
as central to the quest for im proved safety in
the industry.
Even w hen accidents are reported, the many
diverse approaches to co lle cting inform ation
on th eir types and causes make it d iffic u lt to
produce com parable data and statistics and,
thus, to identify and address key issues. The
nature of the em ploym ent arrangements in
fishing, w h ich may place m any fishers outside
traditional occupational accident and disease
reporting systems, contributes to this lack of
in fo rm a tio n .5
N atio na l-le vel regulations and technical
standards must be form ulated, reviewed and
amended through dialogue among builders,
owners, fishers and adm inistrations, to ensure
that all parties share a sense of ow nership and
responsibility in the a pplication of new
regulations.
Enforcement of safety regulations is essential
and requires collaboration w ithin
adm inistrations and, particularly, between
fisheries and the marine authorities. However,
5 IL O . 1 9 9 9 . R e p o rt o n sa fe ty a n d h e a lth In th e fis h in g In d u s try .
G eneva.
very few of the individual inspectors attached to
fisheries divisions have a background in
boatbuilding, marine engineering or naval
architecture, nor have they received any
training in how to conduct condition surveys of
vessels at the level norm ally required for
classification or insurance purposes. Thus,
w h ile part of the solution may lie in regulating
the quality standard to w hich boats are
constructed and equipped, attention must also
be paid to the necessary skills of the enforcers.
Ensuring adequate enforcem ent im plies a
significant com m itm ent on the part of the
adm inistration, taking into account the cost of
establishing, staffing and training a new section.
The training of fishers is clearly one means
of channelling the results of lessons learned
from the analysis of im proved data.
H istorically, the training of fishers has been
lim ited to skippers, mates and engineers in
developed countries. The British M erchant
Shipping A ct (1894), provided the basis for
regulations that covered most of the
C om m onw ealth, including India, Australia and
Canada. The IM O Protocol to the Standards of
Training, C ertification and W atchkeeping for
Seafarers (1978) provided standards for
countries to fo llo w , but it was never ratified
and was superseded by the C onvention for the
Standards of Training, C ertification and
W atchkeeping for Fishing Vessel Personnel
(1995) (STCW-F). These provisions referred
o n ly to vessels over 24 m or powered by more
than 750 kW. For sm aller vessels, the FAO/
ILO /IM O D ocum ent for Guidance on
Fishermen's Training and C ertification gave
further inform ation on courses and syllabuses.
This docum ent has recently been revised in
line w ith STCW-F and retitled D ocum ent for
G uidance on the Training and C ertification of
Fishing Vessel Personnel (referred to as the
D ocum ent for G uidance in this publication).
RECENT A C T IO N S
The application of instruments on training,
despite the lack of ratification, has been very
good in some regions and v irtu a lly absent in
others. Countries in Europe, the
C om m onw ealth of Independent States (CIS)
and South Am erica, along w ith Canada, Japan
and Australasia, have n ow adopted standards
that are in excess of the STCW-F's
requirem ents and in line w ith the
44
recom m endations laid out in the D ocum ent for
Guidance. The United States has recently
started to issue certificates of com petency and
im plem ent other fishing vessel safety
legislation. In Central Am erica, A frica and
Asia, m any fisheries schools were established
in the 1970s and 1980s, and safety training is a
m ajor com ponent of their curricula.
U nfortunately, the effectiveness o f fisheries
training schools has been lim ited by low
literacy rates in some countries. In many
others, the lo w status attached to fisheries
occupations has resulted in them attracting a
high percentage o f illite ra te w orkers. Literate
ind ivid ua ls w ith fisheries qualifica tion s have
been regarded as potential governm ent
employees rather than recruits to the fishing
industry. Some training centres have opted to
train trainers in order to produce extension
agents w ho can disseminate the training to
large numbers o f artisanal fishers at the village
level. It w o u ld appear that the w id e disparity
in training provision among countries is
paralleled by disparities in safety legislation
and the co m p ila tion o f accident statistics.
Recent developm ents have seen a shift in the
form al training of fishers from academ ic to
fu nctional training (i.e. assessment is carried
out on the basis of w ha t trainees can do rather
than w hat they know). Such training means
that lecturers and examiners must have
mastered the skills required in order to teach
and exam ine the candidates. Increasingly,
adm inistrations require that entrants into the
fishing industry should com plete a pre-sea
training course in basic safety training, first
aid, survival at sea and fire-fighting. Owners
and skippers are being encouraged to "th in k
safety" by co m p ilin g safety management
reports in w h ich they list the main hazards on
board th eir particular vessel and identifying
precautions and procedures to m in im ize the
potential effect of such hazards.
•
A substantial report, entitled Safety and
health in the fishing industries, was prepared
by the International Labour O ffice as the basis
for discussions at the Tripartite M eeting on
Safety and Health in the Fishing Industry, held
in Geneva in December 1999. It
com prehensively exam ines recent inform ation
concerning safety and health in the fishing
industry w ith a vie w to illustrating these issues
and exploring actions that are being taken by
international organizations, governments,
employers, vessel owners, trade unions, the
fishers themselves and other organizations.
The meeting concluded that the industry has
changed considerably as a result of new
m anagem ent regimes, te chn olo gy advances
and overcapacity, resulting in fishing
operations and em ploym ent arrangements that
create an incentive to w o rk long hours and
m in im ize the num ber of crewmembers. This,
in turn, results in more frequent accidents. The
BOX 6
Safety and survival training
The first safety courses for fishers were offered in
Norw ay (1981), where they became obligatory in
O w in g to the diffe re nt tra in in g requirem ents,
N o rd ic fishers m ay have d iffic u lty o b tain ing
1989. The other N ordic countries follow ed this
perm its to w o rk as fishers in other N o rd ic
initiative, and all o f them established safety
countries. The project aim s at fa cilita tin g
education when Finland introduced safety courses
interchange o f the w o rkfo rce by suggesting
for fishers in 1999. Although dispensations are stil I
m in im a l safety tra in in g requirem ents to be
being granted, the courses w ill have become
adopted by all the countries, along w ith guidelines
obligatory in all N ordic countries w ith in a few years.
on h o w to obtain ad d itio n a l tra in in g if required.
The length and content o f the courses vary
considerably. The N ordic Council o f Ministers is
funding an ongoing project to im prove and facilitate
safety and survival training by com paring the
requirements, courses, instruction materials and
practical exercises that each o f the N ordic countries
has developed and by promoting the sharing o f
S o u rc e : G . P e tu rs d o ttir, D ire c to r, F is h e rie s R esearch
training material, instructors and expertise.
In s titu te , U n iv e r s ity o f Ic e la n d .
45
BOX 7
Small boats going offshore
In Samoa, a num ber o f safety problem s have been
As w e ll as the radio requirem ent for registration,
encountered in the de velopm e nt and expansion o f
each vessel n o w undergoes an inspection to
the dom estic, sm all-craft (alia) tuna lo ng lin e
che ck that:
fishery. In a 15-m onth period du rin g 1997 and
early 1998, at least 14 m ajor accidents occurred,
m any resulting in the loss o f hum an life. In these
• flo ta tio n (foam) is according to the o rig in a l FAO
design;
14 accidents, 25 fishers w ere lost at sea and
• th e hull is in good c o n d itio n (w ith no leaks);
another 24 w ere rescued. In ad d itio n to the loss o f
• th e m ain engine is in good running c o n d itio n ;
life, nine vessels w ere not recovered.
• th e spare engine is in good running c o n d itio n ;
In many cases, the specific cause o f these
accidents is unclear because the vessels and crew
• th e boat num ber is cle a rly displayed;
• th e radio is in good w o rkin g c o n d itio n .
disappeared w ith o u t trace. It is believed, however,
that the causes could be attributed to a range o f
possibilities, including: lack o f seaworthiness and
Regulations regarding the q u a lifica tio n s of
vessel skippers and crew m em bers, as w e ll as
stability o f the alia when loaded in rough weather;
cre w numbers, have been im plem ented and
poor strength and stability o f the alia design, w h ich
tra in in g in sea safety, vessel surveys, safety
has been m odified and "stretched" by builders at
eq uipm en t requirem ents and com m u nica tion s has
the request o f owners; an inadequate level o f basic
been carried out. A com m ittee to ensure the
skills among m any skippers; lack o f navigational
enforcem ent o f regulations has been set up and
skills; lim ited (or non-existent) safety equipm ent on
includes representatives from the M in istry o f
board; and the rough weather that some skippers
Transport, the Police Departm ent and the Fisheries
and crewm em bers were w o rking in.
D ivision.
The national Fisheries D ivisio n is w o rkin g w ith
other governm ent departm ents to address sea
safety issues. The construction o f a radio base
station in A pia and nine repeater stations around
Samoa was com pleted and put into use in June
1997. The radio is operated around the c lo ck. A
vessel registration program m e has also been
started w ith a m ain requirem ent that every vessel
be fitted w ith a radio. Fishers have to radio in
S o u rce : SPC F is h e rie s N e w s le tte r, 8 4 (Ja n /M a rc h 1 9 9 8 ),
w hen they are going o u t to sea, w h ile they are at
P a c ific C o m m u n ity . U p d a te d b y P. W a tt, A d v is e r to
sea and w hen they return to port.
S a m oa F is h e rie s D iv is io n , June 2 0 0 0 .
meeting also concluded that international
standards and training related to safety and
health in fishing may not be reaching the
m ajority o f the w orld's fishers.
undertaken by the IM O Subcom mittee on
Stability, Load Lines and Fishing Vessels,
through a correspondence group led by
Iceland.
•
Two sets of guidelines to im prove the design,
construction and equipm ent of fishing vessels
were form ulated in the 1960s and 1970s, not as
a substitute for national laws but to serve as a
guide to those concerned w ith fram ing national
laws and regulations. Revision of the tw o
publications FA O /ILO /IM O Code of Safety for
Fishermen and F A O /ILO /IM O V oluntary
G uidelines for the Design, C onstruction and
Equipment of Fishing Vessels is being
FAO's Fisheries D epartm ent has
im plem ented a num ber of projects aimed at
im proving sea safety. These have been
directed p a rticu la rly at developing countries
and carried out in the field, in cooperation
w ith local people. The issue has been tackled
from various perspectives, inclu ding im proved
vessel design and construction, better
preparedness for natural disasters, im proved
c o lla bo ra tion between governments and
46
BOX 8
Self-help groups
The Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue
visits to the com m u nitie s around the coast. IASR
(IASR) is an N G O that has played a m ajor role in
has grow n to be a mass m ovem ent in Iceland and
prom oting fishers'safety. It was established in
is a respected consultant and close cooperator
1929. From the very beginning, w o m en - the
w ith the authorities. A t very short notice, it can
wives, daughters and mothers o f fishers - w ere
call o u t hundreds o f w e ll-tra in e d volunteers, both
very active m embers o f the organization. The first
men and w om en, for search and rescue missions
goal was to establish search and rescue groups in
at sea o r on land and using the most up-to date
a ll fishing com m u nitie s around the coast. These
equipm ent. Volunteers are ready to operate under
w ere made up o f men, but w o m en form ed the ir
any circum stances, in clu d in g w recked o r stranded
ow n affiliates. The groups' m ain tasks w ere to
ships, v o lca n ic eruptions, avalanches and other
raise funds to buy search and rescue equipm ent,
unforeseen natural catastrophes.
erect shelters in places prone to shipw recks and
b u ild rescue vessels, w h ic h were placed in
strategic harbours along the coast. IASR has taken
an active part in form ulatin g recom m endations for
safety regulations and in lo bb ying fo r the ir
pro m otio n w ith the authorities.
A no ther o f lASR's m ajor tasks was to organize
and carry out safety instruction in fishing
com m u nitie s. A t first, this was done by visiting
instructors w h o lectured to vo lu n ta ry listeners but,
w ith tim e, the scope broadened considerably and
IASR n o w runs the o ffic ia l o b lig a to ry 40-hour
safety tra in in g courses fo r fishers on vessels over
12 m. The courses are offered on board a w e ll-
S o u rc e : G . P e tu rs d o ttir, D ire c to r, F is h e rie s R esearch
equipped teaching vessel, w h ic h pays regular
In s titu te , U n iv e r s ity o f Ic e la n d .
fishers' representatives, provision o f assistance
in the setting up o f national sea safety
programmes, and institutional support to
fisheries train in g centres.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
IM O , ILO and FAO are the three specialized
agencies of the United Nations system that
play a role in fishers' safety at sea. IM O is
responsible for im proving m aritim e safety and
preventing p o llu tio n from ships; and the
adoption of m aritim e legislation is still IM O 's
best-known responsibility. ILO form ulates
international labour standards in the form of
conventions and recom m endations, w h ich set
m in im u m standards for basic labour rights. It
also promotes the developm ent of independent
em ployers' and w orkers' organizations,
providing training and advisory services to
these organizations. However, the w orking
methods and measures of ILO and IM O tend to
have little im pact on the safety o f artisanal and
sm all-scale fishers.
A safe w orking environm ent cannot sim ply
be imposed from above. Measures to im prove
safety can o nly be tru ly effective w here there
is the m otivation to apply them. The
establishm ent and maintenance o f a culture of
safety is a continuous task that demands the
participation of fishers and their fam ilies,
boatowners, legislators and the co m m un ity at
large. There are m any examples of individuals
interested in safety at sea w ho have form ed
fishers' self-help groups or other N G O s and
established successful cooperation w ith the
authorities to prom ote safety in their
com m unities (see Box 8).
In the countries w here appropriate
regulations, enforcem ent procedures and
training are in place, there has been a
measurable (but not always significant)
reduction in the annual num ber of fatalities
over the last 15 years. A lthough these
countries account for less than 5 percent of the
47
w orld's fishers, they demonstrate that results
can be achieved. Recognition of safety at sea
as a m ajor and co ntinuing problem is the first
step towards its m itigation. It is considered that
the responsibility for safety at sea should be
borne by both adm inistrators and fishers, and
sim ila rly that effort and assistance should be
shared between those tw o groups to ensure an
effective partnership and hence enable a safer
profession.
FISH Q U A L IT Y A N D SAFETY
THE ISSUE
Some 200 different types o f illness have been
identified as being transm itted by food. In
1999, the Centers for Disease C ontrol and
Prevention (CDC) in the U nited States
estimated the fo llo w in g numbers of cases of
food-borne disease in the U nited States:6
• 76 m illio n cases of gastrointestinal
illnesses:
• 325 000 serious illnesses resulting in
h osp ita liza tio n :
• 5 000 deaths.
These data represent one of the best existing
estimates of the im pact of food-borne diseases
on a developed country. Sim ilar figures
(adjusted by the num ber of inhabitants) could
be expected to be found in other developed
countries.
Humans have suffered from illnesses
transm itted by food throughout the ages.
However, in the early 1980s professionals
concerned w ith food safety in developed
countries observed w hat seemed to be a
significant increase in the num ber of disease
outbreaks linked to food. This was perplexing,
given that an increasing proportion of foods
were being - and continue to be - produced
under stringent hygienic conditions. Possible
reasons for such a "food safety paradox" are:
• increased urbanization:
• im proved systems for recording the
incidence of illnesses transm itted by food:
• human and industrial pollution:
•
•
•
•
•
non-rational use of antibiotics:
new emerging pathogens:
unco ntro lle d recycling of organic material:
increased su scep tibility to contam inants:
increased consum ption of mass-produced
foods:
• the introduction of new technologies for
"m in im a lly processed foods":
• prolonged rains, droughts and/or increases
in average temperatures, favouring the
ecologies o f pathogens.
In poorer areas of developing countries,
poverty, m aln u tritio n , illite ra c y and inadequate
p u b lic facilities are like ly to com pound the
situation. A lthough the lack of data makes it
im possible to provide quantitative estimates of
the situation in developing countries, it seems
reasonable to expect that cases of food-borne
disease in general are at least as frequent as
they are in developed countries and, in most
developing countries, probably far more
frequent. In poor areas, new born babies, small
children, the elderly, the undernourished and
the im m u ne -d eficie nt are the categories most
exposed to food-borne diseases. A study
conducted in the U nited Republic o f Tanzania
from 1992 to 19987 indicates that food-borne
and w ater-borne disease is probably one o f the
fo ur m ajor causes of adult death in the
locations studied.
Food-derived illnesses can have several
types of cause, including specific to xic
substances, pathogenic m icro-organism s and
parasites that can develop and/or be conveyed
by foods. Some to xic substances (biotoxins)
may develop naturally in the environm ent,
w h ile others are human-generated
contam inants (chemicals). Some pathogenic
m icro-organism s are part of the normal flora
(e.g. of fish) and some are contaminants.
Fish, as is true of any other food, can cause
health problems. It can be contam inated at any
tim e from the m om ent of capture until it is
eaten. C ontam ination may occur because
pathogenic m icro-organism s form part o f the
normal flora of the fish. In other cases, toxic
substances are introduced through cross­
contam ination, recontam ination or faulty
handling and processing.
The extent to w h ich fish products are a
source of food-borne diseases is a function of
El P.S. M e a d , L. S lutske r, V. D ie tz , L.F. M c C a ig , J.S. B resee,
C. S h a p iro , P.M. G r iffin a n d R.V. Ta u xe . 1 9 9 9 . F o o d -re la te d
illn e s s a n d d e a th In th e U n ite d S ta te s ( re v ie w ). E m e rg in g
7P.W. Setel a n d Y. H e m e d . 2 0 0 0 . C a u s e -s p e c ific a d u lt m o rta lity :
In fe c tio u s D iseases, 5: 6 0 7 -2 5 . A v a ila b le at: w w w .c d c .g o v /
e v id e n c e fro m c o m m u n ity -b a s e d s u rv e illa n c e - s e le c te d sites,
n c id o d /e id /v o l5 n o 5 /m e a d .h tm .
T a n z a n ia , 1 9 9 2 -1 9 9 8 , p. 4 1 6 -4 1 9 . A tla n ta , G e o rg ia , U S A , C D C .
48
general food habits, the frequency o f fish
consum ption and the type of products and
species consumed. Sometimes, a set of
unfavourable circum stances co m bine to create
extrem ely hazardous health situations. For
instance, a recent study conducted by FAO in
the village of Xai U dom (Vientiane, the Lao
People's D em ocratic Republic) showed that
67.3 percent o f the population was infected by
parasites and m any villagers were infected by
more than one type. The prevailing parasite
(affecting 42.1 percent of the population) was
liver flu ke (O pistorchis vive rrin i), transm itted
through the consum ption of raw fish, w h ich is
the host to an interm ediate form o f this
parasite. Large numbers of people die from a
form o f liver cancer (cholangiocarcinom a) that
it causes.
A study published by the W orld Health
O rganization (W H O ) in 1995 estimated that
about 39 m illio n people w o rld w id e were
infested w ith parasites transm itted by the
ingestion of raw or im properly cooked
freshwater fish and crustaceans. A lm ost all of
these people - about 38 m illio n - lived in Asia,
w ith the rem ainder living in Europe and Latin
Am erica. In Asia, the problem is concentrated
in Southeast Asia and China. Data from Africa
were not included in the study, but this type of
parasitic infestation is know n to occur on that
continent in, inter alia, Cameroon, Egypt and
N ige ria .
Parasitic infestation through the ingestion of
fish is o nly one of the m any possible causes of
disease, but there is a shortage of reliable
inform ation about m any of the others. There is
a clear need for more inform ation regarding
illnesses caused by fish and other foods in
developing countries.
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
W hen the trend of increasing outbreaks of
food-related diseases was first identified in the
early 1980s, food and fish inspection services
in developed countries increased end product
sampling. This translated into an increased
num ber of samples of finished foods being
analysed and a growing num ber of inspectors.
The effort did not halt the trend of more
frequent outbreaks o f food-related diseases,
however, show ing that dependence on end
product sam pling alone was an inadequate
response to the problem .
By the end of the 1980s, it had become clear
to pub lic health authorities in developed
countries that a new system was necessary.
The system had to address all the relevant
hazards in food production and had, therefore,
to be incorporated into the harvesting,
processing and distribution of fish products.
This w o u ld require its use on board fishing
vessels and by aquaculturists, as w ell as in fish
processing factories, the vehicles used to
transport fish and storage and retailing areas.
The system that was developed is called the
Hazard Analysis and C ritical C ontrol Point
(HACCP) system. In the HACCP system,8 each
substance, m icro-organism or c o nd itio n of food
that can cause disease is called a "hazard".
Initially, the system gained c re d ib ility through
its proven efficiency in co ntrolling the hazard
created by C lostridium botulinum , a com m on
toxinogenic bacterium , in low -acid canned
foods. By applying the HACCP p rinciple,
processors were consistently able to ensure
adequate tim in g and temperature control
during retorting and im proved seaming of
cans. This, in turn, v irtu a lly elim inated the
bacterium from canned foods.
RECENT A C T IO N S
•
By the beginning of the 1990s, a num ber of
food processing companies, including fish
processors, in developed countries were
already applying the HACCP system on a
voluntary basis. They were soon fo llo w ed by
interm ediate and even small food processing
companies. Canada was the first country to
depart from the traditional approach of fish
inspection w hen it introduced the Q u a lity
M anagem ent Programme (QMP), a set of
regulations that proved to be very sim ilar to
those constituting the HACCP system.
Eventually, several governments decided to
make the HACCP system compulsory.
•
Regulatory agencies in the European
C om m unity (EC) and the U nited States made
fish and fishery products the first category of
foods in the food industry to be subject to
m andatory application of HACCP systems. The
EC issued the first regulation for fish products,
"laying dow n the health conditions for the
“ FAO . 1 9 9 7 . H a z a rd A n a ly s is a n d C ritic a I C o n tro l P o in t (H A C C P )
S ystem a n d G u id e lin e s fo r its A p p lic a tio n . A n n e x to C A C /R C P
1 -1 9 6 9 ,
R e v. 3 . A v a il a b le
fh _ b a s ic .p d f.
a t: f a o . o r g / c o d e x / s t a n d a r d /
49
production and the placing on the m arket of
fishery products", in 1991. In M ay 1994, the
EC adopted an additional regulation w hich
made it m andatory to impose more exact rules
for the a pplication of "o w n health checks".9
The United States' HACCP-based regulation,
Procedures for the Safe and Sanitary
Processing and Im porting of Fish and Fishery
Products - Final Rule, was published on 18
December 1995 and entered into force one
year later. O ther developed and developing
countries soon fo llo w e d these initiatives.
•
In 1997, the HACCP system was
incorporated into the W H O /F A O Codex
A lim entarius in the form of a general
g uideline.10 This makes the HACCP system the
basic reference for international trade disputes
under the W orld Trade O rganization (WTO)
Agreement on the A p plica tion of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures. However, the
inclusion o f the HACCP system as a general
guideline for the Codex A lim entarius does not
make all HACCP systems identical. For
instance, the U nited States' HACCP regulations
apply to processors, w h ile the EC regulations
apply to the w ho le production chain, from
handling fish on board fishing vessels to
retailing o f fish. In both cases, the HACCP
system is therefore very closely linked to the
individual food safety and hygiene regulation
fram e w o rk.
Denmark) 44 workshops and trained more than
1 300 professionals from industry and
governm ent in HACCP principles.
However, not all developing countries were
able to make the necessary in itia l investments.
Sometimes credit for this purpose was scarce
or non-existent and, as a result, some countries
suffered a drastic reduction in the num ber of
establishments authorized to export to EC
markets. Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau
became extreme examples of this in m id-2000,
w hen the EC banned all imports of fish from
these countries.
O ver the last ten years, both the fishing
industry and the fish and food inspection
services in m any developing countries have
made a very determ ined effort to adapt
processing and inspection m ethodologies that
satisfy HACCP requirements. M any countries
have been successful. Am ong the countries
that were authorized to export fish and fishery
products to the EC in m id-1999, 50 operate in
full accordance w ith the EC's HACCP-based
regulations.11 O f these 50 countries, 37 are in
Africa, Asia and the Pacific or Fatin Am erica
and the Caribbean, most received technical
assistance from FAO w h ich , during the period
1995 to 1999, organized (m ainly through
extrabudgetary funding received from
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
It is generally agreed that the HACCP system
is an im provem ent on traditional fish
inspection and that its use w ill lead to reduced
numbers o f food-borne diseases. However, so
far little inform ation to prove this p oint is
available. For instance, in a recent report,12
the CDC stated that "n e w estimates provide a
snapshot o f the problem and do not measure
trends and do not indicate that the problem is
getting better or w orse".
The HACCP system is like ly to evolve.
Developed countries are beginning to
introduce a regulatory scheme called risk
p o lic y into their food industries. The p o lic y is
based on quantitative risk assessment, risk
m anagem ent and risk co m m u n ic a tio n .13 Risk
p o lic y requires additional epidem iological
data and studies.
Since there is no possibility of achieving
zero risk, the specific relevant hazards to be
included in an HACCP system need to be
identified. The severity of the hazard therefore
needs to be determ ined. One w ay of
measuring severity is to obtain e pidem iology
data and establish the ratio between the
num ber of deaths caused by an illness and the
total num ber of diagnosed cases of that illness.
Clearly, the first hazards to be controlled
through the HACCP system and risk p olicy
should be those that cause illnesses that can
lead to death. Listeria m onocytogenes and
Escherichia coli 0 1 5 7 :H 7 are clear examples
o f this type of hazard. However, control of
o nly these hazards is not enough, and
9 EC re g u la tio n s d o n o t use th e te rm " H A C C P ". Instead th e y
19 O p . c it., fo o tn o te 6, p. 4 7.
re fe r to " o w n h e a lth c h e c k s ".
19A c c o r d in g to th e C o d e x A lim e n ta r iu s , ris k is " A fu n c tio n o f th e
•
1uSee o p . c it., fo o tn o te 8, p. 4 8.
p r o b a b ility o f an a d v e rs e h e a lth e ffe c t a n d th e s e v e rity o f t h a t
11 List N o . 1. C o m m is s io n D e c is io n 9 7 /2 9 6 /E C .
e ffe c t, c o n s e q u e n tia l to a h a za rd (s) In fo o d " .
BOX 9
Risk policy: the case o f ciguatera
control in Cuba
• D etailed analyses o f e p id e m io lo g ica l records
led to dose/response data being defined as
fun ctions o f the size o f fish consum ed and
a llo w e d lim it w eights (critical lim its) to beset
Ciguatera is a form o f hum an poisoning caused by
fo r five o f the most im p ortan t species and
the con sum p tion o f m arine fish that has
potential to x ic ity to be set for another 15
accum ulated na turally o ccu rrin g toxins. Toxins
species (regardless o f th e ir w eight). This
origin ate from several algae species
(dinoflagellate) that are com m o n to ciguateraen de m ic regions, p a rticu la rly in tro p ica l countries.
in fo rm atio n was included in regulations.
• Fish inspection was made fu n c tio n a lly
independent o f capture and pro d u ctio n and
W hen the HACCP system was introduced in Cuba
included the con tro l o f artisanal and
in the m id-1990s, the ava ila ble e p id e m io lo g y data
recreational fishing. A new regulation was
showed that ciguatera was one o f the m ain causes
o f disease from fish products. Between 1993 and
introduced in M ay 1996.
• A targeted inform ation cam paign was conducted
1998, 1 086 outbreaks o f ciguatera w ere recorded
in the locations and during the periods o f the year
in Cuba, representing 3 116 in d ivid u a l cases.
in w h ich the problem is more acute.
M o rta lity attributed to ciguatera du rin g this period
reached 6 percent o f all recorded deaths resulting
The industry incorporated this know ledge in
from food hazards. Ciguatera peaked in 1996 w ith
th e ir HACCP plans and this led to a drastic
279 recorded outbreaks. Since 1996, the fo llo w in g
reduction in the num ber o f outbreaks caused by
measures have been introduced to reduce the
in du strially processed fish. The total num ber o f
im pact o f this hazard on the po pu latio n:
ciguatera outbreaks has decreased steadily from
1997 and, in 1999, the m in im u m level so far - 47
• Im proved hazard analysis for ciguatera was
established to determ ine locations, seasonal
cases - was recorded. M ost o f these outbreaks
were caused by unauthorized capture that
variatio n, species involved, consum ers at risk,
resulted in the c on sum p tion o ffis h from ciguatera-
sources o f contam inated fish, etc.
en de m ic areas.
BOX 10
The economics o f fish safety
measurement instruments, tra in in g and m on itorin g
o f processing activities. The actual figures that are
found in practice vary from a fe w thousand U nited
The econom ics o f regulatory HACCP systems can
States dollars, for plants that are already very near
be seen from tw o diffe re nt p o in t o f view, that o f
to HACCP c on tro l requirem ents, to m illio n s o f
the governm ent and consum ers and that o f the
dollars fo r large plants that have had to undergo
producers. From the v ie w p o in t o f governm ent and
sig nifica nt refitting. In some cases, it was deemed
consumers, the in tro d u ctio n o f the HACCP system
m ore con ven ien t to construct a new plant rather
can be ju s tifie d in e co n o m ic term s o w in g to the
than refit an old one, o r reduce the level o f risk by
possible red uctio n o f illness o r death caused by
changing the fina l product (e.g. from cooked to
food poisoning, w h ic h im plies a possible reduction
frozen or fresh product) in order to reduce the
in p u b lic and private health costs, insurance costs
level o f investments. In even m ore extrem e cases,
and lost workdays. In 1993, it was estimated that
producers decided to cease production.
the total cost o f foo d-bo rne illnesses caused by the
seven m ajor pathogens was between US$5.6
D u ring the execution o f the FAO/Danish
International D evelopm ent Agency (D A N ID A )
b illio n and US$9.4 b illio n per year in the U nited
project G C P/IN T/609/D EN , a num ber o f plants in
States alone.
de veloping countries agreed to be m onitored to
From the p o in t o f v ie w o f the producers, the
che ck the effect o f HACCP im plem entation. The
a p p lica tio n o f HACCP systems im plies an
plants concerned produced fresh and frozen hake
investm ent. Some o f the in itia l costs are linked to
fillets, salted and ripened anchovy, cooked crab
refitting plants, rearranging processing lines,
meat and cooked lobster ta il. They w ere located
buying new utensils, purchasing and installing
in Argentina, Cuba, Ecuador and Uruguay. In all
51
The case o f ciguatera con tro l in Cuba is
revealing because it shows that a p p lica tio n o f the
HACCP system at the industry level, even if
effective, may not be enough to decrease the
num ber o f outbreaks associated w ith a given
hazard. It was necessary to enforce p o licy
decisions, in clu d in g tim e ly c o m m u n ica tio n to
places w here the po pu latio n was at risk. It also
proved necessary to c o n d u ct m ore in-depth
hazard analysis than that o rd in a rily required for
HACCP purposes.
S o u rce : Based o n d a ta fro m th e C u b a n M in is tr y o f
P u b lic H e a lth a n d M in is tr y o f F is h e ry In d u s trie s (F A O /
M IP W o rk s h o p o n Q u a n tita tiv e R isk A sse ssm en t in th e
F is h e ry In d u stry, H a v a n a , M a rc h 2 0 0 0 ).
cases losses from rejections decreased w h ic h , in
turn, a llo w e d the plants to recover the ir
investments over periods that ranged from a few
m onths to a fe w years. In general, the more
dem anding (risky) the product, the larger the
e co n o m ic gain.
For instance, an Ecuadorian com p an y exporting
cooked crab meat managed to reduce internal
and external rejections from 4.75 percent o f the
total p ro du ction in w e ig h t from before the HACCP
system was im plem ented (1997) to 0.81 percent
w ith the system in operation (1998). The com pany
had invested around US$40 000 to im p lem e nt its
HACCP system and, given its level o f pro du ction
(1 26 tonnes o f final product per year), the
investm ent was recuperated w ith in six months.
governments usually rule that relevant hazards
also include m icro-organism s, chem icals and
conditions know n to im pair human health,
te m p ora lly or permanently, or cause injury.
Most developing countries do not have
useful data about the relevant hazards linked
to various food products. Access to better and
more refined data w o u ld certainly provide a
valuable insight into the problem , but the lack
of data is not an excuse for failing to take
preventive action. In particular, a developing
country's lack of inform ation about a possible
hazard that is w ell know n in other countries
cannot be taken as evidence of that hazard's
absence.
O n ly few developing countries have decided
to make the HACCP system obligatory for fish
products sold and consumed in internal
markets. This may reflect the fact that some
people in developing countries see HACCP
systems m ainly as n on -ta riff barriers erected
by developed countries and subm it to them
o nly so that they can export th eir products to
industrial econom ies. D eveloping countries
that extend the HACCP system to their internal
m arket should expect to reap p u b lic health
benefits (see Box 9). In fact, HACCP systems
could have an enorm ous im pact on fish (and
food) safety in developing countries.
The benefits of the HACCP system in
developing - and developed - countries are
not all linked exclusively to im proved pub lic
health. Private entrepreneurs w o u ld also reap
d irect benefits because, in order to apply the
HACCP, it is first necessary to ensure basic
hygiene for all of the activities related to fish
production and to im prove know ledge of the
overall process. FAO's experience in this field
has shown that the introduction of the HACCP
system has helped entrepreneurs to im prove
th eir profits (see Box 10). The investments
made to introduce the system are recovered
through declining rejection rates and finetuning of the production process.
The HACCP system contributes to better
quality, because safety is an indispensable
requirem ent for quality. For conceptual and
regulatory reasons, the fishing industry
separates safety and quality, but in-pla nt safety
and q ua lity go together. Im plem entation of the
HACCP system requires an improved
understanding of all aspects of the processes
that lead to the final product, and this
know ledge can be used im m ediately to reduce
costs and im prove overall product quality. The
intro du ction of HACCP principles is shaping
the fishing industry o f tom orrow.
52
PROPERTY R IG H TS A N D FISHERIES
M ANAG EM ENT
THE ISSUE
Since the 1950s, economists concerned w ith
the management o f capture fisheries have
been aware that the rules for access to
resources create incentives and p articip a tory
responses, and that these rules and incentives
can have a fundam ental effect on the long­
term status o f fisheries. In most fisheries,
ineffective strategies fo r regulating access can
lead to situations w here the level of fishing
effort wastes society's resources and
o verexp loits species.
There is a grow ing realization that part of
the rem edy to this management problem lies
in designing appropriate access rights to w ild
stocks, and fishery adm inistrators are now
increasingly considering how to provide
e x p lic it rights o f various sorts to fisheries
participants. This process is sometimes
referred to as "a pp lying rights-based fisheries
m anagem ent", but the precise m eaning of this
term and of the concept of assigning "property
rights" is often unclear.
The basic concept of property and the rights
associated w ith property is a sim ple one. Socalled "property rights" are bundles of
entitlem ents that confer both privileges and
responsibilities. The establishm ent of property
rights in fisheries managem ent therefore
involves the defin itio n and specification o f the
entitlem ents, privileges and responsibilities
created by all the various types of fisheries
management. However, it is not uncom m on to
hear about a lack of clearly defined property
rights in fisheries management, and it is quite
accurate to note that "property rights, like the
dorsal fins on different fishes, come in many
d ifferent shapes and sizes".14
To com plicate the matter further, references
to rights-based management systems can be
references to ju s t about anything along the
very broad spectrum of different types of
fisheries m anagem ent systems. Rights-based
fisheries m anagem ent systems may be based
14 D .E . L a n e . 1 9 9 9 . A p p lic a tio n s o f rig h ts -b a s e d fis h e rie s :
e x p e rie n c e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . In A . H a tc h e r a n d K. R o b in s o n ,
eds. T h e d e fin itio n a n d a llo c a tio n o f use rig h ts in E u rop e a n
fish e rie s. P ro c e e d in g s o f th e se c o n d C o n c e rte d A c t io n W o rk s h o p
o n E c o n o m ic s a n d th e C o m m o n F ish erie s P o lic y , Brest, F rance,
5 -7 M a y 1 9 9 9 . U n iv e rs ity o f P o rts m o u th : C e n tre fo r th e E c o n o m ­
ic s a n d
M a n a g e m e n t o f A q u a t ic
R e s o u r c e s (C E M A R E )
M is c e lla n e o u s P u b lic a tio n s N o . 4 6 , p. 19. P o rts m o u th , U K .
on the use of input controls or on the use of
output controls. Some property rights are
created by licensing and other forms of access
lim ita tio n systems. Some are created by
fisheries m anagem ent systems and specify the
use of fisheries resources for particular
com m unities (com m unity developm ent quotas
[CDQs]), in particular areas or territories
(territorial use rights in fisheries [TURFS]) and of
particular stocks (stock use rights in fisheries
[SURFS]). Other property rights are created by
individual quota (IQ), individual fishing quota
(IFQ), individual transferable share quota (ITSQ)
and individual transferable quota (ITQ) systems.
Ultim ately, the basic issues of property rights
systems in fisheries management are related to
an understanding of:
• h ow the rights are defined - namely, w ho
has the right to use the resources of a
fishery, w h ich portion o f the fishery may be
used, and h ow and w hen it may be used;
• h ow the rights are conferred and upheld;
• precisely how the respective rights create
incentives for those involved - by virtue of
the fact that they, to lesser or greater
degrees, allocate potential benefits, w h ich
may or may not reinforce management
objectives.
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
In very general terms, there are three basic
ways in w h ich the difficulties of understanding,
discussing and applying property rights in
fisheries management can be m itigated, if not
overcom e.
First, one of the m ajor sources of confusion
when discussing the matter of property
rights and fisheries m anagem ent is
m isco m m u nica tion . D iffic u ltie s freq ue n tly
arise sim p ly because the term "property
rights" means different things to different
people and can refer to vastly diverse bundles
of entitlem ents, privileges and responsibilities,
each of w h ich w ill produce very different
incentives and, hence, m anagem ent outcomes.
It is im portant to have a very clear d efinition
of exactly w ha t the property rights in
question are, even though this inform ation is
not ty p ic a lly part of discussions on the
use of property rights in fisheries
m anagem ent.
Before any possible solutions can be
developed, the property rights (and their
associated issues) that are part of fisheries
management need to be defined, and this
depends on describing the fo llo w in g attributes
53
BOX 11
Factors affecting the concept o f property
rights in fisheries managem ent
Rights-based fisheries managem ent systems and
other countries, such as in Japan and Taiwan
the property rights conferred by them are a
Province o f China, there are instances w here the
fu n ctio n o f the legislative, legal, econom ic, social,
property rights for fisheries resources belong to
c ultu ral, b io lo g ica l and p o litic a l institutions that
local com m unities.
shape the e n viro nm en t in w h ic h they occur. For
exam ple, the legal system o f a co u n try w ill have a
d ire ct effect on w h at entitlem ents can be
conferred under property rights in fisheries. In
m any instances, fisheries rights do not convey
actual ow ne rship o f the resources themselves to
individuals. For exam ple, in the U nited States and
Australia, natural resources such as fisheries are,
respectively, the p u b lic's and the C row n's
resources, and property rights in fisheries are
defined in term s o f an in d ivid u a l's right to try to
harvest o r otherw ise use fisheries resources. In
of the property rights granted or assigned by a
fisheries managem ent strategy or p la n :15
• the e xclusivity of participation in the
fishery:
• the d u ra b ility (duration) o f the rights
conferred:
• the security or q ua lity of the title conferred
by the rights:
• the transferability o f the rights:
• the d iv is ib ility of the rights assigned:
• the fle x ib ility associated w ith the use o f the
rights.
Second, there needs to be recognition and
acceptance o f the fact that, ju s t as for any
other management situation, there is no single
fisheries m anagem ent strategy that w ill solve
all fisheries problems. W hen w orking to find
solutions, fisheries m anagem ent requires the
most appropriate com bination of the available
management tools and the rights associated
w ith them. This is another sim ple p o in t that is
often overlooked.
Third, as part o f the design process o f a
managem ent strategy, and before w o rk starts
on the design of a particular regulatory
solution to the rights-related issues of a fishery,
managers and participants need to give
e x p lic it descriptions o f:16
• the fishery m anagem ent u n it:17
• the total am ount that can be caught:18
• to w hat extent the different participants can
assume a successful harvest.19
Possible regulatory solutions can then be
constructed on the basis of the nature of the
property rights that can be conferred (i.e. their
1tl L .G . A n d e rs o n . 1 9 9 2 . C o n s id e ra tio n o f th e p o te n tia l use o f
in d iv id u a l tra n s fe ra b le q u o ta s In US fis h e rie s o v e r v ie w d o c u ­
m e n t. T h e N a tio n a l IT Q S tu d y R e p o rt V o lu m e 1. W a s h in g to n ,
D C , N a tio n a l O c e a n ic and A tm o s p h e ric A d m in is tra tio n (N O A A ).
17 P re fe ra b ly , th e m a n a g e m e n t u n it Is th e fis h s to c k th r o u g h o u t
Its ra n g e , b u t th is m a y n o t a lw a y s be p o s s ib le . W h e n th e
m a n a g e m e n t u n it is n o tth e s to c k th r o u g h o u t its ra ng e , it b e c o m e s
c r itic a l th a t o th e r uses o f th e s to c k are a c c o u n te d for.
10 If to ta l a llo w a b le c a tc h e s (TACs) c a n n o t be q u a n tita tiv e ly
15 A n th o n y S co tt d e s c rib e d h is c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f th e e le m e n ts
d e te rm in e d a n d /o r set, it is s till im p o r ta n t to tr y to set th e m
o f p r o p e r ty r ig h ts in a k e y n o te a d d re s s , e n t it le d
q u a lita tiv e ly in o rd e r to h e lp g u id e re g u la to ry d e c is io n -m a k in g
M o v in g
th r o u g h th e n a rro w s : fr o m o p e n a c c e s s to IT Q s a n d s e lf-
a n d c o m p a re th e in c e n tiv e s c re a te d b y d iffe re n t TACs.
g o v e rn m e n t, at th e F re m a n tle c o n fe re n c e F ish R ig h ts9 9 , Use o f
19 F o c u s in g a tte n tio n o n in d iv id u a l a llo c a tio n s , re g a rd le s s o f
P r o p e r t y R ig h ts in F is h e rie s M a n a g e m e n t. A v a ila b le
w h e th e r th e y are e x p lic it o r im p lic it , h e lp s to id e n tify p o s s ib le
w w w .fis h r ig h ts 9 9 .c o n f.a u .
at:
re g u la to ry o p tio n s a n d th e ir im p a c t o n p a rtic ip a n ts ' b e h a v io u r.
54
BOX 12
Property rights and conflict
m inim ization
M ost c o n flicts over fisheries resources arise w hen
alloca te resources exp licitly. C onflicts can be
the resource is (or is perceived to be) so scarce
m in im ize d by cla rifyin g the property rights
that sharing it becomes d iffic u lt. W hen rights,
conferred by the managem ent o f a fishery,
pa rticu la rly those relating to participants'
fo llo w in g risk-based decision strategies and using
activities regarding th e ir o w n portions o f a stock,
c o n flic t m itig atio n processes.
are w e ll defined, understood and observed,
allo ca tio n c o n flicts tend to be m in im ize d.
However, w hen rights to the use o f a stock are
not w e ll defined, understood o r upheld, divergent
assum ptions ab ou t w h a t the rights may convey
often result in c o n flicts over scarce fisheries
resources.
Fisheries resources are becom ing increasingly
scarce, so c o n flicts over the a llo ca tio n and
sharing o f these resources are lik e ly to becom e
m ore frequent, unless there are m echanism s that
exclu sivity, d u ra b ility, security, transferability,
d iv is ib ility and fle x ib ility ). The m anagem ent
solutions that are created in this w ay are likely
to reflect either:
• bundles of rights w here some of the six
elements of the entitlem ents held by
participants are rela tive ly w eak and
unspecified (such as those conveyed by
management programmes based firm ly on
spatial or tem poral lim ita tion s to access,
the use o f other input controls such as gear
restrictions or total quota systems): or
• bundles of rights w here the elements of
entitlem ents are re la tive ly w e ll specified
(such as those conveyed by the use of IQs
or co m m un ity developm ent quotas, SURFS,
ind ivid ua l transferable effort [ITE] or
ind ivid ua l vessel quota [IV Q ] systems, or
such systems as ITQs, ITSQs and IFQs).
This approach to the issue of property rights
in fisheries leads to the fo llo w in g basic
questions:
W hen is it useful to take property rights
systems into consideration? W h a t sorts of
sociological, bio log ica l and econom ic
conditions w ill shape property rights? W hat
institutions, adm inistrative co nd itio ns and legal
needs (instrum ents, legislative practices, etc.)
are useful?
W h o holds and who should hold property
rights? W h a t are the requisite legal bases for
p roperty rights? If property rights are
changed, w ho should receive the new rights?
Are there advantages in defining com m unal
p roperty rights? H o w are d ifferent scales of
fishing activitie s accom m odated? H o w do
d ifferen t p roperty rights systems of
m anagem ent accom m odate indigenous or
other user groups?
H ow can property rights systems improve the
incentives for economic efficiency,
stewardship, conservation and profitability?
W here and how do the incentives created by
different types of property rights become
apparent? W h a t sorts of distributional
im plications are there? W h a t sorts of
operational requirem ents do different types of
property rights managem ent strategies require
in terms of research, enforcem ent,
adm inistration and actual fishing operations?
The solution to the issue of property rights in
fisheries management requires a return to the
fundamental elements on w hich all fisheries
management systems are based, a llow ing for
the com parative assessment of the management
options offered by different types of property
rights. Although there is little need for new
fisheries management tools, current use of the
available tools must be improved so that they
can im part incentives more vigorously.
55
RECENT A C T IO N S
•
Over the last decade, there has been
considerable international interest in the issues
of property rights in fisheries management. The
property rights associated w ith fisheries that
extend beyond or occur outside national
ju ris d ic tio n s are being clarified by a rapidly
growing set of international m em oranda and
agreements. In a dd itio n, international
organizations are increasingly interested in
h ow different types of rights-based fisheries
managem ent systems can affect the
conservation and sustainable use of fisheries.
The ongoing m aturation o f the concepts
em bodied in the 1982 U nited Nations
C onvention on the Law of the Sea, coupled
w ith conflicts over the issue of w ho has the
rights to catch fish in situations w here stocks
cross national ju ris d ic tio n s and/or national and
international areas,20 has led to the
developm ent of the fo llo w in g agreements,
w h ich cla rify and define more precisely
various aspects of property rights in fisheries:
•
In 1993, the FAO C om pliance Agreem ent21
was adopted to strengthen the exclusivity of
the property rights of those fishing on the high
seas. The Agreement focused on w h ich vessels
had the authority to fish on the high seas, and
it also underlined the responsibilities of
fisheries m anagem ent authorities in co n tro llin g
such activity.
•
Two years later, the adoption of the UN Fish
Stocks Agreem ent22 extended the d e fin itio n of
property rights relating to the fishing of
straddling and highly m igratory fish stocks by
strengthening both the flag state's
responsibilities associated w ith the right of
Al For e x a m p le , C a n a d a 's e n fo rc e m e n t a c tio n s a g a in s t S p a nish
vessels fis h in g fo r G re e n la n d h a lib u t In 1 9 9 5 .
-1 T h e A g re e m e n t to P ro m o te C o m p lia n c e w it h In te rn a tio n a l
C o n s e rv a tio n a n d M a n a g e m e n t M e a su re s b y F is h in g Vessels o n
th e H ig h Seas w a s a d o p te d b y th e FA O C o n fe re n c e In N o v e m b e r
1 9 9 3 b u t has n o t y e t e n te re d In to fo rc e .
“ T h e A g re e m e n t o n th e Im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e P ro v is io n s o f
th e U n ite d N a tio n s C o n v e n tio n o n th e L a w o f th e Sea o f 10
D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 2 R e la tin g to th e C o n s e rv a tio n a n d M a n a g e ­
m e n t o f S tra d d lin g Fish S to cks a n d H ig h ly M ig ra to r y Fish S to cks
w a s a d o p te d a n d o p e n e d fo r s ig n a tu re In 1 9 9 5 .
exploitin g such stocks and the e nforceability
and security o f the privileges conferred by
those rights w ith provisions on com pliance and
enforcem ent.
Currently, the developm ent of an
international plan o f action to deal w ith illegal,
unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing w ill
serve to define more clearly and enforce the
property rights to harvest fish on the high seas.
Various types of property rights systems
continue to be discussed in more general terms
at such meetings as:
• the Expert G roup on Econom ic Aspects of
Biodiversity, held by the Organisation for
Econom ic D evelopm ent and C o-operation
(OECD) in 1998 to consider the pros and
cons of using ITQs in a property rightsbased fisheries m anagem ent system that
w o u ld create positive incentives for the
conservation and sustainable use o f m arine
b io d ive rsity:
• the 1999 Fremantle Conference,
FishRights99, on the use o f property rights
in fisheries management, w here
participants from 49 countries examined
the use o f rights-based management
systems from the perspectives of
governments and adm inistrators, the
com m ercial fishing industry and various
types of com m unities.
•
W h ile such institutions as the United Nations
and the W orld Bank are addressing issues
arising from the conservation of marine
biodiversity, there is increasing interest in
exam ining fisheries management tools and
th eir property rights characteristics to see if
these are of use in effecting e colog ically
sustainable developm ent.
A t the regional level, discussions regarding
the use of property rights in fisheries
management have been benefiting from both
the grow ing recognition that the use o f ITQs is
o n ly one of a range o f relevant types of rightsbased fisheries management and the
realization that adjustm ent programmes need
to be coupled w ith new management strategies
if their results are to be consolidated. One
exam ple of this was the 1999 Concerted A ction
on Economics and the Com m on Fisheries
Policy w orkshop on the D efin ition and
A llo ca tio n of Use Rights in European Fisheries,
funded by the EC and its A griculture and
56
Fisheries Programme (FAIR).23 This w orkshop
was fo llo w e d by another, held in Bergen,
N orw ay in O ctober 2000, focusing on specific
rights-based solutions to EC fisheries
m anagem ent problems.
A t the national level, interest in the use of
property rights is co ntinuing to develop, albeit
cautiously. Politicians are aware that there are
p o te n tia lly sig n ifica n t p o litic a l ram ifications
when property rights are made increasingly
specific and w hen a llocation issues have to be
addressed e xplicitly. For exam ple, in Iceland,
allo catio n issues have inspired first p olitical
and then legal battles to challenge the
im plem entation o f ITQ programmes. In
Australia, recent efforts to discuss and
im p lem en t fisheries m anagem ent systems
based on clearly specified property rights such
as ITQs have been stalled in the political
arenas of several states, w h ile fishers are
m aking increasing demands on fisheries
m anagem ent agencies fo r c la rifica tio n o f their
com m ercial fishing rights and mechanisms that
allocate fisheries resources in ways that are
defensible and predictable.
•
Since 1998, governments and the industry in
some Latin Am erican countries have been
debating the merits o f introducing more clearly
defined rights for those involved in industrial
pelagic fisheries (in C hile and Peru) and
groundfish fisheries (in Uruguay and
Argentina). So far, however, it is not clear that
agreements on h ow to proceed w ill emerge.
In contrast, the characteristics of the rights
held by artisanal fishers in Latin Am erica are
gradually becom ing more clearly and
e xclu sively d efin ed .24 A lth ou g h generally
applied to situations w here there are stocks of
fish dw e llin g on the bottom or in other
localized and non-m igratory areas (including
relative ly small bodies o f freshwater), these
arrangements have given rights-holders the
legal w herew ithal to exclude those w ho do not
have rights in such fisheries. For example, in
1998 Peru began to provide artisanal fishers'
organizations w ith exclusive rights in some
45 T h e C o n c e rte d A c tio n W o rk s h o p s Series is b e in g o rg a n iz e d b y
C E M A R E . H e ld in Brest, F ra n ce, fro m 5 to 7 M a y 1 9 9 9 , th e
m e e tin g fo c u s e d e x p lic it ly o n T h e D e fin itio n a n d A llo c a tio n o f
Use R ig h ts In E u ro p e a n F isheries.
44 W o rk s h o p o n th e M a n a g e m e n t a n d A llo c a tio n o f F is h e ry
R eso u rce s to A rtis a n a l Fishers In F a tln A m e r ic a , V a lp a ra is o ,
C h ile , 2 5 -2 8 A p r il 2 0 0 0 .
inshore m arine resources, and in Ecuador
fishers have received exclusive rights to
enhance and e xploit fisheries in some inland
waters. In Brazil, moves to allocate exclusive
fishing rights - and management obligations to local com m unities are currently under way.
In Chile, M exico and Cuba, sim ilar
programmes have been under w ay for some
tim e and are now relatively w ell established.
Although there has not yet been any
systematic assessment of all the econom ic and
other impacts of such issues as the assignment
of rights to fishers and the state o f stocks, some
p o te n tia lly positive outcom es have already
been recorded. Initial regional assessments
indicate that, for m any com m unities, the
assignment of rights has m eant that w ild
resources have recovered, the prices received
by fishers have im proved (sometimes because
fishers have become involved in processing
and marketing) and fishers' organizations have
been able to grow stronger through the
a ccum ulation of capital.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
It is clear that open access u tiliza tion of such
natural resources as fisheries is not
sustainable. It is also clear that current
approaches to c o ntrolling and regulating the
use of fisheries resources do not necessarily
lead to sustainable use, and in addition often
create incentives that w o rk against
m anagem ent objectives.
Around the w orld, in artisanal and industrial
fisheries, both large- and sm all-scale, the
increasing scarcity of resources is d riving
stakeholders to demand greater cla rifica tio n of
th eir property rights in fisheries. As increasing
numbers of people e xploit fisheries resources
(often using better technology than was
available in the past) there is an ever-growing
need to exam ine the advantages and
lim itations o f the existing role of property
rights in fisheries management and to consider
strategies that are based on more clearly
defined rights.
A t all levels, p o litica l and adm inistrative
interest regarding property rights and fisheries
management, and the opportunities created by
the spectrum of rights that may be conferred,
w ill continue to grow, p articula rly as fisheries
resources com e under even greater pressure
and the linkages between w ell-specified
property rights and fisheries management
become more w id e ly understood. This interest
57
is likely to be coupled w ith a growing use of
capacity adjustm ent program m es as
m echanisms for shifting fisheries management
systems towards the use of more clearly
defined and specified property rights.
In the future, all those involved w ith fisheries
and th eir management w ill give greater
consideration to the property rights entitlem ents, privileges, responsibilities and
incentives - that are conferred by different
types of fisheries m anagem ent strategies.
ILLEGAL, UNREPORTED A N D
UNREGULATED FIS H IN G
THE ISSUE
Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU)
fishing is found in all capture fisheries,
irrespective o f the location, species targeted,
fishing gears em ployed or level and intensity
of exploitation (see Box 13). IUU fishing
occurs in sm all-scale and industrial fisheries,
inland and m arine fisheries, and fisheries in
zones o f national ju ris d ic tio n as w ell as those
on the high seas. IUU fishing is not confined to
high seas fisheries, to particular groups of
fishers or to specific fisheries. Regional
fisheries m anagem ent organizations see cases
of IUU fishing by both contracting and non­
contracting parties and by vessels from
countries w ith open registers.
IU U fishing is not a new phenom enon. It has
been a source of concern for resource
custodians ever since fishing com m unities first
started to im plem ent measures to conserve fish
stocks. In societies w here indigenous resourceuse practices continue (e.g. Melanesian
com m unities in the South Pacific Islands),
infringem ents of these practices by fishers
carrying out IUU fishing often carry substantial
social and econom ic sanctions.
Efforts are under w ay to assess how serious
and widespread IUU fishing is, but no
com plete and comprehensive picture of the
situation has yet emerged. FAO has been
inform ed that, in some im portant fisheries, IUU
fishing accounts for up to 30 percent of total
catches, and in one instance it has been
indicated that IUU catches could be as high as
three times the perm itted catch level. M any of
the w o rld 's regional fisheries management
organizations have taken steps to address the
problem . W here IU U fishing is com m on, it has
m ajor consequences for national and regional
scientific assessments and, in turn, for the
determ ination of catch levels and other
m anagem ent measures adopted and
im plem ented by national adm inistrations and
regional fisheries m anagem ent organizations.
The international co m m u n ity has identified
IU U fishing as a m ajor fisheries m anagem ent
issue because of its far-reaching
consequences fo r the long-term sustainable
m anagem ent o f fisheries resources; w hen IUU
fishing is unchecked, the system on w h ic h
fisheries m anagem ent decisions are based
becomes fu n d a m e n ta lly flaw ed. This situation
leads to a fa ilu re to achieve fisheries
m anagem ent goals and the loss o f both shortand long-term social and econ om ic
o p p ortu nities (see Box 13). In extreme cases,
IU U fishing can lead to the collapse o f a
fishery or seriously affect efforts to reb uild
fish stocks that have been depleted.
IUU fishing has many facets and
m otivations, although the most obvious
underlying incentives are econom ic in nature.
O ther factors that may encourage IUU fishing
inclu de the existence o f excess fleet capacity,
the provision of governm ent subsidies (where
they m aintain or increase capacity), strong
m arket demand for particular products, w eak
national fishery adm inistration (including
inadequate reporting systems), poor regional
fisheries m anagem ent and ineffective MCS,
including a lack o f VMS.
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
To com bat IUU fishing, concerted international
cooperation is required, and this depends on
the co lla bo ra tion of all states, irrespective of
w hether their prim ary roles are as coastal
states, flag states, port states or fish-im porting
countries. A clear focus on the issues that
contribute to IUU fishing and a com m on
international resolve to address them in a
tim e ly and realistic manner should enable
progress to be made tow ards greatly reducing
or e lim inating IUU fishing.
In zones of national ju ris d ic tio n w here IUU
fishing is practised by both authorized and
unauthorized fishers, national adm inistrations
need to strengthen, inter alia, licensing
procedures; conservation and management
measures; data reporting, c o lle ctio n and
analysis; and MCS. An international plan of
action to com bat IUU fishing w ill be helpful.
Such a plan, if com prehensively developed
and effectively im plem ented, should reduce, if
not elim inate, the incidence of IUU fishing.
Based on recent international discussions of
this issue, it seems likely that an international
plan o f action to address this type of fishing
BOX 13
IU U fishing in
the C C AM LR region
The term "IU U fishing " is new to the fisheries
recent m echanism adopted by the C om m ission
literature. It first emerged durin g recent sessions o f
has been the in tro d u ctio n o f the Catch D o cum ent
CCAMLR, w here it evolved from discussions
Scheme for Dissostichus species. The purposes o f
con cern ing fishing a ctivities that are illegal and/or
the scheme are to m o n ito r international trade in
not co m p lia n t w ith CCAMLR on the part o f Parties
toothfish products, id en tify the orig in o fto o th fis h
(illegal and unreported) and non-Parties (illegal
products entering the markets o f c ontracting
and unregulated) in the C o n ve n tio n 1 area. The first
parties, determ ine w h ethe r such products were
form al m ention o f IU U fishing on a CCAMLR
caught in CCAMLR waters and, if so, w h ethe r they
m eeting agenda occurred in 1997.
w ere taken in a m anner consistent w ith CCAMLR
The IU U fishing problem in CCAMLR waters has
conservation measures. Since 7 M ay 2000,
not been con fine d to the vessels o f non­
CCAM LR con tra cting parties have been required
con tra cting parties. In some instances, vessels
to ensure that any toothfish pro du ct landed in the ir
flagged to CCAM LR m em ber countries have been
ports, transshipped to th e ir vessels o r im ported into
involved in IU U fishing. To date, the measures
th e ir markets is accom panied by a valid catch
adopted by CCAM LR in seeking to address the
docum ent.
IU U problem have not included elem ents related
to the con tro l o f nationals, o r the con tro l o f flag
vessels, by members o f the C om m ission.
The scale o f IUU fishing that has taken place in
CCAM LR toothfish fisheries is u n lik e ly to be
repeated in m any other fisheries. In 1997/98,
CCAM LR estimated that the toothfish catches from
IU U operations were in the order o f 33 583 tonnes
o r more. This figure was estimated to represent in
excess o f 50 percent o f the total global catch o f
the species. Estimates for 1998/99 suggest that the
IU U catch has decreased but is still at least 10 773
tonnes and, w hen com pared w ith the 1 7 435
tonnes reported fo r this species in CCAMLR
waters, it still represents a sig nifica nt p ro po rtion o f
the toothfish pro du ct on the market.
A num ber o f factors have influenced the high
levels o f IU U fishing in the CCAMLR toothfish
fisheries. Two o f the m ore sig nifica nt points are:
• The product is h igh ly sought after in the
international market, thus offering the potential
for sig n ifica n t m onetary gain to participants in
the IU U fishery.
• The isolated location o f the fisheries is such that
the de ploym en t o f surveillance and enforcem ent
resources is extrem ely expensive, m aking it
u n lik e ly that an offending vessel w ill be caught
w h ile fishing illegally.
O ne o f the im pacts o f the c o m b in a tio n o f these
1 T h e C o n v e n tio n o n th e C o n s e rv a tio n o f A n ta r c tic
tw o factors has been to lim it the effectiveness o f
M a rin e L iv in g R eso u rce s w a s s ig n e d in M a y 1 9 8 0 and
m ore tra d itio n a l MCS too ls in addressing the IUU
e n te re d in to fo rc e in A p r il 1 9 8 1 .
pro blem in CCAMLR toothfish fisheries. A s a result,
CCAM LR has introduced a series o f measures in its
S o u rc e : G . B ry d e n , C h a irm a n o f th e S ta n d in g
attem pt to address the IU U problem . The most
C o m m itte e o n O b s e rv a tio n a n d In s p e c tio n , C C A M L R .
59
w o u ld promote, inter alia, the fo llo w in g shortand long-term measures:
• strengthening of national conservation and
m anagem ent arrangements, in clu d in g
national fisheries adm inistrations:
• co n fo rm ity of national legislation w ith
regional and international obligations,
including the ratification of the 1995 UN
Fish Stocks Agreement, and the 1993
C om pliance Agreem ent; 25
• the prom otion of flag state responsibility by
ensuring that the state authorizes all
vessels flying its flag to fish, irrespective of
w hether such authorization is for operations
in zones o f national ju ris d ic tio n s , in the
exclusive econom ic zones (EEZs) of other
countries or on the high seas;
• com plete, accurate and tim e ly catch and
other reporting;
• encouragem ent of port states to take action
that w ill hinder the landing, transshipment
or sale of fish as a result of IUU fishing;
• encouragem ent, consistent w ith W TO related measures, of the closure o f markets
fo r IU U -harvested fish;
• certification of product origin;
• support o f regional fisheries management
organizations in taking steps to strengthen
measures that w ill perm it them to assess
more effectively the extent and im pact of
IU U fishing on th eir w o rk and to adopt and
im plem ent measures to curb such fishing in
th e ir respective areas of competence;
• em pow erm ent o f MCS systems for the
m onitoring of both in-zone and high seas
fisheries, and the fa cilita tio n of close
co lla b o ra tio n among all states, irrespective
of w hether they are coastal, flag, port or
m arket states.
com bat IUU fishing w ith in the fram ew ork of
the Code.27
D evelopm ent of the plan of action has
fo llo w e d a two-step approach:
• An Expert C onsultation on IUU Fishing was
hosted by the G overnm ent o f Australia in
cooperation w ith FAO. The meeting, w hich
was attended by some 60 experts from a
w ide geographical distribution and range of
professional backgrounds, was held in
Sydney, Australia, from 15 to 19 M ay 2000.
The experts w ho attended prepared a
p re lim ina ry draft international plan of
action.
• An FAO Technical Consultation on IUU
Fishing was held at FAO headquarters from
2 to 6 O ctober 2000.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Regional fisheries m anagem ent organizations
are taking steps to com bat IUU fishing. Action
has already been taken by the:
• Com m ission for the Conservation of
A n ta rctic M arine Living Resources
(CCAMLR) (see Box 13);
• Com m ission for the Conservation of
Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT);
• Indian Ocean Tuna Com m ission (IOTC);
• International Com m ission for the
-“ T h e 2 3 rd Session o f C O F I In F e b ru a ry 1 9 9 9 ; th e FA O M in is te ria l
M e e tin g o n F is h e rie s in M a rc h 1 9 9 9 ; th e 7 th Session o f th e
C o m m is s io n o n S u s ta in a b le D e v e lo p m e n t in A p r il 1 9 9 9 ; th e
1 1 6 th Session o f th e F A O C o u n c il in June 1 9 9 9 ; th e A s ia -P a c ific
E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n F ish erie s W o r k in g G r o u p in J u ly 1 9 9 9 ;
th e 5 4 th Session o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly in
N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 ; th e 8 th Session o f th e IM O S u b -C o m m itte e on
RECENT A C T IO N S
F la g S ta te I m p le m e n ta tio n
in J a n u a ry 2 0 0 0 ; th e C h ile a n
In te r n a tio n a l C o n fe re n c e
on
M o n ito r in g ,
C o n tro l a nd
•
S u rv e illa n c e in J a n u a ry 2 0 0 0 ; th e 4 4 th S e ssio n o f th e IM O
D uring 1999 and 2000, IUU fishing has been
addressed in several im portant international
fora.26 FAO was given a clear mandate at the
23rd Session of its C om m ittee on Fisheries
(COFI) and the 1999 FAO M inisterial Meeting
on the Im plem entation o f the Code o f C onduct
for Responsible Fisheries to develop a
voluntary international plan of action to
7 2 n d Session o f th e M a r itim e S a fe ty C o m m itte e in M a y 2 0 0 0 ;
M a rin e E n v iro n m e n t P ro te c tio n C o m m itte e in M a rc h 2 0 0 0 ; th e
a n d th e U n ite d N a tio n s O p e n - e n d e d In fo rm a l C o n s u lta tiv e
P rocess o n O c e a n s a n d th e L a w o f th e Sea in M a y 2 0 0 0 .
¿1 In F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 0 , FA O re p o rte d to th e 2 4 th Session o f C O F I
o n p ro g re s s a c h ie v e d
c o n c e r n in g
IU U
in f u l f i l l i n g th e m a n d a te p r o v id e d
fis h in g , a n d in p a r t ic u la r th e r e q u e s t to
d e v e lo p an in te rn a tio n a l p la n o f a c tio n to c o m b a t IU U fis h in g .
G iv e n th e u rg e n c y o f th e IU U fis h in g p ro b le m a n d th e s tro n g
in te rn a tio n a l fo c u s o n th e issue, FA O a n tic ip a te s th a t it w il l be
p o s s ib le to p r o v id e C O F I w it h
-5 See fo o tn o te s 22 a n d 2 1, p. 5 5.
a d r a ft p la n o f a c tio n fo r
c o n s id e ra tio n a n d p o s s ib le a d o p tio n in 2 0 0 1 .
60
Conservation o f A tla ntic Tunas (ICCAT);
• N orthw est A tla n tic Fisheries O rganization
(NAFO);
• Northeast A tla n tic Fisheries Com m ission
(NEAFC).
O ther regional fisheries m anagem ent
organizations are in the process of assessing
and addressing IU U fishing.
M em bers of regional fisheries m anagem ent
organizations w ill have to decide h ow to
enhance flag state control and how to im prove
cooperation w ith port states. N on-parties to
regional fisheries m anagem ent organizations
w ill be urged to take steps to control their
vessels so that they do not engage in activities
that underm ine the w o rk of regional fisheries
management organizations. As a result, it w ill
become of prim ary im portance that these
organizations try to accom m odate new
entrants. The establishm ent of a jo in t FAO/IM O
ad hoc w orking group is expected to lay the
groundw ork for cooperative action on IUU
fishing between the tw o organizations, in
response to calls that they should collaborate
to find solutions to the problem .
FAO w ill to continue its cooperation w ith
regional fisheries m anagem ent organizations
and to facilitate cooperation among these
organizations. A m anifestation of this
co llaboration is FAO's annual consolidated
reporting to the United Nations General
Assembly on the activities of regional fisheries
management organizations and the biennial
meeting it holds w ith other interested parties to
address matters o f m utual concern.
IN D IC A TO R S OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPM ENT A N D THE
PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH IN M AR IN E
CAPTURE FISHERIES
THE ISSUE
Widespread concern about the sustainability of
present uses of natural renewable resources led
to the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Developm ent (UNCED), held
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, and to the
adoption of its Agenda 21. The event reflected a
global consensus for more ecosystem-based
sustainable developm ent across all sectors of
human activity, as a means of im proving the
human welfare of present generations w ith o u t
sacrificing that of the future. It called for a
substantial shift in governance, improved
scientific support to decision-m aking and a
substantial increase in strategic inform ation.
Simultaneously, UNCED recognized the cost
and scarcity of such inform ation and, therefore,
the high degree of uncertainty about the
functions and state of productive ecosystems as
w ell as the resulting risk for the resources and
the people dependent on them for a living.
The com bination of these requirements
presents a form idable challenge for modern
fisheries governance. The capacity of fishery
managers and industry to com ply w ith the
requirements w ill condition the views of an
increasingly aware society on the future role of
fisheries in global sustainable developm ent and
food security.
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
In order to assist fisheries policy-m akers and
managers, a llo w m onitoring and performance
assessment and facilitate people's participation,
Chapter 40 of Agenda 21, Inform ation for
decision-m aking, calls for
"a harmonized developm ent of sustainable
developm ent indicators at the national, regional
and global levels, and for incorporation of a
suitable set of these indicators in com m on,
regularly updated, and w id e ly accessible
reports and databases, for use at the
international level, subject to national
sovereignty considerations" (Paragraph 40.7).
In 1995, the United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Developm ent (CSD) follow ed up
and approved a w o rk programme aimed
at making such indicators available to decision­
makers at the national level by the year 2000.
In addition, Principle 15 of UNCED's Rio
D eclaration states that "In order to protect the
environm ent, the precautionary approach shall
be w id e ly applied by States according to their
capabilities. W here there are threats of serious
or irreversible damage, lack of fu ll scientific
certainty shall be not used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environm ental degradation." The General
Principles and A rticle 6.5 o f the Code fo llo w ed
this up by prescribing a precautionary
approach to all fisheries in all aquatic systems,
regardless o f th eir ju ris d ic tio n a l nature.
RECENT A C T IO N S
D uring the last fe w years, considerable effort
has been devoted to elaborating fram eworks
for the developm ent o f sustainability indicators
and procedures for their integration w ith the
61
precautionary approach. The fo llo w in g is a
review of the progress made.
TABLE 4
Indicators for the main dimensions of
sustainable developm ent
Indicators of sustainable development. Since
1995, CSD has prom oted, inter alia, the
exchange of inform ation among interested
actors; ide ntifica tion , testing and evaluation of
relevant indicators; training and capacity
building; and the developm ent of fram eworks
for sustainability indicators. Taking the lead in
the developm ent of sectoral indicators in
fisheries, FAO, in co llaboration w ith the
G overnm ent of Australia, review ed the issue
and drew up technical guidelines for the
developm ent and use of indicators for the
sustainable developm ent o f m arine capture
fisheries.28 It is recognized that the adoption
and reporting o f sustainable developm ent
indicators are practicable and cost-effective
means o f tracking progress tow ards sustainable
developm ent (e.g. in the im plem entation of the
Code); detecting potential problem s in good
tim e; learning by com paring performances
among different fisheries; and, as a
consequence, o p tim izin g policies and fisheries
m anagem ent.
Several co m plem entary fram ew orks have
been proposed for the design, organization and
reporting of sustainable developm ent
indicators, such as the pressure-state-response
(PSR) fram ework. In the case of fisheries, the
Code provides an alternative fram ework.
W hen indicators have been established for
sim ilar fram eworks, they can be shared at the
relevant national, regional and global levels.
To that effect, sim ilar concepts, definitions and
processes need to be agreed and im plem ented
w hen com parable systems of indicators that
fo llo w m in im u m standard requirem ents are
being developed.
In general, indicators should reflect the state
of the system and its outcomes in relation to
societal goals and objectives, the long-term
sustainability o f the fishery, the ecosystem
¿B FA O . 1 9 9 6 . T h e p re c a u tio n a ry a p p ro a c h to fis h e rie s a n d its
i m pi ¡c a tio n s fo r fis h e ry re se a rch , te c h n o lo g y a n d m a n a g e m e n t:
an u p d a te d re v ie w , b y S .M . G a rc ia . FA O F ish e rie s T e c h n ic a l
P a p er N o . 3 5 0 /2 , p. 1 -7 5 . R o m e ; F A O . 1 9 9 9 . In d ic a to rs fo r
s u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a rin e c a p tu r e fis h e rie s . FA O
T e c h n ic a l G u id e lin e s fo r R e s p o n s ib le F ish e rie s N o . 8, R om e;
S .M G a rc ia a n d D . S ta p les. 2 0 0 0 . S u s ta in a b ility re fe re n c e
syste m s a n d in d ic a to r s fo r re s p o n s ib le m a rin e c a p tu re fis h e rie s :
a r e v ie w o f c o n c e p ts a n d e le m e n ts fo r a set o f g u id e lin e s .
M a rin e a n d F re s h w a te r R esearch.
Dimension
Economic
Indicator
H a rv e s t a n d h a rv e s t v a lu e
F is h e rie s c o n tr ib u tio n to G D P
In c o m e
V a lu e o f fis h e rie s e x p o rts
(c o m p a re d w it h v a lu e o f to ta l
e x p o rts )
In v e s tm e n t in fis h in g fle e ts and
p ro c e s s in g fa c ilitie s
Social
E m p lo y m e n t/p a r tic ip a tio n
D e m o g ra p h y
L ite r a c y /e d u c a tio n
F is h in g tr a d itio n s /c u ltu r e
G e n d e r d is tr ib u tio n in d e c is io n ­
m a k in g
Ecological
C a tc h s tru c tu re
R e la tiv e a b u n d a n c e o f ta rg e t
s p e c ie s
E x p lo ita tio n rate
D ir e c t e ffe c ts o f fis h in g g e a r o n
n o n -ta rg e t s p e c ie s
In d ire c t e ffe c ts o f fis h in g : tr o p h ic
s tru c tu re
D ir e c t e ffe c ts o f g e a r o n h a b ita ts
C h a n g e in a rea a n d q u a lity o f
im p o r ta n t o r c r itic a l h a b ita ts
Governance
C o m p lia n c e re g im e
P ro p e rty rig h ts
T ra n s p a re n c y a n d p a r tic ip a tio n
supporting it and the generation of net benefits
to fishers and society.
Indicators o f sustainability should reflect the
w ell-being of (or the problem s related to) the
resource and human com ponents of the
system, as w ell as the progress (or lack of it)
towards the objective of sustainable
developm ent (Figure 22). Indicator-based
systems are becom ing a useful com plem ent to
conventional m anagem ent support systems, as
w ell as a prom ising w ay of m onitoring and
managing fisheries subsectors, or the sector as
a w hole, offering an alternative to the fisheryby-fishery approach.
The selection of appropriate geographic units
for the reporting of indicators is critical and,
w h ile recognizing national and subnational
ju ris d ic tio n s , should reflect the geographic
62
FIGURE 22
Hierarchical subdivision of a sustainable
development framework
EFFECTS OF FISHING
Effects on humans
Effects on the environment
Food
Primary commercial species
Employment
Non-target species
Income
Other aspects
Lifestyle
Source: J. Chesson and H. Clayton. 1997. A fram ew ork fo r assessing fisheries w ith
respect to e colo g ica lly sustainable developm ent. Bureau o f Resource Sciences,
Fisheries Resources Branch, Australia
location of the ecological processes that define
aquatic ecosystem boundaries. W h ile
com m itm ents have been made for national
reporting, it m ight sometimes be appropriate to
aggregate reports at a subnational level
(e.g. by fisheries or by small districts w ith in
the same nation) or m ultinational level (e.g. for
transboundary stocks).
There are m any ways of representing the
interdependent com ponents of a fishery or of a
fishery sector in a sustainable developm ent
reference system. The m in im u m critica l
com ponents are the ecosystem, the economy,
society and governance. The ecosystem
comprises the fishery resources that support
the fishery as w ell as other aspects of the
ecosystem that control the p ro d u ctivity of the
resource, including dependent and associated
species. The econom y reflects the results expressed in terms of benefits and costs - that
are derived from the use of the ecosystem. The
benefits and costs are experienced by
consumers, producers and society at large.
Short- and long-term equity is included. The
society com ponent of the system consists of
non-m onetary costs and benefits, w h ich are
im portant elements of human welfare.
G overnance includes the institutions as w ell as
the rules governing the system. Indicators
should reflect the perform ance of the system in
each o f these components.
Ideally, indicators for each com ponent
should be developed by identifying objectives
that are relative to that component, by
specifying a conceptual or numerical "m o de l"
of the available scientific understanding; and
determ ining indicators of performance that
relate to the objectives for w hich inform ation is
available or can easily be collected. Indicators
can be very numerous and need careful
selection (Table 4). They must be scientifically
validated as really reflecting the changes that
they im ply; based on the "best scientific
inform ation available", as required by
UNCLOS; easy to develop and cost-effective;
and easily understood by the target audience.
The value of indicators must be interpreted in
relation to target, lim it or threshold reference
values (or reference points) derived in various
ways, even when there is a shortage of data.
The target reference values define desirable
states of the system and good performance.
Limits indicate undesirable states of the system
and bad performance. Thresholds identify
situations in w hich action, possibly pre-agreed,
should be taken. Together, these reference
points give an indication of societal value
judgem ents regarding the indicators. For
example, an indicator of biomass below the
lim it level may be considered as illustrating a
"bad" situation. An indicator of biomass at the
m axim um sustainable yield level may be
considered as "good".
C ollaborating nations that share a resource
should strive to establish some com m on
indicators for each com ponent of a system
63
FIGURE 23
Kite diagram
Spawning \
biomass
Revenues
Nurseries
Source: S.M. Garcia and D. Staples. Sustainability reference systems and indicators for
responsible m arine capture fisheries: a review o f concepts and elements fo r a set
o f guidelines. M arine Fisheries Research, 51(5): 385-426
and, possibly, com m on evaluation criteria.
This w ill make it easier to assess the status of
fishery resources w ith in the ecosystem and to
establish costs and incom e for w h ich there are
generally agreed objectives and
m ethodologies. It may, however, be less
practical for social com ponents, for w h ich it is
d iffic u lt to make generalizations.
Simple representations of a fishery system in
relation to the dimensions of sustainable
development are proposed in the relevant FAO
guidelines and by Garcia and Staples.29 The kite
diagram is one such representation in which
each dimension (e.g. spawning biomass and
revenues) is represented by one of the axes.
Each axis is appropriately scaled and there are
established societal evaluation criteria to qualify
the various levels on each scale (e.g. bad,
mediocre, acceptable, good). In Figure 23, the
position of the fishery is shown by a w hite
polygon. The degree of shading represents value
judgem ents, from bad (black) to good (clear).
Thus, the fishery illustrated in Figure 23 is
satisfactory in so far as it creates a high number
of jo b s and adequate revenues, although its
spawning biomass is inadequate in size and its
nursery areas are threatened. A complete system
of sustainable development indicators should
include mechanisms for effective
com m unication among fisheries stakeholders,
those responsible for governance and the general
public. A number of visual reporting methods
w ould greatly enhance com m unication in this
regard. The system of indicators should be
reviewed regularly in order to provide the
necessary incentives to maintain and improve it.
Although the indicators should be easy to
understand, they can still be misinterpreted or
misused (as can any statistical data).
A u thoritative interpretation and reporting by an
expert group, collaborating w ith industry and
stakeholders, w ill guard against this, and
nations and international organizations should
convene such groups of experts to evaluate
and interpret indicators every fe w years.
Policy-m akers w ill then be able to act in
response to w hatever the indicators show.
•
The precautionary approach. Before integrating
the precautionary approach into the Code and
prom oting its application in the UN Fish Stocks
Agreement,30 FAO reviewed its im plications for
fisheries.31 In collaboration w ith Sweden, the
O rganization also developed technical
guidelines for the precautionary approach to
5uSee fo o tn o te 2 2, p. 5 5.
51 S .M . G a r c ia .
1 9 9 4 . T h e p re c a u tio n a r y
p r in c i p l e :
its
im p lic a t io n s in c a p tu re fis h e rie s m a n a g e m e n t. O c e a n a n d
-9 G a rc ia a n d S taples, o p . c it., fo o tn o te 2 8, p. 61
C o a s ta l M a n a g e m e n t, 2 2: 9 9 -1 2 5 .
64
capture fisheries and species introductions, in
support of im plem entation of the Code.32
There is considerable uncertainty about the
data, parameters and processes involved in
fisheries. The situation is aggravated by natural
variability, climate change and the need to
consider fisheries w ithin their respective
ecosystems. Fisheries management has always
had a number of "precautionary" elements that
make it possible to take action in response to risk
to the resources before enough scientific data are
available to guide decision-making.
Unfortunately, over the last half-century, these
elements have been either scarcely used or
poorly enforced. The precautionary approach
recognizes that: all fishing activities have
significant impacts; the impacts of fisheries should
not be considered negligible unless proved to be
so; the complex and changing fisheries system
w ill never be perfectly understood, w hich means
that scientific advice to management is always
affected by uncertainty; management decision
processes and the sector's compliance have their
own uncertainties, so fisheries' impacts on the
system are difficult to predict accurately; and the
consequences of management errors may take a
long time to put right.
As a consequence of these factors, and of the
fact that the nature of fisheries is such that
m anagement decisions have to be made on the
basis of incom plete knowledge, the approach
requires, inter alia, that: a level of precaution
commensurate to the risk be applied at all
times to all fisheries and that it be applied
system atically, i.e. across all research,
management and fishing operations;
p o te n tia lly irreversible changes be avoided
(to m aintain options for future generations);
undesirable outcomes be anticipated, and
measures taken to reduce their likelihood;
corrective measures be applied im m ediately
and become effective w ith in an acceptable
tim e frame; p rio rity be given to conserving the
p roductive capacity of the resource;
precautionary lim its be put on fishing capacity
w hen resource p ro d u ctivity is h ig hly uncertain;
all fishing activities be subjected to prior
authorization and p eriodic review; the burden
of proof be appropriately (realistically) placed;
standards o f proof that are comm ensurate w ith
the potential risk to the resource be
established; and a com prehensive legal and
F A O . 1 9 9 6 . P re c a u tio n a ry a p p ro a c h to c a p tu re fis h e rie s and
sp ecie s in tro d u c tio n s . FA O T e c h n ic a l G u ¡d e l¡n e sfo r R e sp o n sib le
F ish e rie s N o . 2. 5 4 pp.
institutional m anagem ent fram ew ork be used.
The precautionary approach has now been
w id e ly adopted by a num ber of fishery bodies,
including CCAMLR, the International Pacific
H a lib u t Com m ission (IPHC), the International
W h aling Com m ission (IWC), NAFO, the North
A tla n tic Salmon Conservation O rganization
(NASCO), ICCAT, the M ultilate ral High-Level
Conference on the Conservation and
M anagem ent o f H ig h ly M igratory Fish Stocks
in the Western and Central Pacific and the
Southeast A tla n tic Fisheries O rganization
(SEAFO). The im plem entation of the approach
is actively discussed in others, including the
A sia-Pacific Fishery Com m ission (APFIC), the
Western Central A tla n tic Fishery Com m ission
(WECAFC) and the General Fisheries
Com m ission for the M editerranean (GFCM),
and is advancing rap id ly in ICES. The
approach has also been ind ire ctly applied by
the International Tribunal for the Law of the
Sea (ITLOS) in relation to the southern bluefin
tuna cases. It is also advancing rap id ly in a
num ber o f countries, inclu ding the United
States, Canada, Australia and South Africa.
•
Merging both concepts. The precautionary
approach is based on a range of key indicators
of the state of the critical components of the
fishery system (e.g. spawning stock size, fishing
pressure, critical habitats) that are sim ilar to
those recomm ended as sustainability indicators.
It also requires determ ination of the related
target, lim it and threshold reference points
(taking into account the uncertainty inherent in
their estimations). As a consequence, recent
developments in fisheries have led to a merging
of the concepts related to indicators of
sustainable developm ent w ith those related to
the precautionary approach. This represents a
valuable and original advance in the field of
natural resources management.
Thus, mixed frameworks (although not
e xp licitly identified as such) are now being
considered by ICES (which is leading the
movement), NAFO and ICCAT. The approach
consists in form ally reporting the indicators of
fishing m ortality and reproductive biomass on a
graph that represents the lim it, threshold and
target reference points as w ell as including
areas corresponding to overfishing, target and
buffer or precautionary situations. On such a
graph, the agreed harvest control rules can also
be reported, indicating w hat action is to be
taken (in terms of fishing m ortality) for observed
levels of spawning biomass (Figure 24).
FIGURE 24
Type of precautionary plot used to monitor
fisheries in ICES or NAFO
Q
re
O
C
O verfishing zone
3
8
Buffer
re
o
E
o?
rule
c
!c
ta rg e t
Ll_
P recautionary zone
0
Spawning biomass (status in dicato r)
Source: M odifie d from ICES CM 1997/Assess: 7, p. 41 ; and F.M. Serchuk et al., 1988.
In V.R. Restrepo, ed. Proc. 5th National NMFS Stock Assessment W orkshop,
Florida, USA
FIGURE 25
Precautionary plot position of several North Atlantic stocks in 1970
^pa
1
^Mm
A
i
•
Target zone
•
.
Overfishing zone
........................................j
Buffer zone
■
•
1
1
Overfished zone
|
High-risk zone
1
1
Source: S.M. Garcia and I. De Leiva M oreno. 2000. Proposal fo r a synoptic presentation o f state o f stock and management
advice in a precautionary indicators fram ework. Report o f the CWP Intersessional W o rking G roup
on Precautionary Term inology, 14-16 February 2000, Copenhagen, D enm ark
66
As illustrated in Figure 24, the precautionary
approach, as it is currently applied, is
essentially based on b iological considerations.
Despite this shortcom ing, the approach can be
very useful for com parative purposes, as it
allow s many stocks to be represented on a
single graph. Figure 25 illustrates this point,
show ing the position of a num ber of North
A tla ntic stocks in 1970. The m apping o f this
inform ation on sim ilar graphs over a period of
several years provides a useful w ay of
fo llo w in g trends in the resources o f a region.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
W hile the development of sustainability
indicators in fisheries has o n ly ju s t started and
the application of the precautionary approach
has largely been confined to biological elements,
a com bination of the tw o concepts and their
active implementation by regional fishery bodies
represents a major advance in the global
fisheries management landscape, w ith
potentially significant im plications for the
resources and the sector. The outcomes of
ongoing efforts have been as follows:
determination of lim it reference points that
represent biological constraints and m inim um
requirements for sustainability: determination of
thresholds (or buffers) to ensure that the limits are
not accidentally violated; improved m ethodology
for assessing uncertainty and the risk attached to
it; elaboration and evaluation of precautionary
harvest control rules and assessment of their
effectiveness; and elaboration of strategies, plans
and special control rules for the rebuilding of
overfished stocks.
In addition, these efforts have led to the
incorporation o f uncertainty about the state of
stocks into management scenarios; im proved
com m un icatio n between scientists and
managers regarding e x p lic it uncertainty
considerations and th eir impacts; more e x p lic it
statements of objectives on the part of p o lic y ­
makers as a basis for establishing target
reference points; developm ent, adoption and
im plem entation o f precautionary fisheries
management plans; and im plem entation of
recovery plans for depleted resources.
Increased effort is needed to build on the
progress already made. As the matter is of the
utmost im portance, it seems like ly that
additional resources w ill be assigned and used
for the id e n tifica tio n , analysis, systematic
organization and form al adoption o f a lim ited
num ber of reference points covering the
ecosystem, econom ic, institutional and other
social aspects; further ide ntifica tion of sources
of uncertainty and their im pact in terms of risk
to the fishery system, including its human
com ponent; e x p lic it linking of reference points
to the objectives of fisheries management and
developm ent policies, as w ell as to the
constraints imposed by ecosystems and the
need for human w ell-being; appropriate
representation of reference points as a means
of conveying the issues, trade-offs,
alternatives, etc. to managers, industry and the
public; and systematic analysis o f the a b ility of
m anagem ent strategies and processes to
operate w ith uncertainty.
M O N IT O R IN G THE IM PACT OF F IS H IN G
O N M A R IN E ECOSYSTEMS
THE ISSUE
In addition to the concern expressed about
ind ivid ua l stocks, there is increasing interest in
ecosystems and the im pact that fishing may be
having on their structure and function. There is
little inform ation at either the regional or
global level on the relationship between the
state of m arine ecosystems and fishing.
However, broad indicators of change are
available from reported capture fisheries
landings in the m ajor fishing areas. These can
indicate changes, although it is usually
d iffic u lt to separate changes in exploitation
patterns from changes in the underlying
ecosystem.
Trophic index. One concern is that fishing may
cause large (and valuable) predatory fish to be
replaced by other species low er dow n the food
w eb .33 This may not o nly affect the value of
fisheries, but may cause significant problems
in the structure and function of m arine
ecosystems. For exam ple, some species may
cease to be controlled by predators after those
predators have been reduced by fishing. The
potential effect of such ecosystem disruption
can be seen w hen new species are introduced
into environm ents where there are none of the
predators that usually control them. A
spectacular exam ple occurred in the Black
Sea, w here the ctenophore (jellyfish)
M nem iopsis leidyi, w h ich was first found there
” D . P auly, V. C h ris te n s e n , J. D a ls g a a rd , R. Froese a n d F. Torres
Jr. 1 9 9 8 . F is h in g d o w n m a rin e fo o d w e b s . S c ie n c e , 2 7 9 : 8 6 0 863 .
67
in 1982, had increased to average abundance
levels of 1 to 5 kg/m 2 w et w eight by 1991/92.
It has subsequently decreased in numbers but
remains com m on, and it has perm anently
changed the structure of the Black Sea marine
ecosystem. A lthough ecosystems are generally
robust, there is a fear that this sort of
secondary effect could also be triggered by
o verfishing.
One w ay to detect changes is to study the
ratio of landings of predatory fish (piscivores)
to landings of fish that feed on plankton
(planktivores). As predatory fish are removed
from the population, the proportion of plankton
feeders in catches may grow, suggesting
increased relative abundance and, perhaps,
some underlying change in the ecology.
There are no clear overall trends in the
piscivo re -p lan ktivore ratio for most regions.
Landing statistics vary sig n ifica n tly because of
changing vessel activities and fishing patterns,
and other environm ental factors may w ell play
a role. For example, although the
M editerranean and Black Seas are heavily
exploited, there has been significant nutrient
p ollu tio n , w h ich may have influenced the
relative abundance levels of piscivores and
Zooplankton feeders.34 An area w here there is
54For a d is c u s s io n o f th is a n d o th e r a spects o f tr o p h ic ch a n g e s,
seeJ.F. C a d d y a n d L. G a r ib a ld i. A p p a re n t c h a n g e s in th e tr o p h ic
c o m p o s itio n o f w o r ld m a rin e h arve sts: th e p e rs p e c tiv e fro m th e
FA O c a p tu re d a ta b a se . O c e a n a n d C oa sta l M a n a g e m e n t, 43
(8 -9): 6 1 5 -6 5 5 .
Piscivorezo o p la n ktivo re
ra tio
particular cause for concern is the Northeast
A tla n tic (Figure 26), w h ich has been heavily
exploited over a long period and has some of
the most reliable statistics available. These
indicate a long-term trend tow ards a greater
ratio of plankton-feeding fish in landings w hich
may represent a structural shift in the
underlying ecosystem, caused by chronic
heavy fishing.
Landings composition index. In statistics
regarding landings as a w hole, the species
yielding the most abundant catches tend to
dom inate. This is not necessarily a clear
reflection of the underlying im pact of changes
on the ecosystem, as some rarer species may
have c ritic a l ecological roles. Furtherm ore, it
is d iffic u lt to interpret the meaning of an array
of landings data by species, and more useful to
use indices that sum m arize landings
com position.
Landings com position can be sum m arized by
tw o indices, the landings volum e averaged
over categories and a measure o f the variation
in landings among categories - the variance.
The variance is the average of the squared
difference between the overall average
landing and the actual landings in each case.
These calculations are carried out on the
logarithm o f landings, because the landings
com position fo llo w s the log-norm al frequency
distribu tio n.
The log-norm al frequency has been found to
describe a w ide variety of distributions, such
as incom e distribution in some countries,
FIGURE 26
Northeast Atlantic:
piscivore-zooplanktivore index
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
O N > t ( £ ) O O O N ^ ( f l O O O N > t ( f l O O O N ^ ( a 0 3 0 N ^ ( f l
L O L O L O L O L O l £ ) C £ ) C £ > l £ > l £ > r - - r - - r - - r - - r - - C O C O C O C O C O O ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 )
0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0 0 ) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)
Source: J.F. Caddy and L. G aribaldi. Apparent changes in the tro p h ic com position
o f w o rld marine harvests: the perspective from the FAO capture database.
Ocean and Coastal Management, 43(8-9): 615-655
68
distribution of sizes o f rocks when they are
crushed and, most im portant, species
abundance in ecological com m unities.35 In
landings statistics, the log-norm al d istribution
captures the fact that o nly a few species are
very abundant in the statistics and the large
m ajority of categories have far sm aller annual
landings. A log-norm al distribution fitted to
landings statistics can be defined by tw o
values, the mean and the standard deviation,
w h ich can be used as indices of the changing
exploitation pattern. The distribution has the
additional advantage that it can account for
some o f the landings that were not reported,
p a rticu la rly in the early years.36 However,
interpretation requires care as the values are
given on the log scale. For example, an
increase in the variation w o u ld increase the
perceived arithm etic average even w hen the
log average rem ains constant.
The indices are related to the w ay in w hich
exploitation of the ecosystem can develop. The
level of landings across all categories can
change among individual categories equally or
differentially. An equal increase implies a
proportional increase in the total harvest of all
species and w ould produce an increase in the
mean landings. The landings variance can
change for a number of reasons. Developing
fisheries for only a few of many species w ould
change the variation in landings, but w ould have
less effect on the mean. As a fishery develops,
both the mean and the variance in landings can
be expected to increase as all the fisheries in a
region, particularly the more valuable ones, are
exploited more heavily. Overfishing may then
cause the landings of some stocks to decline,
thereby decreasing the average landings.
However, declines in landings of categories that
are below the average w ill increase the
variance, whereas declines in landings for
categories that are above the average w ill
decrease it. It can be seen that the indices do not
directly represent simple causes.
M ost regions, notably the N orthern, Central
and Southeast A tla ntic and the Northern
Pacific, show a negative trend in average
landings; that is, the average reported landings
are broadly in decline across categories. Most
other areas show no significant change, w ith
55For a discussion o f models, see A. E. M agurran. 1988. Ecological
d iversity and its measurem ent. P rinceton, N ew Jersey, USA,
P rinceton U n iv e rs ity Press. 179 pp.
31=1This is achieved by fittin g the tru ncate d log-norm al, w h ic h
a llo w s fo r the absence o f reports on the sm allest landings.
the exception of the Western Central and
Southeast Pacific and the Eastern Indian
Oceans, w here average landings are
increasing (Figure 27). This occurs when
fishing pressure increases across all exploited
groups, and reflects the proportional change
that can be attributed to all categories.
In terms of variation of landings among
species, all areas show some increase over
tim e (Figure 28). This represents changes in
landings quantities, w h ich are not the same
across categories. In particular, increasing
va riatio n among species suggests re la tive ly
greater landings of the most abundant species
and increasing numbers of sm aller landings.
However, changes in landings may also be due
to im proved reporting as w ell as to underlying
changes in the ecosystem and fishing
a c tiv itie s .
In the case of the North and South A tla ntic
and the Western Central and Southern Pacific
Oceans, the increase in variation is not
significant. In these cases, the range of
exploitation appears to be stabilizing, perhaps
because these regions are approaching full
ecosystem e xploita tion . However, reporting
w ill play a part, at least in the case of the
Western Central Pacific w h ic h classifies the
m ajority o f its very diverse catch as "m arine
fish ".
Nevertheless, the broader pattern of increasing
variation probably reflects an increasing
concentration on the largest stocks, as w ell as an
increased variety of resources being exploited.
Two major driving forces are the expansion of
markets for larger quantities of a w ider range of
fishery products and the increase in prices of
previously neglected species. These phenomena
are m ainly the result of the emergence of new
markets for fish, including previously discarded
species, the separation of species that were
previously lumped together and the development
of new stocks.
The state of ecosystem exploitation by region.
As exploitation of an ecosystem develops, it
can be expected that new species w ill be
added to the landings and that the levels of
landings w ill increase across all categories,
w ith catches of some of the more abundant
and valuable species increasing relative ly
more rapidly. This w o u ld be shown on the
indices as a positive relationship over tim e
between the average landings and the
variance in landings per category as the
fisheries o f the region expand to u tilize more
and more categories w ith in the ecosystem.
69
FIGURE 27
Average log-landings
Log-landings
9.0
Northeast
Atlantic
8.5
Eastern
Indian
Ocean
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
Source: FAO
Log-landings
standard d e via tio n
FIGURE 28
Smoothed index of the variation
between landings categories
3.6
Northeast
Atlantic
Eastern
Indian
Ocean
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
Note: The index of variation between landings categories measures the spread or range
of catches. If all categories have similar levels of landings, the index w ill be small. If some
categories have very high landings and others very low landings, the index w ill be large.
The index therefore measures shifts in regional focus from exploitation across a broad range
of categories (low index) to a greater concentration on a few resources (high index)
Source: FAO
70
As more species are included in the landings,
the variation in landings among categories w ill
increasingly tend to match the underlying
variation in species abundance and the
potential for further diversification w ill
decline. This w ill tend to produce a negative
relationship between average landings and
landings variation, as fisheries are unable to
increase the tw o sim ultaneously. For example,
directing capacity away from a fu lly or
overexploited very abundant species to a
num ber o f less abundant species may make
landings among categories more sim ilar
(decreasing variation) w h ile raising the
average in d ivid u a l category landings.
For most areas there is a negative relation
between variation and mean landings,
suggesting that the potential for expanding
landings in these regions is lim ited. The
Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic, where
much of the Northeast Atlantic's excess
capacity is being diverted, show this pattern
(Figure 29). An exception to the general rule is
the Eastern Indian Ocean, where both the
variation and the am ount of the harvest appear
to be increasing. The Eastern Indian and the
Western Central Pacific Oceans represent the
most b io log ica lly diverse regions. Trends
between the mean and the variance do not
Log-landings
standard d e via tio n
necessarily represent tim e trends, although
trends over tim e w ill have an effect (Figures 27
and 28).
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
Given the diversity o f ecosystems w ith in each
region, is not possible to describe the state of
ecosystems at the regional level w ith any
certainty. The statistics show that m arine
ecosystems have come under increasing
pressure, the full consequences of w h ich are
unknow n. Im proved m onitoring through
fishery-independent indices and research on
the impacts o f fisheries on fish com m unities
w o u ld both go some w ay towards identifying,
preventing and solving the problems.
M arine reserves represent an im portant tool
to be used in co njun ction w ith other
appropriate management measures, not ju s t for
protecting m any ecosystems and leaving
proportions of them intact, but also for
providing a baseline state for m onitoring. To be
effective, reserves have to cover a relative ly
large proportion of the ecosystem at the
regional level. A t present, m arine reserves are
frequently proposed to protect particular stocks
or periods of their life cycle, rather than to
offer general protection for the ecosystem.
A more general approach coordinated at the
FIGURE 29
Example areas showing the trends between
the average and variation of landings categories
3.6
Northeast
A tlantic
3.4
3.2
Eastern
Indian
Ocean
3.0
2.8
Eastern
Central
A tlantic
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
Note: The average landings indicate the general level o f e xploitation o f the ecosystem.
The variation index indicates h ow changes are distributed across categories. In the case o f the
Eastern Indian Ocean, higher levels o f exploitation have tended to increase the variation
am ong landings categories, suggesting th a t landings have increased from a broad base largely through a greater focus on a fe w im portant resources. Conversely, fo r the A tlantic
fisheries, higher exploitation tends to produce a m ore even spread am ong categories,
w ith less focus on the most im portant resources. This is probably due to the most abundant
resources being already fu lly exploited
Source: FAO
Log-landings
average
71
regional level w o u ld probably be required if
w id e r benefits are to be acquired, p articularly
fo r pelagic ecosystems.
In p ro tectin g the ecosystem, the most
im p o rta n t course o f action is to p rotect the
various parts that make it up - the in d iv id u a l
stocks. W hen the abundance o f in d iv id u a l
species is m a in ta in e d , the ecosystem derives
p ro te ctio n . H ow ever, because in d iv id u a l
stock assessments do not take a cco u n t of
in te ra ctio n s am ong species,
re co m m e n d a tio n s on e x p lo ita tio n levels
m ay have to becom e m ore cautious as
increasing num bers o f species becom e
fu lly e xp lo ite d .
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
W ith the possible exception of the Eastern
Indian Ocean and the Western Central Pacific,
the indicators show fu lly exploited ecosystems
w ith little room for m anoeuvre in all areas.
However, if one area were to be singled out
for particular concern, based on the available
indices it w o u ld be the Northeast A tla ntic
(Figures 27, 28 and 29). Several indices
suggest that this ecosystem has been shifted
away from its unexploited state, giving cause
for concern that continued heavy fishing may
lead to more widespread problems.
GENETICALLY M O D IF IE D O R G A N IS M S
A N D FISHERIES
THE ISSUE
"W e have no problem w ith genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) as long as they
are proved to be safe to human beings and
have no negative impact on the
environment. That is a very clear position."
Jacques Diouf, FAO Director-General
7 March 2000
G enetic m od ifica tio n of aquatic species has
the potential to increase, greatly, both the
quantity and the q ua lity of products from
aquaculture. Traditional anim al breeding,
chromosom e-set m anipulation and
h yb rid iza tio n have already made significant
contributions to aquaculture production, and
their co ntributions are expected to increase as
aquatic species become more dom esticated
and as breeding and genetic technology
continue to improve.
A lthough such techniques all involve genetic
m odification, G M O s are defined by
international agreements and m uch national
legislation in a very narrow sense as being
essentially transgenic organisms,
i.e. organisms that have had foreign genes
inserted into their cells (Box 14).
Several useful genes that can be transferred
into different aquatic species have been
identified (Table 5). Am ong the genes identified
are those that produce:
• growth hormones for increased growth and
e fficien cy (among other im portant traits):
• anti-freeze protein for increased cold
tolerance and growth;
• lysosyme fo r increased disease resistance;
• prolactin hormones that influence hatching,
osm oregulation, behaviour and general
m etabolism .
Some genes can create a "loss o f fu nctio n".
For example, they can block the release of
gonadotropin, thereby delaying or reducing
reproduction. O ther genes that are useful in
basic research and genetic m arking have been
identified and transferred into the fish that are
used in laboratory studies, such as the medaka
and platyfish.
Experimental and p ilo t projects on transgenic
organisms have demonstrated that growth rates
can be improved dram atically; and other
com m ercially im portant traits, such as disease
resistance and increased environm ental
tolerance, can also be improved. Although no
transgenic aquatic species are yet available to
the consumer, transgenic fish may w ell be on
the market w ith in the next few years. There is
concern in aquaculture, as in other foodproducing sectors, that transgenic technology
poses new risks and must therefore be carefully
monitored and regulated to ensure that the
environm ent and human health are not
endangered. A contrasting opinion is that GM Os
are not substantially different from other
genetically im proved or domesticated species,
that they w ill not survive w ell in the w ild should
they escape and, therefore, that they need no
additional testing or oversight.
Issues regarding environm ental and human
health safety must be addressed if this
technology is to fu lfil its potential. O ther areas
that need to be considered include intellectual
property protection, trade and ethics. Key
questions are: To w ha t degree are G M O s
different from organisms that have not been
genetically m odified? W hat, if any, additional
regulations, safeguards, testing or m onitoring
need to be put in place?
BOX 14
Nom enclature
The de velopm e nt o f a com m o n nom enclature is
the use o f m odern biotechnology. "L ivin g
cru cia l in establishing legislation and p o lic y for
organism " means any b io lo g ica l e n tity capable o f
the responsible use o f G M O s. However, this is
transferring o r rep lica ting genetic m aterial,
proving to be a fo rm id a b le task. The tendency in
in clu d in g sterile organisms, viruses and viroids.
international legal bodies and industry is to restrict
"M o d e rn b io te ch n o lo g y" means the a p p lica tio n of:
use o f the term G M O to transgenic species,
i) in vitro n u cle ic acid techniques, in clud in g
whereas some vo lu n ta ry instrum ents ad op t a
reco m bin an t D N A and d ire ct in je ctio n o f nu cle ic
w id e r d e fin itio n that includes other genetic
acid into cells o r organelles: ii) fusion o f cells
m o d ifica tio n s such as h yb rid iza tio n , chrom osom e
beyond the ta xo n o m ic fa m ily that overcom e
m anipulations, sex reversal and selective
natural physiological rep rod uctive or
breeding. The fo llo w in g are some o f the de fin itio n s
reco m bin atio n barriers and that are not techniques
o f G M O s that are cu rre n tly in use.
used in tra d itio n a l breeding and selection.
ICES.1 "A n organism in w h ic h the genetic m aterial
EC.2 "A n organism in w h ic h the genetic m aterial
has been altered an th ro p o g e n ica lly by means o f
has been altered in a w a y that does not occu r
gene o r cell technologies. Such technologies
naturally by mating and/or natural recom bination. ...
in clu d e isolation, characterization and
G e n e tica lly m odified m icro-organism s are
m o d ifica tio n o f genes and th e ir in tro d u ctio n into
organisms in w h ic h genetic m aterial has been
livin g cells o r viruses o f D N A , as w e ll as
purposely altered through genetic engineering in a
techniques for the pro du ction in vo lvin g cells w ith
w a y that does not o ccu r naturally."
new co m b in a tio n s o f genetic m aterial by the
fusion o f tw o o r m ore cells."
USDA. The U nited States D epartm ent o f
A g ricu ltu re states that its Performance Standards
(w h ich are voluntary) on co n d u ctin g research on
G M O s a p p ly to the fo llo w in g organisms:
1. "D e lib e ra te G ene Changes - in clud in g
changes in genes, transposable elements, non­
cod in g D N A (in clu d in g regulatory sequences),
synthetic D N A sequences and m ito ch o n d ria l
DNA;
2. D eliberate C hrom osom e M an ip u la tio n s in clu d in g m an ip ula tion o f chrom osom e
num bers and chrom osom e fragments; and
3. D eliberate Interspecific H yb rid iza tio n (except
for n o n-a pplica ble species discussed below ) referring to hum an-induced h yb rid iza tio n
between ta x o n o m ic a lly d istin ct species."
To cla rify further, USD A states that nona p p lica b le organism s are intraspecific, selectively
bred species and w idespread and w e ll-k n o w n
interspecific hybrids that do not cause adverse
eco lo gica l effects.
Convention on Biological Diversity. In the
1 ICES. 1 9 9 5 . ICES C o d e o f P ra c tic e o n th e
language o f the C onvention on B io lo gica l
In tro d u c tio n s a n d Transfers o f M a rin e O rg a n is m s -
D iversity, G M O s have becom e livin g m odified
1 9 9 4 . ICES C o o p e ra tiv e R esearch R e p o rt N o . 2 0 4 .
organism s (LMOs). "L iv in g m od ifie d organism "
- EEC. 1 9 9 0 . O f fic ia l Jo u rn a l o f th e E u ro p e a n
means any livin g organism that possesses a novel
C o m m u n itie s , 117, 8 M a y 1 9 9 0 .
co m b in a tio n o f genetic m aterial obtained through
TABLE 5
Some aquatic G M O s (transgenic species) being tested for use in aquaculture
Species
Foreign gene
Desired effect and comments
Country
A tla n tic s a lm o n
AFP
C o ld to le ra n c e
U n ite d States, C a n a d a
AFP s a lm o n G H
In c re a s e d g r o w th a n d fe e d e ffic ie n c y
U n ite d States, C a n a d a
C h in o o k s a lm o n
A fte r 1 ye a r, 1 0 - to 3 0 - fo ld
C anada
C o h o s a lm o n
G H + AFP
g r o w th Increase
C h in o o k s a lm o n
AFP s a lm o n G H
In c re a s e d g r o w th a n d fe e d e ffic ie n c y
N e w Z e a la n d
R ain b o w tr o u t
AFP s a lm o n G H
In c re a s e d g r o w th a n d fe e d e ffic ie n c y
U n ite d States, C a n a d a
C u tth ro a t tr o u t
C h ln o o k s a lm o n
In c re a s e d g ro w th
C anada
In cre a s e d g r o w th a n d fe e d e ffic ie n c y ;
C a n a d a , U n ite d K in g d o m
G H + AFP
T ila p ia
A FP s a lm o n G H
s ta b le In h e rita n c e
T ila p ia
T ila p ia G H
In cre a s e d g r o w th a n d s ta b le In h e rita n c e
Cuba
T ila p ia
M o d ifie d tila p ia
P ro d u c tio n o f h u m a n In s u lin fo r d ia b e tic s
C anada
D ise a se re s is ta n c e , s till In d e v e lo p m e n t
U n ite d States, C a n a d a
D ise a se re s is ta n c e , s till In e a rly stages
U n ite d States
In s u lin -p ro d u c in g g ene
S a lm o n
R a in b o w tr o u t
ly s o s o m e g e n e and
flo u n d e r p le u r o c ld ln
gene
S trip e d bass
In se ct genes
o f re sea rch
M u d lo a c h
C h a n n e l c a tfis h
M u d lo a c h G H +
In c re a s e d g r o w th a n d fe e d e ffic ie n c y ;
m u d lo a c h a n d m o u se
2- to 3 0 - fo ld In cre a se In g ro w th ;
p r o m o te r genes
In h e rita b le tra n s g e n e
GH
3 3 % g r o w th Im p ro v e m e n t In
C h in a , K o re a , Rep.
U n ite d States
c u ltu r e c o n d itio n s
C o m m o n c a rp
S a lm o n a nd
hum an GH
1 5 0 % g r o w th Im p ro v e m e n t In c u ltu re
C h in a , U n ite d States
c o n d itio n s ; Im p ro v e d disease
re s is ta n c e ; to le r a n c e o f lo w o x y g e n leve l
In d ia n M a jo r
H um an GH
In c re a s e d g r o w th
In d ia
c a rp s
G o ld fis h
G H AFP
In c re a s e d g ro w th
C h in a
A b a lo n e
C o h o s a lm o n G H +
In cre a s e d g ro w th
U n ite d States
In c re a s e d g ro w th
U n ite d States
C a lc ito n in p r o d u c tio n to c o n tr o l c a lc iu m
U n ite d K in g d o m
v a r io u s p ro m o te rs
O y ste rs
C o h o s a lm o n G H +
v a r io u s p ro m o te rs
Fish to o th e r life form s
R a b b it
S a lm o n c a lc ito n in p r o d u c in g g en e
S tra w b e rry a n d
AFP
loss fro m b o n e s
In c re a s e d c o ld to le ra n c e
U n ite d K in g d o m , C a n a d a
p o ta to e s
Note: The developm ent o f transgenic organisms requires the insertion o f the gene o f interest and a promoter, w h ic h is the sw itch th a t controls
expression o f the gene.
AFP = anti-freeze protein gene (A rctic flatfish).
GFH = grow th horm one gene.
74
Environmental issues. Environmental issues
centre on the im port and release into the
environm ent of GMOs. G M O s may either be
introduced into the environm ent on purpose, as
in stock enhancement programmes, or
accidentally through escape from aquaculture.
Even in contained aquaculture facilities there is
a high probability that organisms w ill escape. In
Norway, escaped farmed salmon make up
about 30 percent of the salmon in rivers and
outnum ber the resident salmon in many inland
streams.37 There is currently concern that
G M O s w ill either have an adverse impact on
local biodiversity through increased predatory
or com petitive ability, or that they w ill breed
w ith related species and disrupt the local
genetic diversity. The proponents of GM Os
m aintain that these organisms w ill be very
domesticated, w ill have very lo w fitness in the
w ild and, therefore, w ill not compete
successfully w ith w ild fish.
However, the lo w fitness of G M O s in the
w ild is a genetic concern if they breed w ith
local stocks. Local stocks have adapted to the
local environm ent, whereas G M O s have
adapted to the farm environm ent, so breeding
between G M O s and resident organisms w ou ld
m ix the different sets of genes, thus changing
the local diversity. W ork that concerned
m ainly salm onids (non-transgenic salmons)
suggested that the m ixing of farmed and w ild
genes usually has an adverse effect on w ild
stocks, but real examples of damage are few
and it is d iffic u lt to attribute adverse impacts
on w ild stocks to genetic causes alone when
habitat degradation, overfishing, etc. are also
influencing them.
The issue is w hether G M O s can interbreed
w ith local stocks, how fit their offspring w ill be
in the w ild and, hence, w ha t their real im pact
on local genetic diversity w ill be. Evidence
indicates that m any aquaculture species
escape and are capable o f establishing
reproducing populations even w hen they are
genetically im proved and have moved into
new areas, as in the case o f farmed A tla ntic
salmon escaping and reproducing in British
C olom bia.
Human health issues. Although most fishery
resource managers agree that environm ental
57 D . G a u se n a n d V. M o e n . 1 9 9 1 . L a rg e -sca le escap e s o f A tla n tic
s a lm o n (S a lm o salar) In to N o rw e g ia n riv e rs th re a te n n a tu ra l
p o p u la tio n s . C a n a d ia n Jo u rn a l o f F ish er ¡es a n d A q u a tic S c ie n c e ,
4 8 :4 2 6 - 4 2 8 .
issues are of prim ary importance, the human
health concerns associated w ith GM Os
probably receive the most attention w orldw ide,
probably as a result of news about crops. Crops
have been genetically m odified to contain
pesticides, herbicides and general antibiotics,
and there are fears that these toxins could affect
people.
There have also been instances in crops
w here the foreign gene has caused allergic
reactions; for example, a gene from a Brazil
nut was placed in soybean and people w ho
were allergic to Brazil nuts reacted to the
soybean. In the fisheries sector, the most
com m on gene construct involves a growth
horm one gene (Table 5) and not the herbicides
or pesticides used in plants. M any of the
G M O s being tested for use in aquaculture o nly
produce more o f their own growth hormone.
Thus, from the human health perspective the
risks w ith the present use of the technology are
clearly circum scribed and minor. One area of
potential concern is the future developm ent of
disease resistance. A theoretical p ossibility is
that, if a G M O is more disease-resistant, it
may become a host for new pathogens, some
of w h ich may be transmissible or pathogenic
to humans.
Trade. The W T O agreements contain
com ponents that apply to G M O s (e.g. the
rem oval of trade barriers, the requirem ents for
intellectual property protection and labelling
requirem ents).
Although no aquatic G M O s are traded,
genetically m odified soybean is an ingredient
of shrim p and other animal feeds that are
traded globally. The EC and Japan have
labelling requirem ents for this feed, and the
feed industry is studying the w o rld w id e
reaction to the labelling and may look for
soybean replacem ents for feeds.
Intellectual property protection. The research,
developm ent and production of reliable G M O s
and the environm ental and human health
m onitoring infrastructure that should be
installed have financial im p lica tio ns for
b iotechnology com panies prom oting the use of
GMOs. One mechanism to help recover these
costs is through intellectual property rights, for
exam ple patents that protect the inventors and
developers of a product. A rticle 27(3)(b) o f the
Agreem ent on Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) allow s for
the patenting of life forms. The U nited States
Patent O ffice has granted patents on
75
transgenic salmon and abalone. However,
w o rld w id e patenting laws are extrem ely
com plex and sometimes even contradictory;
W TO and some countries a llo w the patenting
of living organisms, but the EC does not. M any
groups have moral objections to the patenting
of life (see the paragraph on Ethics) and
innovations that are contrary to pub lic m orality
cannot be patented.
Labelling. Europe and the U nited States are in
c o n flic t over the labelling o f genetically
m odified crops. Some countries m aintain that
labelling is im practical and w o u ld , in any
case, be ambiguous w h ile others th in k that it is
necessary for inform ed consumer choice and
to prevent a p ub lic relations disaster. A m ajor
issue in labelling is that of "substantially
equivalent" w h ich means that, if the G M O or
product is equivalent to the non-G M O
counterpart, no extra labelling is needed. H o w
to assess equivalence, how m uch inform ation
should go on to a label and how the
authenticity o f labels can be established w ill
be d iffic u lt matters to resolve.
Ethics. The field of ethics is extrem ely broad
and ethics issues are often discussed under
different term inology. For exam ple, some
aspects o f "responsible fisheries" could also be
referred to as "e th ica l fisheries". Ethical
questions w ith regard to aquatic G M O s usually
focus on w hether humans have the right to
m odify natural creations. The Prince of Wales
(UK) stated that "[genetic m o d ifica tio n ] takes
m ankind into realms that belong to God, and to
God alone". Yet humans have been m odifying
plants, animals and the habitats they live in for
m illennia. The developm ent of agriculture has
been proposed as one of the most significant
aspects of c iv iliz a tio n in that it provided the
tim e and resources that allow ed humans to
feed more people and left them free to develop
fine arts and science. O ther ethical dim ensions
include autonom y and the right to inform ation.
Again, from the crop sector it appears that a
main cause o f concern are m ultinational
agribusinesses, w h ich are seen as taking
control away from farmers and w ith h o ld in g
inform ation from consumers. These issues are
less im portant in fisheries at present, m ainly
because no fisheries G M O s are available to
consumers.
the popular m edia and is a to p ic of discussion
in nearly every general meeting on
aquaculture developm ent. This is because the
p u b lic perceives that there is a problem , and
policy-m akers and N G O s strive to address the
issues their publics find im portant. Because
this is such an em otive issue, m uch of the
news and research reports are presented by
special interest groups in ways that suit their
particular agendas; industry claim s that the
technology has been carefully tested and is
safe, w h ile opponents forecast environm ental
and health disasters.
The use o f G M O s needs to be evaluated
o b je c tiv e ly and ra tio n a lly. Recently, s c ie n tific
papers that deal w ith G M O s have been
capturing headlines in m ajor newspapers
th ro u g h o u t the w o rld . U nfortun a tely the
jo u rn a lis ts and interest groups concerned
have not managed to report the science
c o m p le te ly or accurately. This has been the
case in respect o f g en etica lly m od ifie d
salm on. A lth ou g h there are theoretical causes
fo r concern, there are no real data to support
the recent cla im that g e n e tica lly m od ifie d
salm on are extrem ely dangerous to the
environm ent. On the other hand, although fish
that have not been genetically m odified and
that have escaped from cu lture fa c ilitie s or
been introduced into environm ents outside
th e ir native range have already caused
environm ental damage and are a clear and
present danger, they have not received nearly
so m uch press coverage.
POSSIBLE S O L U T IO N S
International legislation, guidelines and codes
of conduct for the sustainable use and
conservation o f aquatic genetic diversity have
been, and continue to be, established. These
represent a valuable first step in the
responsible use o f GM Os. Performance
standards for conducting safe research on
G M O s have been established by the United
States D epartm ent of A g ricu lture .38 It has been
recognized that G M O s share m any of the
same traits as alien species and alien
genotypes.
Managem ent and risk management should
therefore fo llo w the m ethodology, established
by such groups as ICES39 and the European
’ “ A v a ila b le at: w w w .n b ia p .v t.e d u /p e r fs ta n d s /p s m a in .h tm l.
Public perceptions. Although no genetically
m odified fish, shellfish or seaweed are
available to consumers, the issue permeates
59 ICES. 1 9 9 5 . ICES C o d e o f P ra c tic e o n th e In tro d u c tio n s a n d
T ra n s fe rs o f M a r in e O r g a n is m s R esearch R e p o rt N o . 2 0 4 .
1 9 9 4 . ICES C o o p e r a tiv e
76
Inland Fishery Advisory Com m ittee, for the
transfer of m arine organisms from one aquatic
environm ent to another.
C oncerning human health, the EC and the
F A O /W H O Codex A lim entarius Com m ission
(CAC) play leading roles in the enhancem ent
of food safety. Codex standards, guidelines and
other recom m endations on food safety
considerations, descriptions o f essential food
hygiene and q u a lity characteristics, labelling,
methods of analysis and sampling and systems
for inspection and certification are not binding
on M em ber Nations, but are a p oint of
reference.
There are also technical solutions to the
problem of environm ental impact. The
production of sterile G M O s w o u ld reduce their
im pact on native genetic diversity by making
breeding impossible should they escape into
the w ild . Com m ercial developers of G M O s
have stated that, once approved for grow-out,
o nly sterile fish w ill be used in production.
Sterility has been achieved easily by
chromosom e-set m anipulation in many
species, although the technique is not always
successful. G enetic engineering itself may
provide ste rility by inserting loss of function
genes.
The adoption of closed systems and the
location of farms in areas that are not
environm entally sensitive w o u ld be other ways
of lessening the im pact o f GMOs. Com m ercial
promoters of G M O s believe that, through
increased p roduction efficiency, farms that
have closed systems and are located away
from certain areas (e.g. the coast) w o u ld be
profitable.
Solutions to the problem of using G M O s w ill
o nly come from addressing all sides of this
com plex issue. Technically, there must be
good scientific backup w ith adequate testing
and m onitoring to reduce the uncertainties of
environm ental impact. The non-technical
issues w ill be equally im portant and include
being aware of the perceptions of consumers
and c iv il society, acknow ledging that these
groups kn ow and understand very little about
how th eir food is produced, and taking steps to
educate the general public. A group of
aquaculture geneticists established a key
com ponent in the N etw ork of Aquaculture
Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA)/FAO Bangkok
Strategy for Aquaculture D evelopm ent in the
Third M ille n n iu m , w h ich gave high p rio rity to
"encouraging p u b lic awareness and providing
inform ation to consumers on the a pplication of
genetics".
RECENT A C T IO N S
•
It seems like ly that aquatic G M O s w ill soon be
available for sale to consumers. A private
company, operating in the U nited States and
Canada, is leading the drive to com m ercialize
genetically m odified salmon and has requested
approval for distribution from the U nited States
Food and Drug A dm inistration (USFDA) and
the Canadian D epartm ent of Fisheries and
Oceans. The com m ercial distribution of
genetically m odified salm on has provoked
expressions of concern about the potential lack
of adequate regulatory mechanisms, but these
have been countered by claim s that groups
such as USFDA do have adequate testing and
regulatory procedures in place.
•
Regarding food safety, at its 23rd Session
(July 1999), CAC established an Ad Hoc
Intergovernmental Codex Task Force on Foods
Derived from Biotechnology. Its objective is to
develop standards, guidelines or
recom m endations for foods derived from
biotechnology or traits introduced into food by
biotechnology, on the basis o f scientific
evidence, risk analysis and other factors that
are relevant to the health of consumers and the
prom otion of fair trade practices.
•
The most significant international action
regarding G M O s is the establishm ent of the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, a legally
binding agreement under the C onvention on
Biological D iversity to protect the environm ent
against risks posed by the transboundary
transport of LMOs, w h ich are sim ilar to
GM Os. U nder this agreement, governments
can decide w hether or not to accept
genetically m odified com m odities, and
com m odities that may contain G M O s must be
clearly labelled. W hen genetically m odified
organisms such as live fish are released into
the environm ent, advanced inform ed
agreement procedures must be fo llo w ed ,
requiring that exporters provide detailed
inform ation to each im porting country in
advance o f the first shipm ent and that
im porters authorize shipments.
Pharm aceuticals produced by genetic
engineering are not covered by the protocols,
however. The relationship between protocols
that can restrict trade and existing W TO
77
agreements that aim for liberalized trade need
to be refined.
•
Recently, a fram ew ork for addressing ethical
issues was proposed by the FAO C om m ittee on
Ethics in Food and Agriculture. It includes
basic elements on:
• beneficence - inclu ding hunger a lleviation,
increased standards of living and
environm ental protection:
• safety - including the precautionary
approach, human and animal rights and
human and environm ental health;
• autonom y - including participation, the
right to know ledge and access to resources;
•ju s tic e - inclu ding equity, food security,
intergenerational e quity and sustainability.
The ethical dim ension of G M O s in food and
agricultural developm ent is being addressed
by the relevant subcom m ittee through the
preparation of docum ents and other m edia.40
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
G lobally, more than a dozen transgenic fish
are being developed for aquaculture - and
more are in the early stages o f developm ent or
being used in basic research into gene action,
physiology and developm ent. D evelopm ent of
aquatic G M O s is carried out p rim a rily in
developed countries (Table 5, p. 73). However,
developing countries have also produced
transgenic fish such as carp, mud loach and
tilapia. In spite of this activity, there are no
confirm ed reports o f transgenic fish being
released into com m ercial culture conditions or
into the environm ent. No transgenic fish are
available to the consumer.
The use of gene-transfer technology in
m olluscs and crustaceans lags behind its use in
fishes. M olluscs such as oysters have been
genetically im proved through the use of
chrom osom e m anipulation and conventional
selective breeding. G enetic im provem ent of
crustaceans is still hampered by difficulties in
closing the life cycle of m any im portant
species, such as the tiger prawn.
__________________
4u F A O . G M O s , th e c o n s u m e r, fo o d s a fe ty a n d th e e n v ir o n m e n t.
R o m e (In p re p a ra tio n ).
ECOLABELLING IN FISHERIES
M ANAG EM ENT
THE ISSUE
The idea that ecolabelling w o u ld lead to
im proved management of m arine capture
fisheries is of recent origin. It was first p u b lic ly
prom oted by U nilever PLC/NV and the W orld
W id e Fund for Nature (WWF) at their M arine
Stewardship C ouncil (MSC) in itia tive in early
1996.
The usefulness of ecolabelling in creating a
market-based incentive fo r environm entfrie n d ly production was recognized about tw o
decades ago w hen the first ecolabelled
products were put on sale in Germ any in the
late 1970s. Since then, and especially during
the 1990s, ecolabelling schemes have been
developed in most industrialized countries for
a w ide range of products and sectors. In recent
years, they have been gaining im portance in a
num ber of developing countries, including
Brazil, India, Indonesia and Thailand. The
concept was g lo ba lly endorsed in 1992 at
UNCED, w here governments agreed to
"encourage expansion of environm ental
labelling and other enviro n m e nta lly related
product inform ation programmes designed to
assist consumers to make inform ed choices".41
Despite the international com m unity's
general acceptance o f pro du ct ecolabelling,
the approach has caused controversy in
several international fora, inclu ding the W TO
Sub-Com m ittee on Trade and Environm ent and
FAO's COFI. General concerns about
ecolabelling are its potential to act as a barrier
to trade and its coherence, or lack of it, w ith
international trade rules. M ore specific
concerns arise when applying ecolabelling to
products from m arine capture fisheries
because these have special characteristics.
Definitions. OECD has defined environm ental
labelling as the "vo lun ta ry granting of labels
by a private or p u b lic body in order to inform
consumers and thereby promote consumer
products w h ich are determ ined to be
e nvironm entally more frie n d ly than other
fu n c tio n a lly and c o m p e titiv e ly sim ilar
products".42 A distinction is usually made
between labels assigned on the basis of
product life cycle criteria and so-called
41 U N C E D . A g e n d a 2 1, P a ra g ra p h 4 .2 1 .
O E C D . 1 9 9 1 . E n v iro n m e n ta l la b e llin g in O E C D c o u n trie s , b y
T S a lz m a n . O E C D R e p o rt N o . 1. Paris.
78
"single issue labels", and the latter are often
excluded from e colabelling programmes. This
is in accordance w ith the general principles
adopted by the International O rganization for
Standardization (ISO)43 w h ich prescribe, inter
alia, that "the developm ent of environm ental
labels and declarations shall take into
consideration all relevant aspects of the life
cycle of the p ro d u ct".44 The product life cycle
approach is fo llo w e d by m any ecolabelling
programmes, including the EC Flower, the
N ordic Green Swan and U nited States Green
Seal ecolabel award schemes.
W h ile no e xp licit defin itio n has been
adopted by either W TO or FAO, an im p iic itly
w ide defin itio n of ecolabelling has been used
in past debates at sessions of W TO 's
C om m ittee on Trade and the Environm ent
(WTO/CTE) and COFI. This broader defin itio n
encompasses product labelling that conveys
any type of environm ental inform ation.
However, as the central concerns o f prim ary
resource-based industries include sustainable
use of the exploited natural resources and the
conservation of habitats and related
ecosystems, future e colabelling in fisheries is
likely to focus on these aspects and not
encompass all of the other environm ental
impacts (e.g. energy use) that are assessed for
most of the industrial products for w h ich a life
cycle approach is used.
producers have not sought to obtain them.
Potential price and/or m arket share
differentials provide the econom ic incentive
for firm s to seek certification o f their
product(s).
The label helps consumers to distinguish a
pro du ct according to desirable attributes
w ith o u t req uirin g them to have the detailed
technical know ledge and o v e rv ie w of
pro du ction processes and m ethods that
u nd erlie the c e rtific a tio n c rite ria and
c e rtific a tio n itself. The label is a costeffective w ay o f supplying consumers w ith
relevant pro du ct inform a tion that may
influence th e ir purchasing and consum ption
d e c is io n s .46
Consumers' product choices and their
w illingness to pay a higher price for an
ecolabelled product w ill depend on their
general capacity to address, and w illingness to
respond to, environm ental concerns through
purchasing behaviour, and on their level of
awareness and understanding of the specific
objectives pursued through the labelling
scheme.47 W h ile there is considerable
evidence that consumers' responsiveness to
environm ental product attributes varies among
countries as w ell as w ith in them (among
45T h e G e rm a n c o m p a n y Fair Trade e.V. la u n c h e d a fa ir-tra d e d
fis h in itia tiv e at th e B re m e n 2 0 0 0 S e a fo o d Fair. It a im s at
H O W ECOLABELLING W O RK S
Ecolabelling is a market-based econom ic
instrum ent that seeks to direct consumers'
purchasing behaviour so that they take
account of product attributes other than price.
Such attributes can relate to econom ic and
social objectives (fair trade;45 support to sm allscale fishers; discouragem ent of c h ild labour)
in addition to environm ental and ecological
ones. Consumers' preferences are expected to
result in price and/or m arket share differentials
between products w ith ecolabels and those
that either do not q ua lify for them or whose
im p r o v in g th e liv in g a n d w o r k in g c o n d itio n s o f a rtis a n a l fis h e rie s
w o r k e r s in d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s a n d is based o n p a rtn e rs h ip
b e tw e e n a s s o c iâ t io n s o f m a ri ne fis h e r ¡es w o r k e r s a n d Fair Trade.
C rite ria fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in c lu d e p ra c tis in g fis h e rie s a c tiv itie s
th a ta d h e r e to IF O 's c o re la b o u rs ta n d a rd s , are s m a ll-s c a le la b o u rin te n s iv e a n d e n v ir o n m e n ta lly fr ie n d ly a n d h a v e n o n e g a tiv e
im p a c ts o n lo c a l fis h s u p p lie s a n d tr a d itio n a l m a rk e tin g and
p r o c e s s in g p r a c tic e s . F o r d e ta ils , see S. M a th e w . 2 0 0 0 .
S u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t a n d s o c ia l w e ll- b e in g : w h ic h a p p ro a c h
fo r fis h tra d e ? In B ridg e s, A p r il 2 0 0 0 , p. 1 1 -1 2 . In te rn a tio n a l
C e n tre fo r Trade and S u s ta in a b le D e v e lo p m e n t (IC TSD ), G e n e v a .
4t,T h e th e o r e tic a l a spe cts o f p r o d u c t la b e llin g are based o n th e
e c o n o m ic s o f in fo r m a tio n . For a d is c u s s io n o f th is , see C. R.
W essel Is. E c o la b e l lin g o f p ro d u c ts fro m m a ri ne c a p tu re fis h e r ¡es:
te c h n ic a l a n d in s titu tio n a l a spects a n d tra d e im p lic a tio n s . FAO
45 ISO, e s ta b lis h e d a s a n N G O I n 1 9 4 7 , Is a fe d e ra tio n o f n a tio n a l
Fis h e rie s T e c h n ic a l P a p er (in p re p a ra tio n ).
sta n d a rd s b o d ie s fro m a b o u t 1 0 0 c o u n trie s . Its m is s io n Is to
47T h e fin d in g s o f a re c e n t s a m p le s u rv e y a m o n g U n ite d States
p ro m o te th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f w o r ld w id e s ta n d a rd iz a tio n and
c o n s u m e rs suggest th a t c u rre n t a w a re ness a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
re la te d a c tiv itie s w it h a v ie w to fa c ilita tin g th e In te rn a tio n a l
th e s u s ta in a b ility issues in fis h e rie s are s till lim ite d a n d th a t
e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s a n d s e rv ic e s a n d to d e v e lo p in g c o o p e ra tio n
p re fe re n c e s fo r e c o la b e lle d s e a fo o d are lik e ly to d iffe r b y sp e c ¡es,
In th e s p h e re s o f In te lle c tu a l, s c ie n tific , te c h n o lo g ic a l and
g e o g ra p h ic re g io n , c o n s u m e r g ro u p a n d , p e rh a p s , c e r tify in g
e c o n o m ic a c tiv it y . A d d it io n a l In fo r m a tio n
Is a v a ila b le at:
w w w .ls o .c h .
44 IS O .
1998.
a ge n cy. See C.R. W e s s e lls , R.J. J o h n s to n a n d H. D o n a th . 1 9 9 9 .
A ssessing c o n s u m e r p re fe re n c e s fo r e c o la b e lle d s e a fo o d : th e
E n v ir o n m e n t a l
la b e ls a n d
d e c la r a tio n s :
g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s . P rin c ip le 5. ISO 1 4 0 2 0 . G e n e v a .
in flu e n c e o f sp ec ¡es, c e rtifie r a n d h o u s e h o ld a ttrib u te s . A m e ric a n
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81(5): 10 84-1 089 .
79
different strata of the population), there is still
a scarcity of reliable data on the gains in
m arket shares and prices o f ecolabelled
products compared w ith non-label led products.
Northern European and N orth Am erican
consumers w ith good incomes and a high level
of education have a moderate, and sometimes,
strong, tendency to choose an ecolabelled
product over a non-labelled one, even when
the form er costs slightly - but not m uch more. There is evidence that ecolabels
covering product attributes that relate not o nly
to low er environm ental impacts, but also to
assumed higher product q ua lity in terms of
nutritional and/or health benefits, can realize
significant price prem ium s and show strong
growth in m arket shares, although such
products are still operating from a small base.
This applies to organic food products, for
exam ple.
Consumer confidence and trust are essential
for a successful ecolabelling programme. If the
purchase of ecolabelled products is to be
sustained, consumers need to be confident that
the scheme's objectives are being reached. If
consumers feei misled or become confused by
a large variety of com peting ecolabelling
schemes w ith in the same product group, they
are likely to return to cheaper non-labelled
products. C ertification criteria that are clear
and precise and a certification procedure that
is independent and verifiable ensure that the
label conveys accurate and sufficient
inform ation. Third-party ce rtifica tion through
private or p u b lic certifying agents whose
q ua lifica tion and independence have been
established w o u ld ensure the re lia b ility and
a ccou nta b ility of the programme and
consumers' confidence in it. The international
harm onization of criteria and standards can
prevent the consum er confusion that could
arise w ith m ultiple , com peting ecolabelling
schemes based on different, and perhaps
deceptive, criteria and standards.48
A ll ecolabelling schemes require a stringent
chain o f custody, so that the product can be
traced throughout the fu ll production,
distribution and m arketing chain dow n to the
4,“ T h e p ro b le m s a ris in g fro m m u ltip le la b e llin g sc h e m e s a n d
h o w t o re s o lv e th e m In th e case o f b a n a n a p ro d u c tio n a n d tra d e
h a ve r e c e n tly b e e n th e s u b je c to fu s e fu l d is c u s s io n s In F A O . For
d e ta ils , see F A O . 2 0 0 0 . R e p o rt o f th e A d H o c E xp e rt M e e tin g
o n S o c ia lly a n d E n v iro n m e n ta lly R e sp o n sib le B a n an a P ro d u c tio n
a n d Trade. R om e, 2 2 -2 4 M a rc h 2 0 0 0 . A v a l lab le at: w w w .fa o .o r g /
es/esc/ESCR/BANANAS/ExMConcl.pdf.
retail level. This presents particular d iffic u ltie s
in m arine fisheries, w here fleets are often
away from port for considerable periods, may
fish several different species in one trip and
may transship and/or transform products for
different markets at sea. A lthough these
d ifficulties can be overcom e, the costs
associated w ith perform ing fisheries tasks
w ith in a system that includes proper inspection
and control procedures can be a problem.
The fe a sib ility of achieving fisheries
m anagem ent objectives through ecolabelling
schemes depends on certain requirem ents
being met. The econom ic incentive created by
the labelling scheme needs to be sufficiently
high to encourage the fishery management
authority and participants in the fishery to seek
ce rtifica tio n and cover the related fisheries
m anagem ent and labelling costs. However, the
fact that m any of the fisheries that are
cu rren tly b io lo g ic a lly and/or e c o n o m ica lly
overexploited could produce high econom ic
returns if they were managed on sound
econom ic and bio log ica l principles, suggests
that econom ic incentives may not be the most
im portant constraint to realizing effective
fisheries management. Instead, p o litic a l and
social considerations are likely to be im portant
reasons w h y m any m arine fisheries w ill
rem ain p oo rly managed. Nevertheless, the
p u b lic relations, awareness creation and
educational activities that may accom pany an
ecolabelling program m e could eventually also
make a difference in the p olitical arena, and
contribute to the kind of p olitical w ill that is
needed if society and politicia ns are to
shoulder the short-term costs of fisheries
management for the longer-term good.
There is no guarantee that the widespread
adoption o f e colab elling program m es for
m arine fisheries w o u ld result in the better
m anagem ent o f global fisheries in toto. At
present, o n ly a sm all fractio n of global fish
consumers (most o f them livin g in Europe and
N orth Am erica) are lik e ly to be responsive to
ecolabels. M ost of the future grow th in global
fish dem and, however, w ill be in Asia, Latin
A m erica and A frica. The private sector is
lik e ly to react by d irectin g to ecosensitive
markets o n ly those products that can be
ce rtifie d at a lo w cost, w h ile other products
w ill be directed to markets that are not
ecosensitive. It cannot be guaranteed
therefore, that w hen a p articula r fishery fu lfils
the c e rtific a tio n c rite ria , excess fishing
ca pacity w ill not be redirected to other
u nce rtifie d fisheries. This co uld increase the
80
pressure on some fish stocks in favour of
those fo r w h ich c e rtifica tio n is p ro fita b ly
a pplied. Such negative s p illo v e r effects are
not unique to e colab elling schemes and can
arise from any fisheries m anagem ent
approach that does not encompass specific
measures to avoid the undesirable transfer of
excess fish in g capacity.
A lthough some of the best managed m arine
fisheries are currently found in developing
countries, in general these countries face
greater d iffic u ltie s in achieving effective
fisheries m anagem ent and, therefore, in
participating in e colabelling programmes than
industrialized countries do. The reasons for this
are m anifold and include the preponderance of
sm all-scale and artisanal fisheries, w here
management is more com plex because of the
large num ber of participants and their lack of
alternative rem unerative em p lo ym en t
opportunities; the m ultispecies characteristics
of tropical fisheries; a lack of the financial
resources needed to retire significant amounts
of excess fishing capacity; and the lim ited
technical and managerial capacities of
governm ent agencies, m any of w h ich face
reductions in their budgetary allocations.
Consequently, technical and financial support
w o u ld be needed to facilitate the participation
of developing countries, as w ell as of several
countries in transition, in ecolabelling
program m es.
Ecolabelling and international fish trade. Fish
and fishery products are among the most w id e ly
traded natural resource-based goods. A bout 37
percent of global fisheries production enters
international trade. For many developing
countries, foreign exchange revenues from fish
exports make a m ajor contribution to the
balance of payments and are thus of strategic
m acroeconom ic importance. In the three major
global fish importers (Japan, the EC and the
United States), the processing, wholesaling and
retailing of imported fish are of considerable
econom ic significance, and they satisfy the
consumer demand that is not met by domestic
production.
The large and increasing trade of global
fisheries production and the fact that m uch of
the trade flo w is from developing to
industrialized countries indicate the potential
of ecolabelling as both an incentive to
im proved fisheries m anagem ent and a barrier
to trade. Currently, m uch o f the ecolog ically
aware consumer demand is concentrated in
the main fish-im porting countries, w ith the
exception o f China w h ic h has become a m ajor
fish im porter o nly in recent years.
There is no unanim ous vie w on how
international trade rules, including the W TO
Agreements, can be interpreted by and applied
to ecolabelling schemes. One area of
divergent opinions is the extent to w h ich W TO
rules encompass production processes and
methods that are not product-related. Another
area of concern, w h ich is not exclusively or
sp ecifically addressed by e colabelling, is the
establishm ent procedures and characteristics
of international standards.49
RECENT A C T IO N S
•
In O ctober 1998, FAO convened a Technical
C onsultation on the Feasibility of Developing
N o n -d iscrim ina tory Technical G uidelines for
Ecolabelling of Products from M arine Capture
Fisheries. Although this consultation did not
reach an agreement on h ow practical and
feasible it w o u ld be for FAO to draft technical
guidelines for the ecolabelling of marine
fisheries products, it did identify a num ber of
principles that should be observed by
e colabelling schemes. They should:
• be consistent w ith the Code of C onduct for
Responsible Fisheries;
• be vo lu ntary and m arket-driven;
• be transparent;
• be non-discrim inatory, by not creating
obstacles to trade and a llo w in g for fair
co m p etitio n;
• establish clear a c c o u n ta b ility for the
promoters of schemes and for the certifying
bodies, in co nfo rm ity w ith international
standards;
• include a reliable auditing and ve rification
process;
• recognize the sovereign rights of states and
co m p ly w ith all relevant laws and
regulations;
• ensure equivalence of standards among
countries;
• be based on the best scientific evidence;
49 For d e ta ils o n e c o la b e llin g a n d in te rn a tio n a l tra d e ru le s see,
fo r e x a m p le , C. D e e re . 1 9 9 9 . E c o la b e llin g a n d s u s ta in a b le
fish e rie s. W a s h in g to n , D C -R o m e , IU C N /F A O ; and A.E. A p p le to n .
1 9 9 7 . E n v iro n m e n ta l la b e llin g p ro g ra m m e s : tra d e la w im p li­
c a tio n s . T h e H a g u e , N e th e rla n d s , K lu w e r L a w In te rn a tio n a l.
81
• be practical, viab le and verifiable;
• ensure that labels com m unicate truthful
inform ation;
• provide for clarity.
There are no a priori criteria that can be
considered essential or that can be applied
a utom atically to products derived from
fisheries. W ith in any labelling scheme, the
criteria w ill reflect a com prom ise between the
demands of the consumers and the capabilities
and w illingness of the producers and
intermediates to meet those demands. Hence,
in princip le, labelling schemes in fisheries
could aim to encompass all or any subset of
the environm ental, b io lo g ica l, social, p olitical
or econom ic issues that characterize a
fisheries venture.
The set of criteria applied in any ecolabelling
scheme should be developed jo in tly by
representatives o f the different interested
parties, including the producers, processors,
retailers and consumers. In fisheries, criteria
related to the sustainable use of the exploited
natural resources are of central concern, but
social and econom ic criteria might also be
considered. Criteria should be developed in a
participatory and transparent process, and those
selected should be "practical, viable and
ve rifia b le ".50 P racticality and v e rifia b ility are
very im portant requirements in assessing
fisheries, where high levels of uncertainty,
arising from poor understanding of im portant
ecosystem principles in aquatic systems and
difficulties of measuring w hat is happening in
the sea, com m only prevent the totally objective
interpretation of the status of stocks and
ecosystems. This may prove to be a substantial
obstacle to the widespread application of
ecolabelling schemes in marine capture
fisheries.51
created by W W F and the large fish retailer
U nilever to prom ote sustainable and
responsible fisheries and fishing practices
w o rld w id e . In co llaboration w ith a selected
group of parties that have interests and
experience in fisheries issues, MSC has
established a broad set of Principles and
C riteria fo r Sustainable Fisheries.52 Fisheries
meeting these standards w ill be e ligible for
c e rtifica tion by independent certifying bodies
accredited by MSC. On a vo lu ntary basis,
fishing com panies and organizations are
expected to contact certifiers in order to have
a ce rtifica tion procedure carried out.
Currently, tw o fisheries - the Thames Herring
Fishery (total annual production of about 150
tonnes) and the Western Australia Rock Lobster
Fishery (with an annual production o f about
10 000 tonnes this is Australia's most valuable
single fishery, co ntribu ting approxim ately 20
percent to the total value of national fisheries)
- have been certified and awarded the Fish
Forever MSC ecolabel. The U nited States
Alaska salmon fishery is like ly to be certified
soon, and initial assessments are under w ay for
some crustacean fisheries in Southeast Asia
and Central Am erica and a tuna fishery in the
P acific.
The M arine A quarium C ouncil (MAC) is an
international n on -p ro fit organization that
brings together representatives o f the aquarium
industry, hobbyists, conservation
organizations, governm ent agencies and
p u b lic aquariums. M AC aims to conserve coral
reefs by creating standards and educating and
certifying those engaged in the co lle ction and
care of ornam ental marine life, from the reef
to the aquarium . It is w orking to establish
standards for best practices in the supply of
m arine aquarium organisms; an independent
system to certify com pliance w ith these
The M arine Stewardship C ouncil (MSC) is an
independent, international non -p ro fit body,
5- A c c o r d in g to M SC " A s u s ta in a b le fis h e ry is d e fin e d , fo r th e
p u rp o s e s o f M S C c e r tific a tio n , as o n e th a t is c o n d u c te d in su ch
5uF A O . 1 9 9 8 . R e p o rt o f th e te c h n ic a l c o n s u lta tio n o n th e
a w a y th a t: it ca n be c o n tin u e d in d e fin ite ly at a re a s o n a b le
fe a s ib ility o fd e v e lo p in g n o n -d ls c rlm ln a to r y te c h n lc a l g u id e lin e s
le v e l; It m a in ta in s a n d seeks to m a x im iz e e c o lo g ic a l h e a lth
fo r e c o la b e llin g o f p ro d u c ts fro m m a rin e c a p tu re fis h e rie s , 21 -
a n d a b u n d a n c e ; It m a i nta Ins th e d iv e rs ity , s tru c tu re a n d fu n c tio n
23 O c to b e r 1 9 9 8 . R om e . FA O F ish e rie s R e p o rt N o . 5 9 4 . 29 pp.
o f th e e co s y s te m s o n w h ic h It d e p e n d s as w e ll as th e q u a lity o f
51 C e r tific a tio n c rite r ia fo r e c o la b e lle d m a rin e fis h e ry p ro d u c ts
Its h a b ita t, m in im iz in g th e a d v e rs e e ffe c ts th a t It causes; It Is
are d iscu sse d m o re f u lly in K. C o c h ra n e a n d R. W illm a n n .
m a n a g e d a n d o p e ra te d In a re s p o n s ib le m a n n e r, In c o n fo r m ity
E c o la b e llin g in fis h e rie s m a n a g e m e n t. In P ro c e e d in g s o f th e
w it h lo c a l, n a tio n a l a n d In te rn a tio n a l la w s a n d re g u la tio n s ; it
2 0 0 0 C o n fe re n c e o n C u rre n t Fisheries Issues, 1 6 -1 7 M a rc h 2 0 0 0 ,
m a in ta in s p re s e n t a n d fu tu re e c o n o m ic a n d s o c ia l o p tio n s a nd
R om e . F A O a n d th e C e n tre o f O c e a n L a w a n d P o lic y , U n iv e rs ity
b e n e fits ; a n d it Is c o n d u c te d In a s o c ia lly a n d e c o n o m ic a lly fa ir
o f V irg in ia , U n ite d States (In p re p a ra tio n ).
a n d re s p o n s ib le m a n n e r". S e e w w w .m s c . o r g .
82
standards; and increased consumer demand
and confidence for certified organisms,
practices and industry participants.53
BOX 15
Labelling for origin and species
•
The Responsible Fisheries Society (RFS) of
the United States and the G lobal Aquaculture
A llian ce (GAA), w h ich also has its
headquarters in the U nited States, have
announced a jo in t ecolabelling scheme to
recognize industry's co m m itm e nt and
participation in responsible fisheries and
aquaculture. The new ecolabel w ill be offered
to industry members w ho endorse the
Principles for Responsible Fisheries o f RFS or
the Principles for Responsible Aquaculture of
G AA and incorporate these principles into
their business. The RFS and G AA programmes
are open to all segments of the industry (e.g.
producer, importer, distributor, retailer or
restaurant operator) and require the
preparation of reports or plans that docum ent
im plem entation o f the RFS/GAA principles.
The RFS programme targets all types of United
States dom estic seafood products w h ile G AA
focuses p rin c ip a lly on farm-raised shrim p and
operates on a w o rld w id e basis. G AA evaluates
shrim p farms on the basis of a system o f selfassessment questionnaires. RFS is considering
developing a th ird -p a rty ce rtifica tio n system.54
•
Follow ing an initiative by the N ordic
C ouncil of M inisters (NCM) in August 1996, a
N ordic project group was established to
review criteria for sustainable production of
fish and fish products. The w o rk of this group
led to a num ber of related initiatives by NCM
and, in 1999, its Senior O fficia ls for Fishery
Affairs created a N ordic Technical W orking
G roup on Ecolabelling Criteria. The
participants in this group are drawn from
Denmark, Iceland, N orw ay and Sweden and
include observers from the European
Com m ission.
The Technical W orking Group concluded
that, in the m arine capture fisheries of the
Northeast A tlantic, state authorities ought to
establish e colabelling criteria, w h ich can then
be used by private bodies and N G O s to
ecolabel fish products. Ecolabelling is seen as
vo lu ntary and consum er-driven. The Technical
55 Fo r m o re in fo rm a tio n , see w w w .a q u a r iu m c o u n c il.o r g /.
54 F o r m o r e
i n f o r m a t i o n , se e w w w . n f i . o r g / a n d w w w .
g a a llia n c e .o rg /G A A -R F S e c o la b e l.h tm l.
W orking G roup emphasized that the process
should be transparent, be based on scientific
findings and use ve rifiable criteria. The
essential elements are a fisheries m anagem ent
plan, the a v a ila b ility of regular scientific
advice, the establishm ent of pre-agreed
management actions to adopt when
precautionary reference points are
approached, efficient m onitoring and control
systems, the absence of destructive fishing
practices, a m in im u m of discards, and
consideration of ecosystem issues. The
procedure should assure the consum er that
ecolabelled products derive from stocks that
are harvested in a sustainable w ay and that the
83
The la be lling o f fisheries products by co u n try o f
con tra cting parties to require that all im ported
o rig in and species is not a counterproposal to
bluefin tuna be accom panied by an ICCAT Bluefin
eco la b e llin g o r an alternative to it. Rather, it is an
Statistical do cum e nt that details the name o f the
independent w a y o f p ro vid ing m in im a l inform ation
exporter and im porter, the area o f harvest, etc.3
w here none cu rre n tly exists. The im portance o f
id en tifying the o rig in o f fishery products was
highlighted in the Code. A rtic le 11.1.11. states that
"States should ensure that international and
dom estic trade in fish and fishery products accords
w ith sound conservation and m anagement
practices through im p rovin g the id e n tifica tio n o f
the o rig in o ffis h and fishery products treated".
From January 2002, la be lling for o rig in and
species w ill becom e m andatory in the EC for fish
and fishery products offered fo r retail sale to final
consum ers.1
Ide ntificatio n o f the o rig in o f fisheries products
can provide a w a y o f w eeding o u t those products
that are deemed to be caught ille g a lly or caught in
a fashion that underm ines national o r international
managem ent efforts. For exam ple, in reco gn ition
o f the problem o f trade in unreported, ille g a lly
harvested Patagonian toothfish, the Parties to the
1 A c c o r d in g to A r tic le 4 o f C o u n c il R e g u la tio n (EC) N o .
1980 C onvention on the Conservation o f A nta rctic
1 0 4 /2 0 0 0 , la b e llin g is re q u ire d to in d ic a te : (a) th e
M arine Living Resources have drafted a catch
c o m m e r c ia l d e s ig n a tio n o f th e s p e c ie s , (b) th e
ce rtifica tio n scheme for toothfish. The idea is that
p r o d u c tio n m e th o d (c a u g h t at sea o r in in la n d w a te rs o r
international trade in ille g a lly caught Patagonian
fa rm e d ), a n d (c) th e c a tc h area.
toothfish w o u ld be restricted by req uiring that
- C C A M L R N e w s le tte r, D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 8 . H o b a rt,
im ports be accom panied by a valid certifica te of
T a s m a n ia , A u s tra lia .
o rig in .2
S im ilarly, ICCAT introduced a Bluefin Tuna
1 W T O . 1 9 9 8 . C o m m u n ic a tio n fro m th e S e c re ta ria t o f
th e In te rn a tio n a l C o m m is s io n fo r th e C o n s e rv a tio n o f
Statistical D ocum ent Programm e fo r frozen bluefin
A tla n tic Tunas. C o m m itte e o n Trade a n d E n v iro n m e n t,
(1992) and fresh bluefin (1993). The aim o f the
W T /C T E /W /8 7 . G e n e v a .
program m e was to increase the accuracy o f
bluefin statistics and tra ck unreported fish caught
S o u rc e : Based o n C. D e e re . 1 9 9 9 . E c o la b e llin g and
by non-m em bers and fleets fly in g flags o f
s u s ta in a b le fis h e rie s . W a s h in g to n , D C -R o m e , IU C N /
convenience. The program m e obliged all
FAO .
fish processing methods used do not have
serious ecosystem effects.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Ecolabelling is a new concept in capture
fisheries and there is no em pirical evidence as
yet about its future a bility to make a significant
contribution to im proving the management of
the w orld's aquatic resources. As has been
observed in the forestry sector, it is likely that
ecolabelling w ill first be applied to those
fisheries that are already fa irly w ell managed or
that could achieve good management at a
com paratively lo w cost. Such fisheries are
currently prim arily found in industrialized
countries, but not in great numbers, and there
are im portant exceptions in developing
countries. For example, Nam ibia's fisheries and
national econom y could eventually benefit
greatly if higher sale prices were realized from
ecolabelled fish and fishery products. Once the
success of p ilo t ecolabelling schemes has been
established, these could provoke significant
interest among governments and industry and
could create the kind of political w ill that is
needed to attain effective fisheries
management, often in the face of econom ically
and socially d iffic u lt adjustment.
84
The financial and technical resources
needed for these adjustments may be beyond
the means of several developing countries, and
the international co m m un ity may be called on
to provide assistance and fu lfil the
com m itm ents made in various international
instruments, including the Code, the W TO
Agreements and Agenda 21. However, such
assistance w o u ld be needed irrespective of
w hether or not ecolabelling were considered
as part of im proved fisheries management.
There is increasing acceptance on the part of
those w ho are fa m ilia r w ith ecolabelling that
such labels should not be used to discrim inate
against those w ho cannot, in the short term,
afford to develop and im plem ent the
managem ent practices needed fo r sustainable
fisheries management. It is also realized, not
least among the promoters of ecolabelling, that
it w o u ld be to the detrim ent of all schemes if a
large num ber of com peting ecolabelling
schemes were to develop. This w ou ld
underm ine one o f the p rincip le objectives of
ecolabelling, nam ely to give consumers more
inform ation that is relevant for their product
choice. Success hinges on respecting this
principle. It therefore seems plausible that
governments, industry and consumers should
prom ote international co llaboration in order to
agree on basic principles for the introduction
and use of ecolabels in fisheries and
aquaculture. ♦
PART 3
Highlights of special FAO studies
Highlights of special FAO studies
U N D E R S T A N D IN G THE CULTURES
OF F IS H IN G C O M M U N IT IE S :
A KEY T O FISHERIES M A N A G E M E N T
A N D F O O D SECURITY
BACKGROUND
In 1995, a conference on the Sustainable
C ontribution of Fisheries to Food Security was
convened by the G overnm ent of Japan, in
collaboration w ith FAO, in Kyoto, Japan. One
of the conclusions o f the conference was that
an understanding of the culture of fishing
com m unities is fundam ental for equitable
governance and management of capture
fisheries and aquaculture and for
sustaining food security in fisheriesdependent regions.
As part of the fo llo w -u p to the conference,
FAO com m issioned a study on the culture of
fishing com m unities. It was decided that the
study should be based on a review o f the
literature, supplem ented by a set of specially
com m issioned case studies. The study has
been com pleted and w ill be published as an
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.1 It provides
guidance to fisheries officials w ith the aim of
increasing their understanding o f the cultures
of sm all-scale fisher com m unities and,
ultim ately, helping them to im prove living
standards w ith in such com m unities. It is based
on the generally accepted notion that ensuring
decent living conditions for fishing people is
ju s t as im portant an aim as sustaining healthy
fish stocks or obtaining the m axim um
econom ic yield from fisheries resources,
and that achieving this aim w ill require
a greater understanding o f and respect
for fishers' cultures and social
arrangem ents.
A fe w highlights of the case studies are given
in the fo llo w in g section, w h ich is fo llo w ed by
a sum m ary of conclusions. M ost o f these are
drawn from a review of the literature and some
are illustrated by the case studies.
1 F A O . U n d e rs ta n d in g th e c u ltu re s o f fis h in g c o m m u n itie s : a
k e y to fis h e r ie s m a n a g e m e n t a n d fo o d s e c u r ity , b y J.R.
M c G o o d w in w it h T. A k i m ¡ch i, M . B e n -Y a m i, M . M . R. F re e m an ,
J. K u rie n , R. W . S to ff le a n d D. T h o m s o n . FA O F ¡sheri es T e c h n ic a l
P a p er N o . 401 (in press). R om e.
H IG H L IG H T S FR O M CASE STUDIES
The six case studies of contem porary fishing
com m unities from d istinct cultural regions
throughout the w o rld illustrate how fisheries
m anagem ent practices and policies may
strengthen or weaken sm all-scale fishing
cultures.
Comm unity-based, species-oriented fisheries
management
The case study by T. A k im ic h i, on speciesoriented resource management on reef fish
conservation in the sm all-scale fisheries o f the
Yaeyama Islands, describes the com plex and
h ighly participatory steps that must be taken in
order to promote cooperative com m unitybased fisheries com anagem ent.
Around the Yaeyama Islands in southwestern
Japan, recent degradation o f coral-reef marine
ecosystems and heightened fishing effort by
both com m ercial and recreational fishers have
prompted concerns about introducing new and
more com prehensive methods of fisheries
management. Responding to these concerns,
the prefectoral governm ent launched a project
to prom ote the com m unity-based management
of a single species of em peror fish (Lethrinus
mahsena), w h ich has long been one of the
most im portant food fishes in the region. The
com m ercial fishers w ho target this species do
not com prise a homogeneous or unified group,
but instead take different approaches to fishing
and use different methods. However, they are
all members o f the region's fisheries
cooperative association (FCA), w h ich
coordinates fishing effort w ith in the territories
ascribed to it and has prerogatives regarding
certain m anagem ent measures, although it
does not have ju ris d ic tio n over recreational
fishers. Recreational fishing interests in the
region are also som ewhat diverse, consisting
m ainly of party-boat operators, fishing guides
and the owners o f fishing tackle shops.
Prefectoral and local governments
coordinate among the FCAs w ith in their
ju ris d ic tio n and exercise some other
management prerogatives. They also play an
especially im portant role as mediators in
disputes among the various FCAs under their
ju ris d ic tio n , as w ell as in disputes between
these and the FCAs in bordering ju ris d ic tio n s
or w ith non-FCA sectors, such as recreational
88
fishing. Japan's national Fisheries Agency in
Tokyo oversees the adm inistration of the
prefects and local governments.
D uring 1996 and 1997, the prefectoral
governm ent prom pted a series of meetings at
Yaeyama's FCA, at w h ich management
proposals were presented to the various
com m ercial fishers o f em peror fish. FCA
members, prefect and other governm ent
officials as w ell as individuals from the
recreational sector took part in these meetings.
It proved d iffic u lt to obtain a consensus among
FCA members about the proposed management
measures, m ainly because of th eir diverse
approaches to fishing, as w ell as some
members' scepticism about the need for a new
management programme and doubts that all
members w o u ld abide by it. On the other
hand, FCA members w ere v irtu a lly unified in
their concern about the im pact of recreational
fishers on em peror fish stocks.
Eventually, after rew orking the proposed
managem ent program m e, a tentative
consensus was reached among FCA members
regarding their w illingness to abide by it,
w h ile members of the recreational sector
v o lu n ta rily agreed to prom ote its acceptance
w ith in their sector.
The FCA members' knowledge of the ecology
helped the government authorities to develop
the programme, w h ile dialogue among all the
parties w ith interests in emperor fish stocks
helped to ensure that it was comprehensive and
effective. The current programme is not
complete and is expected to evolve as greater
experience is gained among the various interest
groups, w hich have started to collaborate w ith
one another more fu lly than before.
Using traditional credit systems for smallscale fisheries developm ent in N igeria
M. Ben-Yami's case study, on the integration of
traditional institutions and people's
p articipation in an artisanal fisheries
developm ent project in southeastern Nigeria,
illustrates how lim ited access to credit can
constrain the p ro d u ctivity o f sm all-scale
fishers. It reports on a successful credit
developm ent scheme aimed at helping smallscale fishing com m unities in southeastern
Nigeria. The success of this project depended
on a high degree of co m m un ity participation in
all o f its phases, from initial planning to final
p roject im plem entation.
Ben-Yami observes that the overall fishing
effort in the sm all-scale sector was not lim ited
by fish stocks, w h ich had long rem ained stable
and underutilized, but rather by difficulties in
gaining access to reasonably priced credit,
w h ich was needed for sustaining fishing
operations. The local com m unities already had
traditional credit institutions, but these were
not able to provide the higher levels of
reasonably priced credit that w o u ld facilitate
significant increases in fishing production. By
connecting trad ition al com m unity-based credit
institutions w ith a modern lending bank, the
developm ent effort was able to capitalize on
an im portant, pre-existing com ponent of local
c o m m u n ity culture.
O verall, the project enhanced the w ell-being
of many o f the people living in sm all-scale
fishing com m unities, although its success was
eroded by individuals (usually from outside the
com m unities) w ho tried to e xploit the project
for their ow n benefit, and by infla tion ary trends
in the national economy. A fe w years later,
other developm ent projects were launched in
the same region. However, p roject organizers
did not consult the local people first, w hich
resulted in considerable expenditures being
made on technological innovations that turned
out to be inappropriate and did little to
im prove the w ell-b e in g of the people living in
the fishing com m unities.
C ultural identity and small-scale whaling in
N o rth A m erica
M .M .R. Freeman's case study on sm all-scale
w haling in N orth Am erica focuses on the
aboriginal Inuit people of northern Alaska and
Canada, and illustrates how the Inuits'
traditional w haling practices have helped them
to m aintain their cultural identity w h ile also
prom oting effective conservation of w hale
stocks. Thus, although w haling plays a
significant role in the contem porary Inuit
subsistence econom y, its sym bolic im portance
w ith in th eir cultural identity is perhaps even
more im portant.
In particular, the co m m u n ity-w id e
distribution of foods derived from w hale is an
im portant means of m aintaining social
cohesion and a cultural identity in w h ich it is
the distribution process itself, rather than the
actual quantities distributed, that is most
valued. Thus, over the past tw o decades, w h ile
the Inuit population has doubled, the average
num ber of whales taken annually has
rem ained nearly constant, and there is little
interest in increasing the co m m ercializatio n of
these resources.
Freeman argues that conventional fisheries
managem ent approaches, w h ic h treat whales
89
as m erely another w ild stock to be conserved
and allocated as a human food resource,
w o u ld threaten the sustainability of the Inuits'
unique cultural identity, as w ell as the w hale
stocks themselves. The key to sustaining both
the Inuit culture and the whales lies in
understanding the m ultidim ensional
significance that w hale hunting and the
distribution of w hale products hold in the Inuit
culture.
Socio-cultural considerations in small-scale
fisheries developm ent in India
J. K urien's case study on the socio-cultural
aspects of fisheries and th eir im plications for
food and liveliho od security reports on a
project in Kerala State, India, and illustrates
the inappropriateness of developm ents in
sm all-scale fishing com m unities that ignore
traditional cultural adaptations. He describes
the sm all-scale fishing com m unities in Kerala,
where the population's level of w ell-being
declined as a result of developm ent initiatives
that ignored their long-established traditional
approaches to managing th eir fisheries.
Before the developm ents, access to fisheries
and the allocation of fisheries resources were
regulated by com m unal traditions and
institutions that emphasized the sharing of
seafood and the incomes derived from it, as
w ell as prom oting com m unity-based
particip a tion in fisheries management.
Traditional practices had also provided
effective means of co n flic t resolution and
ensured that an abundant supply of seafood
was sustained throughout the region. However,
since about four decades ago, developm ent
policies that favour the expansion o f a modern
shrim p-exporting industry have refocused
fisheries policies on the needs o f that sector,
although it provides com paratively little
em ploym ent for the people living in smallscale fishing com m unities.
Im portant m arine ecosystems started to
become degraded, w h ile regional seafood
supplies decreased and the em ploym ent of
w om en in the region's seafood markets
declined. W ith in the sm all-scale com m unities
themselves, other developm ent efforts were
com p elling sm all-scale fishers to turn away
from traditional approaches to fishing and
prom oting a new ethos of com petitive
individualism that was oriented towards
markets rather than the com m unities
themselves. This subverted the cultural
traditions that had long guided social and
econom ic life in the region, prom pting new
social and p olitical divisions both w ith in and
among the com m unities.
Kurien m aintains that future fisheries policies
should make the prom otion of w ell-being
w ith in sm all-scale fishing com m unities their
first priority. He also recomm ends that the
traditional com m unal ethos and com m unitybased fisheries m anagem ent be revitalized,
that traditional approaches to fishing be given
greater consideration, and that w om en's return
to regional seafood markets be prom oted as a
w ay of reviving those markets.
External effects on traditional resource
managem ent in a D om inican Republic
fishing com m unity
R.W. Stoffle's case study, entitled W hen fish is
water: food security and fish in a coastal
co m m un ity in the D om inican Republic,
illustrates the range of interconnections that a
sm all-scale fishing co m m un ity has w ith people
and cultural systems outside its own area. He
describes a sm all, rural-coastal villa ge in the
D om inican Republic, w h ich seems to be
isolated but w hich , in fact, has a w eb of
interconnections at the local, national and
even global level. This case study outlines the
ram ified im plications of a fishing com m unity's
linkages w ith the outside w o rld and illustrates
h ow these can influence the w ell-being of the
various people involved.
The village's fu ll-tim e fishers - w ho are
referred to lo c a lly as fishing specialists produce fish to supply their fam ilies w ith food
and to sell in regional and national
m arketplaces, w here it generates incom e.
M uch of the low er-quality fish that they catch
is sold in the nation's coastal cities, w here it
provides an im portant source of anim al protein
for the urban poor. However, in order to
understand the local, national and global roles
that the village's fishers play, their
interconnections w ith villa ge farm ing people
must also be taken into account. W hen local
farmers experience declines in their
subsistence food production and incomes,
brought on by localized drought or by national
or international econom ic p o lic y changes that
depress the prices of cash crops, m any turn to
fishing as a tem porary measure to augment
their household food and incom e deficits. Such
increases in the overall fishing effort lead to
corresponding reductions in local fish stocks.
D uring these periods of decline in farm ing,
the villa ge fishers sell relatively more o f their
low e r-qu ality catch to th eir agricultural
neighbours instead o f to urban markets. This,
90
in turn, dim inishes the fish supplies o f the
urban poor, m any o f w hom cannot afford
alternative sources o f anim al protein. A t the
same tim e, the village fishers have
increasingly had to resist the encroachm ent
of better-capitalized fishers from outside the
com m unity, as w ell as the expansion of
national and international tourism w h ich is
having a negative im pact on fish stocks and
other im portant fisheries resources.
Furthermore, because the village's potable
w ater is often in short supply - a com m on
problem for fishing com m unities, especially in
developing countries - local fishers are
sometimes com pelled to sell th eir fam ilies'
subsistence fish supply in order to buy potable
w ater for d rinking and for cooking
inexpensive, hig h-ca lo rie staple foods.
The effect o f fisheries policies on
small-scale fishers in Scotland
D. Thomson's case study on the social and
cultural im portance o f coastal fishing
com m unities and their co ntribu tion to food
security illustrates h ow sm all-scale fishing
com m unities in the Hebrides and on the west
coast of Scotland are being c u ltu ra lly and
e co n o m ica lly im poverished by fisheries
p olicies that favour larger-scale, more
industrialized approaches to fishing.
Thomson notes that western Scotland is one
of the most remote, rural and econ om ically
peripheral regions of the EC where, despite
long-term declines, capture fisheries and their
a ncilla ry activities still provide about 20
percent of total em ploym ent. U ntil the early
1980s, the natural m arine resources of this
region had been abundant, supporting a robust
and localized sm all-scale fishing sector, as
w ell as a large num ber o f fishing enterprises
that came from outside the region. Since the
early 1980s, however, the region's fisheries
have steadily and continuously declined as a
result of years of overharvesting and the
encroachm ent of m arine pollutio n.
The im pact of this decline has been
devastating fo r sm all-scale fishing
com m unities, not o nly in the production sector,
but also in the fish processing and distribution
sectors, w h ich form erly em ployed many
w om en. Recently, large-scale fishing
enterprises from other parts of Scotland have
been com peting for and buying fishing
licences (only a lim ited num ber of w h ich are
issued) from e co n o m ica lly m arginal, smallerscale localized fishers, w ho can no longer
sustain fishing activities. This has led to
increased prices of licences and has further
decreased the sm all-scale fishing
com m unities' participation in the very fisheries
they had long depended on.
In addition to this, the region's sm all-scale
fishing com m unities are now likely to be
impoverished further w hen the EC's Com m on
Fisheries Policy (CFP) is fu lly im plem ented,
perm itting access for all m em ber countries'
fleets. This w ill alm ost certainly lead to an
escalation in the trade of licences and quotas,
putting them w ell beyond the reach of most of
western Scotland's sm all-scale operators and
transferring more and more o f the econom ic
benefits of the region's fisheries to foreign
interests. Thus, w h ile regional developm ent is
one o f the objectives of the CFP, Thomson
argues that its current structure favours largerscale approaches to fishing so m uch that it
may lead to the demise of sm all-scale fishing
com m unities and cultures.
He recomm ends that the EC make the w e ll­
being o f the region's sm all-scale fishing
com m unities the first p rio rity in its fisheries
policies. The widespread benefits of doing so
w o u ld be increased food security and
em ploym ent in the coastal com m unities of
western Scotland; more e fficient harvesting of
the region's fish stocks, w ith a correspondingly
less deleterious im pact on its marine
ecosystems than is the case w hen larger-scale
fishing is adopted; and a general reversal of
the long-term loss of population and econom ic
decline that has been affecting this region.
H IG H L IG H T S OF M A IN F IN D IN G S
The p rincipal conclusions of the FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper underline the im portance of
focusing on sm all-scale fishing com m unities in
the future developm ent of fisheries
management practices and policies, as w ell as
the need for a more thorough understanding of
the cultures and social arrangements w ith in
fishing com m unities. The paper emphasizes
the im portance of co m m un ity participation in
the establishm ent of fisheries management
practices and policies and recomm ends that
com m unities buy guaranteed rights o f access
to and exploitation of fisheries resources.
These conclusions and recom m endations are
based on the accum ulated know ledge and
expertise of a large num ber of individuals. The
experiences of those w ho have tried to
achieve sustainable and equitable fisheries in
sm all-scale fishing com m unities, and have
encountered a set o f cultural characteristics
that are com m on to m any other sm all-scale
91
fishing com m unities, are of particular
relevance and im portance to fisheries officials.
In most cases, the cultural characteristics o f a
sm all-scale fishing co m m u n ity are developed
by its members in order to sustain fishing
livelihoods and meet other human needs. In
m any instances, fisheries m anagem ent can be
more successful w hen it capitalizes on certain
characteristics, or at least helps to m in im ize
those that are problem atic. The fo llo w in g are
some of the most im portant and com m on of the
cultural characteristics o f fishing com m unities:
• Such com m unities undertake sm all-scale
capital com m itm ents and levels of
production and have lim ited p olitical
power. This makes them vulnerable to
external threats, especially the large-scale
fishing sector.
• Such com m unities are dispersed along
coastlines and, because they depend
m ainly on m arine ecosystems that are
close to home, they are p articularly
vulnerable to resource depletions.
• C om m unity members, especially those w ho
are prim ary producers, derive much o f their
personal identity from the fishing
occupation and are often p articularly
tenacious in their adherence to it.
• The nature o f the ecosystems and the
particular species that are exploited are
im portant determ inants o f many cultural
characteristics, in clu d in g the social and
econom ic organization and the fishing gear
and technologies that are utilized.
• The various fishing occupations that
co m m un ity members pursue w ill be
interwoven through the w ho le fabric of a
co m m un ity's culture.
• Sm all-scale fishers develop intim ate,
detailed and fu nctio n-o rien te d know ledge
about the m arine ecosystems and species
that they exploit.
• There is a systematic d ivision o f labour
according to both gender and age, w ith
corresponding role expectations regarding
men, w om en, children, adults and the
e lderly.
• In most (although not all) com m unities, the
prim ary producers are men, w h ile w om en
are expected to play a dual role: as
mainstays of th eir household and children,
and as mainstays of fish processing,
m arketing and distribu tio n systems.
• Fishing crews and other fisheries-related
w orkers are often recruited on the basis of
im portant social ties in the com m unity,
rather than on the basis of skill, experience
or labour costs.
Primary producers are often dissociated
from everyday co m m un ity life, w hich
may cause serious problem s for them,
th eir fam ilies and other com m un ity
members.
Small-scale fishing cultures develop ways of
adapting to the risks and uncertainties that
are associated w ith fishing activities. These
include taking a conservative approach to
fishing, m aintaining occupational pluralism ,
establishing share-payment compensation
systems, and developing beliefs, ritualized
behaviours and taboos that provide
psychological support.
Access to credit and insurance is
p roblem atic in most sm all-scale fishing
com m unities and constrains fishing effort
and production.
N early all sm all-scale fishing com m unities
develop systems of com m unity-based
management, w h ich can be distinguished
from management that is instituted by
governm ent authority.
M ost com m unity-based m anagem ent
practices entail the assertion of rights to
fishing spaces and aim at excluding non­
co m m un ity members from fishing in them.
C ontem porary sm all-scale fishing
com m unities are increasingly stressed by
external problems, inclu ding expanding
g lo balization, m arine p o llu tio n and, in
some regions, the growth of a coastal
tourism industry.
THE E C O N O M IC V IA B IL IT Y OF M A R IN E
CAPTURE FISHERIES
BACKGROUND
In the first half o f the 1990s, FAO's Fisheries
Departm ent studied the v ia b ility of the w orld's
fishing fleets. For these studies, countries
provided FAO w ith inform ation about the size
of th eir fishing fleets and recorded landings.
D raw ing on its accum ulated know ledge of the
various fleets' operations, FAO developed
broad estimates of the costs and incomes of
fishing operations fo r different size categories
of fishing vessels. The results showed that, for
the w orld's fishing fleets as a w hole, costs
exceeded incomes by substantial amounts.
This result seemed to be contradicted by the
fact that most ind ivid ua l fisheries appeared to
be e c o n o m ica lly successful. The Fisheries
Departm ent then decided to m on itor the
92
incomes and costs o f the w orld's m ajor
fisheries. This task was begun in 1995, in close
cooperation w ith fisheries research institutions
and national fisheries in selected countries in
Asia, Africa, Latin Am erica and Europe.2 A first
com parative analysis o f the findings of the
national-level studies com pleted in 1997 were
published as an FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper.3 The highlights of the findings are
summ arized in this section. The data presented
are based on the studies, w h ich were carried
out between 1995 and 1997, w ith the
exception of a traditional Indian fishing craft
(kattumaram), for w h ich inform ation collected
in 1999 is used.
F IN D IN G S
O v erv ie w and comparison by continent
In spite of heavily and sometimes
overexploited fisheries resources, m arine
capture fisheries are still an e con om ically and
fin a n c ia lly viable undertaking. In most cases,
they generate sufficient revenue to cover the
cost of depreciation and the opp ortu nity
cost of capital, thus generating funds for
reinvestm ent. M arine capture fisheries are an
im portant source of incom e and generate
em ploym ent and foreign exchange earnings,
p articula rly in developing countries. W hen
com paring the findings of the studies by
continent, the fo llo w in g picture emerges.
- B y 1 9 9 7 , n a tio n a l s a m p le s u rve ys a n d case s tu d ie s h ad b een
Africa. The fo llo w in g practices in Ghana and
Senegal w ere studied: sm all-scale hook and
line fisheries, driftnetting, bottom set
g ilinetting, beach seining, purse seining,
sm all-scale m ultipurpose fishing operations,
m edium - and large-scale fish and shrim p
traw ling, and pole and line fishing. O n ly
sm all-scale gillnetters in Senegal generated a
negative cash flow. A ll the others generated a
positive net surplus.
Latin America. A ll of the various types of
trawlers and purse seiners studied in Peru and
Argentina generated a positive net surplus.
Asia. A ll o f the fishing fleet units studied in the
Republic of Korea, Taiwan Province of China
and M alaysia generated a positive net surplus,
as did five of the seven typical m edium - and
large-scale fishing units in Indonesia. The
fishing units that generated positive net returns
include purse seiners, bottom and m id-w ater
traw lers and pair trawlers, jig g e rs , stow
netters, set netters, seiners, tuna and other
longliners, and pole and line vessels. Negative
net results were recorded for sm all-scale
gillnetters in Indonesia and sm aller bottom pair
trawlers and stow netters in China. In India,
three types o f m edium - and large-scale fishing
units - tuna longliners, purse seiners and
trawlers - generated a positive net surplus,
w h ile tw o of the three sm all-scale fishing units
studied - seiners and handliners - scarcely
broke even or had a negative cash flow.
c o m p le te d in 13 c o u n trie s In A s ia , A fric a , L a tin A m e r ic a and
E u ro p e . In 1 9 9 5 , th e se c o u n trie s a c c o u n te d fo r 4 9 p e rc e n t o fth e
m a rin e c a p tu re fis h e rie s p r o d u c tio n o f th e ir re g io n s a n d 41
p e rc e n t o f g lo b a l m a rin e p r o d u c tio n . T h e p a ra m e te rs s tu d ie d
in c lu d e th e t e c h n o - e c o n o m ic , o p e r a tio n a l a n d e c o n o m ic
c h a ra c te ris tic s o f fis h in g fle e ts a n d in d iv id u a l fis h in g u n its ; th e
a v a ila b ilit y o f s u c h fin a n c ia l s e rv ic e s as in s titu tio n a l c r e d it
p ro g ra m m e s fo r th e fis h e rie s s e c to r; le v e ls o f e x p lo ita tio n o f
fis h e rie s re so u rce s; a n d n a tio n a l p la n s fo r fle e t re s tru c tu rin g and
a d ju s tm e n t. A t p re s e n t, th e s tu d ie s are b e in g u p d a te d a n d
e x p a n d e d to in c lu d e th e ro le a n d im p a c t o f c a tc h u tiliz a tio n .
In fo rm a tio n o n th e Im p a c t o f s u b s id ie s o n p r o f it a b ilit y a n d th e
s u s ta in a b ility o f fis h in g o p e ra tio n s w i l l a lso be s o u g h t. A m o n g
th e a d d itio n a l c o u n trie s b e in g in c lu d e d are s o m e In th e S o u th
P a c ific , th e C a rib b e a n a n d n o rth e rn E u rop e . T h e m e th o d o lo g y
fo r s tu d y in g a n d a n a ly s in g d ata o n costs a n d e a rn in g s o f fis h in g
u n its fo llo w s th e o n e u sed in: A g r ic u ltu r a l E c o n o m ic s R esearch
In s titu te . 1 9 9 3 . C osts a n d e a rn in g s o f fis h in g fle e ts in fo u r EC
c o u n trie s . T h e H ag u e , N e th e rla n d s , A g r ic u ltu r a l E c o n o m ic s
R esearch In s titu te , D e p a rtm e n t o f F isheries.
Europe. O f the 27 types of small-, m edium - and
large-scale fishing vessels studied in France,
Spain and Germany, only tw o types of deep-sea
trawlers operating in France had negative net
results. The other 25 types - including
handliners, gillnetters, seiners, pole and line
vessels, longliners, and inshore and offshore
trawlers - all generated positive net surpluses.
These results are sim ilar to those found by a
study of the econom ic perform ance of marine
capture fisheries in European countries, w h ich
was carried out on behalf o f the EC.4
It is interesting to note that those few
categories of fishing units that incurred
operational losses at the tim e o f the study are
located at the extreme ends of the scale of
fishing operations (i.e. the very sm all-scale
and the very large-scale) and include both
artisanal gillnetters and large industrial
5 F A O . 1 9 9 9 . E c o n o m ic v ia b ilit y o f m a rin e c a p tu re fis h e rie s .
F in d in g s o f a g lo b a l s tu d y a n d an in te rre g io n a l w o rk s h o p . FA O
F ish e rie s T e c h n ic a l P a p er N o . 3 7 7 . R om e.
4 A g r ic u ltu r e E c o n o m ic s R esearch In s titu te , o p . c it. fo o tn o te 2.
93
deep-sea trawlers. In the form er case,
overexploitation o f inshore fisheries resources
and com petition from more efficient capture
technologies, such as purse seiners and coastal
trawlers, seem to be responsible for the
negative financial perform ance. In the latter
case, excess capture capacity and related
excessive operational and investm ent costs for
lim ited fishing grounds and fisheries resources
seem to be the im portant factors.
Cost structure o f traw lers and small-scale
fishing vessels
The cost structure of traw l fisheries differs
sign ifican tly between developing and
developed countries. The differences seem to
be related m ainly to variations in the
rem uneration o f labour, w h ich depends on the
overall level o f econom ic developm ent.
As could be expected, and is illustrated in
Figure 30, labour is the most im portant cost
com ponent in the developed countries studied
(i.e. France, Germ any and Spain). The second
most im portant cost com ponent is running
costs, closely fo llo w e d by vessel costs.5
5 L a b o u r costs in c lu d e w a g e s a n d o th e r la b o u r ch a rg e s s u c h as
in s u ra n c e a n d e m p lo y e rs ' c o n t r ib u tio n s to p e n s io n s fu n d s .
R u n n in g costs in c lu d e fu e l, lu b ric a n ts , th e co st o f s e llin g fish ,
h a rb o u r due s, th e co st o f ice, a n d fo o d a n d s u p p lie s fo r th e c re w .
Vessel co sts in c lu d e vessel a n d g e a r re p a ir a n d m a in te n a n c e
expe n se s, a n d vessel in s u ra n c e .
C o u n try
and size o f vessel
In the developing countries studied (i.e.
Peru, Senegal, India, M alaysia and China),
labour costs o nly account for between 17 and
40 percent of the total operation costs for
trawlers, w h ile running and vessel costs
account for the m ajor share. As countries
develop and their levels of rem uneration
increase, these differences in the cost structure
can be expected to disappear. The Republic of
Korea, w here the cost of labour has become at
least as im portant as it is in the European
countries studied, exem plifies this trend.
W hen looking at the cost structure of traw l
fisheries in absolute terms and in relation to
gross earnings, it is interesting to note that the
cost of production per unit of gross earnings is
s ign ifican tly higher for traw ler fleets in OECD
countries (i.e. Argentina, France, Germany, the
Republic of Korea and Spain) than for traw ler
fleets in developing countries (i.e. China,
India, M alaysia and Peru). An exception is
Senegal, w here a French com pany operates
traw lers under a jo in t venture arrangement.
(This also explains the relatively high vessel
costs shown in Figure 30.)
As can be seen from Figure 31, the cost of
producing US$1 o f gross earnings varies
between US$0.91 and US$0.78 in the OECD
countries studied, w h ile the corresponding
range for developing countries lies between
US$0.74 and $0.68.
The cost structure of sm all-scale fishing
vessels (Figure 32) com pared w ith that of
FIGURE 30
Cost structure of bottom trawl fisheries
I
Spain, 23 m
Running costs
Germany, 90 m
Labour costs
France, 20 m
Malaysia, 35 GRT
Vessel costs
India, 15 m
Korea, Rep., 65 GRT
China, 38 m
Argentina, 25 m
Peru, 29 m
Senegal, 22 m
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Source: FAO. 1999. Economic viability of marine capture fisheries. Findings of a global study and an interregional workshop.
By J.-M. Lery, J. Prado and U. Tietze. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 377. Rome
100
Percentage
94
Cost (US$)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
m
FIGURE 31
Operation costs per US dollar of gross earnings in bottom trawl fisheries
Running and
vessel costs
per US dolla r
o f gross
earnings
Labour costs
per US dolla r
o f gross
earnings
0.1
C o u n try and size o f vessel
Source: FAO. 1999. Econom ic v ia b ility o f m arine capture fisheries. Findings o f a global study and an interregional workshop.
By J.-M. Lery, J. Prado and U. Tietze. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 377. Rome
industrial traw l fisheries (Figure 30) shows
some interesting differences. In France, as a
developed country, the labour costs of smallscale fishing vessels rem ain the most
im portant cost com ponent, as is the case for
industrial traw l fisheries. Running costs,
however, are the least im portant w h ile vessel
costs emerge as the second most im portant
cost com ponent.
In three of the four developing countries
included in Figure 32 (i.e. India, Senegal and
Ghana), labour costs emerge as the most
im portant cost com ponent of some of the
sm all-scale fishing units studied. This is related
to a system o f rem uneration in w h ich the
proceeds from fish sales are shared among the
crewm em bers. In cases w here crewm em bers
are paid on a fixed wage basis, running costs
remain the most im portant cost factor.
The production costs o f the small-scale
fishing vessels studied in relation to their gross
earnings show some d istinct differences from
the production costs of trawlers. First o f all,
they are lower. As shown in Figure 33, for most
of the sm all-scale fishing vessels, the cost of
producing US$1 of gross earnings ranges
between US$0.56 (for Ghanaian gillnetters)
and $0.78 (for French gillnetters).
A t the extreme ends of the cost range are the
traditional sail-pow ered Indian tram m el netter,
w h ich spends o nly US$0.19 to produce US$1
of gross earnings, and the large Senegalese
handliner, w h ich spends as m uch as US$0.91.
The data suggest that, unlike industrial traw l
fisheries, sm all-scale fishing vessels do not
show any typical differences between
developing and OECD countries as far as the
costs of production in relation to gross earnings
are concerned.
Productivity and financial perform ance
Regarding the p ro d u c tiv ity and financial
perform ance o f traw l fisheries, noticeable
differences can be observed between OECD
and developing countries. W h ile productivity,
measured as the value of production per
crew m em ber was found to be generally higher
in developed countries, the rate of return on
investment was found to be generally higher in
developing countries (Figure 34).
P roductivity was highest in France, fo llo w ed
by Argentina, Peru, Germany, Spain and the
Republic of Korea. The highest rate of return
on investment, on the other hand, was found in
the Republic o f Korea (37 percent), fo llo w e d by
Peru (34 percent), India (24 percent), Ghana
95
FIGURE 32
Cost structure for small-scale fishing vessels
Country
andtypeof vessel
France, 8-12 m
gillnetter
France, 8-10 m
handliner
Senegal, 9-22 m
Senegal, 8-13 m
multipurpose canoe
I
Running costs
I
Labour costs
j
Vessel costs
Ghana, 6-12 m bottom
set gillnetter
Ghana, 6-12 m hook
India, 6 m sailing
log-raft trammel netter
Malaysia, 5-10 GRT
trap vessel
Malaysia, 5-10 GRT
handliner
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percentage
Source: FAO. 1999. Econom ic v ia b ility o f m arine capture fisheries. Findings o f a global study and an interregional workshop.
By J.-M. Lery, J. Prado and U. Tietze. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 377. Rome
FIGURE 33
Operation costs per US dollar of gross earnings for small-scale
fishing vessels
Cost (US$)
1
Running and
vessel costs
per US dolla r
o f gross
earnings
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Labour costs
per US dolla r
o f gross
earnings
0.5
0.4
I
0.3
0.2
0.1
■
0
QÍ
o
2
ë
;
o ;
C o u n try and ty p e o f vessel
i
oí
ra
r
</> *-
ee
e
C û>
c o
co c
E <5
E o
o £
;
CM C
“J
Source: FAO. 1999. Economic viability of marine capture fisheries. Findings of a global study and an interregional workshop.
By J.-M. Lery, J. Prado and U. Tietze. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 377. Rome
96
P ro d u c tiv ity
(us$ thousands)
FIGURE 34
Productivity and financial performance of bottom trawl fisheries
120
42
100
35
80
28
60
21
40
14
Value of
production
per
crewm em ber
Rate of
return on
investment
20
0
UO
rv
0
un
co
'■5
c
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_ra
re
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o
CM
o
c
ra
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ra
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>.
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ra
E
o
0
E
co
CM
Spair
E
Percentage
E
CM
CM
ra
O)
ra
c
co
Source: FAO. 1999. Econom ic v ia b ility o f m arine capture fisheries. Findings o f a global study and an interregional workshop.
By J.-M. Lery, J. Prado and U. Tietze. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 377. Rome
(22 percent) and China (15 percent). The
higher levels of p ro d u ctivity found in the
OECD countries studied can probably be
attributed to a higher degree of m echanization
and sophistication of equipm ent for fish
detection, capture and on-board handling. The
higher p ro fita b ility of traw l fisheries in the
developing countries studied can be explained
by these countries' low er cost of operation in
relation to gross earnings and their low er cost
of investm ent/higher depreciation because of
the use of older fishing vessels.
As labour costs increase in the course of the
overall econom ic developm ent of developing
countries and as old fishing vessels are
replaced by new ones, it can be expected that
the difference in p ro fita b ility o f fishing
operations compared w ith those of developing
countries m ight g radually disappear.
In the case of sm all-scale fishing vessels, the
differences between productivity, on the one
hand, and financial perform ance, on the other,
are even more pronounced. As can be seen
from Figure 35, p ro d u ctivity is highest, by far,
on handliners and gillnetters in France. This is
ow ing to extrem ely small crew sizes and a
relatively high degree of m echanization and
catch e fficiency.
A t 15 percent for handliners and o nly 1
percent for gillnetters, the rates of return on
investment, however, are far low er than those
of most of the sm all-scale fishing units studied
in developing countries.
The financial perform ance of the sm all-scale
fishing units studied in developing countries is
better because of the low er costs of
investments and operation. An outstanding
exam ple is the smallest and most traditional of
the sm all-scale fishing vessels included in
Figure 35 - the Indian sailing log-raft tram m el
netter, lo ca lly called the kattumaram or teppa.
This fishing craft has an annual rate of return
on investment that is as high as 388 percent
because of the extrem ely lo w investment and
operation costs and the use of a selective
fishing m ethod that targets high-value species.
O U T L O O K : SU STA IN A B ILITY A N D
E C O N O M IC VIA B ILITY
The findings of the study suggest that, w ith the
exception of some sm all-scale fishing units in
Indonesia, India and Senegal, some of the
large-scale industrial traw lers in France and
one type of pair-traw ler and a stow netter in
China, m arine capture fisheries in the Latin
Am erican, African, European and Asian
97
FIGURE 35
Productivity and financial performance
of small-scale fishing vessels
P ro d u ctivity
(U S$ thousands)
Value of
p roduction
per
crewm em ber
Rate o f
return on
investment
Percentage
t
o=
<D
@8
o >
1“
21
Q-
uS 2
.2
_>>
ra
i
(D
f ¡
E E
r0a
ra
0¿
E
(£>
.2
c
Oo
o c
E os
C
CM ,E
11
o c
n =
E'5>
s?
£ %
c¿
.c
o
c
.c
O
(i
c
CO c
ra
i o
T—
‘r =5
CD C
D) Ü.
s> Q
20
<S
>'5
ra
Source: FAO. 1999. Economic v ia b ility o f m arine capture fisheries. Findings o f a global study
and an interregional w orkshop. By J.-M. Lery, J. Prado and U. Tietze. FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper No. 377. Rome
countries studied usually generate sufficient
revenues to cover th eir operating costs and
also supply funds for reinvestment.
The findings of this study seem to contradict
earlier FAO studies that concluded that, when
all the w orld's fishing vessels are considered
as one fleet, that fleet is losing money. There
are tw o plausible explanations for this
discrepancy.
The first concerns active versus non-active
vessels. In the earlier global studies, all
vessels - w hether active or not - were
included, w h ile the more recent study includes
o nly active vessels. The second factor is
related to subsidies or "fin a n cia l transfers".
The global studies included pro form a
estimates of incom e and costs, developed by
FAO on the basis of the average know n costs
of the m ajor factors of production and the
longevity o f physical assets. They therefore did
not include any country-specific financial
transfers from governm ent to fisheries sectors.
The more recent study uses a different
approach. The costs and incomes derived for
the various fleets are based on expenditures
and incom e over tim e, and do not consider
ind ivid ua l financial transfers. The present
study includes any financial transfers, w h ile
the global studies excluded most of them.
The degree to w h ich either of these factors
can explain the difference between the tw o
studies is d iffic u lt to assess, although those
fa m ilia r w ith both studies regard the first factor
as being p a rtic u la rly significant.
The more recent study also shows that
marine capture fisheries provide em ploym ent
and income, as w ell as contributing muchneeded export earnings in m any developing
countries. They also play im portant roles in
meeting the nutritional needs of the population
and in food security, particula rly in developing
countries. However, the generally positive
econom ic perform ance of m arine capture
fisheries is being achieved in an environm ent
w here fisheries resources are fu lly exploited,
and in m any cases overexploited; so how long
can it last?
The fishing industry, both sm all- and largescale, and the general pub lic have a vital
interest in safeguarding and sustaining the
beneficial econom ic and nutritional role of
fisheries. If sustainability and v ia b ility are to
98
be ensured, there is an urgent need to
strengthen and put in place efficient measures
to lim it fishing effort and rehabilitate coastal
areas and aquatic resources. In order to be
successful, these measures must be designed
and im plem ented in close cooperation w ith
fishers and fisheries industry associations.
The im pact of fisheries management
measures on the econom ic perform ance of the
fisheries industry and its various sectors needs
to be closely m onitored through studies sim ilar
to the one described in this article so that
benefits can be m axim ized and negative
impacts m inim ized. Another im portant area for
m onitoring in the future is the im pact of
subsidies, econom ic incentives and fiscal
policies and measures on the p ro fita b ility and
sustainability of fishing operations.
In order to safeguard the im portant econom ic
and social role o f the sm all-scale fisheries
sector as a provider of em ploym ent, incom e
and food, p articula rly in rural areas of
developing countries, special efforts are
needed to protect that sector. The findings of
the study suggest that the sector's econom ic
perform ance has already been negatively
effected by the o verexploitation o f coastal
fisheries resources and com petition w ith more
ca tch -e fficie n t co m m ercial fishing vessels,
such as purse seiners and trawlers.
G overnm ent and private sector support to
the fishing industry, both sm all- and largescale, in the form of technical advice and
guidance, training and investment and credit
support, is essential for successful adaptation
to the changes accom panying the introduction
of responsible and sustainable fishing practices
and related management measures and
regulations.
TRENDS IN W O R L D FISHERIES A N D TH EIR
RESOURCES: 1 9 7 4 -1 9 99 6
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Follow ing the pub lica tion of its first global
review of m arine fish stocks,7 FAO's Fisheries
8 T h e b a s ic d a ta used in th is s e c tio n are u p d a te s o f th e d ata
p u b lis h e d in F A O . 1 9 9 7 . R e v ie w o f th e state o f w o r ld fis h e ry
re so u rce s: m a rin e fis h e rie s . FA O F ish e rie s C irc u la r N o . 9 2 0 .
R om e . 1 7 3 p p. (A n u p d a te d v e rs io n Is In p re p a ra tio n .)
7 F A O . 1 9 7 0 . T h e state o f w o r ld re so u rce s, b y J. A . G u i la n d . FA O
Departm ent has been m onitoring the state of
these stocks. The results have been published
interm ittently in The state of w o rld fishery
resources, m arine fisheries, a docum ent that
describes and comm ents on trends in the state
and use of these resources. This article
presents a sum m ary of the knowledge
available, building on status reports
accum ulated between 1974 and 1999, the last
year for w h ic h inform ation is available. The
analysis considers:
• the production level for the most recent
year (1998), relative to historical levels;
• the state of stocks, globally;
• the state o f stocks, by region;
• trends in the state of stocks since 1974,
g lo ba lly and by region.
RELATIVE P R O D U C T IO N LEVELS
The available data for 1998 from the 16 FAO
statistical regions (see Box 16), considering the
Antarctic Ocean as one region, indicate that
four ocean regions - the Eastern Indian Ocean
and the Northwest, Southwest and Western
Central Pacific Oceans - were at their
m axim um historical level of production in
1998.8 A ll the other ocean regions are at low er
levels (Figure 36). W h ile this m ight result, at
least in part, from natural oscillations in
p ro d u ctivity (e.g. resulting from the El N iño
phenom enon of 1997 in the Southeast Pacific
Ocean), the lowest values observed may
indicate that a high proportion of the resources
are overfished (e.g. in the A ntarctic and the
Southeast and N orthw est A tla n tic Oceans).
GLOBAL LEVELS OF EXPLO ITA TIO N
The data available to FAO at the end of 1999
identified 590 "stock" items. For 441 (or 75
percent) of these, there is some inform ation on
the state of the stocks and, although not all of
this is recent, it is the best that is available. The
stock items are classified as underexploited (U),
m oderately exploited (M), fu lly exploited (F),
overexploited (O), depleted (D) or recovering
(R), depending on how far they are - in terms of
biomass and fishing pressure - from the levels
corresponding to full exploitation. Full
exploitation is taken as being loosely equivalent
to m axim um sustainable yield (MSY) or
m axim um long-term average yield (MLTAY).
The fo llo w in g are some of the features of stocks
in each of the different classifications:
Fisheries T e ch n ica l Paper N o. 9 7. R om e. 4 2 5 pp. a nd J.A . G u lla n d .
1971. The fish resources of the ocean. UK, Fishing News Books
(In te rn a tio n a l). 2 5 5 pp.
8 Fishstat P lus (2 .3 ), FA O 1 9 9 6 -2 0 0 0 .
99
B O X 16
AEC
A tla n tic, Eastern Central (34)
FAO statistical areas
ACW
A tla n tic, W estern Central (31)
ANE
A tla n tic, Northeast (27)
In order to help organize its data, FAO has
ANT
A nta rctic, total (48, 58, 88)
broken d o w n the w o rld 's fishing areas into
ANW
A tla n tic, N orthw est (21)
statistical regions, iden tified by a tw o -d ig it
ASE
A tla n tic, Southeast (47)
num ber (21 to 88). The abbreviations are used
ASW
A tla n tic, Southwest (41)
in Figures 36, 38 and 39.
IE
Indian O cean, Eastern (57)
FAO Fishing A rea
IW
Indian O cean, W estern (51)
MBS
M editerranean and B lack Sea (37)
PEC
Pacific, Eastern Central (77)
PCW
Pacific, W estern Central (71)
PNE
Pacific, Northeast (67)
PN W
Pacific, N orthw est (61)
PSE
Pacific, Southeast (87)
PSW
Pacific, Southwest (81)
FIGURE 36
Ratio between recent (1998) and maximal production
ANT
ASE
PSE
ANW
ACW
PEC
MBS
PNE
ASW
AEC
AN E
IW
PCW
PSW
PNW
IE
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Note: The key to acronyms used fo r FAO Fishing Areas is given in Box 16, above
Source: FAO
Stocks tagged as U and M are believed to
have the potential to produce more under
increased fishing pressure, but this does not
im p ly any recom m endation to do so.
Stocks tagged as F are considered as being
e xp lo ite d at levels close to th e ir MSY or
MLTAY. They co u ld be s lig h tly under or
above this level because o f u nce rta intie s in
the data and stock assessments. These stocks
are in need o f (and in some cases already
have) e ffective measures to c o n tro l fish in g
c a p a c ity .
Stocks tagged as O or D are clearly
exploited beyond their MSY level and are in
100
need of effective strategies for capacity
reduction and stock rebuilding.
Stocks tagged as R are usually very lo w
com pared w ith historical levels. D irected
fishing pressure may have been reduced (by
management or lack of p ro fitab ility) but,
depending on the specific situation, these
stocks may still be under excessive fishing
pressure. In some cases, th eir indirect
exploitation as by-catch in another fishery
m ight be enough to keep them in a depressed
state, despite reduced direct fishing pressure.
Figure 37 shows that, in 1999, 4 percent of
the stocks appeared to be underexploited, 21
percent were m oderately exploited, 47 percent
fu lly exploited, 18 percent overexploited, 9
percent depleted and 1 percent recovering. As
MSY (m odified by environm ental and
econom ic factors) is an im portant reference
p oint for management that is enshrined in the
U nited Nations C onvention on the Law o f the
Sea, these data im p ly that 28 percent
(O + D + R) of the w o rld stocks for w h ich data
are available are b elow the level of
abundance represented by MSY (or have a
fishing capacity that is above this level) and
require fisheries m anagem ent action aim ed at
rebuilding them to at least the MSY level.
Some of these stocks may already be under
such a management scheme. As a further 47
percent of the stocks are exploited at about the
MSY level, and they too require capacity
control in order to avoid the overcapacity
syndrome, it appears that 75 percent
(F + O + D + R) of the w o rld stocks for w h ich
data are available require strict capacity and
effort control if they are to be stabilized or
reb uilt to the MSY biomass level, and possibly
beyond.
Figure 37 indicates that 25 percent of the
stocks (U + M) for w h ich data are available
are above the level of abundance that
corresponds to the MSY level (or have a fishing
capacity that is below this level). W hen the 47
percent of MSY-level stocks are taken into
account, it emerges that 72 percent o f stocks
are at or above the level of abundance
corresponding to MSY (i.e. they have a fishing
capacity b elow this level) and should therefore
be considered as being co m p lia n t w ith the
basic requirem ents of the C onvention on the
Law of the Sea.
These tw o ways of looking at the data
indicate that the "glass is half fu ll and half
empty" and are both equally correct
depending on the v ie w p o in t taken. From the
“ state o f stocks" angle, it is com forting to see
that 72 percent of the w orld's resources can
still produce MSYs if required. From the
management p o in t of view, however, it should
be noted that 75 percent of resources require
stringent m anagem ent of fishing capacity.
Some stocks are already under some form of
capacity management (m ainly in a few
developed countries), but most require urgent
action to stabilize or im prove th eir situation.
For 28 percent of them , there is no doubt that
forceful action is required for rebuilding.
FIGURE 37
The state of stocks in 1999
R
1
D
h
1 18
O
47
F
M
1 21
1 4
U
0
10
20
30
40
Note: R = recovering; D = depleted; O = overexploited; F = fu lly exploited;
M = m oderately exploited; U = underexploited
Source: FAO
50
Percentage
101
THE STATE O F STOCKS BY R EG IO N
The data available on state of stocks can be
exam ined by region and com pared, keeping in
m ind that the q ua lity of the data, the
proportion of stocks for w h ich inform ation is
available and the relative size of the stocks
differ from case to case. O nce again, a
com parison can be made in terms of a stock's
relation to the MSY.
The percentage of stocks exploited at or
beyond MSY levels (F + O + D + R), and
therefore reflecting a need for capacity
control, ranges from 41 percent (in the Eastern
Central Pacific) to 95 percent (in the Western
Central Atlantic) (Figure 38). In most regions,
at least 70 percent of the stocks are already
fu lly or overfished. The percentage of stocks
exploited at or below MSY levels (U + M + F)
ranges from 43 percent (in the Southeast
Pacific) to 100 percent (in the Southwest
Pacific and Western Indian Ocean) (Figure 39).
As a measure of management and
developm ent perform ance, the proportion of
stocks that are exploited beyond the MSY level
(O + D + R) ranges from 0 percent (in the
Southwest Pacific and Western Indian Ocean)
to 57 percent (in the Southeast Pacific).
GLOBAL TRENDS
The follow ing analysis considers trends in the
proportions of stocks in each of the various states
of exploitation. The years mentioned in the text
and figures refer to the year of publication of the
FAO Fisheries Circular Review of the state of
w orld fishery resources: marine fisheries.
Figure 40 shows that the percentage of
stocks m aintained at MSY level (F) has slightly
decreased since 1974, w h ile underexploited
stocks (U + M), offering the potential for
expansion, have decreased steadily. As w o u ld
be expected from these trends, Figure 40 also
shows that the proportion of stocks exploited
beyond MSY levels (O + D + R) has increased
during the same period, from about 10 percent
in the early 1970s to nearly 30 percent in the
late 1990s. The num ber of stocks for w hich
inform ation is available has also increased
during the same period, from 120 to 454.
The trend for stocks exploited beyond MSY
levels can be decomposed according to m ajor
regions o f the A tla ntic and Pacific Oceans
(Figures 41 and 42).
In the fo llo w in g analysis, distinctions are
made between northern (m ainly developed)
areas o f the oceans and central and southern
areas (m ainly tropical and developing). Data
have been plotted together w ith their trend, as
represented by a third -o rd e r polynom ial.
The results for the N orth A tla ntic (FAO Fishing
Areas 21 and 27) and the North Pacific (FAO
Fishing Areas 61 and 67) (Figure 41) show an
increasing proportion o f stocks being exploited
beyond MSY levels until the late 1980s or
early 1990s. In the North A tla ntic the situation
seems to have im proved and stabilized in the
1990s, w h ile in the North Pacific the situation
seems to have rem ained unstable.
Figure 42 shows a growing percentage of
stocks exploited beyond MSY levels in both the
tropical oceans studied. This increase m ight be
reaching an asymptote in the tropical A tlantic
(FAO Fishing Areas 31, 34, 41 and 47) but this
does not seem to be the case in the tropical
Pacific (FAO Fishing Areas 71, 77, 81 and 87).
It can also be noted that the situation is more
severe in the tropical Atlantic. In fact, a cross­
com parison of Figures 41 and 42 shows that
the m agnitude of the problem is sim ilar for the
tropical and northern regions of the Atlantic,
w hile, in the Pacific, the southern areas are
less affected. For the southernmost areas of
these oceans (the Antarctic) the situation
appears to be more serious but im proving.
DISC U SSIO N
The overview of the state o f w o rld stocks
obtained from the series of FAO biennial
reviews clearly indicates a num ber o f trends.
G lobally, between 1974 and 1999, there
appears to have been an increase in the
proportion of stocks classified as "e xplo ited
beyond the MSY lim it", i.e. overfished,
depleted or s lo w ly recovering. W hen the
inform ation is stratified by large oceanic
regions, the N orth A tla ntic and N orth Pacific
show a continuous worsening o f the situation
until the 1980s or early 1990s, w ith a possible
stabilization afterwards - p articula rly in the
N orth A tlantic. In the tropical and southern
regions of these oceans the situation seems
still to be deteriorating, w ith the possible
exception o f the tropical A tlantic, where
stabilization m ight have started. These
conclusions are in line w ith the findings of an
earlier FAO study by Grainger and G arcia.9
These conclusions should be considered w ith
caution because they are based on a sample of
the w o rld stocks and are severely constrained
9 F A O . 1 9 9 6 . C h r o n ic les o f m a ri ne fis h e ry la n d in g s (1 9 5 0 -1 9 9 4 ).
T re n d a n a ly s is a n d fis h e rie s p o te n tia l, b y R. G r a in g e r a n d S .M .
G a r c ia . F A O F is h e r ie s T e c h n ic a l P a p e r N o . 3 5 9 . R o m e .
51 pp.
102
FAO Fishing A rea
FIGURE 38
Percentage, by FAO Fishing Area, of stocks exploited at or beyond MSY
levels (F+O +D +R ) and below MSY levels (U + M )
_ |
PEC
F+O + D+R
PSW
ANT
PCW
U+M
PNW
TU N A
IE
ANW
ASW
MBS
AN E
ASE
AEC
PSE
PNE
IW
A CW
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percentage
Note: R = recovering; D = depleted; O = overexploited; F = fu lly exploited; M = m oderately exploited; U = underexploited.
The key to acronyms used fo r FAO Fishing Areas is given in Box 16, p. 99
Source: FAO
FAO Fishing Area
FIGURE 39
Percentage, by FAO Fishing Area, of stocks exploited at or below MSY
levels (U +M +F) and beyond MSY levels (O +D +R )
PSE
AEC
MBS
ANT
ASE
ANE
ASW
PNE
PNW
TU N A
A CW
PEC
IE
ANW
PCW
IW
PSW
()
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
N ote: R = recovering; D = depleted ; O = overexploited; F = fu lly exploited; M = m oderately exploited; U = underexploited.
The key to acronyms used for F/
Fishing Areas is given in Box 16, p. 99
Source: FAO
100
Percentage
103
FIGURE 40
Global trends in the state of world stocks
since 1974
Percentage
60
50
U+M
40
30
O +D +R
20
10
0
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Note: R = recovering; D = depleted; O = overexploited;
F = fu lly exploited; M = m oderately exploited; U = underexploited
Source: FAO
Percentage
FIGURE 41
Trends in the percentage of stocks exploited
beyond MSY levels (O +D +R ) in the Northern
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
50
North
A tlantic
40
North
Pacific
30
20
10
0
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Note: R = recovering; D = depleted; O = overexploited
Source: FAO
by the lim ited inform ation that was available
to FAO. The extent to w h ich this inform ation
reflects rea lity is d iffic u lt to ascertain. There
are many more stocks in the w o rld than those
referred to by FAO. In addition, some o f the
elements of w o rld resources that FAO calls
"stocks" are rea lly conglom erates of stocks
(and often o f species) and it is not clear that a
statement made about a conglom erate is valid
for the individual stocks in that conglom erate.
However, in general, it is safe to assume that
the global trends observed reflect trends in the
m onitored stocks, because the observations
generally coincide w ith reports from studies
104
Percentage
FIGURE 42
Trends in the percentage of stocks exploited beyond
MSY levels (O +D +R ) in the tropical (Central and
Southern) Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Tropical
A tlantic
Tropical
Pacific
A ntarctic
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Note: R = recovering; D = depleted; O = overexploited
Source: FAO
conducted at a "lo w e r" level, usually based on
more insight and detailed data. For example, an
analysis of Cuban fisheries was carried out for
FAO by Baisre.10 Using the same approach that
Grainger and Garcia took for the w hole w orld,
Baisre's analysis led to surprisingly sim ilar
conclusions, based on less coarse aggregations
and even longer tim e series, and w ith more
possibility of double-checking the conclusions
w ith conventional stock assessment results.
There is, of course, the possibility that stocks
are “ noticed" and appear in the FAO
inform ation base as “ new" stocks o nly when
they start to face problems. W hen this
happens, scientists accum ulate enough data to
start dealing w ith the problems, thereby
generating reports that FAO has access to. This
1uF A O . 2 0 0 0 . C h ro n ic le s o f C u b a n m a rin e fis h e rie s (1 9 3 5 1 9 9 5 ): T re n d a n a ly s is a n d fis h e rie s p o te n tia l, b y J.A. Baisre.
FA O F ish e rie s T e c h n ic a l P aper N o . 3 9 4 . 2 6 pp.
could explain the increase in the percentage of
stocks exploited beyond MSY levels since
1974, although this seems an u nlikely
hypothesis for the fo llo w in g reasons:
• The number of stocks that have been
identified by FAO but for w hich there is not
enough information has also increased
significantly over time, from 7 in 1974 to 149
in 1999, clearly showing that new entries in
the system are not limited to “ sick" fisheries.
• Since the 1980s, scientists have become
more and more reluctant to classify stocks
as d e fin ite ly “ overfished" because they
recognize the uncertainties involved in
identifying the MSY level and that declines
can be the result of decadal natural
fluctuations. The apparent plateauing o f the
proportion of stocks suffering from
excessive exploitation in the northern
regions of the w orld's oceans may, in part,
be due to this new trend. ♦
PART 4
O utlook
107
O utlook
RECENT TRENDS A N D POSSIBLE
C O NSEQ UENCES FOR W O R L D FISHERIES
A N D AQUACULTURE
O VERVIEW
A t the end of the 1990s, hum ankind's need for
food and incom e was still the dom inant
determ inant o f the nature and m agnitude of
fish consum ption and production. The desire to
reserve access to fish for pleasure - including
non-consum ptive uses - was growing, and in
m any instances was respected, although such
uses were still lim ited to a small num ber of
countries and, from a global perspective, had
o nly a m in or im pact on those w ho fished or
cultured fish to earn a living. In recent
decades, however, the co nd itio ns determ ining
the traditional use of fish have been slow ly
changing. One factor that has made an im pact
is the increasing size of the market, in terms of
both the num ber of people and the
geographical area covered. On the one hand,
most consumers have had access to an
expanding variety of food and fish products
and a growing num ber of sellers. On the other,
most prim ary producers have been able to
choose from among a larger num ber of buyers.
Thus, there has been an expanding range of
possibilities both to satisfy food needs and to
generate income. The resulting increase in the
num ber of trading possibilities has had, and
w ill continue to have, repercussions on the
fisheries and aquaculture sector.
Fisheries governance has been affected by
the deliberations of the U nited Nations
Conference on the Environm ent and
D evelopm ent (UNCED), held in 1992 in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. Since that conference, the
ecosystems dim ensions o f m anagem ent issues
have received increasing attention from
governments, the UN system and the fishing
industry. A ll are n ow more ready to recognize
that fish are an integrated part of an aquatic
ecosystem, a system in w h ich m odifications in
one area have the potential to affect other
areas. Thus, it is increasingly regarded as
necessary, first to m on itor the state of the
aquatic ecosystem, and then to manage human
interventions w ith in that ecosystem. O n ly
w ith in such a fram ew ork w ill it be possible for
capture fisheries to continue to be a source of
food and incom e for future generations. In the
com ing years, hum ankind is likely to im prove
d ram atically its understanding o f the
intricacies of aquatic ecosystems, and this w ill
lead not o nly to more know ledge but also, and
perhaps paradoxically, to grow ing
uncertainties. As a result, there w ill be
grow ing pressure for a strict a pplication o f the
precautionary approach to all interventions,
including those by fishers, in aquatic
ecosystems. Both the aquaculture industry and
the capture fisheries sector w ill realize that
they must be seen by all concerned to respect
this p rinciple.
In m any developing countries, fish grew in
econom ic im portance during the second half of
the tw entieth century and, by the end of the
1990s, the fisheries sector had become an
im portant source of food, em ploym ent and
foreign exchange - a situation that is like ly to
continue. A stable source of foreign currency is
vital for countries, as increased participation
in international trade is an essential cond itio n
for their econom ic grow th, p articula rly for
sm aller countries w ith o nly lim ited or no
m ineral resources.
For m any developing countries, fisheries are
also a m ajor vehicle for creating value added,
thereby prom oting econom ic growth. In some
of the poorest, w here fish is an indispensable
part of food security for large sections of the
com m unity, inclu ding fishers, the everexpanding possibilities of export markets have
led to reduced quantities of fish being
available in local markets. It is likely that the
decision to sell fish in foreign rather than local
markets, w here it plays an im portant role in
ensuring food security, w ill become
problem atic in some countries during the next
decade. It also seems plausible that an
increasing num ber of developing countries w ill
develop national food security strategies and
that fish w ill occupy a place in these
strategies.
FISH AS F O O D
During the past decades, per capita fish
consum ption has expanded g lo ba lly along w ith
econom ic growth and w ell-being. However,
growth w ill not go on forever. There is a lim it
to h ow m uch food - including fish - each
individual w ill consume, and long-term
ceilings for consum ption w ill be established.
108
It is clear that the lim it w ill be reached first by
w ealthy economies, and fastest in those where
fish has been a staple food since ancient times
- in Japan for example.
In w e ll-o ff developed econom ies essentially OECD countries - the image o f fish
is changing. It is m oving away from being the
basic food it once was and is becom ing a
cu lin a ry speciality. There are tw o main
reasons for this: the vast m ajority of the
population in these countries has the means to
purchase adequate food and retailers are
realizing that, to attract consumers, they have
to sell a product that is more than ju s t a basic
foodstuff. M arketing campaigns launched for
some fish products tend to affirm that the
consum ption o f fish is an appropriate means of
satisfying the consumer's need for variety and
for nutritious, tasty, healthy and fashionable
foods. The retailing of fish in these countries is
no longer a question of satisfying a hungry
consum er at a com petitive price.
The term "fish" here stands for a large
category of groups of varied consumer
products made available by retailers. These
groups of products vary distin ctly from country
to country and o nly a small proportion o f them
are traded internationally. In volum e terms,
fish trade is still dom inated by intermediate
products, m ostly in frozen form w ith a few
standard categories of cured and canned
products. However, a portion of w ha t are
essentially national food specialities is finding
its w ay on to the international market, and
there are now a large num ber of such
products. Fish has the potential to satisfy most
desires for a variety of tasty, healthy and
exotic products. International trade is likely
to continue to grow ra p id ly and its
com position to be altered in favour of more
high-value finished products and fewer
raw m aterials.
In OECD countries, econom ic growth has
caused a growing proportion o f fish to be
consumed outside the home and in the form of
ready-to-eat products. A recent study of fish
consum ption in Japan1 showed that, in the
period 1965 to 1998, the incom e elasticity of
demand for fresh fish by Japanese households
was -0.26. That is, for each 1 percent increase
in average incom e, Japanese households
demanded 0.26 percent less volum e of fresh
fish. However, consum ption rem ained stable
because the quantities consumed in restaurants
or as ready-to-eat products increased.
There are signs that consumers in some other
countries may also be approaching this
voluntary lim it to the q uantity of fresh fish
consumed. D uring the 1990s, changes in per
capita consum ption - expressed in live w eight
equivalent - did not seem to be explained by
econom ic growth (see Box 17), at least in
some of the w ealthier countries w here fish
consum ption was already above the w orld
average in the late 1980s. There seems to be
no w ay of telling w ith any precision at w hat
level fish consum ption in a particular country
is likely to stabilize, but it w o u ld appear
reasonable to assume that, for most countries,
the figure w o u ld fall somewhere in the range
of 20 to 40 kg/capita/year. Thus, countries
where there is an extrem ely high consum ption
w o u ld see that consum ption decrease, w h ile
those w ith a lo w consum ption w o u ld see it
rise. Argentina, where meat consum ption is
tra d itio n a lly high, provides an exam ple of such
an increase. The consum ption of fish in
Argentina is reported2 to have doubled in the
1990s, from about 4 to 9 kg per capita/year.
In the developing countries, fish is still very
much an essential food. It contributes an
im portant part of the anim al protein in many
people's diets. In the m id-1990s, fish provided
more than 50 percent of the animal protein for
the populations of 34 countries. Several Asian
and some African countries fell into this
category. Nevertheless, fish is generally not an
im portant source o f calories.
In LIFDCs, the apparent consum ption of fish
has also increased during the last decades
(Figure 43). As noted in the O verview, this
rapid increase largely reflects the rapid
increase in the apparent consum ption of China.
Figure 44 shows the apparent consum ption of
fish in Africa. For A frica as a w hole,
a v a ila b ility has declined, and in some
countries (e.g. Ghana, Fiberia, M alaw i) the
average diet contained less fish protein in the
1990s than it did during the 1970s.
In most developing countries, fish w ill
continue to be an im portant source of protein,
but there w ill still be the potential for exports
of fish and strong m acroeconom ic arguments
for perm itting and even encouraging such
- M .l. B e r to lo n i, E. E rra z tl, A . P a g an l a n d J. B u o n o . S e c to r
p e s q u e ro A r g e n tin o . 17 p p. Is titu to N a c io n a l de D e s a rro llo
1 F A O . P re d ic tio n o f d e m a n d fo r fish in Japan (in p re p a ra tio n ).
P e s q u e ro /U n iv e rs id a d N a c io n a l de M a r d e l P lata, A rg e n tin a ,
B y M . Tada. R om e.
(m lm e o .)
109
exports. Thus, countries w ill find that they
need to prom ote schemes that make substitute
foods, preferably other fish, available in local
markets to replace w ha t is being exported.
In A frica there are large stocks of small
pelagic species off both the northwest and
southwest coasts. These species can be
harvested at a low cost and constitute an
adequate replacem ent in local African diets for
the exported high-value products. It seems
plausible that countries along the G u lf of
Guinea w ill w ant to develop jo in t strategies
w ith countries in northwest and southwest
Africa to e xploit these stocks as a source of
cheap and nutritious fish for local consumers.
Existing regional fisheries managem ent
organizations w o u ld provide an institutional
mechanism for coordinating national policies
in this respect.
In some regions in Asia, cultured fish has the
BOX 17
The relationship between fish consumption,
w ealth and econom ic growth
The w o rld per capita fish con sum p tion has been
In order to investigate these relationships, 15
g ro w in g since the 1960s. C onsum ption has varied
relative ly w e a lth y countries that had experienced
am ong continents and countries w ith in each
m ore o r less steady eco n o m ic gro w th between
co n tin e n t and, on average, has alw ays been
1988 and 1997 w ere id en tified. These were
higher in rich er than in poorer countries. M any
d ivid e d into tw o arbitrary groups: lo w fish
studies forecast that per capita fish intake w ill
con sum p tion countries, w h ere annual per capita
c o n tin u e to increase w o rld w id e over the next
fish consum ption was generally 20 kg o r less for
three decades, and that most o f this increase w ill
this period: and high fish con sum p tion countries,
result from eco n o m ic prosperity. The existing
w here per capita annual fish con sum p tion was
positive incom e e lasticity o f fish dem and, w h ich
m ore than 20 kg. Per capita fish con sum p tion and
generally ranges between 1 and 2, supports this
per capita real G D P (used as proxy for income)
find in g, although the m anner in w h ich
w ere plotted against tim e. C orrelation coefficients
consum ption responds to increases in w ealth
w ere also calculated.
seems not o n ly to depend on the level o f w ealth
The resulting co rre la tio n coefficients between
attained, but also on the quantities o f fish that are
per capita fish con sum p tion and e co n o m ic grow th
c u rre n tly eaten by the average consumer.
are given in the Table. The 1988-97 average
vo lu m e o f con sum p tion per capita is given in
1988-97 fish consumption < 20 kg/capita
parentheses, after the co u n try name.
The results are not conclusive. O n the one hand
C ountry
Correlation coefficient
A u s tra lia (1 8 .4 )
0 .2 8 4
A u s tria (8.0)
0 .7 8 4
B e lg iu m (1 7.7 )
0 .7 8 9
C h in a (9.7)
0 .9 9 8
G e rm a n y (11.2)
0 .2 4 3
Ire la n d (1 6.6 )
U n ite d K in g d o m (1 8.2 )
-0 .0 0 9
0 .8 6 2
it appears that, for most o f the high consumers,
there is no clear relationship between changes in
incom e and vo lu m e o f con sum p tion, although a
clear exception is Norw ay, w here fish still seems
to be a m uch-preferred food. O n the other hand,
G erm any seems to have reached stagnation at a
very lo w level o f con sum p tion. In Japan, the
pictu re is different. The negative corre latio n although w e ak - between gro w th and vo lu m e o f
1988-97 fish consumption > 20 kg/capita
C ountry
Correlation coefficient
con sum p tion co u ld be taken to mean that
increased incom es have given the Japanese the
po ssib ility o f sw itch in g from th e ir staple to other
C a n a d a (2 2 .6 )
-0 .5 7 4
foods. The corre latio n between e co n o m ic grow th
C h ile (2 2 .3 )
-0 .0 7 6
and fish consum ption in China is very high, most
F ra n ce (2 7 .9 )
-0 .2 5 7
Ita ly (2 0.7 )
+ 0 .7 2 9
Japan (7 2.1 )
-0 .6 2 6
N o rw a y (4 3 .9 )
+ 0 .9 8 2
S w e d e n (2 6 .4 )
U n ite d States (2 1 .3 )
lik e ly reflecting the responsiveness o f freshwater
a q uaculture to the stim ulus o f the market.
-0.421
+ 0 .0 0 5
S o u rc e : N . H is h a m u n d a , F A O F ish erie s D e p a rtm e n t.
110
Total food fish supply
(million tonnes)
FIGURE 43
Total food fish supply and per capita food fish supply
in LIFDCs, 1961-1997
60
30
50
25
20
Total
food fish
supply
Per capita
food fish
supply
15
10
Per ca pita supply
in live w e ig h t (kg)
Source: FAO
Total food fish supply
(million tonnes)
FIGURE 44
Total food fish supply and per capita food fish supply
in Africa, 1961-1997
60
30
50
25
40
20
30
15
Total
food fish
supply
Per capita
food fish
supply
10
Per ca pita supply
in live w e ig h t (kg)
Source: FAO
111
potential to replace exported high-value
products in local markets. This is because fish
farmers, w ith some exceptions such as those
w ho culture shrimps and m olluscs, already sell
th eir produce in local markets. As a group, fish
farmers have the a b ility to respond to
increases in demand.
In South Am erica, except for in the countries
facing the Caribbean, fish consum ption is
generally low. The fish-dependent populations
are coastal com m unities for w hom fish
supplies w ill not be a m ajor problem .
As a result of the above trends in
consum ption, international trade w ill grow possibly more rap id ly in value than in volum e
terms. Trade w ill expand in tw o ways. First, in
developing countries, fish processing for
developed markets w ill become a very
attractive em ploym ent-generating o p p o rtu n ity
for governments that need to find alternative
em ploym ent opportunities, p articula rly for
displaced artisanal fishers and th eir fam ilies.
In this context, the ready-to-eat segment of the
industry is p articula rly attractive, as it is
labour-intensive. However, most of the
countries that depend on fish im ports to satisfy
demand also have fish processing industries
and it is clear that these national industries
w ill do th eir best to survive, even if it means
opposing the a bolition of existing trade
barriers.
The second reason for an expansion in trade
is that developing countries w ill become
increasingly im portant markets for fish during
the com ing decades. As this happens, they w ill
export more to neighbouring developing
countries and other developing markets. For
example, in South Am erica, Brazil is like ly to
continue to be a m ajor fish im porter and its
im ports w ill come predom inantly from other
South Am erican producers.
FISH AS A SOURCE O F IN C O M E
M ost individuals become fishers or fish farmers
because they expect the activity to provide a
means of liveliho od for themselves and their
fam ilies. During the early part of the tw entieth
century, as a rule, no one interfered w ith this
choice and those w ho were not d irectly
concerned paid little attention to the activities
of fishers and aquaculturists. However, by the
early 1990s the situation had changed and the
activities o f fishers and fish farmers were
attracting the attention o f c iv il society,
p articula rly in developed economies. The
concerns voiced by national and international
N G O s centred on w hat they saw as the
in a b ility of governments and producers to
prevent damage to the living aquatic
resources being harvested and to the
ecosystem at large.
As these concerns w en t beyond national
borders they provided an impetus for
governm ent and industry representatives to
discuss the issues in international fora. This
led to the developm ent of several
international agreements, plans of action
and guidelines (most o f them voluntary) to
restrict harm ful practices in capture fisheries
and aquaculture.
From a global perspective, the im pact of
these agreements has been m arginal in terms
of the volum e of fish produced and
em p lo ym en t generated. Sim ultaneously,
technological developm ents have im proved
p ro d u ctivity in existing fisheries and opened
the w ay for new ones. The resulting increases
in production have more than offset any
reduction brought about by international
agreements that lim it or restrict fishing
practices. In capture fisheries the p rincipal
barriers to increased production continue to be
the p ro d u ctivity of w ild aquatic resources and
the econom ic and technological possibility of
harvesting them sustainably.
In recent decades, technological
developm ents in capture fisheries have led to
rapid increases in the volum es caught per
fisher and per year, p articula rly in industrial
fisheries. As fish resources are finite (and
prices are under pressure - particularly in the
high-value segment of the industry - as a
result o f the continuing expansion of
aquaculture production), fish stocks have not
been large or productive enough to perm it all
fishers to continue th eir activities.
As a result, the num ber o f active fu ll-tim e
fishers is declining in most OECD countries.
These trends w ill continue. As fishers are
barred from entry to fisheries (as part of a
successful p o lic y to contain and reduce fishing
effort), as technology improves and
pro d u ctivity (measured in volum e of fish
landed per fisher) increases, some of the
people w ho w o rk in the industry w ill have to
leave it.
International discussions have drawn
attention to the environm ental harm caused by
fisheries - and to some extent aquaculture w h ich m any societies m ight consider a
relatively m inor problem ; the m ajor problem ,
in fact, is the continued loss of econom ic rent
in capture fisheries (Box 18). In fisheries
w o rld w id e , very large amounts are lost yearly
112
as a result of poor management.3 It seems likely
that this issue w ill attract increasing attention
and civil society w ill demand that governments
and industry capture these rents for the benefit of
society as a whole. Governments are likely to
have to confront this issue in the next decade.
Optimal use of marine resources w ill become an
agreed objective and access to fishing as a
profession w ill be limited and reduced, but
progress w ill be slow. There are substantial costs
associated w ith the needed buy-out of industrial
fishing vessels and, in small-scale fisheries, long­
term funding w ill be needed to find alternative
em ploym ent for fishers.
The practice of allocating tradable quotas is
most like ly to become more widespread,
p a rticu la rly in industrial m onospecies
fisheries. Most holders of such quotas w ill
w an t their values to be high, and there are
several strategies for assuring this, one of
w h ich is to ensure that there is a large num ber
of buyers. In some countries, therefore,
demands may emerge for the permission of
international trading of quotas. If such
permission becomes widespread in developed
country fisheries, it seems plausible that
entrepreneurs from developing countries w ith
advanced fisheries w ill become buyers. They
w o u ld be able to compete because of their
low er labour costs and the a va ila b ility of
fishers w ho are still w illin g to face the risks
linked to one of the w orld's most dangerous
professions (see Fishers' safety, Part 2, p. 41).
This could be the start of a reversal of the
situation that emerged towards the end of the
last half century, w hen developed countries
purchased the right to fish in the EEZs of
developing countries. Such developm ents
w o u ld not alter the fact that the management
of all "n atio n al" fisheries w o u ld remain w ith
the states that have the exclusive rights to the
extended econom ic zones, and the buyers of
quotas w o u ld have to respect the national
legislation applying to the waters in w h ich the
quotas were valid.
In advanced econom ies, this
“ interna tion aliza tion " o f national marine
fisheries w ill be fuelled by the d iffic u lty of
recruiting sea-going personnel. The age
’ T h e re are m a n y re p o rts o f su c h losses. A b io - e c o n o m ic m o d e l­
pyram id of fu ll-tim e fishers is changing. In
Japan, fishers aged 60 years or more
accounted for 35 percent o f all fu ll-tim e fishers
in the m id-1990s, up from 14 percent in 1980.4
D uring the last part of the tw entieth century,
the fishing pressure on inshore resources in
developing countries underw ent a steady
increase. The im m ediate reasons for this were
grow ing populations, m odernization of fishing
methods, and access to an increasing num ber
of buyers. The greater fishing effort was
bringing more inshore fish stocks into a state of
overexploitation and the situation was
becom ing serious for m any com m unities.
A few countries w ere beginning to deal w ith
the problem . They did so by providing
exclusive fishing rights for selected fish stocks
to sm all-scale fishers' organizations (see
Property rights and fisheries management, Part
2, p. 52) and by strengthening the enforcem ent
of no-fishing zones for industrial vessels in
inshore waters. It was becom ing clear that,
unless some pow er was given to local fishers'
organizations, lim itin g particip a tion in
artisanal, sm all-scale tropical fishing w o u ld
become a very d iffic u lt issue. As long as
econom ies are depressed, the landless and the
unem ployed w ill see fishing as an opp ortu nity
for survival.
A strong reason for prom oting im proved
managem ent o f sm all-scale fisheries and
aquaculture is that these sectors provide
em ploym ent in coastal (marine and inland) and
rural areas that are often considered
e con om ically and so cia lly marginal. Thus,
fisheries activities are frequently one of the
fe w em ploym ent alternatives, and sometimes
the o nly one, available to local populations.
Fisheries and aquaculture are seen as means
to reinforce the food security of local
populations; increase the geographical and
econom ic integration of the countries
concerned; m itigate the d rift to urban areas;
and create demand for goods and services that
stim ulate investm ent, d ecentralization of
econom ic activities, regional econom ic growth
and social w elfare.
Over the last few years, the contribution of
capture fisheries to food fish supplies has
decreased, w h ile that of aquaculture has
increased. For the w orld as a w hole, excluding
m ainland China, the supplies from aquaculture
lin g o f s o m e d e m e rs a l fis h e rie s In th e G u lf o f T h a ila n d , c a rrie d
o u t In th e m id d le o f 2 0 0 0 , c o n c lu d e d th a t th e losses fo r tw o
o f th e fis h e rie s In v o lv e d c o u ld be a b o u t U S $ 2 0 0 m illio n a
’ G o v e r n m e n t o f Japan. 1 9 8 0 a n d 1 9 9 7 . F is h e ry s ta tis tic s o f
ye a r. H o w e v e r, th e re d u c tio n In e ffo rt n e e d e d to c a p tu re th is
Japan. T o k y o , S ta tistics a n d In fo rm a tio n D e p a rtm e n t, M in is tr y
fo re g o n e re n t w o u ld be large a n d e x p e n s iv e to Im p le m e n t.
o f A g r ic u ltu r e , F o re s try a n d Fish erie s.
113
BOX 18
Rent and rent extraction
In e co n o m ic theory, ” rent" is the paym ent for use
em p lo yin g the various factors o f pro du ction that
o f a resource, w h ethe r it be land, labour,
make up the enterprises particip ating in the
equipm ent, ideas o r money. O rig in a lly derived for
fishery. The total costs in clud e charges for
the use o f land, in w h ic h the in d e stru ctib ility o f the
replacem ent o f assets. The rent is often considered
resource was central, the term "e c o n o m ic rent"
as a "surplus" pro fit over and above w h a t is
has com e to denote a paym ent for the use o f any
considered norm al.
resource whose supply is indestructible, non-
However, it w o u ld be extrem ely com plex to
augm entable and in varia nt to price, at least in the
design a system for the extraction o f eco no m ic rent
sho rtte rm .
from fisheries, not least because, for most fisheries,
For resources to w h ic h private property rights
effort must be significantly reduced before a rent is
are not applied, a question arises over w h ethe r the
created. In addition, the question as to w hat is
co m m u n ity at large should charge the users a
equitable is usually settled through negotiations
portion o f the e co n o m ic rent. This can be done
among the parties concerned, some o f w h o m are
through taxation, royalties o r other form s o f
likely to argue that, as the right to fish has been
paym ent fo r rents that have been realized by
rent-free for tim e im m em orial - at least for coastal
those w h o e x p lo it the resource in question. The
com m unities - it should remain so.
purpose w o u ld be to prom ote an equitable
distrib u tio n o fa "s u rp lu s " incom e that some
consider, in p rin cip le , to belong to all members o f
the com m unity.
In relation to fisheries, a rent is generally
tho ugh t o f as the difference between the total
revenues obtained from the fishery and the total
costs (estimated at th e ir o p p o rtu n ity costs) o f
grew from 1.6 kg/capita/year in 1991 to 2.12 kg
in 1998. The same situation prevailed in
m ainland China where, over the same period,
the per capita supply of aquaculture products
reportedly rose from 6 kg to an astounding
17 kg.
There do not seem to be any insurm ountable
obstacles to the continued growth of
aquaculture. The a c tiv ity is increasingly
recognized in law and, therefore, is able to
com pete on an equal footing for land, water,
feed, labour, etc. Externalities linked to
aquaculture have been identified, and a basic
consensus seems to have been reached that
externalities need to be dealt w ith by requiring
producers to bear the m ajor part of the costs
that otherwise fall on third parties.
A t the end of the 1990s, most of the countries
that had small aquaculture sectors expected
these to grow rapidly. W h ile m any attempts
w ill fail, others w ill succeed, and a growing
num ber o f countries are likely to see a
vigorously grow ing aquaculture sector. This
w ill ensure growth but, relative to w o rld
production, the increases w ill appear small
S o u rc e : A . L em , FA O F is h e rie s D e p a rtm e n t.
and most are expected to be achieved by local
entrepreneurs. Aquaculture is also like ly to
spread through experienced entrepreneurs
bringing expertise, and sometimes species,
from one country to another in their search for
least-cost p roduction sites for interna tion ally
traded products. This w ill ensure the expansion
of production in Latin Am erica and,
increasingly, in Africa.
Asian production w ill continue to grow, but
the rate of growth is likely to slow dow n in
China when it becomes a member of W TO ,
and thus more open to food imports. China
may become a m arket for cultured fish
produced elsewhere in Asia.
M E D IU M -T E R M O U T L O O K : FISH
C O N S U M P T IO N IN 2010
In The State of W orld Fisheries and
Aquaculture 1998, it was estimated that w orld
demand for food fish in 2010 w o u ld be
between 105 m illio n and 110 m illio n tonnes
and available supplies about 105 m illio n
114
tonnes, w ith an additional 30 m illio n tonnes
being converted into animal feed. No great
upw ard pressure on average prices for fish was
foreseen. It was expected that increased
supplies from capture fisheries w o u ld
m aterialize o nly towards the end of the first
decade of this century as a result of im proved
management. These estimates were based on,
inter alia, UN population data from 1996.
In 1998, the UN revised its population
projections dow nw ards5 and its m edium
projection is now for a w o rld population of
6 795 m illio n in 2010. This is 96 m illio n fewer
than the estimate for 2010 published by the
UN in 1996.
In 1999, the W orld Bank predicted that the
w o rld econom y as a w ho le w o u ld grow faster
in the period 1999-2008 than it had done in the
proceeding ten-year period. As a result, the
w o rld per capita growth in GDP for the period
was projected to reach 1.9 percent; up from
the 1.1 percent in the W orld Bank's earlier
p ro je ctio n s.6
Recent FAO projections for meat7 show that
w o rld w id e per capita consum ption is expected
to grow at about 0.7 percent per year until
2015. This is low er than the growth rate
projected for per capita GDP. Consum ption in
industrialized countries is expected to increase
slightly, w h ile it w ill grow in all developing
country areas, fastest in East Asia and at a low
level in sub-Saharan A frica and South Asia.
W hat are the im plications of this for the
projections made in The State o f W orld
Fisheries and Aquaculture 1998? O verall, not
very many - possibly a slight dow nw ard
revision of overall estimates of global demand.
On the one hand, the reduction to the
estimated population forecast for 2010 is
m inor, at about 1.4 percent. On the other hand,
this sm aller than previously forecast
population is expected to be som ewhat richer
than was projected some years ago. In OECD
countries, increased w ealth is not expected to
lead to any significant increases in the volum e
of production, but expenditures on fish are
like ly to grow and an increasing share w ill be
directed towards im ported finished products.
In developing countries in Asia, in general,
the supply d ifficu ltie s experienced by capture
5 U n ite d N a tio n s P o p u la tio n D iv is io n . 1 9 9 8 . W o r ld p o p u la tio n
p ro sp e cts: th e 1 9 9 8 re v is io n . N e w Y o rk, U N .
“ F A O . 2 0 0 0 . A g r ic u ltu r e : to w a rd s 2 0 1 5 /3 0 , p. 2 7. T e c h n ic a l
In te rim R e p o rt. R om e.
7 Ib id ., p. 75.
fisheries w ill probably be counterbalanced by
increased aquaculture production; even by the
end of the 1990s, the great bulk o f aquaculture
production (in terms of volum e) was already
supplying local consumers, not OECD markets.
Thus, consum ption in these countries is likely
to expand continuously during the next
decade.
In the rem aining developing countries, and
particula rly in Africa, local supplies of fish
may continue to decline. The reasons for this
are related to the tim e needed to institute
effective effort controls in overexploited
m ultispecies fisheries that are exploited by
a large num ber of individuals from a large
num ber of landing centres. In addition,
aquaculture developm ents are like ly to focus
on high-value products and, therefore,
concentrate m ainly on export markets.
It is by no means certain that a general
increase in w ealth in LIFDCs outside Asia w ill
actually lead to higher fish production and
consum ption in these countries. Production
may stagnate in m any countries and, as local
fish processors are like ly to continue to have
access to lucrative overseas markets, local
supplies may dim inish. In fact, real price
levels for fish may increase in developing
countries, w h ic h w ill tend to cancel the effect
that increased prosperity could have on
demand. It seems u n lik e ly that export barriers
w ill be established in the name of food
security.
However, this pessimistic scenario is
u n like ly to apply to those LIFDCs w here the
fisheries sector accounts for a significant
proportion o f the national econom y (e.g.
N am ibia, M auritania, Maldives). The
im portance of the fisheries sector should
generate the need, the w ill and the means for
its management.
There w o u ld therefore seem to be no reason
to make m ajor m odifications to the 1998
prediction of consum ption. However, as Asia is
the centre o f w o rld fish consum ption
(accounting for some tw o-thirds o f the total at
the end o f the 1990s), w ha t happens there w ill
determ ine global developm ents. As projected
econom ic growth in Asia w ill stim ulate both
demand and production in that part o f the
w o rld , it is possibly more realistic to expect
consum ption in 2010 to be at least 110 m illio n
tonnes. This w o u ld im p ly that, for the w o rld as
a w hole, per capita consum ption w o u ld be
slightly higher, at 16.1 kg, than it was at the
end o f the 1990s. A breakthrough in
aquaculture (e.g. an extrem ely rapid spread of
115
BOX 19
Fish consumption and long-term incom e elasticities
Elasticities are measurements that econom ists use
positive. However, there are large differences
to analyse the price sen sitivity o f dem and and
am ong countries.
supply. The dem and fo r any given good is
C alculating historical incom e elasticities is a
influenced, not o n ly by the prices o f the goods and
relative ly sim ple matter; predicting incom e
substitutes but, above all, by buyers' incomes.
elasticities is far m ore com p lica ted, and the
Incom e elasticity measures the responsiveness o f
c o m p le x ity increases w ith the length o f period
the qu a n tity o f the goods dem anded to changes in
considered. In attem pting to predict the incom e
the buyer's incom e.
e lasticity to a p p ly to a 30-year p re diction for fish,
Short-term incom e elasticities are calculated for
it w o u ld be necessary to consider, inter alia, the
fin ite tim e periods and product prices are held
fo llo w in g factors: food habits o f the particular
constant. They n o rm a lly refer to one particular
group o f consumers concerned; the fact that prices
pro du ct but can also be calculated for a group o f
w ill change (contrary to the norm al assum ption for
products. Incom e elasticities can also be
elasticities); the fact that products are m odified
calculated fo r longer periods o f tim e, and for
(and som etim es becom e different products);
groups o f products.
changes in patterns o f con sum p tion as disposable
M ost goods are norm al goods w ith positive
incom e increases th ro u g h o u t the period o f
incom e elasticities, i.e. dem and increases as
consideration; the level o ffis h consum ption
incom e rises; negative incom e elasticities can be
already attained at the start o f the period; and the
found for in fe rio r goods. Thus, less expensive fish
fact that consum ers w ill substitute less expensive
such as m ackerel, suary and horse m ackerel are
products w ith m ore expensive ones.
considered in fe rio r goods.
Long-term elasticities are lo w er in absolute
value than short-term elasticities, perhaps because
cheaper substitutes becom e ava ila ble over tim e as
te ch n o lo g y changes and consum ers' tastes and
preferences for other products develop. W hen
lo okin g at international studies, it is clear that most
historical incom e elasticities for fish products are
rather low, show ing a w e ak to m oderate response
o f dem and as incom e rises, although the relation is
tila p ia culture in Latin Am erica and Africa)
w o u ld be the o nly m ajor reason for altering
such a prediction. Another reason w o u ld be a
faster than foreseen spread of good
governance practices in sm all-scale fisheries but this seems to be a remote possibility for the
first decade of the new century.
LO N G -TER M O U T L O O K : SOME
PLAUSIBLE STRUCTURAL C H AN G ES IN
P R O D U C T IO N A N D D E M A N D
By the year 2030, aquaculture w ill dom inate
fish supplies and less than half of the fish
consumed is likely to originate in capture
fisheries. The role of capture fisheries in the
econom ies of the present OECD countries w ill
S o u rc e : A . L em , FA O F is h e rie s D e p a rtm e n t.
have been reduced further as developing
countries increase their share of both catches
and subsequent processing. Their low er costs
of labour w ill make these econom ies
com petitive both in the labour-intensive
processing industry and as a source of
seafaring fishers. In w ea lthy countries, an
increasing share of the fish consumed w ill be
im ported and, as these countries w ill w an t to
obtain fish as cheaply as possible, it is likely
that most trade barriers w ill be rem oved in
advanced econom ies.
Aquaculture w ill have expanded
geographically, in terms o f species cultured
and technologies used. It is very u n like ly that
Asia w ill continue to dom inate production to
the extent that it did during the 1990s.
M ariculture w ill account for a larger share of
116
total production, p articula rly if offshore culture
te chn olo gy becomes viable.
Econom ic growth over the next 30 years w ill
result in a larger num ber of individuáis w ith
established, steady patterns of fish
consum ption. A w ide variety of products w ill
be consumed - but the total quantity of
products consumed per person and per year
w ill not fluctuate greatly. By the end of the
1990s, it w o u ld seem that about 10 percent of
the w orld's population had already reached
this level of stability; that is, their consum ption
had stagnated in terms of the volum es o f fish
consumed. By 2030, the numbers of consumers
in this category w ill have increased somewhat,
m ainly in Europe but also in some East Asian
nations. However, as the growth of population
in w ea lthy regions w ill be slow er than in poor
regions, the proportion o f the w orld's
population w ith stagnating volum es of
consum ption w ill not have increased
substantially and is u n like ly to be more than
20 percent in 2030.
Thus, over the com ing decades, in most
OECD countries the total volum e of fish
consumed w ill not change m uch, and the
m odifications that do take place are like ly to
be determ ined more by fluctuations in
population size than by grow ing disposable
real incomes. This does not mean that the
value of per capita consum ption w ill not
increase - it most probably w ill as consumers
increase the share of expensive fish products
by buying more ready-to-eat products and
substituting expensive for cheap fish products.
Consum ption predictions for the 80 percent
of the w orld's population w ho are still like ly to
increase the quantity o f fish they consume are
com plicated. A lthough extrapolating the effect
of population growth on the basis o f UN
projections and recorded apparent per capita
consum ption is straightforw ard, it is more
d iffic u lt to make a reasonable prediction of
how demand is influenced by rising incomes
and the relative changes in real prices of
substitutes.
For short-term predictions - over a year or
tw o - recourse is usually made to calculating
and applying elasticities o f demand relative to
growth in incom e and assuming prices to be
stable. For a category that includes as w ide a
range o f different products (and therefore
substitution possibilities) as fish does, and for
periods that are as long as 30 years,
determ ination o f the appropriate elasticity to
use (Box 19) is a com plicated issue. FAO is
studying the developm ent o f long-term
predictions in a tw o-pronged approach. In the
first of these, during w h ich the O rganization
w orked in association w ith tw o CGIAR
centres,8 a computer-based m odelling
approach was developed. The second
approach consists of a series of in-depth
investigations of probable future fish
consum ption in m ajor consum ing countries.
The results of both are scheduled to be
published in the course of 2001. ♦
“ T h e In te rn a tio n a l F o o d P o lic y R esearch In s titu te (IFPRI), In
W a s h in g to n , D C , a n d th e In te rn a tio n a l C e n tre fo r L iv in g A q u a tic
R eso u rce s M a n a g e m e n t (IC L A R M ), In P enang, M a la y s ia .
PART 5
Fisheries activities of country groupings
119
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8 August
1967, in Bangkok, w ith the signing o f the Bangkok D eclaration. A t present, its
members are Brunei Darussalam, Cam bodia, Indonesia, the Lao People's
D em ocratic Republic, M alaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and
Viet Nam.
The ASEAN D eclaration states that the aims and purposes o f the Association are:
i) to accelerate econom ic growth, social progress and cultural developm ent in the
region, th ro u g h jo in t endeavours and in the spirit of equality and partnership, in
order to strengthen the foundations for a prosperous and peaceful co m m un ity of
Southeast Asian nations; and ¡i) to prom ote regional peace and stability, through
m aintaining respect for ju s tic e and the rule of law w ith in the relationship among
countries in the region and through adherence to the principles of the United
N ations Charter.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
In consideration of the conceptual fram ew ork of the Hanoi Plan of A ction to
im plem ent the ASEAN Vision 2020, the Senior O fficers o f the ASEAN M inisters of
A griculture and Forestry (SOM-AMAF) held a Special M eeting from 27 to 29 April
TABLE 6
ASEAN: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
Aquaculture production
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
755
940
1 187
13.0
11.5
9.8
8.2
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
212
469
736
802
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
6.2
9 .5
8.5
6 .6
1 003
999
1 045
984
16.8
15.5
15.6
12.3
7 403
8 451
10 0 4 0
10748
9.4
10.7
11.8
13.7
9 372
10859
13 0 0 8
14079
10.0
11.0
11.6
12.0
10334
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
1 545
Fisheries production
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries and aquaculture production
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food balance
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
7 640
8 597
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
18.7
19.5
21.9
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
4 7.7
4 5.7
4 3.7
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
720
1 437
1 996
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
3 .0
3 .6
3.9
3 .0
1 996
4 484
7 758
7 600
8.7
1 2.6
16.4
14.8
Trade in fishery commodities
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
1 626
1998 in Phuket, Thailand. A t that meeting, it was decided that the Strategic Plan on
ASEAN C ooperation in Food, A griculture (including Fisheries) and Forestry (19992004) should cover overall cooperation in the three m ajor sectors, w ith particular
emphasis on strengthening food security arrangements in the region, enhancing the
international competitiveness of food, agricultural and forest products and
strengthening ASEAN's position in international fora.
Existing guidelines (priority areas and programmes), instruments and mechanisms
for cooperation should also be taken into consideration and review ed as part o f the
preparations for the Strategic Plan. The Plan's im plem entation w ill be coordinated by
the ASEAN Secretariat. In the field of fisheries and aquaculture, the im plem entation
w ill be carried out by the Sectoral W orking Group on Fisheries. C ooperation in
fisheries continues to focus on aquaculture developm ent, the developm ent and
im provem ent o f fisheries post-harvest technologies and the harm onization o f q uality
assurance for fishery products.
The manual on good shrim p farm management practices was o ffic ia lly launched at
the 20th M eeting of AM AF in Hanoi on 18 September 1998, and distributed to all
m em ber countries for use. A manual of guidelines for producing "h ig h health" shrim p
broodstock has been drafted. M em ber countries are im plem enting the HACCP
training programme, w h ich was developed as part of the com pleted ASEAN-Canada
Project on Fisheries Post-harvest Technology: Phase 2. A survey of traditional fish
products in the ASEAN region is being carried out and a fram ew ork for the
co m p ila tion of fisheries sanitary measures to facilitate intra-ASEAN trade in fish and
fishery products has been prepared. In its early stages, the harm onization effort w ill
be confined to fish diseases and quarantine.
The Programme and W ork Plan for ASEAN Sea Turtle Conservation and Protection,
as stipulated in the M em orandum of Understanding on ASEAN Sea Turtle
Conservation and Protection, was endorsed by the 20th M eeting o f AM AF in Hanoi.
A w orkshop was held in July 1999 in Malaysia, at w h ich strategies were reviewed
and a tim e frame set for the im plem entation of the action plan. Thailand has
identified approxim ately 40 ha of land on the bank of the M ekong River in Chiang
Mai Province for the b uilding of a research centre for ASEAN-Mekong Basin
Fisheries D evelopm ent Cooperation, w h ile Singapore has trained participants from
M yanm ar in fisheries post-harvest technology. A Fisheries C onsultative Group
M eeting has been established as a mechanism for co llaboration between ASEAN's
Fisheries W orking Group and the Southeast Asian Fisheries D evelopm ent Centre
(SEAFDEC) on sustainable fisheries developm ent in the Southeast Asia region. The
Special M eeting of SOM-AMAF, held in A p ril 2000 in Brunei, decided on the
im plem entation of seven ASEAN-SEAFDEC collaborative programmes (all of w hich
have already been started). The programmes cover: the upgrading of the traditional
fish processing industry: prom otion of m angrove-friendly aquaculture: conservation
and management of the sea turtle: regionalization of the Code o f C onduct for
Responsible Fisheries: developm ent o f a fish disease diagnostical inspection
m echanism: im provem ent of fisheries statistics: fish trade and environm ent. The
Special M eeting also decided to organize an ASEAN-SEAFDEC Conference on
Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security in the N ew M ille n n iu m (Fish for the People),
to be held in O ctober 2001 in collaboration w ith FAO.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
There is no form al cooperation between ASEAN and FAO in the area of fisheries.
However, m em ber countries of ASEAN and its Fisheries W orking Group do
cooperate closely w ith FAO through the FAO Regional O ffice in Bangkok.
121
CARIBBEAN C O M M U N IT Y A N D C O M M O N MARKET
The Caribbean C om m unity and Com m on M arket (CARICOM) was established by the
Treaty of Chaguaramas on 4 July 1973 for the principal purpose of enhancing,
through cooperation, the econom ic, social and cultural developm ent of the
populations of member countries. CARICOM 's members are Antigua and Barbuda,
Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, D om inica, Grenada, Guyana, H aiti, Jamaica,
Montserrat, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,
Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
In fisheries, CARICOM aims to "prom ote the developm ent of the fisheries subsector
in member states w ith a vie w to optim al exploitation o f their resources on a
sustainable basis". It intends to do this by strengthening the legal and institutional
fram ew ork, in part through the form ulation and im plem entation of a com m on
CARICOM Fisheries Policy and a CARICOM Regional Fisheries M echanism.
The CARICOM Fisheries U nit, located in Belize, was established in 1991 to
execute the CARICOM Fisheries Resource Assessment and M anagem ent Program
(CFRAMP). This programme's goal is to promote sustainable developm ent and
conservation of the region's fish stocks in order to perm it sustainable use of these
TABLE 7
C A R IC O M : fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1 98 6
1990
1994
1998
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
2
3
3
4
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0
0
1
2
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
1
2
2
2
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
79
89
109
117
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
82
94
115
124
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
154
143
155
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
12.7
11.1
11.4
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
19.7
18.5
19.1
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
59
64
62
69
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
66
108
110
178
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
resources by the peoples of 12 CARICOM M em ber States. It was created in 1991 and
is funded jo in tly by the Canadian Governm ent, through the Canadian International
D evelopm ent Agency (ClDA), and participating CARICOM countries. CFRAMP is
being executed in tw o phases. Phase 1 was concluded in 1998, w h ile Phase 2 is due
for com pletion in December 2000. It is hoped that there w ill then be a transition to a
more perm anent regional fisheries m echanism.
The role of the CARICOM Fisheries U nit, as a leading regional executing agency
for fisheries resource conservation and management, has been expanded to include:
• the ACP-EU Fisheries and Biodiversity Managem ent Project: Caribbean Node,
w h ich was initiated in late 1997 w ith the participation o f several ACP countries,
including the D om inican Republic and CARICOM countries;
• the EU-funded fisheries com ponent of the Lomé IV Integrated Caribbean Regional
A gricu ltura l and Fisheries D evelopm ent Program (CARIFORUM Fisheries
Project), w h ich is intended to benefit several ACP countries in the Caribbean
region, including CARICOM countries. This project started in August 1999;
• the Project on M ulti-stakeholder Approaches to Coastal Zone M anagem ent in the
Caribbean, supported by the International D evelopm ent Research Centre.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
CARICOM and FAO have cooperated closely over the past decades on various
aspects o f fisheries, including p o licy and legal matters. FAO has provided technical
assistance to CFRAMP in specific areas since its inception in 1991 and, over the past
tw o years, FAO and CFRAMP have collaborated in im plem enting jo in t technical
activities through the Western Central A tla n tic Fisheries Com m ission (WECAFC).
Such activities have included training in stock assessment and the assessment of
m ajor fish stocks (e.g. spiny lobster, penaeid shrim p) in the WECAFC region.
123
C O M M O NW EA LTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES
The C om m onw ealth of Independent States (CIS) was established in December 1991.
It is a vo lu ntary association consisting of the fo llo w in g States: Arm enia, Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic o f M oldova, the Russian
Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, U kraine and Uzbekistan. The main purpose of
the C om m onw ealth is to develop and strengthen cooperation and to serve the cause
of peace and security.
FISHERIES:
To date, no
elaborated.
agreements
groups:
PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
com m on fisheries p o lic y among countries of the CIS has been
C oordination is achieved through bilateral and m ultilateral
among the m em ber countries, w h ich can be divided into tw o
i) states that have inland w ater fisheries and aquaculture activities o n ly (Armenia,
A zerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of M oldova, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan): and
ii) states that have a w ell-d e velop e d distant-w ater fisheries sector (the Russian
Federation, U kraine and - to a certain extent - Georgia).
TABLE 8
CIS: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
405
146
106
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
5 .0
1.2
0 .6
0
3
1
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
565
319
316
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
8.8
4.8
3.9
8 233
3 747
4 644
10.4
4.4
5.9
9 204
4215
5 066
9.3
3.8
4.3
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly In ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
2 072
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
7.3
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
6 .6
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
287
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
0 .6
0.7
1 797
1 268
3.8
2.5
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Note: ... = data non available.
375
124
M ost CIS countries have concentrated on the restructuring of their fleets and on
the processing and m arketing sectors.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
To date there is no agreed p o licy w ith in the CIS countries concerning their
cooperation w ith FAO. Each state acts independently in fishery matters.
125
EC O N O M IC C O M M U N IT Y OF WEST AFRICAN STATES
The Treaty of Lagos, w h ich established the Econom ic C om m unity of West African
States (ECOWAS), was signed by representatives of 15 West African States in Lagos
on 28 M ay 1975. A t present, the fo llo w in g countries adhere to the treaty: Benin,
Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, GuineaBissau, Liberia, M ali, M auritania, the Niger, N igeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and
Togo.
The ECOWAS Treaty specifies the C om m unity's objective, to be achieved in
stages, as being the creation of econom ic and m onetary union. Cooperation in the
developm ent o f agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fisheries is one of its
prim ary aims. The first stage in this cooperation entails the harm onization of internal
and external policies; the second stage envisages the adoption o f a com m on
a gricu ltu ra l policy.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
Based on the recom m endations of the Industry, A griculture and Natural Resources
Com m ission at its meeting in Cotonou, Benin, in A p ril 1980, ECOWAS organized a
conference of experts in Dakar, Senegal, to develop national policies to ensure
TABLE 9
ECOWAS: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
6
8
15
22
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
0
1
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
334
341
344
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
5 .6
5.3
5.1
5.2
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
959
1 128
1 065
1 2 97
1.2
1.4
1.3
1.7
1 299
1 477
1 425
1 739
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.5
1 517
2 191
1 652
9.9
12.8
8.7
3 0.5
3 4.4
28.8
243
383
377
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.9
537
518
629
828
2.3
1.5
1.3
1.6
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
420
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
494
better management and surveillance of waters under the ju ris d ic tio n of its M em ber
States and also to ensure the conservation of fisheries resources in the region.
Several recom m endations were made concerning research, surveillance, the
harm onization o f fishing agreements and legislation, trade in fish and fishery
products, data co lle ction , etc. Since then, M embers have made progress in
im plem enting such recom m endations.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
ECOWAS's form al relationship w ith FAO is based on an exchange of letters between
the Director-General of FAO and the Executive Secretary of ECOWAS. A
Cooperation Agreement was established w ith FAO in December 1984, since w hich
tim e FAO has been cooperating w ith the C om m unity in various fields. However, as
an organization, ECOWAS is not a member of any o f FAO's statutory bodies.
In the m id-1990s, at the request of ECOWAS, FAO carried out a study entitled
Econom ic developm ent of fisheries, w h ic h made special reference to aspects of
fisheries by foreign vessels off West Africa. In its conclusions, the study emphasized
the necessity and the opportunities for regional cooperation in support of fisheries
management and regional food security. Furthermore, FAO regional fishery projects
have been cooperating w ith ECOWAS M em ber States, especially in prom oting
fisheries m anagem ent in the artisanal subsector.
127
EUROPEAN C O M M U N IT Y
The Treaty of Rome established the European Econom ic C om m unity (EEC) in 1957. In
1993, the Treaty of M aastricht established the European U nion (EU) as a broader
fram ew ork w h ich retained the EEC, n ow the European C om m unity (EC), as a legal
entity. The aims of the EC include the a bo litio n of restrictive trading practices and
the free m ovem ent of capital and labour w ith in the union. A single m arket w ith free
m ovem ent of goods and capital was established in January 1993. The fo llo w in g
countries are members of the EC: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden and the United Kingdom.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
The Com m on Fisheries Policy (CFP) is the EC's instrum ent for the conservation and
management of fisheries and aquaculture. It was created w ith the aims o f managing
a com m on resource and meeting the obligation set out in the original C om m unity
Treaties. W ild fish are a natural and m obile resource that is considered com m on
property. The treaties creating the C om m unity stated that there should be a com m on
p o licy in this area; that is, com m on rules adopted at the C om m unity level and
TABLE 10
EC: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
171
221
241
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
3 .0
2.7
2.0
1.3
699
717
796
1 085
2 0 .6
14.5
9.2
8.9
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
113
107
104
120
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.5
6774
6 067
6737
6419
8 .6
7.7
8 .0
8.2
7 757
7 114
7 878
7 873
8.3
7.2
7 .0
6.7
7 466
8 236
8 547
2 0.2
2 1.9
2 2.4
9 .0
9.8
10.3
8 182
15705
16946
33.7
3 9.8
3 3.2
3 8.5
4 646
8071
9135
11 6 6 7
2 0.3
22.7
19.3
2 2.8
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
249
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
21 158
im plem ented in all M em ber States. DG Fisheries is the Directorate-G eneral
responsible for the CFP, w h ich is scheduled to be review ed in 2002.
The CFP came into existence in 1983, although the first elements of this p o licy had
already been introduced in 1970. Since then, it has been developed and adjusted
continuously in accordance w ith international developm ents and changes w ith in the
EC itself. The CFP takes into account the bio log ica l, econom ic, social and
environm ental dim ensions of fishing. Its im plem entation entails the fo llo w in g main
issues and related measures.
Conservation and responsible fishing. The EC p o licy for the conservation o f fishery
resources focuses on:
• lim itin g fishing effort through a strict licensing system;
• restricting catch volum es by setting total a llow able catches (TACs) and
establishing technical measures to m in im ize the occurrence o f discards;
• prom oting more selective fisheries by establishing technical measures related to
mesh sizes, selectivity devices, closed areas and seasons, m in im u m fish and
shellfish landing sizes and lim its of by-catch;
• reducing fishing capacity to a level com patible w ith fishery resources availability.
Progress made in this crucial com ponent of the CFP is m onitored through the M ultiAnnual Guidance Programme (MAGP IV - 1997-2001), w hich also establishes fleet
reduction targets for each member country. DG Fisheries has already started to
prepare proposals for MAGP V, to cover the 2002-2006 period;
• adapting management to fishing areas shared between the C om m unity and third
parties through active m em bership in the N orthw est A tla ntic Fisheries
O rganization (NAFO), the Com m ission for the Conservation of A n tarctic M arine
Living Resources (CCAMLR), the Northeast A tla n tic Fisheries Com m ission
(NEAFC), the Indian Ocean Tuna Com m ission (IOTC), the N orth A tla ntic Salmon
Conservation O rganization (NASCO), the Fishery Com m ittee for the Eastern
Central A tla n tic (CECAF), the International Baltic Sea Fishery Com m ission
(IBSFC), the General Fisheries Com m ission for the M editerranean (GFCM) and
the International Com m ission for the Conservation of A tla ntic Tunas (ICCAT).
Fishing beyond Community waters. The EC has exclusive competence in
international relations in the dom ain of fisheries. It is em powered to undertake
international com m itm ents tow ards third countries or international organizations in
matters relating to fisheries. The European Com m ission, on behalf of the C om m unity,
negotiates fisheries agreements w ith th ird countries and participates in various
regional fisheries organizations. The EC has concluded 26 fishing agreements w ith
th ird countries and is currently a member of nine regional and international fisheries
organizations. The EC is also a member of FAO.
Restructuring the fishing sector. Restructuring o f the EC fisheries sector relies
heavily on the im plem entation o f the structural policy, the purpose of w h ich is to
adapt and manage the developm ent of structures (the equipm ent required to produce
goods and the organization of production processes) in the fishing and aquaculture
industry. EC assistance to the fisheries sector is provided under the Financial
Instrum ent for Fisheries G uidance (FIFG). The FIFG aims to:
• contribute to the achievem ent of a lasting balance between fisheries resources
and their exploitation;
• strengthen com petitiveness and the developm ent of e con om ically viable
businesses in the fishing industry;
• im prove m arket supply and increase the value that can be added to fish and
aquaculture products through processing;
• help revitalize areas that are dependent on fisheries and aquaculture.
The C ouncil of the European U nion agreed the detailed rules and arrangements
regarding assistance under the FIFG on 17 December 1999. These rules replaced the
Regulation, w h ich came to an end on 31 December 1999, and cover the period 2000
to 2006. The EC was determ ined to ensure that p u b lic funds w o u ld not be used to
increase fishing capacity because a num ber o f com m ercial stocks are still
overexploited. Measures regarding financial support linked to productive investm ent
in the processing industry and aquaculture, such as b uilding , enlarging or
m odernizing processing plants or fish farms, as w ell as those relating to fishing port
facilities have been renewed. Others, such as supporting the creation of tem porary
jo in t ventures, have been cancelled, as they had not achieved their objective of
contributing to the reduction of EC fleet capacity. Greater emphasis has been put on
environm ental aspects, and p rio rity w ill be given to co lle ctive projects undertaken
by the industry itself. The new rules contain substantial m odifications to some
previous rules w h ich were shown to be insufficiently e x p lic it or d iffic u lt to
im plem ent, including rules on fleet renewal and jo in t enterprises. In the case of the
latter, a num ber o f conditions have been attached to the e lig ib ility and
im plem entation of projects to ensure that they do not lead to overfishing in third
countries and that the obligations attached to the granting of aid are fu lfille d .
In addition, there are provisions relating to support for producers' organizations,
w h ich were previously im plem ented under the Com m on O rganization of the Markets
for Fisheries and Aquaculture Regulation. The measures aim to reinforce the
competitiveness of the industry through reinforcem ent o f the role of producers'
organizations. The inclusion of these measures as w ell as those in favour of smallscale fisheries in the FIFG allow s for a rationalization of its contents and increased
coherence w ith other structural measures.
In conclusion, the new rules w iden the range of socio-econom ic measures by, for
example, granting aid to young fishers w ho are acquiring a fishing vessel for the first
tim e and to individual fishers w ho are leaving the industry; redefining the current
support mechanisms for fishers and vessel owners w ho are subject to a tem porary
cessation of activities; and updating the current prem ium s and scales.
Common organization of the market. The EC set up a system for the com m on
organization of the m arket for fisheries and aquaculture products almost 30 years
ago. Since July 1996, the com m on market organization in fisheries and aquaculture
products has been being adapted to recent changes in the market, including
increased g lobalization of markets, greater dependence on imports, continued
scarcity of resources, change in consum ption patterns and concentration and
vertical integration w ith in the distribution chain. The com m on organization of the EC
m arket has four components:
• com m on marketing standards for quality, grades, packaging and labelling of both
EC and im ported fishery products;
• producers' organizations, w h ich are vo lu ntary associations of fishers that are
established to help stabilize markets (their role is to protect fishers from sudden
changes in market demand);
• a price support system that sets m in im u m prices below w h ic h fish products
cannot be sold. Financial support is available to producers' organizations if they
have to take fish and shellfish off the market, store them for later use or process
them ;
• rules for trade w ith non-EC countries.
The regulation for the com m on organization of the m arket for fishery products
was adopted on 12 December 1999 and is expected to be fu lly im plem ented by
1 January 2001.
Enforcement of the law within the fishing sector. The 1992 review of the CFP
stressed the need to make the p o licy more effective. A new control regulation,
created in 1993, reinforced the role of surveillance and extended the CFP's dom ain
of action from that of direct conservation measures to one that also included
im plem entation of structural policy, m arketing, transport and sale o f fish and
shellfish. The new regulation also encouraged harm onization of the proceedings and
penalties against wrongdoers across the EC. Inform ation technology was to be used
to com plem ent traditional m onitoring methods. Fishing surveillance has also been
substantially strengthened by the setting up of a Vessel M on itoring System (VMS). As
from 1 January 2000, w herever they operate, all EC fishing vessels that exceed 24 m
in length (or 20 m between perpendiculars) must be equipped w ith a satellite
tracking device, as must the vessels o f third countries operating in EC waters. The
authorities w ill be able to use satellite tracking to o ptim ize the use of their aircraft
and patrol vessels and to compare satellite evidence w ith the inform ation contained
in vessels' log-books.
Fishing and the w ider environment. In 1997, a m inisterial meeting on the integration
of fisheries and environm ental issues, held in Bergen, Norway, and attended by
ministers from all North Sea States and by EC representatives, agreed on a so-called
"ecosystem approach" to m arine environm ents w h ich included elements of the
precautionary approach. Given the com m itm ent demonstrated by various states and
international organizations, including the EC, to integrating an environm ental
dim ension into their policies, greater effort is now being made to prom ote the
relevant research and data co lle ction w ith in the fram ew ork of the EC FAIR
Programme. Related to this topic, the C om m unity's DG Environm ent is im plem enting
a project called Integrating biodiversity and European fisheries policy: rebuilding a
healthy and productive ecosystem.
The international dim ension of fisheries has acquired greater im portance for the
EC in recent years. Bilateral and m ultilateral negotiations w ith third countries have
increased, as have negotiations w ith in regional fisheries organizations and
international bodies. International trade of fish and fishery products has also become
more im portant for the Com m unity, especially in relation to im port trade as w ell as
to environm ental issues and health and safety standards of fish and fishery products.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
The EC is a fu ll member of FAO. The EC is also a m em ber of most FAO regional
fishery bodies and participates actively in the w o rk of several o f these.
The financial co ntribu tion o f the EC makes it possible for FAO to im plem ent its
international agreements and plans of action for im proved global management of
fishing capacity, shark fisheries and incidental catch of seabirds in longline fisheries.
131
LATIN AMERICAN EC O N O M IC SYSTEM
The Latin Am erican Econom ic System (LAES) is a regional intergovernm ental
organization that groups 28 Latin Am erican and Caribbean countries: Argentina, the
Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, C olom bia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the
D om inican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti,
Honduras, Jamaica, M exico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname,
Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay and Venezuela. LAES was established on 1 7 O ctober
1975 by the Panama Convention.
The objectives o f LAES are to prom ote a system for consultation and coordination,
aim ing to achieve consensus in the form of jo in t positions and com m on strategies on
econom ic issues for the Latin Am erican and Caribbean region. The com m on
strategies may be for ind ivid ua l countries or groups of countries. LAES also serves to
prom ote cooperation and integration among the countries of the region.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
The Action Committees of LAES are flexible cooperation mechanisms and are set up
w hen more than tw o Member States voice their interest in prom oting jo in t
programmes and projects in specific areas. These committees are dissolved once their
objectives are fu lfille d, otherwise they may become Permanent Bodies of the System.
TABLE 11
LAES: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
203
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
45
74
101
0.8
0.9
0.8
1.1
57
132
261
518
1.7
2.7
3 .0
4.3
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
458
429
474
466
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
7.7
6.7
7.1
5.8
15382
15601
23 4 8 5
11 841
19.6
19.7
27.7
15.1
15941
16236
24 3 2 2
13028
17.0
16.5
21.7
11.1
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
3615
4 054
4 182
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
9 .0
9.3
9 .0
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
8 .0
8.3
7.5
353
477
805
1.5
1.2
1.6
2 .0
2 737
3 220
5 461
6 596
11.9
9.1
11.5
12.9
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
1 113
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
There is a long record of cooperation in technical activities between FAO and LAES.
In itia lly the forum for this cooperation was the A ction C om m ittee of Sea and Fresh­
w ater Products. W hen this action com m ittee was dissolved, the Latin Am erican
O rganization for Fisheries D evelopm ent (OLDEPESCA) was established, and this
independent body has become the centre of cooperation. FAO usually attends the
annual OLDEPESCA conferences o f Fisheries Ministers.
133
LEAGUE OF ARAB STATES
The League of Arab States, more generally know n as the Arab League, was
established on 22 M arch 22 1945. It comprises Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros,
D jib o u ti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,
M auritania, M orocco, Om an, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, the Sudan,
the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, the U nited Arab Emirates and Yemen.
The broad objectives of the Arab League are to develop cooperation and strengthen
com plem entarity among the M em ber States in econom ic, cultural, scientific, social
and m ilitary fields. To do so, the League has set up several specialized agencies.
Those of interest to FAO are: the Arab Bank for Economic Developm ent in Africa
(Khartoum, the Sudan); the Arab Centre for the Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
(Damascus, the Syrian Arab Republic); the Arab Fund for Economic and Social
Developm ent (Kuwait); the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific
O rganization (Tunis, Tunisia); the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development
(Khartoum, the Sudan); the Arab Academ y for Science, and M aritim e Transport
(Alexandria, Egypt); and the Inter-Arab Investment Guarantee Corporation (Kuwait).
TABLE 12
League o f Arab States: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance
and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
53
69
65
139
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.7
0
2
6
20
0 .0
0 .0
0.1
0.2
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
188
234
271
320
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
3.2
3 .6
4 .0
4 .0
1 244
1 315
1 596
1 574
1.6
1.7
1.9
2 .0
1 486
1 620
1 939
2 052
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
1 089
1 234
1 470
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
5.4
5.5
6 .0
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
8.1
8 .6
9.7
244
213
323
1.0
0.5
0 .6
0.8
612
878
985
1 124
2.7
2.5
2.1
2.2
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
457
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
The League of Arab States has no subsidiary body or institution that deals
e xclu sively w ith fisheries matters.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
FAO has participated in several meetings organized by subsidiary bodies of the Arab
League. The O rganization has attended and partly sponsored meetings of the Arab
Federation of Fish Producers (AFFP), w h ich is a subsidiary o f the C ouncil for Arab
Econom ic U nion. In 1998, FAO was represented at the Conference on the
D evelopm ent of M arine Fisheries in the Arab W orld, organized by the C ouncil.
135
NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT
Canada, M exico and the United States of America are members of the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), w hich came into effect on 1 January 1994. NAFTA's
main aims are to contribute to the expansion of w orld trade; create, expand and secure
markets for the goods produced in their territories; reduce distortions to trade; create
new em ploym ent opportunities and improve w orking conditions and living standards in
their respective territories; and address related environmental and conservation issues.
NAFTA is a trading blo ck o f global reach. It is innovative, as it establishes linkages
between econom ies w ith different levels o f econom ic developm ent. Current
discussions envisage the linking of existing subregional integration schemes, of
w h ich NAFTA is one, into a Free Trade Area of the Americas.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
NAFTA does not have any particular activities concerned w ith fisheries.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
To date, there is no cooperation between NAFTA and FAO on fisheries matters.
NAFTA m em ber countries deal in d iv id u a lly w ith FAO in this field.
TABLE 13
NAFTA: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
342
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
248
254
287
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
4.3
3.1
2.4
1.8
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
148
120
189
235
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
4.4
2.4
2.2
1.9
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
218
197
190
197
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
3.7
3.1
2.8
2,5
7 405
8 356
7 565
6 688
9.4
10.6
8.9
8.5
8 020
8 927
8 231
7 462
8.5
9.1
7.3
6.4
5 995
7 056
7 768
17.3
19.3
20.3
6.4
7.5
7.5
5188
6 2 57
8115
21.4
15.8
15.9
18.0
3 690
5 649
5 893
5 382
16.1
15.9
12.4
10.5
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
9 872
136
SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION
FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION
The South Asian Association for Regional C ooperation (SAARC) was established in
1985 by the Heads of State and G overnm ent of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, M aldives,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC's main goal is to accelerate econom ic and
social developm ent in M em ber States through jo in t action in certain agreed areas of
cooperation. To achieve this objective SAARC seeks to:
• prom ote the w elfare of the peoples of South Asia and im prove their q ua lity of life;
• accelerate econom ic growth, social progress and cultural developm ent in the
region, and provide all individuals the o p p ortu nity to live in d ig n ity and realize
their full potential:
• promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia;
• prom ote active co llaboration and m utual assistance in econom ic, social, cultural,
technical and scien tific fields;
• strengthen cooperation w ith other developing countries;
• strengthen cooperation among M em ber States in other international fora on
matters of com m on interest, and cooperate w ith international and regional
organizations w ith sim ilar aims and purposes.
TABLE 14
SAARC: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
823
1 182
1 755
2 502
14.2
14.5
14.5
13.4
29
50
123
156
0.9
1.0
1.4
1.3
1 088
1 128
1 221
1 395
18.3
17.5
18.2
17.4
2 462
3 022
3 630
3 653
3.1
3.8
4.3
4.7
4 401
5 382
6729
7 705
4.7
5.5
6 .0
6 .6
3 772
4 566
5 555
3.7
4.1
4 .6
12.1
12.6
13.4
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
31
46
39
92
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
616
790
1 641
1 695
2.7
2.2
3.5
3.3
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
FISHERIES: PURPOSES A N D OBJECTIVES
The Integrated Programme of A ction is the key com ponent o f SAARC's activities. It
n ow includes 11 areas of cooperation, each covered by a Technical Com m ittee:
Agriculture: C om m unications: Education: C ulture and Sports: Environm ent and
M eteorology: Health and Population Activities: Prevention of Drug Trafficking and
Drug Abuse: Rural Developm ent, Science and Technology: Tourism: Transport: and
W om en in D evelopm ent. Regular meetings o f counterpart scientists are a very
im portant feature of the Technical Com m ittee on Agriculture, and a list o f fisheries
counterpart scientists has also been prepared and made available.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
SAARC does not cooperate fo rm a lly w ith FAO in fisheries or aquaculture.
SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT C O M M U N IT Y
The D eclaration and Treaty establishing the Southern African D evelopm ent
C om m unity (SADC) was signed at the Sum m it of Heads of G overnm ent in W indhoek,
N am ibia, in August 1992. Its member countries are Angola, Botswana, the
D em ocratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho, M alaw i, M auritius, M ozam bique,
N am ibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, the U nited Republic of Tanzania,
Zam bia and Zim babw e. The objectives o f SADC are to:
• achieve developm ent and econom ic grow th, alleviate poverty, enhance
the standard and q ua lity of life of the peoples of southern A frica and support
the so cia lly disadvantaged through regional integration:
• evolve com m on p olitical values, systems and institutions:
• promote and defend peace and security:
• promote self-sustaining development on the basis of collective self-reliance and
the interdependence of Member States:
• achieve com plem entarity among national and regional strategies and
programmes:
• promote and maximize productive em ploym ent and utilization of the resources
of the region:
• achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources and effective protection
of the environment:
• strengthen and consolidate long-standing historical, social and cultural
affinities and links among the peoples of the region.
FISHERIES: PURPOSES A N D AC TIVITIES
SADC's w o rk related to specific sectors is handled by Sector C oordinating Units
(SCUs). These are allocated to ind ivid ua l M em ber States, w ho provide coordination,
leadership and guidance on the form ulation, im plem entation and management of
sector-specific policies, programmes and projects. A Sectoral Com m ittee of
M inisters, chaired by the coordinating country's m inister for the sector, supervises
the sectoral activities. There are currently 21 such SCUs. R esponsibility for m arine
fisheries and resources was allocated to N am ibia fo llo w in g a decision by the
C ouncil of M inisters in 1991. The Sector C oordinator is N am ibia's Permanent
Secretary of the M inistry of Fisheries and M arine Resources, w ith the M inister of
Fisheries and M arine Resources chairing the Sectoral Com m ittee of M inisters. Sector
contact points are allocated by each of the eight M em ber States, and these form the
grassroots level of cooperation between the SCU and the region. Matters concerning
m arine and fisheries resources are also coordinated by SADC's overall Sector
C oordinator for Food, A griculture and Natural Resources, as one o f the eight
subsectors it oversees.
The task of guiding and leading SADC's fisheries sector is based on the p olicy
objectives and strategy docum ent that direct the Programme of A ction for the sector.
One of the most im portant elements of the Programme of A ction is fin a liza tio n of the
Protocol on Fisheries that is currently being drawn up and is expected to be a key
p o licy instrum ent in the fu lfilm e n t of SADC objectives in the field of m arine and
inland fisheries sustainable developm ent. The SCU of m arine and fisheries resources
is coordinating the im plem entation of seven projects that focus on the p rio rity areas
for the sector: the Regional Fisheries Inform ation System: SADC m onitoring, control
and surveillance (MCS) of fishing activities: support to the SADC M arine Fisheries
SCU: assessment of the m arine fisheries resources of the SADC region: the Benguela
Current Large M arine Ecosystem: and harm onization of m arine fisheries p o lic y and
m arine fisheries training. In addition, the SCU is form ulating three project proposals,
as directed by the Annual M arine Fisheries M inisters M eeting (May 1999, United
Republic of Tanzania). These are: cooperation w ith research on the east coast large
139
m arine ecosystem; a p o licy study for m ariculture developm ent; and language
tra in in g .
The SADC fisheries programme has raised a total of US$9 m illio n to support SCUdriven m arine fisheries initiatives during 2000. Funding of US$35 m illio n , for the
next five years, has been com m itted from a w ide range of donors.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
SADC and FAO cooperate closely in relation to fisheries matters. FAO is providing
technical and financial assistance to tw o o f the projects currently being
im plem ented by the SCU for m arine and fisheries resources.
TABLE 15
SADC: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
Aquaculture production
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
2
5
7
8
0 .0
0.1
0.1
0 .0
0
2
4
4
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
619
Fisheries production
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
594
694
560
10.0
10.8
8.3
7.7
1 013
1 032
1 038
1 158
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.5
1 609
1 733
1 609
1 789
1.7
1.8
1.4
1.5
1 085
Fisheries and aquaculture production
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
Food balance
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
1 364
1 511
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
10.0
9.9
6.3
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
21.8
2 1.8
17.2
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
223
264
249
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.5
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
165
203
665
843
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
0.7
0 .6
1.4
1.6
Trade in fishery commodities
N o te :...
= data not available.
256
SOUTH PACIFIC FORUM
The South Pacific Forum (SPF), consisting o f Heads o f Governm ent, was established
in 1971. It provides an o p p ortu nity to discuss a w id e variety of South Pacific and
international concerns and issues com m on to members, including the prom otion o f a
free trade area in the South Pacific region. In 1998, the members of the SPF and its
affiliated agencies were: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of M icronesia,
Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, N ew Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua N ew
Guinea, Samoa, Solom on Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. The SPF has a
Secretariat (Forum Secretariat) w h ic h promotes regional cooperation among
members on im portant econom ic issues.
FISHERIES: PURPOSE A N D A C TIVITIES
The South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) was established as a specialized
agency by the SPF in 1979. The FFA C onvention reflects the com m on concerns of
m em ber countries regarding conservation, o ptim um u tiliza tio n and coastal states'
sovereign rights over the region's living marine resources. The functions of FFA
include accum ulating detailed and up-to-date inform ation on aspects of living
m arine resources in the region; evaluating and analysing data to provide clear,
tim ely, concise, com plete and accurate advice to member countries; developing and
m aintaining a com m unication netw ork for the dissem ination of inform ation to
m em ber countries, and im plem enting policies and programmes that have been
approved by the Forum Fisheries Com m ittee. The fo llo w in g are the m ain functions
and objectives of FFA, w h ich are reviewed periodically.
Economics and marketing. Assistance is given to m em ber countries in the
form u la tion of policies and identification of projects for the sustained use of their
tuna resources (the m ain areas covered are tuna management, industry, marketing,
fisheries access, train in g and linkages).
Legal services. Support is provided to strengthen member countries in the
understanding of their legal responsibilities and rights and a b ility to fu lfil
responsibilities and take advantage of rights. This support includes the provision of
advice in the fields of international law, national legislation, illegal fishing, access
negotiations and of training for responsible lawyers and officers w ith in member
countries. FFA is sim ultaneously assisting members in achieving full and
independent legislative control of their fisheries resources and ensuring the
necessary regional c o m p a tib ility and cohesion.
Monitoring, control and surveillance. MCS activities aim at reinforcing the capacity
of fishing operators in m em ber countries to co m p ly w ith national regulations and
regional licence conditions. This fu nctio n includes such actions as: assistance to
m em ber countries in developing and coordinating national MCS plans; coordination
of regional observer programmes and assistance to the developm ent of national
observer programmes; coordin atio n o f regional surveillance operations; co lle ction
and dissem ination o f data in support of national MCS operations; assistance to FFA
members in determ ining their m aritim e boundaries; and provision o f training, advice
and regional exchanges on enforcem ent and technological developments. FFA's
achievem ents in this field include:
• participation in the coordination and planning o f aerial surveillance flights
covering m em bers' EEZs;
• the successful developm ent and im plem entation of a regional observer
programme for the South Pacific;
• the research, design and im plem entation of a satellite-based VMS;
141
• the establishm ent of a M aritim e Surveillance C om m unications N etw ork, w hich
w ill integrate other inform ation systems, including the VMS.
FFA also undertakes corporate and treaty services, including the establishm ent and
m aintenance of adm inistrative systems that meet the requirem ents of treaties and
agreements for w h ich FFA is responsible. In the field of inform ation technology and
co m m unication, FFA has developed an innovative and sophisticated com puter
system that provides support in the reception, processing and transfer o f inform ation
to facilitate the m onitoring and control of foreign fishing fleets as w ell as to increase
the speed, efficiency and cost-effectiveness w ith w h ich FFA conducts its work.
FFA has brought im portant econom ic and social benefits to its members. Small
island developing states have benefited, in particular through regional cooperation
and the adoption o f regional m in im u m standards. Regionally agreed measures to
lim it fishing effort (e.g. in the purse seine tuna fishery) have also been o f tangible
benefit to FFA m em ber countries.
C O O P E R A TIO N W IT H FAO
FFA has form al relations w ith FAO, w h ich cooperates w ith the agency on a range of
technical issues, including such matters as jo in t training exercises and exchanges of
technical inform ation. FAO participates in the annual FFC meeting as an observer.
FAO also participates as an observer in the M ultilateral High-Level Conference on
the Conservation and M anagem ent of H ig h ly M igratory Fish Stocks in the Central
TABLE 16
SPF: fisheries and aquaculture production, food balance and trade
1986
1990
1994
1998
A q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
1
2
3
3
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0 .0
25
40
68
119
0.7
0.8
0.8
1.0
Fisheries p ro d u c tio n
20
22
19
22
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
In la n d p ro d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
M a rin e p r o d u c tio n ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
505
505
793
1 074
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
0 .6
0.8
0.9
1.4
C o m b in e d to ta l ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
551
734
882
1 219
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
0 .6
0.7
0.8
1.0
Fisheries an d a q u a c u ltu re p ro d u c tio n
Food b a la n c e
Total fo o d s u p p ly ('0 0 0 to n n e s )
500
541
550
2 0.6
2 1.0
20.1
8.7
8.7
8.5
320
444
534
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.0
Total e x p o rts (U S $ m illio n s )
749
1 036
1 538
1 543
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
3.3
2.9
3.2
3 .0
Per c a p ita s u p p ly (kg)
Fish as sh are o f a n im a l p ro te in (%)
Tra d e in fis h e ry c o m m o d itie s
Total Im p o rts (U S$ m illio n s )
P e rce n ta g e o f w o r ld to ta l
N ote:... = data not available.
575
and Western Pacific (MHLC), in close cooperation w ith FFA and its members, as w ell
as w ith the Distant W ater Fishing Nations.
The FAO Subregional O ffice for the Pacific is expected to participate in the
M arine Sector W orking Group of the South Pacific O rganizations' C oordinating
Com m ittee, w h ich is being convened by the Forum Secretariat and its members. The
W orking G roup was established to facilitate the coordination of regional activities in
the developm ent o f a regional strategy for the m arine sector, and its membership
com prises relevant Pacific regional organizations. ♦
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David Philip Publishers (Pty) Ltd
PO Box 830, 2160 Lisse
Heereweg 347 B, 2161 CA Lisse
E-mail: infono@swets.nl
Website: www.swets.nl
PO Box23408, Claremont 7735
Tel.:CapeTown+27 21 644136
Fax: Cape Tow n+27 21 64 3358
E-mail: dpp@iafrica.com
Website: www.twisted.co.za
• N E W ZEA LA N D
Legislation Services
• SRI LANKA
M.D. Gunasena & Co. Ltd
PO Box 12418
Thorndon, Wellington
E-mail: gppmjxf @gp.co.nz
217 0 lc o tt Mawatha, PO Box 246
Colombo 11
Swets & Zeitlinger b.v.
Oasis Official
PO Box3627, Wellington
Tel.: +6444991551
Fax: +6444991972
E-mail: oasis@ clear.net.nz
Website: www.oasisbooks.co.nzl
PO Box 1305, S-171 25 Solna
T e l.:+46 8705 9750
Fax:+46 8 27 00 71
E-mail: mail@wwi.se
Bokdistributören
c/o Longus Books Import
PO Box610, S-151 27 Södertälje
Tel.:+46 8 55 09 49 70
Fax: +46 8 55 01 76 10; E-mail:
lis.ledin @hk.akademibokhandeln.se
• THAILAND
Suksapan Panit
Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue,
Bangkok
• TOGO
Librairie du Bon Pasteur
B. P. 1164, Lomé
• TURKEY
DUNYA INFOTEL
100.YN Mahallesi
34440 Bagcilar, Istanbul
T e l.:+90 212 629 0808
Fax:+90 212 629 4689
E-mail: dunya@dunya-gazete.com.tr
Website: www.dunya.com
• UGANDA
Fountain Publishers Ltd
PO B ox488, Kampala
T e l.:+256 41 259163
Fax:+256 41 251 160
• U NITED STATES
Publications:
BERNAN Associates (ex UNIPUB)
4611/F Assembly Drive
Lanham,MD 20706-4391
Toll-free: +18002744447
Fax:+1 800865 3450
E-mail: query@bernan.com
Website: www.bernan.com
United Nations Publications
Two UN Plaza, Room DC2-853
New York, NY 10017
Tel.: +1 212 963 8302/800 253 9646
Fax:+1 212 9633489
E-mail: publications@un.org
Website: www.unog.ch
UN B ookshop (direct sales)
The United Nations Bookshop
General Assembly Building Room 32
New York, NY 10017
Tel.: +1 212 9637680
Fax:+1 212 9634910
E-mail: bookshop@un.org
Website: www.un.org
Periodicals:
Ebsco Subscription Services
PO Box 1943
Birmingham, AL 35201 -1943
Tel.: +1 205 991 6600
Fax:+1 205 991 1449
The Faxon Company Inc.
15 Southwest Park
Westwood, M A02090
Tel.: +1 617 329 3350
Telex: 95 1980
Cable: FW Faxon Wood
• URUGUAY
Librería Agropecuaria S.R.L.
Buenos Aires 335, Casilla 1755
Montevideo C.P. 11000
• VENEZUELA
Tecni-Ciencia Libros
CCCT Nivel C-2
Caracas
Tel.: +58 2 959 4747
Fax: +582 959 5636
Correo electrónico:
tclibros@ attglobal.net
Fudeco, Librería
• U N ITED A R A B EM IRATES
AI Rawdha Bookshop
PO Box 5027, Sharjah
Tel.:+971 6734687
Fax: +971 6384473
E-mail: alrawdha@hotmail.com
• UNITED K INGDOM
The Stationery Office
51 Nine Elms Lane
London SW85DR
Tel.: +44 20 7873 9090 (orders)
+44 20 7873 0011 (inquiries)
Fax:+44 20 7873 8463
and through The Stationery Office
Bookshops
E-mail: postmaster@ theso.co.uk
Website: www.the-stationeryoffice.co.uk
Electronic products only:
Microinfo Ltd
PO Box 3, Omega Road
Alton, Hampshire GU34 2PG
Tel.: +44 1420 86 848
Fax:+441420 89 889
E-mail: emedia@microinfo.co.uk
Website: www.microinfo.co.uk
IntermediateTechnology Bookshop
103-105 Southampton Row
London WC1B4HH
T e l.:+44 20 7436 9761
Fax:+44 20 7436 2013
E-mail: orders@ itpubs.org.uk
Website: www.oneworld.org/itdg/
publications.html
Avenida Libertador-Este
Ed. Fudeco, Apartado 254
Barquisim etoC.P3002, Ed. Lara
T e l.:+58 51 538 022
Fax:+58 51 544 394
Librería FAGRO
Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV)
Maracay
• ZIMBABWE
Grassroots Books
The BookCafé
Fife Avenue, Harare;
61a Fort Street, Bulawayo
T e l.:+263 4 79 31 82
Fax:+263 4 72 62 43
9/00
• KENYA
Text Book Centre Ltd