INTRODUCTION
Guide to teaching and learning pack
This teaching and learning pack is designed to aid the practitioner in the
delivery of Sociology at Advanced Higher level. The pack includes:
• a general introduction to the unit;
• a suggested programme of work;
• a handout and/or material for overhead transparencies with
accompanying tutor notes for each area covered in the unit*;
• a student activity with accompanying tutor notes for each area
covered in the unit*;
• an appendix outlining the range of timetabling and teaching and
learning options for the entire Advanced Higher Sociology course.
* Please note that these materials will not cover the full ‘hourage’ of the
whole unit nor every aspect of each outcome, PC or range statement; it
is assumed that tutors will want to use some of the time for exposition
and discussion, and will supplement this pack with materials devised for
specific groups.
The suggested textbooks for this unit are:
Abbott, P and Wallace, C, An Introduction to Sociology. Feminist
Perspectives, London: Routledge
Abercrombie and Warde, Contemporary British Society (3rd edn),
Cambridge: Polity Press
Bilton et. al., Introductory Sociology (3rd edn), Basingstoke: Macmillan
Cohen and Kennedy, Global Sociology, Basingstoke: Macmillan
Fulcher and Scott, Sociology, Oxford: OUP
Giddens, Anthony, Sociology (3rd edn), Cambridge: Polity Press
Haralambos and Holborn, Sociology Themes and Perspectives (5th edn),
London: HarperCollins
Kirby et. al., Sociology in Perspective, Oxford: Heinemann
Jorgensen et. al., Sociology: An Interactive Approach, London:
HarperCollins
Macionis and Plummer, Sociology: a Global Introduction, Harlow:
Prentice Hall
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INTRODUCTION
The material contained in this pack is based on the Arrangements
document and advice given in the Subject Guide. It has been designed
to fill a particular niche in the Sociology curriculum and builds and
expands on the material covered at Higher level. There might also be
some overlap with some aspects of Sociology at Higher National level.
In accordance with good teaching practice, the pack contains a range of
student-centred activities with which to engage the student. These are
suggested activities only and tutors might wish to amend some of the
material to suit particular requirements.
If students have already taken the Higher Sociology course, they might
have material that will underpin some of the aspects of this course –
particularly that related to the theories in Studying Human Society: The
Sociological Approach (Higher), distributed to schools by HSDU in
Autumn 1998 as pack 4084. Material from this pack could therefore be
used to support some of the teaching and learning in this unit.
The term ‘student’ will be used throughout to denote the learner. This
is because this level of the curriculum will be undertaken by post-16
learners whether this be in a school or college situation.
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the unit and learning and teaching
approaches
The unit
This unit is designed to introduce students to some of the broad
themes, issues and debates that have helped to characterise Sociology as
a distinct discipline within the Social Sciences. By completing the unit,
the student should also gain an understanding of the sociological
perspective of society in terms of the way sociological theories and
methods have been developed to aid the understanding of society.
Learning and teaching approaches
The themes, issues, debates and challenges have been chosen to
stimulate the student into thinking about their own experience of
society and comparing this to the sociological view. It is also designed
to highlight some of the main concerns that have arisen in the
development of the discipline, current aspects, and criticisms of
Sociology. This should enable students to establish their own arguments
and criticisms related to these aspects.
At this level, the student should be encouraged to undertake
independent study and read beyond the material provided in this pack.
And students should be referring to a range of textbooks wherever
possible. Many of the handouts supplement, complement and
summarise reading from textbooks, many of which give extremely good
accounts of the debates and challenges.
Many handouts and exercises, questions and OHTs have been designed
to stimulate discussion and/or to develop thinking and can be delivered
in the format given. However, there will still be a need for support, as
answers and conclusions may not be as evident to new students as to
those familiar with the central concerns within Sociology.
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INTRODUCTION
Suggested programme of work
The following programme is based on nine weeks of 4–6 hours. For
those allocated 4 hours or less, more self-study would need to be
undertaken by the student. It is assumed that assessment and
reassessment will be no more than 8 hours in total.
Week 1:
• Introduction to unit
• Introduction to first debate: Positivism vs
Interpretivism.
• Background to Positivism
• Saint-Simon, Comte and Durkheim
• Criticisms
Week 2:
•
•
•
•
Week 3:
• Differences between Positivism and Interpretivism.
• Revision and Assessment 1
Week 4:
• Introduction to Structure vs Action
• Structural arguments
• Criticisms of structural arguments
Week 5:
• Action views and criticisms
• Structuration – resolving the debate
• Criticisms of structuration
Week 6:
• Assessment 2
• Traditional Sociology and an introduction to the
‘challenges’ (two from a choice of five)
Week 7:
• ‘Challenge’ 1
Week 8:
• ‘Challenge’ 2
Week 9:
• Assessment 3
• Reassessment
Criticisms of Positivism
Why we need an Interpretivist approach
General Interpretivist approach
Max Weber
Note that the Appendix to this pack (pp 103–120) contains a range of
timetable options for the Advanced Higher Sociology course as a whole.
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SECTION 1
Tutor guide to activities, handouts and OHTs on Positivism
versus Interpretivism
Details of the materials included in this section are given below and are
in a suggested order of presentation. However, the handouts, activities
and OHTs have been written and developed in such a way that they can
be used flexibly and in a different order.
1.
• Handout on three aspects/events contextualising the
development of Positivism and Sociology, i.e. the
Enlightenment, the American and French Revolutions, and the
Industrial Revolution.
• A set of questions on which students are required to make notes
from the handouts.
• OHT summarising the main points from the handout and
relating to the questions asked. This can serve as a revision
sheet for exam purposes.
2.
• A set of questions that asks the student to think about some of
the issues relating to Positivism. This will set the scene for some
of the subsequent handouts, questions and discussion. The
questions are given in a handout form and as an OHT for
individual or class use or both. Answers to these questions can
be explored during a plenary session before or after discussing
specific aspects/theorists as given below.
3.
A set of handouts on three key figures in the development of
Positivism. This material includes:
• A handout on Saint-Simon as a background to the later work of
Comte.
• A handout on Auguste Comte and the way he contributed
towards the development of Positivism and Sociology.
• A set of questions on the handouts on Saint-Simon and Comte.
• A handout on Durkheim, discussing his contribution to
Positivism and Sociology and using his study of suicide as an
example.
• A set of questions on the handout on Durkheim.
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
4.
• A handout on the debate on the nature of sociological enquiry,
including Kuhn and Popper and their contribution to the debate
on Positivism.
• A set of questions on the handout.
5.
• An OHT on the difference between inductive and deductive
reasoning. This could be used to discuss Durkheim‘s approach
(broadly inductive) and how this compares with the way
deductive reasoning developed and the preceding discussion
on Popper (and Kuhn).
• An OHT and handout on the Hypothetico-model that is still
used as a basis for research strategy.
6.
• An OHT giving a summary of Positivism. Can be used to
summarise the discussion or for revision purposes later in the
course.
7.
• An OHT on two main differences between social science and
natural science. This can be used for further discussion and
will relate to the subsequent discussion on Interpretivism.
8.
• An OHT and handout on questions to think about in relation to
Interpretivism. This can be used as a basis for discussion in a
plenary session.
• A handout on studying people and the difficulty for sociologists.
This could be used as a basis for discussion with the questions
on previous OHT/handout or could be given out after the
discussion as a summary.
9.
• A handout on some Interpretivist approaches, e.g. action,
phenomenology, post-modernism and ethnomethodology. The
latter two theories are also covered later in the pack as two of
the ‘challenges’ to Sociology and material from that section
could also be used as supplementary material for this section.
• A set of questions on Interpretivist approaches.
• A handout on Weber outlining his main ideas.
• A set of questions on Weber.
10.
• A handout and OHT that asks students to summarise the main
aspects of Interpretivism.
• An OHT providing a summary of answers to the above.
11.
• An exercise/grid for students to complete on the differences
between Positivism and Interpretivism.
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• An OHT summarising some of the main differences.
• A completed grid which can be given out after discussion.
12.
• A set of revision questions on the whole of this section. This
can be used as a summary at the end of teaching and learning
for this particular section or can be used when revising for the
external assessment.
Influences on the development of Positivism
The concepts of Positivism and Sociology developed within a particular
context and were influenced by the ideas and events – social, political
and economic – that were occurring at the same time as Positivism and
Sociology were developing. The following discussion gives an overview
of three events: the Enlightenment, the American and French
Revolutions and the Industrial Revolution.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was not one coherent movement but rather the
expression of a range of intellectual ideas involving a number of thinkers
from different parts of Europe and Britain with the main centres being
Paris, London and Edinburgh. The Enlightenment spanned the whole
century between 1700 and 1800 but was probably at its height around
1750.
The main thinkers and intellectuals who were part of this movement
were known as the philosophes. These intellectuals included people
such as Montesquieu, Voltaire, Hume and Ferguson. The ideas of the
Enlightenment thinkers were contained in a publication called the
Encyclopédie (established by Diderot) and nearly all the philosophes
made contributions to this journal at some time.
Although the Enlightenment thinkers agreed broadly on ideas, there
were also many areas of disagreement especially about the detail of
these ideas. The areas of broad agreement included reason and the
rationality of thought; empiricism with its emphasis on observable
behaviour or verifiable facts; improvement of society through progress;
and values such as tolerance and freedom.
In particular the philosophes sought to challenge the existing ideas of
that period and the way they were transmitted. In the western world
these ideas mainly comprised the views expressed by the Christian
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
religion and the clergy and they were transmitted through the religious
institutions of the day. The Enlightenment thinkers took a clear
decision to move away from the existing social order and ways of
thinking about the world – one based on religion, tradition and
established ideas – to new forms based on reason, experiment and
experience.
However, despite the Enlightenment thinkers’ challenge to the old
order, the place of women in the Enlightenment was ambiguous.
Women did have a role, but it tended to be behind the scenes or as the
hostesses of gatherings in the salons where the intellectual elites of
society would meet. In this way, many ideas about women remained
traditional and although many thinkers challenged established ideas
about other groups who experienced inequality and discrimination –
for example, slaves – the position of women was largely ignored.
The American and French Revolutions
Although we have to be careful about making causal links between the
Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions, there were
connections both in terms of people and ideas between the intellectual
movement and political events.
Both the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789)
were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and, in turn,
contributed to the development of new ideas about how society should
be organised.
A number of the figures such as Jefferson and Franklin were associated
with the American Revolution and the War of Independence that
followed. They had connections with other philosophes and the new
Republic’s constitution contained a number of the key Enlightenment
ideas such as freedom of thought and tolerance. It also demonstrated
that society did not have to accept the existing order and that new
societies and social orders could be created.
The French Revolution also demonstrated that the power of the existing
order – the rule of the monarch and aristocrats and considered by some
to be divine – could be rescinded and overthrown and that new ideas of
equality, justice and rationality, rather than tradition, could be the basis
of society.
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The Industrial Revolution
Before the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1780,
production was mainly agricultural and any manufacturing was carried
out in small local units – villages and small towns. The introduction of
mass production and consumption brought about many changes social,
political and economic changes.
One major change was the movement of people from the countryside to
towns and cities. Related to this was a change in the way people earned
a living with many becoming waged workers in factories. This, in turn,
caused social upheaval with disruption to traditional patterns of social
life and changes in social relationships.
Another feature of the Industrial Revolution was the way machinery
transformed manufacturing and work. This brought about challenges to
traditional methods of working and introduced different forms of
control to the work process. It also demonstrated the advancement of
society through greater technical and scientific understanding.
Conclusion
As we can see, these events all had a part to play in the changes that
were occurring during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and
although there may be a debate about the significance of each event,
most commentators would agree that they influenced the development
of modern day society.
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Influences on the development of Positivism – questions
Read the attached handout on ‘Influences on the development of
Positivism’ and answer the following questions.
1.
In what ways did the Enlightenment thinkers and ideas challenge
the existing order?
2.
What criticisms can be made of the Enlightenment and the place of
women in this movement?
3.
Was there any connection between the American and French
Revolutions and the Enlightenment? Give reasons for your answer.
4.
In what ways did the American and French Revolutions challenge
the political and social orders of the day?
5.
What kinds of changes were brought about because of the
Industrial Revolution?
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Positivism
Think about the following questions and note down some of your views.
• Why do you think we trust ‘science’ as being a sound source of
knowledge or information?
• Do you think things discovered or said by scientists are always right?
Give reasons for your answer.
• Do you think there should be a difference in the way we study
physical matter and things that are social such as people and events?
Give reasons for your answer.
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Think about the following questions and note
down some of your views.
• Why do you think we trust ‘science’ as being a
sound source of knowledge or information?
• Do you think things discovered or said by
scientists are always right? Give reasons for your
answer.
• Do you think there should be a difference in the
way we study physical matter and things that are
social such as people and events? Give reasons for
your answer.
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Positivism
Saint-Simon (1760–1825)
Saint-Simon is credited with being one of the first people to introduce
the notion of a ‘science of society’. He came from an aristocratic family
and although he was a radical, he almost became a victim of the
guillotine in the French Revolution. He was seen as something of an
eccentric and his ideas were influenced by classic literature, the new
scientific ideas of those such as Isaac Newton, and the writings of the
philosophes.
In the pursuit of his interests, Saint-Simon noticed that progress in
different intellectual fields was being made through such factors as
observation and mathematical calculation. All these things influenced
Saint-Simon’s view of society and his ideas about how society would
develop. In particular, Saint Simon felt that the eighteenth century had
been characterised by criticism and challenges to traditional ideas.
However, he thought the nineteenth century would be different and
that it would be a century of progress with new inventions and ideas
coming to the fore.
One aspect of these new ideas would be a ‘science of society’ and this
would help to bring order and stability back to society which had been
wracked by change and revolution. He thought that ‘positive science’
could be applied to the human being to understand the psychological
and social science of the mind. Once all aspects of the world were
understood through positive science, this knowledge could be
integrated into a single ‘positive philosophy’.
As we shall see, these ideas were the precursor to the development of
Positivism. However, Saint-Simon’s theories were not clearly argued and
it was not until some of them were taken up and refined by Comte (who
worked for Saint-Simon from 1817 to 1824) that Positivism developed as
a coherent concept.
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
Auguste Comte worked with Saint-Simon and developed and refined
many of his ideas – particularly the notion that the understanding of
society should be on a scientific basis. He is also credited with being the
first to use the term ‘Sociology’.
Comte argued that society developed in stages and that at each stage a
particular view of society prevailed. At one time the clergy and a
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
religious view of the world had been dominant. This had given way to
the philosophes and their view of society. This in turn would give way
to a third stage – the development of Positivism which would be
characterised by the predominance of science and scientific methods.
There were two strands to Comte’s theory. First, he argued that if
society was to develop and advance it would be accomplished by
emulating the other positive sciences. By using the scientific method,
Comte felt that the ‘laws of universe’ would be uncovered. His
approach to the study of society was to view it as a complex system and
the key focus for study, he suggested, should be the systems themselves,
e.g. the structure and development of these systems over time.
The second feature of his theory concerned the integration of society
and he suggested that Positivism was essential to avoid any breakdown
of society in a changing world. In pre-industrial society, integration had
been achieved through local communities and commonality within
communities. With the development of industrialisation there was an
increasing division of labour, specialisation, and break-up of traditional
communities and Comte feared that these might lead to the
disintegration of society.
In order to avoid this breakdown of society, Comte argued that the state
would have to act as a unifying agent. However, in order for the state to
carry out this role there would have to be an understanding of society
and this understanding needed to be based on the scientific study of
society – Sociology.
Comte did recognise that the subject matter of the social sciences would
be different from the natural sciences, but he still felt that any
observation about society should be explained by theoretical laws or
logical connections and that predictions should be possible.
Although experimentation was the basis of much of the work of natural
science, Comte did recognise that this was only one method and he
suggested that observation, comparison and historical analysis were
other valid ways of studying society.
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Saint-Simon and August Comte – questions
Read the attached handouts and answer the following questions.
1.
What were Saint-Simon’s and Comte’s contributions to the
development of the concepts of Positivism and Sociology?
2.
In what way were the ideas of Saint-Simon and Comte different
from earlier views of the world?
3.
According to Comte, how would Positivism and Sociology help in
the integration of society?
4.
What differences did Comte see between science and Sociology
and the methods each might use.
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Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Main ideas
A key figure in the early development of Sociology as a discipline was
Emile Durkheim. One of his aims was to establish Sociology as an
academic subject and to demonstrate that it could be a scientific
discipline. Although he broadly adopted a Positivist approach, some
commentators suggest that Durkheim was not a Positivist in the strict
sense of accepting only those things that are observable or measurable.
Instead, Durkheim acknowledged that not all things could be observed
and that some things could only be known by observing their effects.
Although Durkheim believed the study of society (Sociology) could be
scientific, he argued that the object of study should not be the
individual but the things that were outside the individual – what he
called ‘social facts’. These social facts were collective and did not come
from individual thinking or consciousness, but rather they are ways of
thinking or behaving that belong to a society in general and arise from
their history and development.
Durkheim was interested in the causes of social facts, and in why they
persisted over time and across generations. And he felt that they could
be discovered by adopting a scientific approach. This would include:
• correlation: two or more things that may be found together and the
strength and direction of the relationship between them;
• cause connections: if two or more things are found together there is
a possibility that one may have caused the other;
• multivariate analysis: examining the effect of an independent variable
on a dependent variable.
An example of his work
In 1897 Durkheim published Suicide: A Study in Sociology which he
used to demonstrate the way in which social facts could be discovered
and explained using the scientific approach. Although this work has
been criticised and developed since Durkheim’s original study, it still
stands as an important piece of work for its time within the discipline of
Sociology.
Durkheim acknowledged that suicide was an individual act in that it
required an individual to take his/her own life. However, he was
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interested in the suicide rate and, in particular, why this differed
between different societies/cultures and between different groups within
societies/cultures. In this way he hoped to uncover the social factors
that explained suicide rates.
To carry out his study, Durkheim looked at the death statistics from
different countries in Europe. From these statistics he found stable
patterns of suicide rates in particular countries. He then looked at
correlation and the variables that might account for the rates and
patterns he found.
In his study, for example, he was able to isolate religion as one factor in
the difference in suicide rates. He noticed that suicide rates were lower
in Catholic countries and Catholic communities compared to Protestant
societies/communities. In this way social factors could be used to explain
suicide rates. In this particular instance, the belief of Catholics (at that
time) that suicide was a mortal sin might account for the lower rate of
suicide in Catholic countries and communities.
As noted above, some of these ideas and explanations have since been
challenged but, nevertheless, Durkheim’s work was significant in the
development of a Positivist approach to the study of society.
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Emile Durkheim – questions
Read the attached handout on Emile Durkheim and answer the
following questions.
1.
Why might some consider Durkheim not to have been a Positivist
in the strict sense of the word?
2.
What did Durkheim mean by ‘social facts’?
3.
What types of things might be looked at with a scientific approach?
4.
In what ways did Durkheim demonstrate the social nature of
suicide and the scientific approach in his study?
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The debate about the nature of scientific enquiry
Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn
The question of whether the social sciences can emulate the natural
sciences involves the very nature of scientific enquiry itself and leads us
to ask whether the natural sciences have been ‘idealised’ so that we have
a picture of what they ought to be rather than what they really are.
The debate about the nature of scientific enquiry has been encapsulated
in the opposing views of Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn and has been
added to by other commentators such as Kaplan and Lakatos.
Karl Popper (1902–94)
Karl Popper was a philosopher who published his main ideas about this
subject in a book called The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959) in which
he questioned some of the Positivists’ ideas – particularly the notion of
inductive reasoning that produces theories from data. Instead, he
advocated the process of deductive reasoning that seeks to look for
evidence to test a hypothesis or theory. Popper suggested that science
progresses through a process of accumulation that involves guesswork
that is tested and then confirmed or rejected – he called this ‘conjecture
and refutation’.
However, he disagreed with the notion that the only basis of knowledge
was the verification of a theory or hypothesis. He felt a better approach
would be to try to falsify the hypothesis. In holding this view, Popper
differed from the Positivist view that laws would necessarily be true for
all time. Instead, scientists should also be open to the possibility that
theory will be proved wrong or false at some point. If this view is taken,
then for scientists and social scientists to be rigorous they must
continually look for evidence to falsify their hypothesis.
Moreover, the origin of a theory was not important for Popper. What
was vital was that a theory was testable and that future predictions could
be made on the basis of that theory. He felt that by using this approach,
the scientist would start with an open mind about what he/she might
find. A hypothesis would be developed from the observations of the
scientist, but the scientist would then test this hypothesis by attempting
to prove it wrong and then revise the hypothesis (or theory) in the light
of further observations and experiments. For these reasons, Popper was
critical of a lot of sociological theories because he did not think they
were precise enough to formulate testable hypotheses.
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Thomas Kuhn (1922–
)
Another critique of the natural sciences is given by Thomas Kuhn who
expressed his ideas in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolution
(1962).
He disagrees both with the Positivists about the objective nature of
scientific enquiry and with Popper that science is a process of
‘conjecture and refutation’. He argues that scientists do not go about
their work overthrowing and discarding theories that do not fit the facts.
He suggests instead that scientists work on ideas and paradigms that are
not derived totally from facts.
Paradigms are frameworks that include theories, methods and concepts.
These paradigms will define the areas of research and which methods
researchers will use to obtain data. However, as well as paradigms
providing the framework for research they also define its limits or set its
parameters. These will therefore have a huge influence on what the
scientist looks for in his/her research. Moreover, if paradigms are
accepted or rejected this is not purely objective but involves a whole
range of social factors that affect the scientific community.
Kuhn argues, for example, that scientists are not objective but are selfinterested in terms of their careers. Therefore, they may not try to
challenge known or accepted views. So, rather than being permanently
sceptical (as Popper suggests) the scientist accepts the paradigm
unquestioningly. It is only when anomalies appear regularly, or are so
numerous that they cannot be ignored, that scientists will overthrow an
existing paradigm.
When a paradigm is challenged the result is ‘paradigmatic shift’ and we
get a period of ‘scientific revolution’. Examples of this would be the
Copernican revolution, the discoveries of Galileo, and Einstein’s
theories.
If Kuhn is right in his analysis of science, then the Positivist view – of
science being based on what is observable – is called into question.
Other contributors to the debate – Kaplan and Lakatos
Another writer who criticised the scientific methods as logical was
Kaplan in his book The Conduct of Enquiry (1964). Kaplan suggested
that the ‘logical’ aspect of scientific enquiry only emerges after research
is complete. This is because, in general, most research appears logical
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only after it has been written and most researchers never publish all the
blind alleys, mistakes and wrong turns that have been taken. Lakatos in
Philosophical Papers (1975) also challenges Kuhn’s view of paradigmatic
shift by disputing the notion that only one paradigm is ever dominant
and suggests instead that science is usually about competing paradigms.
Read the attached handout on ‘The debate about the nature of scientific
enquiry’ and answer the following questions.
1.
Why did Popper believe it was more rigorous to try to falsify a
hypothesis?
2.
What two aspects of a theory were important to Popper?
3.
Why was Popper critical of a lot of sociological theories?
4.
What aspect of the scientific method does Kaplan criticise?
5.
Explain what Kuhn means by a ‘paradigm’.
6.
Explain the way in which a ‘paradigmatic shift’ takes place.
7.
Why is Lakatos critical of Kuhn’s notion of ‘paradigmatic shift’?
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Inductive and deductive reasoning
Inductive:
• Examine data and formulate a theory from your
findings.
Deductive:
• Start with a hypothesis/theory and test this against
the data you gather.
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1. Phenomena
V
Hypothetico-deductive model
V
2. Observation/Ideas
V
V
3. Hypothesis
(possible explanation)
V
8. Revise or reject
hypothesis
4. Research strategy
V
V
5. Data collection
V
V
6. Test hypothesis
11. Prediction
V
7. Refute hypothesis
V
9. Confirm hypothesis
V
10. Theory – made up of
confirmed hypothesis
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
1. Phenomena
V
Hypothetico-deductive model
V
2. Observation/Ideas
V
V
3. Hypothesis
(possible explanation)
V
8. Revise or reject 4. Research strategy
hypothesis
V
V
5. Data collection
V
V
6. Test hypothesis
11. Prediction
V
7. Refute hypothesis
V
9. Confirm hypothesis
V
10.Theory – made up of
confirmed hypothesis
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Why Sociology might be seen as different from
the natural sciences
There is a difference between the subject matter
studied by natural science and social science
because:
1. • In natural science much of the subject matter
has limited consciousness and the variable may
be easier to manipulate.
• In the social sciences, people have
consciousness and motives and it is more
difficult to isolate people from the variables in
their environment.
2. • In natural science there is a clearer separation
between the researcher and the subject matter
than that found in social science.
• In social science the researcher is part of the
subject matter (society, social action and so
on), although some may see this as an
advantage as it gives added insight.
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Summary of the development of, and issues
related to, Positivism
• Increasing importance of science and rationality in
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
• Positivism advocates observable phenomena as the
basis of science.
• Developed by people such as Durkheim who
modified some of the initial ideas held by
Positivists.
• More recent writers have challenged these ideas
further – some questioning whether science is as
objective as it might seem.
• There are differences between natural sciences
and social sciences, therefore some question
whether social sciences can or should emulate the
methods used in the natural sciences.
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Interpretivism
Ask yourself the following questions and note your responses. Think of
examples that would support your answers.
• Is there anything we know that we have not learned through or from
others?
• Does all behaviour involve some type of meaning and interpretation?
• Can we understand any social behaviour without reference to the
individual?
• What kinds of problems do you think sociologists might encounter
when trying to study people?
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Interpretivism
Ask yourself the following questions and note your
responses. Think of examples that would support
your answers.
• Is there anything we know that we have not
learned through or from others?
• Does all behaviour involve some type of meaning
and interpretation?
• Can we understand any social behaviour without
reference to the individual?
• What kinds of problems do you think sociologists
might encounter when trying to study people?
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Interpretivism
Studying people
Some commentators have observed that sociologists encounter
particular problems when trying to study people. They include the
following:
1.
People have consciousness, motives and choices. They are
socialised into particular cultures and can reflect on their
experience and take different action in the future. This can make
predicting human behaviour difficult. It can also be difficult to
detect where particular influences have guided thoughts and
actions and it is often very difficult to unravel motives and
thoughts as these cannot be observed directly.
2.
People use language to communicate, but it can be difficult to
know if people share meaning and interpretation as the same word
may not mean the same thing to different people.
3.
People’s behaviour is complex and has many facets. It is difficult
for a researcher to investigate all the complexities and some things
may be assumed or left out. In all cases the sociologist must select
what he/she judges to be the important and necessary aspects for
investigation.
4.
People who are being studied may behave differently when they
are not being studied. In this way the presence of a researcher or
the fact that we are being asked questions can change our
behaviour, views, answers, and so on. This means the research/
researcher becomes one of the variables that might affect the social
behaviour that is under examination. This is sometimes known as
the ‘Hawthorne Effect’ and refers to a piece of research carried out
in 1925 at the Hawthorne Plant which was part of the Western
Electric Company in the USA. This research was instigated by
management to find out whether various changes in working
conditions, e.g. different levels of light, would have an effect on
industrial output. However, the researchers found that their
presence was having a measurable effect on the output of the
workers who were being studied.
5.
The sociologist/researcher will come to any research with his/her
own values and experiences. Researchers make every effort to be
objective when carrying out research but most commentators
would agree that a ‘value free’ Sociology is difficult to achieve.
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Approaches within Sociology
Although the early years of Sociology as a discipline were closely
associated with Comte, Durkheim and a Positivist approach, another
broad view of the study of Sociology has been developed. This
approach is called Interpretivism. Some sociologists claim that this is
‘true’ Sociology in that there is no society without the people who make
it up and therefore it is people who must be the focus for sociological
study.
This approach rejects the idea that there are strict laws that can be
observed. Rather they suggest that any study of society will be always be
highly interpretive. This is because sociologists study something they
are part of themselves. Sociologists and the people they study, also have
consciousness, motives, language, values and so on and these aspects
make completely objective study impossible.
For this reason the interpretive approach is preferred by sociologists
who work from perspectives such as Social Action, Phenomenology,
Ethnomethodology and Post-modernism. The following sections give a
flavour of some of the ideas contained in these perspectives and why
they are associated with Interpretivism.
Social Action
Social Action theories do not see society existing outwith the actions of
individuals and groups and believe it is only by studying these aspects
that we can have a true understanding of society. There are differences
within the Social Action perspective – for example, Weber emphasises
meaning, Mead focuses on the symbolic nature of interaction and
Goffman is interested in roles and improvisation – nevertheless they
have a common element in that focus is on the individual in society and
the way interactions, interpretations and meanings are significant in
constructing social life. For this reason they reject the Positivist view of
society.
Phenomenology
Phenomenology has its roots in the philosophical tradition and its
starting point is a rejection of any views that try to equate the approach
of natural science to Sociology. This is because phenomenologists
believe the world is constructed by its members who categorise, classify
and stereotype the social world and their social experience and
consequently any measurement would be a product of that
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
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categorisation. It follows that if one takes this view then the focus for
sociologists and their research should be the way in which society’s
members categorise the world. This will give us insights into social life
but measurements, statistics, correlation, laws and causal links should all
be rejected by sociologists.
Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology is closely related to Phenomenology and is the term
for the way in which the ideas of the phenomenologists can be practised
by sociologists. As with Phenomenology, ethnomethodologists argue
there is no objective social reality and therefore there is no way of
testing it. However, we can gain some understanding of the social world
if we research how people describe their social world because these
descriptions will give us insight into the assumptions underlying the
categories used.
Post-modernism
Post-modernism is a term used to explain a way of looking at the world
that challenges views of earlier times. It is not exclusive to Sociology,
and the term is also used in relation to architecture, literature,
economics, and so on.
Within Sociology, it is a perspective that, in general, challenges what are
sometimes known as meta-theories, e.g. Marxism and Functionalism. It
may be included under the Interpretivist umbrella because, as with the
other approaches discussed above, post-modernists reject the positivist
notion of laws and structures. Rather they tend to see the social world
as being in a state of constant flux, continually recreated through
different discourses that are simply ways of seeing and explaining the
world.
In this way the world is socially constructed. All knowledge is just
another form of power, and therefore there is no one way of explaining
the world. For example, although science seems to have the ascendancy
in the modern world, this does not mean it is right. Ideas only amount
to what is necessary to sustain those in power but there is no single
truth. This means that to understand society we need to interpret the
forms of knowledge that exist in that society.
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Criticisms
The Interpretivist approach is considered by some sociologists to be too
simplistic. For example, if we applied an ethnomethodological
approach to the subject of poverty, can it tell us about the causes and
persistence of poverty? It may tell us something about how people
make sense of it, but lack of resources and opportunity would still exist
regardless of interpretation by those people experiencing poverty.
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Interpretivism
Read the handout on ‘Interpretivist approaches within Sociology’ and
answer the following questions.
1.
Why do Social Action approaches reject the positivist view of
society?
2.
What aspects of social life do phenomenologists suggest we study?
3.
According to ethnomethodologists, what type of research should
sociologists undertake to reach an understanding of society?
4.
What do post-modernists think about knowledge and how do they
suggest we come to an understanding of society?
5.
Why do you think some sociologists reject the Interpretivist
approach?
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Interpretivism
Max Weber (1864–1920)
Weber was a German sociologist and is considered to be one of the key
figures in Sociology. He is particularly associated with Action theory,
and he wrote on key aspects of society such as bureaucracy, the state,
religion and class.
There were many strands to his work, but some of the most important
included his emphasis on meaning, interpretation and social action and,
related to this, his view that all things require interpretation. Weber
suggested that we give meaning to the world we live in and interpret it
according to the things that are important or significant to us. We can
see that in holding this view, Weber differs from the Positivist view
according to which the social world is seen as external and objective. In
contrast, Weber argues that everything is open to different
interpretations.
This does not mean that Weber rejects the notion of scientific
knowledge, but he draws a clear distinction between factual judgement
and value judgement. When we make factual judgements we attempt to
weigh up factors in a rational way. Value judgements relate to things we
find important, dislike, like, approve of or disapprove of. This means
that value judgements will impinge on our thinking and we must always
take this into account.
Integral to the interpretive nature of the social world is Weber’s concept
of social action. He argued that to understand society we need to
examine the actions that people choose and the meaning behind these
actions. By actions, he was referring to those that are social in nature –
in other words, they have some sort of meaning attached to them.
Thus, something that happens by accident can be discounted as it does
not come from purposeful, conscious thought. So, for Weber, any
explanation of society had to start with the social actions of actors in
relation to each other and the shared meaning that allows each person
to interpret the actions of others.
Although Weber did recognise class and bureaucracy, he felt that the
explanation of these, and other aspects of society, started at an
individual level and could only be explained if we looked at the type of
social actions that underpinned these social phenomena. So, for
example, bureaucracy was related to a specific type of social action –
rational action. This differs from other forms of action such as
34
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
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traditional action (based on habit) or affective action (based on
emotion). His method and approach to the study of society has been
given the name methodological individualism because his starting point
is the individual.
Interpretivism
Read the attached handout on Max Weber and answer the following
questions.
1.
What is Weber’s starting point for the study of society?
2.
In what way does Weber’s view differ from the positivist approach?
3.
Why would Weber’s notions of meanings and action fit into the
idea of an interpretive approach to Sociology?
4.
What is Weber’s view of scientific knowledge and what part do
values play?
5.
If you agreed with Weber’s view how do you think this would
influence your approach to sociological study and research?
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Summary of Interpretivism
• Humans have motives, language, consciousness,
and so on. It is therefore impossible to study
them in the same way as the matter found in
natural sciences.
• Several sociological approaches have tried to
explain society in a different way from those who
are broadly Positivist in their approach.
• The starting point for many Interpretivist
approaches is the individual in society.
• If we want to understand society we need to look
at the shared meanings, ways of describing the
world, how we categorise objects, events and so
on.
• If we look at these things we will see the way
people interpret their social world and this offers
a better explanation of society.
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Positivism versus Interpretivism
Re-read your notes and textbook passages on Positivism and
Interpretivism and complete the grid below to show how they differ.
Positivism
Interpretivism
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Positivism versus Interpretivism
Main differences
Positivism
Interpretivism
• Associated with Durkheim
and Comte.
• Associated with Social Action,
Phenomenology,
Ethnomethodology and Postmodernism.
• Laws of society.
• No given laws.
• Observation and calculation is
the best.
• Rejects notions of a science of
society.
• Focus is on society as a whole.
• Focus is on the individual.
• Understanding comes through
the scientific study of society.
• Understanding comes by
looking at meaning and
interactions. All information
has to be interpreted with
reference to values, meanings,
and so on.
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Summary of Positivism versus Interpretivism
Points of difference include:
• Positivism starts from the notion that there is an
objective reality that can be tested, observed and
measured. Interpretivism holds that the social
world is constructed by its members.
• This means that the starting point for each is
different. Interpretivists take the individual in
society as their starting point whereas Positivists
are looking at factors external to the individuals
who comprise society.
• Positivists are interested in laws of society that can
be observed whereas Interpretivists are interested
in aspects such as meaning and interpretation.
• Positivists use correlation and statistics whereas
Interpretivists tend to use more qualitative data.
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Questions that arise from the Positivism versus
Interpretivism debate
• Are there patterns, trends, correlation in social
phenomena that allow a case to be made for ‘laws
in society’?
• Can we understand society without taking into
consideration the human being – in other words is
Sociology meaningless without reference to the
social actor?
• Can we be objective in our study of society?
• Is it possible for sociologists to be value free?
• Is it possible to acknowledge our own values and
still be rigorous in research?
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Questions that arise from the Positivism versus
Interpretivism debate
Use your handouts, textbooks and class discussions and note down
responses to the following questions.
• Are there patterns, trends, correlation in social phenomena that allow
a case to be made for ‘laws in society’?
• Can we understand society without taking into consideration the
human being – in other words is Sociology meaningless without
reference to the social actor?
• Can we be objective in our study of society?
• Is it possible for sociologists to be value free?
• Is it possible to acknowledge our own values and still be rigorous in
research?
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POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
Positivism and Interpretivism
Revision questions
1.
Explain the three major events that had an influence on the
development of Positivism.
2.
Outline Comte’s main ideas.
3.
What was Durkheim’s contribution to the development of
Sociology?
4.
Explain the hypothetico-deductive model.
5.
Briefly outline the views of Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper.
6.
What are some of the factors that make the study of people
different from the study of the natural world?
7.
Outline some of the Interpretivist approaches in Sociology and say
why they oppose the study of society from a Positivist approach.
8.
Do you think Positivism or Interpretivism has contributed more to
sociological study? Give reasons for your answer.
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STRUCTURE VS ACTION
SECTION 2
Tutor guide to activities, handouts and OHTs on Structure
versus Action
Details of the materials included in this section are given below and are
in a suggested order of presentation. However, the handouts, activities
and OHTs have been written and developed in such a way that they can
be used flexibly and in a different order.
1.
Materials on a general introduction to this debate. These include:
• A handout/OHT on aspects of the debate for students to think
about and discuss. The handout could be given out for selfstudy and plenary, or the OHT could be used in class and each
point discussed in turn.
• An OHT that summarises the main points in the debate and
introduces students to some of the terms and the concept of
Structuration.
2.
Materials on structure and structural approaches. These include:
• A handout introducing the notion of structure and other related
concepts such as ‘structuralism’ and ‘structural’ approaches.
• A handout on structure and its use in Marxist theory.
• A handout on structure and its use in Functionalist theory.
• A set of questions on the three handouts.
• An OHT summarising the main points in relation to structure.
3.
Materials on action and action approaches. These include:
• A handout introducing the concept of action, human agency
and action approaches.
• A handout on some of the approaches that emphasise action
with examples of research.
• A set of questions on the two handouts.
• An OHT summarising the main points in relation to structure.
NB. Material from the previous section on Positivism versus
Interpretivism, and from the next section on ‘challenges’ could
also be used as supplementary material – for example, handouts on
Interpretivist approaches.
4.
Structuration. Materials include:
• A handout on attempts to combine structure and action.
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STRUCTURE VS ACTION
• A handout on Giddens and Structuration.
• A handout on Crompton and Sanderson – an example of
combining these approaches in research.
• A set of questions on the three handouts.
• An OHT summarising the main points of structuration.
5.
• Revision questions on the Structuration debate. These can be
used for revision for NAB questions or for the external
assessment.
Think about the following and make notes of your responses.
• What are some of the structures and forces in society that you think
have influenced/shaped your life and social behaviour?
• What things in society do you feel you have contributed to either
individually or as part of a group?
• What things in society do you feel you can’t control?
• What things in society do you feel you can change and control?
• In answering the above are there any aspects that you find overlap?
• Which of the following statements do you most agree with:
a) Humans are shaped by society.
b) Society is shaped by humans.
Give a reason for your answer.
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STRUCTURE VS ACTION
Make notes on the following
• What are some of the structures and forces in
society that you think have influenced/shaped your
life and social behaviour?
• What things in society do you feel you have
contributed to either individually or as part of a
group?
• What things in society do you feel you can’t
control?
• What things in society do you feel you can change
and control?
• In answering the above are there any aspects that
you find overlap?
• Which of the following statements do you most
agree with?
a) Humans are shaped by society.
b) Society is shaped by humans.
Give a reason for your answer.
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STRUCTURE VS ACTION
Structure versus Action – main points in the
debate
• Society is best understood by examining the
structure and forces within it and how these shape
the individual.
• Society is best understood by examining the social
actions of individuals and groups. Human agency
is important and it is the individual who shapes
society.
• Does it have to be an either/or situation or should
we be asking what influence each has and in what
way they overlap?
• Structuration is a theory that tries to resolve this
debate.
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Structure versus Action
Structure – general background
The concept of structure is used and interpreted in different ways within
Sociology. Textbooks may discuss different interpretations or even leave
out some aspects that you will find in other textbooks. The following
discussion is a summary of some of the views you might find in your
reading and class discussions.
Also, in your reading, you might find references to ‘structuralism’,
‘structural theories’ and ‘structure’. This handout is intended to
demonstrate how these terms are used in Sociology and to highlight
distinctions and relationships in the way they are used.
Structuralism
The word ‘structuralism’ tends to be associated with a discipline known
as linguistics, which is the study of language. It is also studied in
anthropology – another social science discipline which developed from
similar roots to Sociology.
In linguistics, Saussure developed a theory that language had an internal
structure that worked regardless of the actual words used. Some went
further and suggested that these structures are ‘hard-wired’ in the
human brain, so, regardless of the language spoken, all humans have the
potential to learn a language.
In anthropology, writers such as Levi-Strauss have argued that if we
observe societies all over the world, we can see common structures in
the way societies use myths. For example, in myths from different
cultures/societies, it is common to find a character who has to overcome
evil. The myth may have a different hero/heroine and be in a different
context, but the story is basically the same in all cultures. This has led to
a case being made that social life itself is like this; that there is a basic
structure to all social life. Although this may be expressed differently in
different cultures or language, there is a basic structure that can be
revealed.
Although the term ‘structuralism’ is very specific, the general idea came
from the work of early sociologists such as Durkheim and Comte. Also,
the work of Saussure and Levi-Strauss has had an influence on
sociologists such as Althusser, a French Marxist sociologist who
incorporated their ideas into his theories.
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STRUCTURE VS ACTION
However, most sociologists use the term more loosely and textbooks
tend to refer to the concepts of ‘structure’ and ‘structural approaches’
in a broad way rather than the specific use of Structuralism identified
above.
Use of structure and structural approaches
Different theories within Sociology discuss the concept of structure. In
Sociology structure can have different meanings. For example:
• It can refer to the social composition of society, including class,
ethnicity, occupation, etc.
• It can refer to the different social structures that make up society,
such as the law, family, education.
• It can refer to infrastructure and superstructure as found in Marxist
theory.
• It can be the starting point for sociological study, i.e. the study of
structures, laws, forces, etc.
It is this last point that is the common feature in ‘structural approaches’.
In other words, in explaining society the emphasis starts at the macrolevel – the wider structures and forces. Another feature of ‘structural
approaches’ is that they tend to emphasise the way the structures in
society shape the lives of humans, and because of this they down-play
the role of humans in shaping society.
The second and third points are also relevant to ‘structural approaches’
and relate to the Functionalist and Marxist explanations. However,
although both these approaches are broadly structuralist, they disagree
about how society is structured and so give very different explanations.
For example, in Functionalism, harmony and integration are
characteristics of the structure of society, whereas in Marxism the
structure is characterised by conflict and class difference. These two
approaches are explored in more depth in separate handouts.
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Structure versus Action
Marxism and structure
At a broad level, Marxism is seen as a structural theory. This is because
Marxists believe a particular mode of production will decide issues of
ownership, class, power and culture.
Karl Marx (1818–83)
If we look at Marx’s writings, we see that although he put a lot of
emphasis on the macro-level of society, he did not ignore the place of
the individual. However, in different writings he seems to give different
weight to these aspects.
For example, in his Critique of Political Economy he undertook an
analysis of history and proposed that it had been characterised by
divisive social relations which, until the end of capitalist society, would
be ‘indispensable and independent of men’s wills’.
On the other hand, in the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, he
suggested that ‘man is not an abstract being squatting outside the
world’.
In yet another work he seemed to merge both of these ideas when he
wrote: ‘Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they
please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves,
but under circumstances directly encountered, given, and transmitted
from the past. The tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a
nightmare on the brain of the living.’ (From The Eighteenth Brumaire of
Louis Bonaparte, a political pamphlet written by Marx)
One result of this is that other theorists who have developed Marx’s
original ideas tend to differ on the amount of emphasis they place on
the importance of structure, although most would agree about the basic
concepts of mode of production, class relations, etc.
Structural Marxist theory
Two Marxist sociologists who attached a lot of importance to structure
were Louis Althusser (1918–90) and Poulantzas. They believed that
individuals, groups and classes are all restricted in their action by the
structures within which people find themselves. The structure of
society and especially the economic base (the mode of production)
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STRUCTURE VS ACTION
determines the type of social and political processes of a society and this
occurs independently of the individuals, groups and classes it
comprises.
There have been many criticisms of this view both from within Marxism
and from other sociological perspectives. In particular, Althusser has
been accused of ‘hyper-structuralism’ because of his belief in the
underlying structural determinants of society and of social change.
Poulantzas did respond to some of these criticisms and modified his
theory to take account of non-economic factors in the maintenance of
ruling class power.
Other Marxists
Other Marxists such as Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) and those from the
Frankfurt school introduced the idea of human agency to their theories
and, although they still emphasised issues relating to capitalism and
class, they also recognised the part individuals and groups play in
political and social processes.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
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Structure versus Action
Functionalism and structure
In relation to the notion of ‘structure’, there are different strands to
structural functionalism.
Functionalists argue that the structure of society is made up of a set of
interrelated institutions that are, in turn, made up of norms and roles
that guide people’s actions. These norms and roles contain mutual
expectations and obligations that shape the way people relate to each
other. Some of these norms are generalised and form the social
institutions, such as the family, the law, religion and education, whilst
others are more specific and relate to particular roles played within
these institutions, such as mother, brother, lawyer, priest, teacher.
Structural functionalists also believe that there is a functional unity
between different parts of the social structure that act together to make
sure that society as a whole survives. Thus, for example, the role of the
family is necessary to socialise the next generation into the values and
norms of that society in order that it can continue.
Structural functionalists are also concerned with the way the structure
operates and, as such, are less concerned with the individuals who make
up society. Thus, they might argue that the role of the family and the
roles within the family are necessary for society to survive even if the
experiences of individuals within that family are not good.
However, as is the case with other perspectives, Functionalism does vary
in terms of the emphasis put on the place of the individual within
society. Early writers such as Durkheim tended to stress such aspects as
the laws of society, structures, trends and correlations. On the other
hand, writers such as Parsons, who developed Functionalism in America
in the 1950s/60s, recognised the need to take account of action and
actors with the Functionalist framework – hence the notion that people
do play roles within the social institutions that are part of the structure
of society.
Criticisms
Despite the contribution of writers such as Parsons, Functionalist theory
is still criticised for not taking enough account of social action and for
underemphasising the active and creative aspect of humans – human
agency.
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Structure versus Action
Read the handouts on ‘Structure – general background’, ‘Marxism and
structure’ and ‘Functionalism and structure’ and answer the following
questions.
1.
In what way is the concept of ‘structuralism’ associated with
linguistics?
2.
In what way is the concept of ‘structuralism’ associated with
anthropology?
3.
What are the common features of structural approaches?
4.
At a broad level, why would Marxism be seen as a structural theory?
5.
In Marx’s original writing, which aspect of society does he
emphasise? Given reasons for your answer.
6.
Why are Althusser and Poulantzas considered to be structural
Marxists?
7.
In what way does Gramsci differ from a strict structural approach?
8.
Explain the structural Functionalist view of social institutions in
relation to the concept of structure.
9.
What do Functionalists mean by ‘functional unity’?
10.
In what way do early writers such as Durkheim differ from later
ones such as Parsons?
11.
What is the main criticism of the structural Functionalist view?
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Summary of Structure
• Used to describe theories that emphasise the way
society shapes individual.
• Used differently but tends to look at the structures
of society as being important in understanding
society. This is the starting point.
• Do not rule out the notion of human agency but
do not see it as central to the understanding of
society.
• Both Marxist and Functionalist theories can be
described as ‘structural approaches’ but between
and within these theories there are differences.
• For example, within Marxism, Althusser would be
seen as emphasising structure to a greater extent
than Gramsci. Within Functionalism, Parsons takes
more account than Durkheim of action and actors.
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Action – concepts and approaches
Introduction
Action approaches are often seen as a challenge to the structural
theories of Functionalism and Marxism which put an emphasis on
structural elements in society and downplay the role of humans in
creating society. Action approaches, on the other hand, seek to explain
society by focusing on the role humans play in the shaping of society.
Concepts
Within action approaches we find terms such as ‘action’, ‘social action’,
‘symbolic interactionism’, ‘interactionism’, ‘social actors’ and ‘human
agency’. Although there is overlap between the concepts, they tend to
be used in specific contexts and sometimes with reference to specific
theories or theorists.
Action is a general term applied to a range of theories that emphasise
the human being as carrying out actions of some kind. It is a term often
associated with the work of Max Weber who developed his theory of
‘social action’ to explain how society worked. In his work Weber was
keen to stress that social action involved meaning and interpretation.
Related to this is the notion of symbolic interactionism. Again, there is a
strong emphasis on the way humans interact and it is particularly
associated with the work of George Herbert Mead. The ‘symbolic’ part is
important because, Mead argues, humans can think symbolically, for
example through language. This greatly enhances the particular type of
interactions humans can have with each other and it also allows humans
to develop self concept and self consciousness.
Interactionism is also applied to a group of theories that look more
generally at the interactions of people as a way of explaining society.
Theorists who have carried out research into such things as deviant
behaviour and classroom behaviour have been particularly associated
with this approach. They look at the way interactions lead to particular
outcomes, but as meaning, interpretation, roles, self concept are all
important, they also relate closely to the other approaches discussed
above.
Social actor is a term used to describe the abstract person who thinks
and acts in his/her social world. So, instead of referring to ‘the
individual’, sociologists often use the term social actor. This gives a
better notion of the way humans actively participate in society.
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When sociologists refer to ‘agency’ or ‘human agency’ they are
describing how social actors are able to use their will to do things, bring
about change, create, etc. This is intended to give a sense of movement
and dynamism and take us away from the notion of humans as
automatons blindly following some greater will, law or force in society.
Action theories
As we can see from the preceding discussion, there is no single action
approach, but many. For action theorists the world is not given but is
constructed and reconstructed according to the actions, meaning and
interpretations of social actors. In this way, the social world is not
simply ‘out there’ acting on us as passive recipients as is suggested by
more structural approaches. The following section examines some of
the ways in which the action approach is applied in particular theories
and how studies have been carried out using this approach.
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Action Theories
Introduction
The action approach encompasses many different theories that differ
somewhat in the extent to which the social world is constructed by its
members. This handout looks at two theorists, Max Weber and Howard
Becker, and how these two sociologists applied their theories and ideas
about social action and human agency.
Max Weber (1864–1920)
Max Weber was a German sociologist closely associated with developing
the notion of social action within Sociology. He believed that to have a
proper understanding of society we need to look at the social actions of
humans. By a social action, Weber meant any action that had meaning
attached to it. Thus, reflex actions were excluded as they had no motive
or meaning. Weber used the term Verstehen, which broadly translated
means ‘interpretative understanding’, to describe the process whereby
sociologists might develop a way of examining the motives of social
actors and through them the meaning of social actions. Actions will
always have to be open to some form of interpretation by the
sociologist, although this is aided by looking at the context within which
actions take place.
Weber suggests that motives and actions fall into broad categories which
he called ‘ideal types’, and using these we can group different social
actions. He described four main types (but in some textbooks/articles
only three are described with the two types of rational action being
merged). These are:
• Traditional action. These are actions based on doing things because
they have always been done or things done through habit. Examples
would be rituals involved when meeting royalty or things done
because they are part of family or community tradition.
• Affectual action. These are actions where motivation and meaning
come from emotion or feeling. Thus actions of cults and sects could
be seen as being based on following a charismatic leader or situations
in which people express anger or love.
• Rational value-oriented action. These are actions that are driven by
values. The values themselves may be irrational and the reasons why
certain values are chosen may not be clear, but the action taken to
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meet them is rational. Examples of this would be someone who is
fervent in their religious belief and acts on that without having a
particular goal in mind.
• Rational goal-oriented action. These are actions that involve doing
something in order to meet a goal, especially where the best ways of
meeting goals have been calculated and then followed through.
Examples might include decision making in government and
commercial decisions made by companies.
Weber applied his theory to his study of different aspects of society. For
example, in his study of bureaucracy, he thought rational goal-oriented
action best described the way bureaucracy worked. This is because
bureaucracies are based on identifying clear goals, calculating the most
efficient way of meeting them, and putting in place mechanisms that will
allow it to happen.
Howard Becker
Howard Becker is another sociologist who is interested in meaning,
interpretations, roles and self concept. He felt that by examining these
processes and concepts in relation to human interaction, we could learn
about the different aspects of our society.
One of the main areas of study for Becker was his work on deviance and
the development of labelling theory. He argued that deviant acts are not
deviant in themselves but are socially constructed as deviant by members
of society who decide what the norms should be. People also make
assumptions about deviants and deviant behaviour and this will have an
impact on interactions between deviants and others in society. He
believed the processes that go on after an act of deviance is identified
are the most important ones in understanding deviance.
In 1963 Becker published a now famous study on drug users called ‘On
becoming a marijuana user’. In it Becker showed how this involved
different social processes including the way people learned what effects
they should feel; the expectations of, and ways to impress, the peer
group; the social and legal consequences of cannabis use and, because it
is an illegal activity, how users developed a ‘deviant career’.
Although Becker’s work was praised for demonstrating the way in which
members of society constructed and interacted in their social world, it
was also criticised because it did not give reasons why people became
involved in illegal activity in the first place.
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This criticism is also made generally of many action theories because,
although they are good at examining process and actions, they often
leave unanswered questions on where meaning, interpretation and
assumptions come from.
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Action
Read the attached handouts on ‘Action – concepts and approaches’ and
‘Action theories’ and answer the following questions.
1.
What is meant by the term ‘social action’?
2.
Why is symbolic interactionism given that name?
3.
What is meant by the term ‘social actor’?
4.
Agency or human agency is used a lot in Sociology. To what does it
refer?
5.
How does Weber distinguish social actions from other actions?
6.
What are Weber’s ideal types of social action? Give an illustration
of one type.
7.
How would Becker use the notion of action to explain deviance in
society?
8.
What is the common element in all action approaches?
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Summary of Action theories
• Starting point is the individual or individuals in
society.
• Take account of social actors.
• Take account of human agency.
• Interested in types of action, interaction, meaning,
interpretation, roles, self concept.
• Theories may differ in that some may emphasise
meaning, others interaction and processes, and
some roles and concepts, but all agree that
humans shape their social world.
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Resolving the debate
Introduction
As we have seen from handouts, texts and discussions, both sides have
well rehearsed arguments for their view of society and how to explain
social life. On the structure side the argument is that forces and
structures such as economic factors, ownership, class and social
institutions all have an influence not just on society but on everyday
experience and life and we are shaped by these structures. On the
other hand, the action theorists argue that we do not do everything
automatically but we interact, influence, think, create and change and
therefore, as sentient human beings, we actively construct and act in our
social world.
Asking the right questions
Having discussed each side you may find that both have something to
offer and so perhaps the question is not how much but in what way. In
other words, to what extent, and in what way, do structures and actions
explain society and how do they overlap with each other? This might
lead to more useful insights because it is taking into account both
aspects of society.
Attempts to resolve the debate
Attempts to resolve this debate and take in each side of the equation are
not new. C Wright Mills was a prominent American sociologist who is
probably best known for his book The Sociological Imagination (1959),
which is an influential text within Sociology. In his work, Mills
acknowledged the place of both structure and action. He suggested that
we need to look at how people are shaped historically and through
structures and forces, but he also recognised that individuals have
‘biographies’, and that by living in a society humans play their part in
shaping that society.
Another influential study, called Learning to Labour (1977) by Paul Willis,
also demonstrates how action and structure can be usefully combined to
understand society – in this case, why working-class boys end up in
working-class occupations. In his study, Willis looked at the structural
factors that affect working-class environments, such as economic and
cultural factors. But he also showed that the ways in which the boys
interacted with the authorities in school through non-conformity did
not lead them to a rejection of work but actually prepared them for
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working-class jobs because the non-conformist culture they espoused
mirrored the culture of the factory they went into as young adults.
Structuration
Anthony Giddens is one sociologist who has attempted to find a way of
resolving the debate by developing a theory known as ‘Structuration’ in
which he attempts to bring together both of these major strands in
Sociology into a single approach. He is trying to demonstrate the
importance of both sides of the argument and show that the use of this
approach will lead to a greater understanding of social life. The main
ideas and arguments of his approach can be found in a separate
handout.
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Anthony Giddens and Structuration
Structuration Theory
In the 1970s Anthony Giddens attempted to set out the case for
synthesising the structure and action approaches. Both, he argued, are
necessary as they are neither mutually exclusive nor independent of one
another, and he suggested that sociologists should find ways of using
both. The synthesis of the two approaches is known as Structuration
Theory and he used it to indicate the element of dynamism rather than
something that is static.
In his theory, Giddens reiterates one of the criticisms of structural
approaches that humans are not automatons, but are what he called
‘knowledgeable agents’. This means that humans think about, and play a
part in, constructing their own world. At the same time he recognised
that humans do not act completely freely and that the world we live in
does impose constraints on what we can do. However, the actions of
humans in producing and reproducing the social world result both in
the persistence of structures and in their reinvention.
When using the term ‘structure’, Giddens is referring to two aspects –
rules and resources. By rules he means the informal and formal (laws)
procedures that are followed by members of society. However, these
rules are not always reproduced in their exact form and people have the
capacity to change them. He explains resources by referring to
‘allocative’ resources, the physical resources such as land and goods,
and ‘authoritative’ resources, which are forms of power. In both cases,
however, resources only become such as a result of human action and
interaction. So, it is not possible to explain structure without taking
into account the ‘knowledgeable agent’.
Giddens uses the analogy of speech and language to explain his ideas.
When we learn a language, we learn its grammatical rules. However, a
language only survives if members of a society use it and with use rules,
words, phrases are changed and the language is reproduced in a slightly
different form. So, through the intervention of users, language is both
reproduced and transformed.
Criticisms
Giddens’ views have been criticised by other sociologists such as Archer.
Archer suggests Giddens exaggerates the ability of humans to change
the world and that choices are far more limited than he suggests. In
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‘Structuration theory revisited’, New has also criticised Giddens for
suggesting that choice is equal among members of society and points
out that some people have more choices than others.
Structuration – application of this approach
Introduction
To examine how Structuration works in practice, we can look at a study
carried out by Rosemary Crompton and Kay Sanderson in 1990. The
study is called Gendered Jobs and Social Change and is written from a
feminist perspective, but their analysis draws on both structure and
action approaches.
Gendered Jobs and Social Change
In their study, Crompton and Sanderson draw on case studies from four
main areas of employment. These are: cooking and serving; building
societies; pharmacy and accountancy. They were interested in exploring
gender divisions within these employment areas and the factors which
contribute towards inequality between men and women in the labour
market.
They use Structuration Theory to argue that although there are
structural factors in the labour market, within these structures, women
have choices regarding employment.
So, although people are constrained in their choice they are not
determined by it. At the same time, however, individual choices may
reinforce existing divisions.
An example of this is that people come into the labour market at a point
where the structure is already in place. If women follow routes that are
traditionally female and males follow routes that are traditionally male,
the existing structure will be reproduced in the same form and
difficulties will remain in breaking down gender barriers. However, if
females and males follow routes that are non-traditional, then gradually
there will be a transformation of the existing structures – the structure is
reproduced in a different way and traditional barriers will be broken
down.
In their research, Crompton and Sanderson found that there were
different factors within and without the organisation that influenced
gender divisions. Although women are well represented in the
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pharmacy services, they tended to remain in the lower realms. In
accountancy, entry has been slower and women faced discrimination
directly and through circumstances such as child care. Work in building
societies largely involves women but, as with pharmacy, this is not
reflected in the higher echelons. In jobs that involve cooking and
serving, there is a high preponderance of women and management is
equally divided between male and female staff but, in general, women
take work with poorer pay and conditions because of their need to work
flexibly to fit in with family responsibilities.
Criticisms
Two feminist sociologists, Adkins and Lury, have been particularly critical
of this approach. They argue that Crompton and Sanderson have
overstated the element of choice women have when choosing
employment and have ignored the ability of men to shape the structure
of the labour market – in their view men have more power than women
to do this.
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Structure versus Action
Structuration
Read the three handouts: ‘Resolving the debate’, ‘Anthony Giddens and
Structuration’ and ‘Structuration – application of this approach’, and
answer the following questions.
1.
Rather than asking either–or, what questions should sociologists be
asking?
2.
What does Giddens mean by structure and action?
3.
Briefly explain Giddens’ theory of Structuration.
4.
Summarise how Crompton and Sanderson applied Structuration
Theory to their research.
5.
Do you think Structuration does resolve the ‘structure versus
action’ debate? Give reasons for your answer.
6.
How useful do you think Structuration Theory is to sociological
study? Give reasons for your answer.
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Summary of Structuration
• Emphasis on either/or in the Structure versus
Action debate is useless and ‘how much?’ and ‘in
what way?’ are more useful questions.
• Some sociologists have tried to take both views,
for example C Wright Mills thought structure and
biography was important in understanding society.
• Giddens formulated Structuration Theory. This
looks at humans as ‘knowledgeable agents’.
• ‘Knowledgeable agents’ act and interact in a
deliberate way and both reproduce and transform
the social world.
• However, some sociologists question whether
humans have as much choice as Giddens suggests.
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Structure versus Action
Revision questions
1.
What are the different ways in which ‘structure’ has been
explained?
2.
Outline the main arguments put forward by the Structure side of
the debate.
3.
What is meant by the term ‘human agency’?
4.
Outline the main arguments put forward by the Action side of the
debate.
5.
What does Giddens mean by ‘structure’ and ‘knowledgeable
agents’?
6.
Outline Giddens’ Structuration Theory.
7.
Briefly explain how Sanderson and Crompton have applied the
Structuration approach to their work on women
8.
Do you think Structuration resolves the debate? Give reasons for
your answer.
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SECTION 3
Tutor guide to activities, handouts and OHTs on Challenges
to Sociology
The following is only a suggestion as to how the materials on this debate
may be used and presented to students. However, the handouts,
activities and OHTs have been written and developed in such a way that
they can be used flexibly and in a different order.
1.
A set of OHTs to introduce the five ‘challenges’ (of which two must
be chosen for study). These include:
• An OHT on the way traditional Sociology developed.
• An OHT identifying the five challenges.
• An OHT on the way these new ideas might challenge traditional
views.
2.
Feminism
• A handout on the main features of Feminism and the way it
challenges traditional Sociology.
• A set of questions covering the above.
• A set of OHTs identifying the main features of this ‘challenge’,
the way they provide new ideas and an evaluation. These can be
used in a plenary to summarise the work undertaken by
students in completing the questions above and their own
reading.
3.
Globalisation
• A handout on the main features of Globalisation and the way it
challenges traditional Sociology.
• A set of questions covering the above.
• A set of OHTs identifying the main features of this ‘challenge’,
the way they provide new ideas and an evaluation. These can be
used in a plenary to summarise the work undertaken by
students in completing the questions above and their own
reading.
4.
Ethnomethodology
• A handout on the main features of Ethnomethodology and the
way it challenges traditional Sociology.
• A set of questions covering the above.
• A set of OHTs identifying the main features of this ‘challenge’,
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the way they provide new ideas and an evaluation. These can be
used in a plenary to summarise the work undertaken by
students in completing the questions above and their own
reading.
5.
Post-modernism
• A handout on the main features of Post-modernism and the way
it challenges traditional Sociology.
• A set of questions covering the above.
• A set of OHTs identifying the main features of this ‘challenge’,
the way they provide new ideas and an evaluation. These can be
used in a plenary to summarise the work undertaken by
students in completing the questions above and their own
reading.
6.
Sociobiology
• A handout on the main features of Sociobiology and the way it
challenges traditional Sociology.
• A set of questions covering the above.
• A set of OHTs identifying the main features of this ‘challenge’,
the way they provide new ideas and an evaluation. These can be
used in a plenary to summarise the work undertaken by
students in completing the questions above and their own
reading.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
Traditional Sociology:
• The development of the discipline of Sociology
started in the early to mid nineteenth century.
Ideas reflected some of the changes of that time
but also incorporated particular contemporary
assumptions, values and prejudices.
• Scientific enquiry becoming important, but many
aspects of physical and social world still not
understood.
• For many years in Sociology, academic study was
male dominated, white, middle-class, and
ethnocentric, e.g. the significant figures in
traditional Sociology are Durkheim, Marx and
Weber.
• When Sociology was developing, societies tended
to be more homogeneous than is the case today.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
In this course the ‘challenges’ include:
• Feminism
• Globalisation
• Ethnomethodology
• Post-modernism
• Sociobiology
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
New ideas/theories challenge and develop traditional
Sociology by:
• Providing explanations for a changing world, e.g.
improved communication has resulted in the
spread of popular culture to many parts of the
world.
• Taking into account new and shifting economic,
social and political forces that operate in the world
today.
• Challenging ethnocentric and male-dominated
views of the world.
• Challenging existing assumptions about the world
and social life.
• Changing views because of new information which
was not available in earlier times, e.g. advances in
genetics and technology.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology: Feminism
Social movement and sociological perspective
Feminism has developed as both a social movement and a feminist
perspective. Although these can be separated at a conceptual level, in
practical terms each has had an influence on the other. Both are
concerned with the inequalities, oppression and subordination of
women. The feminist movement encompasses many political, social and
economic changes and protests. Issues of equality for women are not
new but the 1960s and 1970s saw a coming together of women to fight
in a more coherent way for rights and changes. At the same time the
feminist perspective was pursued through the development of theory
and research which has sought to highlight the issues that affect women
in society.
Challenges
The feminist perspective was developed by academics who questioned
the lack of women in the field of sociological study and research, and
also as a subject for sociological study. This led to a sustained
development of feminist theory within Sociology and to the inclusion of
women in studies on different aspects of social life. This challenged the
earlier work of mainly male sociologists who excluded women from
their studies. For example, early mobility studies looked only at male
mobility and did not include women. If women were included as part of
sociological debate it was often under the umbrella of topics such as the
family. So, the development of the feminist perspective has brought
women into focus and challenged what is known as ‘male-stream’
Sociology.
One or many?
Although the feminist perspective offers a world view that takes into
account women as an integral part of society, there are many strands to
this perspective that reflect different sociological theories or
interpretations of society. So, for example, there is disagreement over
whether oppression is linked to particular systems such as capitalism,
and whether oppression is experienced in the same way by women from
different ethnic backgrounds.
Abbott and Wallace have identified seven strands within the feminist
perspective. These are liberal/reformist, Marxist, radical, dual systems,
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post-modernist/post-structuralist, materialist and black feminist
perspectives. Three of these are discussed below, but further reading
can be found in An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives
(1997) by Pamela Abbott and Claire Wallace.
Marxist feminism
Marxist feminists relate the oppression of women to capitalist systems.
In particular they are interested in women’s role and work in
production and reproduction. They argue that women are exploited in
both the public sphere of employment and in the private sphere of
family and domestic work. Capitalism benefits from women’s unpaid
domestic work, which produces a healthy existing labour force and also
socialises and takes care of the future labour force (children). They also
see women as a ‘reserve army of labour’ able to take on low-paid, parttime jobs to maintain the economy in times of boom but who can be
dispensed with when downturns occur or excess labour needs to be
expelled. Michelle Barrett argues that the power relationships between
men and women must be recognised in a Marxist analysis to understand
that, as well as being exploited by capital, women lack power and
independence within the domestic sphere.
Dual systems
Feminists who argue from a dual systems perspective differ from Marxist
feminists in that they see two systems operating side by side – that of
capitalism and that of patriarchy – pointing out that the latter existed
well before the former. This strand of feminism explains the oppression
of women through class and gender. They do not see one as being
more important than the other and argue that the ideology of patriarchy
works in tandem with other ideologies, e.g. capitalism. Sylvia Walby
emphasises this point by arguing that patriarchy predates capitalism and
that in capitalist societies it takes a particular form, e.g. women being
excluded from particular work. So, power relations between men and
women are not new to capitalism, but capitalism has meant a shift and
has offered new ‘bases of power’ for men.
Black feminist perspective
This strand of feminism was developed because some feminist
sociologists felt there was a lack of attention being paid to ethnic
differences between women. The theories of white feminists do not
make sense of the experience or the place of black women in society
and black feminists argue that there is a difference in the way white men
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oppress white women and black men oppress black women. They do
recognise that oppression occurs for all women, but black women also
experience racism and specific problems such as stereotyping that have
not been challenged. Those supporting the black feminist perspective
also argue that these considerations should not just be added on as an
afterthought, but need to be integrated fully into any feminist analysis
and that oppression arising from ethnicity and race must be integrated
with any analysis of oppression arising from gender.
Evaluation
Feminists perspectives, however, are not without their critics. One
criticism of this approach is that because of its many strands it cannot
really be seen as a theory as such. Another criticism is that because it
emphasises gender as the important division in society it dilutes or takes
away the importance of other divisions, e.g. class.
On the other hand, feminism is seen as having made an important
contribution to the development of Sociology because it has raised
awareness of women in society. Furthermore, it has studied and
recorded women’s experience and place in society and this is seen as
essential in a discipline that purports to explain society – and women
make up over fifty per cent of society.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
Feminism – Questions
Read the attached handout on Feminism and answer the following
questions.
1.
What do the feminist movement and feminist perspective have in
common?
2.
What are the different strands within the broad feminist
perspective identified by Abbott and Wallace?
3.
Briefly describe the way Marxist feminists explain the oppression of
women.
4.
What are the main features of the dual systems approach, and in
what way do dual system feminists differ from Marxist feminists?
5.
Why are black feminists critical of other feminist approaches and
what are the main points of their argument?
6.
Why is the development of feminist theory seen as important
within Sociology?
7.
What are some of the criticisms of feminist theory?
8.
In what ways does feminist theory present a challenge to
Sociology?
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Feminism
Features:
• Difference between social movement and
sociological perspective.
• However, related in terms of ideas and influence.
• Differences within feminist perspective. Abbott
and Wallace identify: liberal/reformist, Marxist,
radical, dual systems, post-modernist/poststructuralist, materialist and black feminist
perspectives.
• All agree that women are oppressed and
experience inequality but explanations differ in
that each focuses on different factors/aspects.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Feminism
Challenge and evaluation:
• Coherence of the perspective questioned because
it has many strands.
• Dilutes other explanations of inequality, e.g. class.
• But, essential part of the development of
Sociology by incorporating women into theories
and studies of society.
• Challenge to the male-dominated base of
traditional Sociology.
• Redresses imbalance in Sociology. Women now
involved in the academic study of society and as
the subject of study of society.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology: Globalisation
This term is used to describe a number of processes that have been
observed by sociologists and others in recent times and it involves
different political, social, economic and environmental factors. Of
course, countries and nation states have always had dealings with one
another, but globalisation is considered to be a different issue.
There is no single definition of globalisation, but most descriptions
include three essential elements. One is that it involves social
processes. Another is that nations and countries are becoming interdependent. Thirdly, it involves the breaking down of traditional
geographical, social and cultural boundaries.
Also, essential to our understanding of this concept is that this process
is something that permeates almost all societies, nation states and
countries. Thus, we refer to global capital or global industrialisation to
describe how capitalism or industrialisation has spread to all corners of
the world. Sociologists are interested in explaining why these processes
occur and how they impact on people or communities at a ‘local’ level
(local here, referring to a country, region, city, community, and so on).
Globalisation theories
As with many other approaches, there is no single explanation of
globalisation and different theories focus on different aspects of the
process of globalisation.
There are many factors that are said to contribute to the process of
globalisation. Among them is the compression of time and space that
has been made possible through advances in technology and travel. It
used to take weeks or months to travel to the other side of the world,
whereas nowadays this can be accomplished in one or two days.
Advances in communication and mass media have also contributed to
the breakdown of national and cultural barriers and messages on
television about soft drinks, jeans and trainers can be seen in most
countries. Marcuse calls this the ‘coca-cola culture’ because of the
ubiquitous nature of particular products – coke, jeans, trainers, teeshirts, mobile phones, etc.
Sklair has a different focus and looks at the development of the
transnational companies and traces the way they have contributed to
80
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
globalisation. Sklair suggests that large companies were once owned by
individual entrepreneurs who also managed them. However, in the midnineteenth century the management of these companies was handed
over to ‘professional’ managers although ownership might have still
been in the hands of an entrepreneur. The change now is that
businesses comprise networks made up of international companies that
transcend national boundaries and can often be found to be operating in
many different countries across the world at the same time. These
organisations, argues Sklair, have a huge influence because of their
economic and social importance.
Another explanation is given by Frobel who looks at how the use of
labour has changed. At one time companies and regions specialised in a
particular skill or type of production. So, for example, during the
Industrial Revolution, cotton was grown in the British colonies,
imported into the UK to be manufactured and the products sold on the
domestic or foreign market. Frobel argues that this has changed and
there is now a ‘new international division of labour’. Skills and
production now range across many countries and regions and
companies will go to places where labour is cheap. This has
disadvantages for labour that is bought cheaply because people are not
given the opportunity to raise their standard of living. It also leads to a
rise in unemployment in countries where labour is no longer needed.
Evaluation and challenge to traditional Sociology
Views differ on whether globalisation is a negative or positive process.
Some suggest that breaking down barriers is positive and the sharing of
cultures and values will bring benefits to all. Others, such as Marcuse,
reject this view and warn that the dilution of local cultures and the
acceptance of global culture minimises political protest and dulls our
critical edge. Another criticism is that what we are seeing is not a new
process – globalisation is an ongoing process and therefore we should
not exaggerate its progress or impact.
However, the complexity of the world we live in has presented
challenges to traditional Sociology. For example, traditional sociologists
often relied on explaining characteristics or specific phenomena in the
context of, or in relation to, particular cultures, societies and nation
states. Therefore, the challenge is whether we can still study cultures in
the same way or with the advent of sophisticated telecommunication
systems do we need to identify different sources for the norms and
values found in the socialisation process?
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
Globalisation – Questions
Read the attached handout on Globalisation and answer the following
questions.
1.
What type of factors are involved in the process of globalisation?
2.
What are the three essential elements in any description of
globalisation?
3.
In what ways have technology, travel, communication and mass
media contributed to the process of globalisation.
4.
Briefly explain Sklair’s view of the way transnational companies
have contributed to this process.
5.
In what way might the division of labour explain globalisation?
6.
What are some of the criticisms of globalisation and its study?
7.
In what way might globalisation challenge traditional theories and
approaches within Sociology?
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Globalisation
Features:
• Involves many different aspects – economic,
political, and social and environmental.
• Definitions include: social process,
interdependence of states and the breaking down
of cultural and geographical barriers.
• No single explanation. Many factors may
contribute to this process. These include:
technology, mass media, travel, communication,
transnational companies, and the new
international division of labour.
• Effects of globalisation may be seen in local
economies and cultures but may be a result of
factors outwith/wider than that particular society
or community.
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Globalisation
Evaluation and challenges:
• Views differ on whether globalisation is positive or
negative.
• Is this really a new process or have claims of its
impact been exaggerated?
• Challenge to some traditional theories that have
concentrated on specific cultures or nation states.
Might need to adapt existing theories to take
account of this process.
• What about socialisation, norms, values and so on?
Whose are these? Local society or global society?
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology: Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology is both a perspective and a method whose starting
point is that understanding can never be objective but will always be
subject-centred and subjective. Ethnomethodologists reject the notion
of a given social order, and argue instead that social life is constructed
by members of society. Social order is constructed because members of
society give certain meanings to events and experiences and this brings
a sense of order and security to their social world. This is based on
assumptions and previous experience and thus social order is produced
by society’s participants. According to this view, the work of the
sociologist should be to find out how meanings are constructed and this
would give an understanding of the way in which people deal with social
life and experience.
Garfinkel
Garfinkel is probably the best known sociologist associated with this
approach. He was interested in the underlying rules of behaviour that
guide group interaction and how people construct and account for their
experiences and in what ways they are meaningful. He argues that
anything can happen in social interaction and if the taken-for-granted
rules are broken then social life (and social order) can fall apart. So, the
only valid subject for study is how people make sense of their world.
Garfinkel used two types of ‘breaching experiments’ to test his theory.
He asked students to interrupt or disrupt conversations with friends or
family by contravening unspoken rules of conversation, for example, by
asking constantly for clarification. In another experiment, he got
students to behave as strangers in their own home. Again this went
against the assumptions of the family of how the student should behave
in the home and resulted in many negative reactions because the
unspoken rules had been broken.
Kessler and McKenna
Kessler and McKenna use an ethnomethodological approach to explain
gender attribution in society. They argue that gender differentiation is
not fixed and that members of society construct male and female
categories. They use their research with transsexuals to demonstrate
that people categorise on four main criteria. These are content and
manner of speech; physical appearance; background information, and
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
the individual’s body. Thus the genetic or physical sex of a person is not
the determining factor in whether a person is perceived as male or
female but the assumptions and meanings given by people in society.
Evaluation and challenges
One of the main criticisms of ethnomethodology is that it is seen as
subjective and relies too much on the interpretation and account of
individual experience. Ethnomethodologists also leave unanswered
how we understand phenomena such as poverty, and other sociologists
would argue that this is created by the social distribution of resources
rather than how people account for their experience. Moreover,
ethnomethodology acknowledges that people construct their world on
assumptions about that world, but they do not question where these
assumptions come from in the first place.
Ethnomethodology challenges traditional Sociology in a number of
ways. First, it rejects any notion of Positivism, laws, correlation, or
objective ‘reality’. Second, it challenges all structural analyses such as
Functionalism or Marxism and especially elements that are deterministic,
such as social institutions or economic factors. Finally, if
ethnomethodologists are correct, their approach invalidates much of
traditional and contemporary sociological theory as well as the methods
used to understand social life and society.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
Ethnomethodology – Questions
Read the attached handout on Ethnomethodology and answer the
following questions.
1.
According to ethnomethodologists, why is social life a social
construction?
2.
According to Garfinkel, what should sociologists be studying?
3.
Briefly describe how Garfinkel tested his ideas.
4.
How did Kessler and McKenna account for gender categories in
society?
5.
What are some of the criticisms of ethnomethodology?
6.
In what ways does ethnomethodology challenge traditional and
contemporary sociological study?
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Ethnomethodology
Features:
• No given social order.
• Participants in society create their own social
world.
• The way people give meaning to and account for
their world creates order and security.
• This does not take place in a vacuum – it is based
on assumptions and experience.
• To understand society, sociologists must look at
how people give accounts of their world and this
will lead to an understanding of underlying rules,
assumptions, etc.
• Garfinkel tested these ideas by using ‘breaching
experiments’. Found negative responses because
people breached the unspoken rules and
assumptions.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Ethnomethodology
Evaluation and challenges:
• Seen as subjective – only the subject’s experience
is valid, but what about phenomena such as
poverty or war?
• Do not question where assumptions and
experience come from, e.g. what about the ability
of those in power to shape existing assumptions?
• Challenges many theories and ideas in traditional
Sociology – structural theories, Positivism, and so
on.
• If correct then much traditional and existing
sociological analyses are not valid.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology: Post-modernism
Post-modernism refers to an intellectual and cultural movement that has
encompassed, among others, the areas of art, literature, architecture as
well as academic disciplines such as Sociology. Within Sociology, it seeks
to explain how society has changed and the new forms of social life that
appear to be emerging. These forms are often referred to as postmodern in an attempt to distinguish them from characteristics of a
previous time which was classified as ‘modernity’.
Sociologists writing from this perspective see society as being
characterised by fragmentation, diversity and change and challenge the
notion that there are discrete and identifiable cultures and societies.
They argue that many traditional ideologies (such as communism) and
faiths (such as Christianity) have disappeared, and with increasing
globalisation and secularisation we need to develop new ways of
explaining and understanding our social world. They challenge the
traditional ‘meta-theories’ such as those of Marx or Durkheim because
they provide a world view that is based on coherence and structure and
these are no longer adequate for a world characterised by fluidity and
fragmentation.
Theories and theorists
As with other approaches, post-modernism has many strands that differ
in focus and there are varying levels of agreement and disagreement
between these strands. For example, Jameson sees the characteristic
features of fragmentation and transition as by-products of a new phase of
capitalism which has itself been reconstituted to ensure its survival.
David Harvey agrees with this and both stress that post-modernity is a
response to changing conditions of the material (economic) basis of
society.
However, other post-modernists reject the materialist view and focus
instead on the cultural aspects of society. Baudrillard, for example,
suggests that we have gone through a transition from a society based on
known social institutions and relationships to a world awash with
information, signs, images and discourses. These create our ‘new’ social
world but they are so prolific and varied that we are often bewildered by
them.
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Evaluation and challenges
Whilst many sociologists would acknowledge that we are living in a
changing and diverse society, some would question the extent to which
that diversity has extended to all societies. For example, many societies
have kept their traditions and culture and are extremely resistant to
change. This view also presupposes that we can identify a specific time
and features of modernity, which is disputed by some sociologists.
On the other hand, if we have entered a distinct phase of ‘postmodernity’ then traditional sociological analysis may be inadequate to
explain contemporary society. In particular, it leads to a rejection of
traditional theories that concentrate on the structures of society and
discrete identifiable cultures such as those of Marx and Durkheim.
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
‘Challenges’ to Sociology
Post-modernism – Questions
Read the attached handout on Post-modernism and answer the
following questions.
1.
What is meant by the term ‘post-modernism’?
2.
What are the features of a post-modern society?
3.
Briefly describe the basic approach of Jameson and Harvey.
4.
In what way does Baudrillard differ in his explanation?
5.
What are some of the criticisms of post-modernism?
6.
In what way does post-modernism challenge traditional
sociological analyses?
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Post-modernism
Features:
• Covers many different aspects such as art,
literature, architecture and Sociology.
• Developed as a way of explaining increasing
diversity and change and the move away from
‘modernity’.
• Factors contributing to fragmentation include
breakdown in traditional ideas, faiths and
ideologies.
• Differences in explanations. For example,
Jameson and Harvey locate this in changes in
capitalism. Baudrillard sees it as a move from
material forms to cultural forms.
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Post-modernism
Evaluation and challenges:
• Is breakdown and change as complete as is argued
by post-modern theorists?
• Is modernity itself an identifiable period?
• Questions traditional sociological analyses. In
particular, theories that concentrate on structures
and discrete cultures and societies.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology: Sociobiology
The term ‘sociobiology’ is attributed to Edward Wilson who was an
American biologist working at Harvard University. He attempted to
explain the social behaviour of animals by looking at genetic factors.
This theory has been taken up in a limited way by a number of writers
such as Caplan, Sahlins and Fox, who have all used sociobiological
arguments to explain some aspects of human social behaviour.
The starting point for sociobiology is the Darwinian theory of evolution
and natural selection, although these have been adapted by
sociobiologists. The basic argument is that we develop through
adaptation to our environment. Traits are passed on through genetic
inheritance, and traits that give us some advantage in the environment
ensure that we survive and are able to pass on adapted characteristics to
the next generation. So, when we are looking at social behaviour we
can trace this back to genetic factors that have some type of survival
advantage. These theories have been applied to many social
phenomena such as difference and inequality between men and women
and aggression between groups and societies.
Evaluation
One of the main criticisms of this view is that it is biologically
deterministic and reductionist. Sociologists such as Geertz have
pointed out that the history and development of society in social terms
has been rapid, yet we do not see any corresponding change in genetic
inheritance which has been much slower to develop.
Also, although recent advances in gene technology has made genetic
explanations generally more popular, the latest evidence from gene
research shows that humans have only about 30,000 genes (fewer than
was thought). This has led to claims that genetic influence has been
greatly exaggerated and that it is the environment that holds the key to
our understanding of human and social development.
Challenges
Sociobiological explanations go against the views of most social theories
because most perspectives within Sociology stress social factors in their
explanations. In particular, sociobiology challenges all theories that
emphasise social construction and social causation.
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology
Sociobiology – Questions
Read the attached handout on Sociobiology and answer the following
questions.
1.
Outline Darwin’s view of evolution and natural selection.
2.
In what way do sociobiologists relate this to explanations of human
behaviour?
3.
What types of social phenomena does sociobiology explain using
this approach?
4.
Why do most sociologists reject this view?
5.
What recent discoveries in genetics also challenge sociobiology?
6.
In what way does sociobiology challenge existing theories?
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‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Sociobiology
Features:
• Based on Darwinian theory of evolution and
natural selection.
• Genetic inheritance is the basis of social
behaviour.
• Particular social behaviour genetically
programmed and gives an advantage in some way.
• Applied to areas of social life such as gender
differences.
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
‘Challenges’ to Sociology – Sociobiology
Evaluation and challenges:
• Seen as reductionist and deterministic.
• Social behaviour has changed rapidly but gene
development has been much slower, so how can
there be a correlation?
• Genetic research show humans only have 30,000
genes and therefore need other factors to explain
behaviour.
• Challenges most of sociological study where the
emphasis is on social factors and causes in
explaining society.
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Revision questions
Choose any two from the following five options.
Feminism:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What types of issues are both feminist perspectives and the feminist
movement interested in?
What are the different types of feminist theory identified by Abbott
and Wallace?
Take any one feminist approach and explain its main features.
What are some of the criticisms of the feminist perspective?
What contribution has feminism made to sociological study?
In what ways has feminism challenged traditional Sociology?
Globalisation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What types of factors are related to globalisation?
What would be three essential ingredients in any definition of
globalisation?
What factors have contributed to time/space compression and the
breakdown of cultural barriers?
Give a brief account of one other explanation of globalisation.
Why do some sociologists question the concept of globalisation?
In what way does this process present a challenge for Sociology?
Ethnomethodology:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What do ethnomethodologists believe about social life and social
order?
Why is Garfinkel interested in the underlying rules of behaviour?
Briefly describe the ‘breaching experiments’ used by Garfinkel to
test his theory.
In what way did Kessler and McKenna view gender as a social
construction?
Why are some sociologists critical of ethnomethodology?
If we accept the views of the ethnomethodologists, in what ways
would this be a challenge to other views in Sociology?
Post-modernism:
1.
2.
What are the essential features of post-modernism?
What factors do post-modernists think contribute to the
fragmentation in society?
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
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CHALLENGES TO SOCIOLOGY
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is the argument put forward by Jameson and Harvey about
the material base in society causing fragmentation and transition?
Baudrillard’s argument relates to cultural aspects of society. Briefly
explain his view.
Give one criticism of post-modernism.
If post-modernism is correct in its view, what are the implications
for traditional sociological theories?
Sociobiology:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
100
What is the main way in which sociobiologists try to explain human
behaviour?
What part does evolution and natural selection play in shaping us
for survival?
In what way is your answer in Q2 related to social behaviour?
Give one area of social life that is explained by sociobiological
theories.
List two criticisms of sociobiology.
Does sociobiology present any challenge to existing sociological
views? Give reasons for your answer.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
RESOURCES
SECTION 4
Resources
The books suggested below are standard textbooks published for use on
A level and 1st year university courses. Many have several editions as
they are often revised and updated. Therefore, if using or
recommending these textbooks, it is best to check with bookshops or
publishers on the most recent editions.
Abbott, P and Wallace, C, An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist
Perspectives, (2nd edn), London: Routledge, 1977
Abercrombie, N and Warde, A (with Keith Soothill, John Urry and Sylvia
Walby), Contemporary British society: a new introduction to Sociology,
Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988
Bailey, V, Essential Research Skills, London: Collins Education, 1995
Bell, J, Doing Your Research Project (3rd edn), Buckingham: Open
University Press, 1999
Bilton et. al., Introductory Sociology, (3rd edn), Basingstoke: Macmillan,
1996
Cohen, R and Kennedy, P T, Global Sociology, Basingstoke: Macmillan,
2000
Fulcher, J and Scott, J, Sociology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999
Giddens, Anthony, Sociology, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989
Giddens, A, Human Society, Cambridge: Polity Press
Haralambos, M and Holborn, M, Sociology: Themes and Perspectives,
(4th edn), London: Collins Education, 1995
Harvey, L and MacDonald, M, Doing Sociology: a Practical Introduction,
Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993
Jorgensen, N et. al., Sociology: an interactive approach, London: Collins
Education, 1997
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
101
RESOURCES
Kirby, M et. al., Sociology in Perspective, Oxford: Heinemann
Educational, 2000
Macionis, J J and Plummer, K, Sociology: a Global Introduction, Harlow:
Prentice Hall, 1998
Taylor, P et. al., Sociology in Focus, Ormskirk: Causeway Press, 1995
Williams, L and Dunsmuir, A, How to do Social Research, Sociology
Action Series, London: Collins Education, 1990
‘A’ level resource pack, Stafford:Network Educational Press
Developments in Sociology, Ormskirk: Causeway Press
Published on an annual basis. Twenty-one topics. Each year seven are
selected and the main developments in the past three years are
reviewed.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
APPENDIX
Timetable options
Advanced Higher Sociology has one mandatory unit and two optional
units (from a choice of three).
Students must do:
• Themes and Issues
and two of following:
• Analysing Human Society 1
• Analysing Human Society 2
• Research
Timetabling and teaching and learning will depend on which options are
chosen and any prior sociological study undertaken by students. For
example, it is suggested that Higher Sociology would be an appropriate
entry qualification to AH, but this is not mandatory and some students
may take this course with no background in Sociology.
This would have an impact on teaching and learning as AHS 1 and AHS 2
are based on sociological theory. Students who have done Higher will
be familiar with a range of sociological theories and therefore teaching
and learning could be based on prior learning. Students without this
background would require greater depth and time devoted to theories.
One way of dealing with this would be to use extension materials on a
self-study basis for those without a sociological background. Materials
that might provide this include:
•
•
•
•
resources from the Higher pack,
commercially available materials and texts,
open learning packs such as those provided by COLEG,
material from HN Sociology courses (level 7).
The suggested timetables below are based on a 36-week session. For
schools this may be at 6 × 55 min periods and for colleges this may
involve 3–6 hours per week. Centres would have to adapt the
suggestions below depending on the time allocated.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
103
APPENDIX
Four models are also given. These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
104
Themes
Themes
Themes
Themes
and
and
and
and
Issues,
Issues,
Issues,
Issues,
AHS
AHS
AHS
AHS
1
1
1
1
and 2 taught sequentially.
or 2 and Research taught sequentially.
and 2 taught integratively.
or 2 and Research taught integratively.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
T&I
T&I
AHS 1
2 ‘challenges’ Topic 1
to traditional features,
Sociology
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
T&I
Weeks 11–15
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 1
Weeks 16–20
Please see following page for detailed outline of possible timetable.
Positivism vs
Structure vs
Interpretivism Action
Weeks 5–7
Weeks 1–4
Weeks 8–10
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 and AHS 2 taught SEQUENTIALLY
Summary table
1.
Topic 1
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 2
Weeks 21–25
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 2
Weeks 26–30
Revision for
exam and
reassessment.
All units
Weeks 31–36
APPENDIX
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
105
APPENDIX
1.
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 and AHS 2 taught SEQUENTIALLY
Week 1:
T & I. Outcome 1. Nature of sociological enquiry, why
changes have occurred. Early development of Sociology and
its context. Different views of Positivism and its relation to
natural science.
Week 2:
T & I. Outcome 1. Inductive/deductive models and debates.
Criticisms of Positivism and challenges from interpretivist
theories. Assessment question given out.
Week 3:
T & I. Outcome 1. Interpretivism, theories and criticisms, e.g.
Weber, Interactionists, and so on. Revision and preparation
for assessment.
Week 4:
T & I. Outcome 1. Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB
instruction. Second topic – Structure versus Action. What is
meant by structure?
Week 5:
T & I. Outcome 1. Structural theories and their application.
Action theories and their contribution. Differences between
Structure and Action. Assessment question given out.
Week 6:
T & I. Outcome 1. Structuration, e.g. Giddens and the way
Structuration tries to resolve the debate. Evaluation of
Structuration.
Week 7:
T & I. Outcome 1. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB instructions.
Week 8:
T & I. Outcome 1. Challenge 1 to Sociology – features, way it
challenges traditional Sociology, evidence and criticisms.
Week 9:
T & I. Outcome 1. Challenge 2 to Sociology – features, way it
challenges traditional Sociology, evidence and criticisms.
Week 10: T & I. Outcome 1. Revision, preparation for assessment.
Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB instructions.
Week 11: AHS 1 Outcome 1. Topic 1. Main features and changes. Way it
relates to one area of society.
Week 12: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories on Topic 1.
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Week 13: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories on topic
and studies relating to selected aspects.
Week 14: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
Week 15: AHS 1 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 16: AHS 1 Outcome 1. Topic 2. Main features and changes. Way it
relates to one area of society.
Week 17: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on Topic 2.
Week 18: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on topic
and studies relating to selected aspects.
Week 19: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
Week 20: AHS 1 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 21: AHS 2 Outcome 1. Topic 1. Main features and changes. Way it
relates to one area of society.
Week 22: AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories on Topic 1.
Week 23: AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories on topic
and studies relating to selected aspect.
Week 24: AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
Week 25: AHS 2 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for
assessment. Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in
class.
Week 26: AHS 2 Outcome 1. Topic 2. Main features and changes. Way it
relates to one area of society.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
107
APPENDIX
Week 27: AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on Topic 2.
Week 28: AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on topic
and studies relating to selected aspect.
Week 29: AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
Week 30: AHS 2 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 31: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 32: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 33: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 34: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 35: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 36: All units. Exam preparation.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
T&I
T&I
AHS 1 or AHS 2
2 ‘challenges’ Topic 1
to traditional features,
Sociology
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
T&I
Weeks 11–15
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 1 or AHS 2
Weeks 16–20
Please see following page for detailed outline of possible timetable.
Positivism vs
Structure vs
Interpretivism Action
Weeks 5–7
Weeks 1–4
Weeks 8–10
Research
design,
methodology,
topics, report
writing.
Research
Weeks 21–25
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 or AHS 2 and Research taught SEQUENTIALLY
Summary table
2.
Individual
interviews and
monitoring
of research.
Research
Weeks 26–30
Revision for
exam and
reassessment.
All units
Weeks 31–36
APPENDIX
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
109
APPENDIX
2.
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 or 2 and Research taught
SEQUENTIALLY
Week 1:
T & I. Outcome 1. Nature of sociological enquiry, why
changes have occurred. Early development of Sociology and
its context. Different views of Positivism and its relation to
natural science.
Week 2:
T & I. Outcome 1. Inductive/deductive models and debates.
Criticisms of Positivism and challenges from interpretivist
theories. Assessment question given out.
Week 3:
T & I. Outcome 1. Interpretivism, theories and criticisms, e.g.
Weber, Interactionists, and so on. Revision and preparation
for assessment.
Week 4:
T & I. Outcome 1. Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB
instructions. Second topic – Structure versus Action. What is
meant by Structure?
Week 5:
T & I. Outcome 1. Structural theories and their application.
Action theories and their contribution. Differences between
Structure and Action. Assessment question given out.
Week 6:
T & I. Outcome 1. Structuration, e.g. Giddens and the way
Structuration tries to resolve the debate. Evaluation of
Structuration.
Week 7:
T & I. Outcome 1. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB instructions.
Week 8:
T & I. Outcome 1. Challenge 1 to Sociology – features, way it
challenges traditional Sociology, evidence and criticisms.
Week 9:
T & I. Outcome 1. Challenge 2 to Sociology – features, way it
challenges traditional Sociology, evidence and criticisms.
Week 10: T & I. Outcome 1. Revision, preparation for assessment.
Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB instructions.
Week 11: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 1. Topic 1. Main features and
changes. Way it relates to one area of society.
Week 12: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories
on Topic 1.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
APPENDIX
Week 13: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories
on topic and studies relating to selected aspects.
Week 14: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Studies relating to
selected aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation
of topic to wider themes and issues.
Week 15: AHS 1 or AHS 2 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for
assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 16: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 1. Topic 2. Main features and
changes. Way it relates to one area of society.
Week 17: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories
on Topic 2.
Week 18: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories
on topic and studies relating to selected aspect.
Week 19: AHS 1 or AHS 2 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Studies relating to
selected aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation
of topic to wider themes and issues.
Week 20: AHS 1 or AHS 2 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for
assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 21: Research. All outcomes. Introduction to unit. Hypothesis
testing. Research design.
Week 22: Research. All outcomes. Methodology. Relation of methods
and theories.
Week 23: Research. All outcomes. Group discussion of suitable topics
for research. Writing the report – guidelines and format.
Week 24: Research. All outcomes. Individual interviews to confirm
chosen topic and research design.
Week 25: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 26: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
111
APPENDIX
Week 27: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 28: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 29: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 30: Research. All outcomes. Submission of research project.
Week 31: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 32: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 33: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 34: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 35: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 36: All units. Exam preparation.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 and AHS 2 taught INTEGRATIVELY
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
113
T&I
Structure vs
Action and way
Structuration may
resolve debate.
T&I
Structure vs
Action and way
Structuration may
resolve debate.
Challenge to
Sociology –
feminism
T&I
Topic 1
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 1
Weeks 17–22
Please see following page for detailed outline of possible timetable.
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 2
Weeks 11–16
Topic 1
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 2
T&I
Positivism vs
Interpretivism
Weeks 5–10
Weeks 1–4
Summary table
Challenge to
Sociology –
globalisation
T&I
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 1
Weeks 23–29
Revision for
exam and
reassessment.
All units
Weeks 30–36
An integrative approach in terms of combining particular elements of the curriculum will be achieved more easily if
particular topics and theories are chosen. For example, topics such as gender and development in AHS 1 will lend
themselves to integration with ‘challenges’ such as feminism and globalisation in Themes and Issues. Also, theories in
AHS 1 and AHS 2 that demonstrate aspects of Positivism, Interpretivism, Structure, Action and Structuration would link
with the debates in the Themes and Issues unit.
3.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
3.
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 and AHS 2 taught INTEGRATIVELY
Week 1:
T & I. Outcome 1. Nature of sociological enquiry, why
changes have occurred. Early development of Sociology and
its context. Different views of Positivism and its relation to
natural science.
Week 2:
T & I. Outcome 1. Inductive/deductive models and debates.
Criticisms of Positivism and challenges from interpretivist
theories.
Week 3:
T & I. Outcome 1. Interpretivism, theories and criticisms, e.g.
Weber, Interactionists, and so on. Revision and preparation
for assessment.
Week 4:
T & I. Outcome 1. Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB
instructions.
AHS 2. Outcome 1. Topic 1 – main features.
Week 5:
AHS 2. Outcome 1. Topic 1 – changes and relation to one
other area of social life.
Week 6:
AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1 – theories used to analyse topic.
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure vs Action.
Week 7:
AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1 – theories used to analyse topic.
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure vs Action
Week 8:
AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1 – theories and studies on
selected aspect.
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure vs Action
Week 9:
AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1 – theories and studies on
selected aspect. Evaluation of theories and links to wider
themes and issues.
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure vs Action and ways of resolving
this.
Week 10: AHS 2. All outcomes. Preparation for assessment.
Assessment undertaken in class.
Week 11: AHS 2. Outcome 1. Topic 2 – main features, changes and
relation to one other area of social life.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
APPENDIX
Week 12: AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 – theories used to analyse topic.
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure vs Action.
Week 13: AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 – theories used to analyse topic.
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure vs Action and ways of resolving
debate.
Week 14: AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 – theories and studies on
selected aspect.
T & I. Outcome 1. Assessment on Structure vs Action.
Week 15: AHS 2. Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 – theories and studies on
selected aspect. Evaluation of theories and links to wider
themes and issues.
Preparation for assessment.
Week 16: AHS 2. All outcomes. Assessment undertaken in class.
AHS 1 Outcome 1. Topic 1 (e.g. gender) – main features.
Week 17: AHS 1 Outcome 1 Topic 1 – changes and relation to one other
area of social life.
Week 18: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism
Week 19: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism
Week 20: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Competing theories and studies on
selected aspect.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism.
Week 21: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1 Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism.
Week 22: AHS 1 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
AHS 1 Outcome 1. Topic 2 (e.g. development). Main features
Week 23: AHS 1 Outcome 1. Topic 2 – changes and relation to one area
of society.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
115
APPENDIX
Week 24: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 Competing theories.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 25: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on Topic 2.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 26: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on topic
and studies relating to selected aspect.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 27: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 28: AHS 1 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 29: T & I Outcome 1. Revision and preparation for assessment on
‘challenges’
Assessment undertaken in class.
Week 30: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 31: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 32: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 33: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 34: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 35: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 36: All units. Exam preparation.
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 or AHS 2 and Research taught INTEGRATIVELY
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
T&I
Use of theory
in research.
Topic 1
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
T&I
Design and
methods.
Positivism vs
Interpretivism
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
117
Challenge to
Sociology –
Feminism.
T&I
Topic 1
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 1
Weeks 17–22
Please see following page for detailed outline of possible timetable.
AHS 2
AHS 2
T&I
Weeks 11–16
Weeks 5–10
Weeks 1–4
Summary table
Challenge to
Sociology –
Globalisation.
T&I
Topic 2
features,
changes, area,
aspect, theories
studies & wider
issues.
AHS 1
Weeks 23–29
Revision for
exam and
reassessment.
All units
Weeks 30–36
An integrative approach in terms of combining particular elements of the curriculum will be achieved more easily if
particular topics and theories are chosen. For example, topics such as gender and development in AHS 1 will lend
themselves to integration with ‘challenges’ such as feminism and globalisation in Themes and Issues. Some elements of
the Research unit might also be incorporated with the Themes and Issues unit by looking at methodology and research
design in terms of the discussion of Positivism and Interpretivism. The point at which students start their research will
depend on their previous study of Sociology. For example, if students have already undertaken Higher Sociology then
they may wish to select a topic studied at that level. However, students may prefer to use a topic studied in either AHS
1 or AHS 2. If this is the case then students may prefer to start the research after this material has been covered. The
summary table and timetable that follows is based on this latter option.
4.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
4.
Themes and Issues, AHS 1 or AHS 2 and Research taught
INTEGRATIVELY
Week 1:
T & I. Outcome 1. Nature of sociological enquiry, why
changes have occurred. Early development of Sociology and
its context. Different views of Positivism and its relation to
natural science.
Week 2:
T & I. Outcome 1. Inductive/deductive models and debates.
Criticisms of Positivism and challenges from interpretivist
theories.
Research. All outcomes. Hypothesis testing and design.
Week 3:
T & I. Outcome 1. Interpretivism, theories and criticisms, e.g.
Weber, Interactionists, and so on. Revision and preparation
for assessment.
Research. All outcomes. Methodology.
Week 4:
T & I. Outcome 1. Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB
instructions.
Research. All outcomes. Methodology.
Week 5:
T & I. Outcome 1. Structure versus action. What is meant by
structure?
Research. All outcomes. Use of theory in research.
Week 6:
T & I. Outcome 1. Structural theories and their application.
Action theories and their contribution. Differences between
Structure and Action.
Research. All outcomes. Use of theory in research.
Week 7:
T & I. Outcome 1 Structuration, e.g. Giddens and the way
Structuration tries to resolve the debate. Evaluation of
Structuration.
Research. All outcomes. Use of theory in research.
Week 8:
T & I. Outcome 1. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment undertaken in class as per NAB instructions.
Week 9:
AHS 1 Outcome 1 Topic 1 (e.g. gender) – main features,
changes and relation to one other area of social life.
Week 10: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism
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THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
APPENDIX
Week 11: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1. Competing theories.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism
Week 12: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Competing theories and studies on
selected aspect.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism.
Week 13: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 1 Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. feminism.
Week 14: AHS 1 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 15: AHS 1 Outcome 1. Topic 2 (e.g. development). Main features
Week 16: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 Competing theories.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 17: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on Topic 2.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 18: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2. Competing theories on topic
and studies relating to selected aspect.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 19: AHS 1 Outcome 2/3/4 Topic 2 Studies relating to selected
aspect. Evaluation of theory and studies and relation of topic
to wider themes and issues.
T & I Outcome 1. ‘Challenges’, e.g. globalisation
Week 20: AHS 1 All outcomes. Revision and preparation for assessment.
Assessment for ALL outcomes undertaken in class.
Week 21: T & I Outcome 1. Assessment on ‘challenges’.
Research. All outcomes. Revision on research design and
methodology.
Week 22: Research. All outcomes. Group discussion of suitable topics
for research. Writing the report – guidelines and format.
Week 23: Research. All outcomes. Individual interviews to confirm
chosen topic and research design.
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)
119
APPENDIX
Week 24: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 25: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 26: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 27: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 28: Research. All outcomes. Individual consultation and
interviews to monitor progress and authenticate research.
Week 29: Research. All outcomes. Submission of research project.
Week 30: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 31: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 32: All units. Exam preparation and reassessment.
Week 33: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 34: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 35: All units. Exam preparation.
Week 36: All units. Exam preparation.
120
THEMES AND ISSUES (AH SOCIOLOGY)