Media Studies
Media Analysis:
Film
Higher and Intermediate 2
5695
August 1999
HIGHER STILL
Media Studies
Media Analysis:
Film
Higher and Intermediate 2
Support Materials
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Introduction
This document outlines a possible approach to the use of film as part of the analysis
unit at Intermediate 2/Higher. The Outcomes have been organised sequentially for
ease of reference and do not indicate the preferred route for their delivery. It is
possible to use this sequence to inform your method but your approach will be
dependent on a variety of factors. These will include the breadth of your own
experience, those of your students and the institutional circumstances within which
you are operating. The Outcomes are interrelated and interdependent and it is
preferable that teaching reflects this. However, should this not be possible, a
sequential approach must ultimately demonstrate the need for integration. It is also
worth noting the considerable similarities between the former SCOTVEC National
Certificate module in Film and the specifications for Higher Still Media Studies at
Intermediate 2 and Higher.
General Resources
A wide variety of film clips
Access to the Internet
Selection of film magazines/newspapers
Single copies of reference books
Trailers
Posters
VCR/Monitor.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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First Steps
One way of working out the extent of your students' involvement with film - apart
from simply talking to them about it! - is to ask them to maintain a diary of their
contact with the media over the course of one week. It is useful not to restrict their
entries to engagements with film only in order to build a more general picture of their
media consumption. If you are unhappy about what might be perceived as an
intrusion, maintain your own diary and offer it up for discussion simultaneously.
From here students could be asked to estimate the number of films they watch in, say,
a month. Of the total, they should estimate how many they watch on television terrestrial or satellite? - how many on video and how many at the cinema. From here
it is logical to begin thinking about the differences between these three media in terms
of screen size, sound, viewing conditions, cost, quality of viewing, ease of viewing
and the audience.
Film Posters
It is not advisable to work with the moving image without having first applied the
skills of deconstruction to the still image. Film posters are an excellent resource. A
visit to your local video shop or cinema will result in an instant supply. It is also
useful to ask your students to find a stock of film posters - where they find them; the
type of poster they are given; the reasons they may be given some but might have to
purchase others; and why certain posters are unavailable should begin a fruitful
discussion. Interviewing the manager of a local video hire shop or the marketing
manager in the local cinema about the materials they are sent for display is also a
useful exercise. A great deal of information can be picked up about commercial
determinants in this way. Display as wide a range of posters as you can - it might be
helpful to contact distributors in some cases because sometimes they are willing to
provide examples of poster campaigns. They may even be persuaded to surrender
posters advertising one particular film but for different audiences - European and
American, for example. Distributors may also be prepared to offer press packs - an
excellent resource containing a synopsis, interviews with personnel, background
production information, some preview criticisms, film stills and so on. These are not
easy to obtain so don't expect distributors to co-operate freely! Unsuccessful
negotiations should not dissuade you from approaching other sources - developing
relationships with media journalists and your local cinema may also give you access
to these useful resources. The Internet is another obvious site.
Once a selection of posters has been secured, students can be introduced to still image
analysis. Deconstruction is a good tool for analysis and ensures that students consider
the image using a microscopic framework. Be wary, however! If used in a sterile
context, deconstruction can be the death of media studies! Students' immediate and
personal reactions to an image is usually the most productive and appropriate first
point of reference.
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A framework for the comprehensive analysis of a still image might include
consideration of the following a)
Lettering:
colour, size, typeface...
b)
Register:
deals with the tone of what is written formal/informal, sophisticated, restricted...
c)
Colour:
warm/cold, bright/sombre...
d)
Lighting:
is the lighting natural/bright/subdued/dramatic...?
e)
Setting:
what information does the setting impart opulence, squalor...?
f)
Composition/framing:
how are the various elements distributed?
Are they symmetrical/asymmetrical;
in close-up (dramatic, intimate) or
distant (remote, objective)...?
Is there evidence of 'righthandedness'...?
g)
Clothing:
style, cost, personal statement...
h)
Body language:
what information is conveyed by the poses and
facial expressions...?
i)
Audience:
who is the image aimed at...?
j)
Layers of meaning:
are there subtexts at work?
Is there an element of intertextuality?
The transmitter will have a preferred meaning
but what other readings of the image are possible?
k)
Positioning:
is the poster describing the product, the consumer
or both...?
A framework which would provide a microscopic analysis of a moving image would
add to this – use of music, pace of editing and camera angle/movement/position.
In general terms, this exercise should enable students to be precise in their
descriptions of what they see in a frame (denotation); make reference to the implicit
meanings suggested to them (connotation); be aware of how the meaning is secured
(anchorage); think about target audiences and begin to identify different film genres.
Attention should also be drawn to the institutional information available on film
posters and research activities could follow.
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This juncture might yield a practical exercise as well. Students could re-design one of
the posters for a different audience. They might like to take a poster of a film which
they have seen and enjoyed but were not impressed with the poster and re-design that.
The possibilities here are endless - designing a poster for a book, a television
programme, a magazine, a newspaper, a pop concert – but the importance of the
exercise lies in a practical application that demonstrates an understanding of what has
been covered so far.
Something else which is worth mentioning at this point is the importance of actually
going to the cinema in the course of this unit of work. Depending on your
geographical location, visits to the local cinema, a multiplex and a regional film
theatre are all valuable activities. Some cinema managers will organise a tour if asked
in advance; they may even be persuaded to give a talk about what their job entails - a
priceless activity if you can access it. If you can organise these activities to take place
in a variety of venues, the amount of information students can gather about audience,
institution, technology and categories is enormous. Amongst questions about
programming and so on, ask about the POS (Point of Sale) materials which cinemas
receive. For example -
1)
How important are POS materials?
2)
During the last six months, what single POS material attracted the most
attention?
3)
Which materials work best in your cinema - banners, standees, quads,
1-sheets, postcards, etc?
4)
Do you get any instruction from distributors/Head Office as to when to
display materials?
5)
How many weeks before the release of a film do you receive materials?
6)
How many weeks before the release of a film do you display materials?
7)
For how long do you keep materials on display?
8)
What do you do with the materials once they've been taken down?
9)
Do you ever display POS materials off-site?
10)
Where are materials displayed off-site?
11)
When do theatrical trailers tend to arrive?
12)
Do you receive instructions as to which trailers to play against particular
films?
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Set a cinema outing for homework! Take the group to the cinema yourself and talk
with the students about the difference between the experience of going with friends as
a social activity and going with a relative stranger as an educational activity. Again
there are endless variations on a theme! The excitement generated by film can easily
be lost in the pursuit of assessment - some activities may distance students from the
medium. Having a supply of up-to-date film magazines - in print and television
format - and creating space in the unit to talk about what is current now can help to
ameliorate any loss of enthusiasm.
It is important to negotiate with your students about the first film you choose to
analyse. To begin with a title which is familiar to them, one with which they would
engage, is in keeping with the fundamental principles of media education. The fact
that they are being involved in the negotiations - and the key word here is
negotiations! - underlines the value of their role as consumers, receivers of media
messages and active participants in the communication process.
[A Communication Model in Appendix 1 illustrates this interactive process].
It also introduces a more democratic approach to dealing with a curriculum subject
and removes the tyranny of imposition - that can come later! Students will bring an
enormous specific knowledge to media studies - they have competences not available
to us. This sharing of competences - theirs and ours - constitutes part of the dynamic
of the subject. Whilst negotiating can be a discomfiting experience to begin with, the
end result is often greater confidence and parity of esteem - for all!
Watching a film in its entirety would be a good starting point. Negotiate with the
group and seek agreement to drop all examples where there might be a problem with
certification, copyright and so on. Ideally the example selected will be relevant to
most. The process of arriving at this point is also useful - the skills of negotiation are
valuable in general terms, but particularly so when co-operative working is required.
Any practical/production work will demand such skills. Having watched the film the
group could be divided and asked to talk about it - whether they enjoyed it, why they
enjoyed it, what was of particular interest and so on. During a report back session,
their responses should enable you to find a 'way in' that does not follow a sequential
approach to the course requirements but instead allows for the integration of key
aspects and an integration of practical and analytical features or aspects.
Context
The background to this unit on film is important in so far as it details a more
integrated and student-centred approach than the structure of these materials will
suggest. The students were beginning their fifth year and this particular group had
achieved Standard Grade English at level 3 and above. They had had considerable
experience of media education throughout their school career but this had been
constrained by the needs of the English curriculum. In S1 they worked through a
short course on print advertising; in S2 they progressed to a short course on television
advertising, thereby covering print/non-print and mastering basic technical/cultural
codes (Constructions in 5-14) at the same time as dealing with representation,
narrative, institutions, audience and categories (Genre in 5-14). At Standard Grade,
these short courses were developed into more medium specific units.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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The group began with a general course overview and the production unit was, as ever,
occupying their imaginations. They had not experienced production/practical work
since S2 and remembered their endeavours to produce adverts. Alcohol advertising
seemed to interest them and they were particularly critical of SHEG's attempts to
discourage teenage alcohol abuse. And then they were off.
One of the adverts collected was a Tennents lager advert. Its intertextual reference is,
of course, "Whisky Galore". The advertising agency had referred to it as “Tennents
Galore”. A film and a director of whom they had never heard. They watched and they
seemed to enjoy it. They did some integrated analysis work on language,
representation and audience. A recording of "Local Hero" immediately followed it on
the same tape because "Whisky Galore" had been part of a Sunday afternoon double
bill on BBC2. The students had studied "Gregory's Girl" in S3 but none of them was
familiar with "Local Hero". They watched it initially as a comparative exercise looking at language, representation and audience. The students themselves generated
a great deal of heated discussion around the film and used it, ultimately, as an
assessment item.
Throughout these materials therefore reference is made where appropriate to that
example.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Outcome 1 (Int 2)
Explain media texts in terms of categories
Performance criteria
a)
Description of medium, purpose, form, genre and tone is accurate and justified
by reference to the text
b)
Categorisation is related appropriately to institutional and audience contexts
Outcome 1 (Higher)
Analyse media texts in terms of categories
Performance criteria
a)
Selection of categories is appropriate to the media text
b)
Application of selected categories is clear, valid and justified by relevant
textual and contextual references
Film clips are an essential resource when teaching film. Building a collection of films
on tape is an ideal objective but it's one that takes time, particularly when a wide
range of films is required.
In order to deal with this Outcome, a group problem solving approach might be an
interesting way forward. Depending on the size of the whole group - access to a few
video players and monitors is desirable. Should your institution be flexible enough,
these might be available in different locations - one in a classroom; one in a resources
centre; one in a flexible learning unit, for example. It is possible to undertake this
activity with a few players and monitors all in the one room. Volume becomes an
issue, however, in this circumstance.
Select a variety of films - of differing styles, of different eras, of different purposes, of
different cultures and so on - and look at the opening sequences. The greater the
variety of clips, the more benefit can be gained by the student. These clips can be
revisited in support of other key aspects so it is well worth spending time on which
ones you wish to use. You might choose to begin with the example of the film chosen
by the group. Decide in advance how much of the opening you want them to see. In
their groups, ask students to discuss each film's purpose, form, genre and tone. When
introducing genre, you might want to ask students to construct a 'recipe' for a soap
opera, sitcom, etc, which stipulates ingredients and method - what they need and how
to combine them in order to produce a particular genre. This is easily transposed to
film genres. Generic hybridisation is the next step from here. Intermediate 2 students
will spend hours constructing 'recipe cards' if given this exercise to do!
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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At Higher, students should be aware that genre is also part of the process of
production, marketing and consumption - for producers it is economic and for
audience it is about creating particular pleasures. Genre conventions give films of a
type some common identity. Certain plot elements may be conventional; other genre
conventions are more thematic and still others involve characteristic film technique.
Genres can be defined through conventional iconography and stars can also be
iconographic. By knowing the conventions, we gain a pathway into a film and it
allows information to be communicated quickly and economically.
When reporting back - after each group has seen all the clips - ask that they consider
why they categorised the clips as they did - some thought should be given to who
made the film and for whom. Fruitful questions to begin with in such an exercise
could be 1)
2)
3)
Who made this? How do we know?
Who was it made for? How do we know?
Why was it made? How do we know?
An alternative approach is to put students into groups and give them practical tasks.
Identify an audience and give them a purpose. They are to use film to educate an
audience of 5 year olds about the alphabet or to use film to inform a general audience
about a forthcoming horror film based on a Stephen King story, for example. Each
group could be given the same or different tasks. They should work out a plan of how
they would go about this. You might want to introduce the idea of storyboarding here
- not to be too concerned at this stage about technical codes. Sketches of what we
might see and a rough idea of what we might hear will suffice. They must be clear
about the purpose, form, genre and tone they intend to adopt giving reasons for their
decisions. This could be retained for further work later - to consolidate learning on
technical/cultural codes, for example. It might even be the beginnings of the work
required in the production unit.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Outcome 2 (Int 2)
Explain media texts in terms of language
Performance criteria
a)
Explanation of technical codes is accurate in terms of denotation and
connotation
b)
Explanation of cultural codes is accurate in terms of denotation and
connotation
c)
Explanation is accurate in terms of the ways in which meaning is anchored
Outcome 2 (Higher)
Analyse media texts in terms of language
Performance criteria
a)
Analysis is accurate in terms of description and interpretation of technical and
cultural codes
b)
Analysis is accurate in terms of description and interpretation of anchorage
Practical work will alleviate what could be a dry and potentially difficult outcome.
Essentially, this outcome should enable students to understand the principles of film
style - that shot + editing = style. It is likely that, at this level, the style of films you
will engage with will be predominantly mainstream. Indeed, one of the methods for
differentiating between Intermediate 2 and Higher would involve a more eclectic
range of product for analysis at Higher. Students would be introduced to styles other
than mainstream. Mainstream films are usually created for entertainment and profit
and associated with "Hollywood" regardless of where the film is made. In
mainstream film we participate in the "suspension of disbelief" in order to experience
the pleasures of watching film. It presents us with an illusory reality. At this level,
then, we are concentrating on how that illusion is achieved. An understanding of
technical and cultural codes can be gained by an awareness of how we look at the
frame (camerawork); what we see in the frame (mise-en-scene) and how the
arrangement of frames forms a continuum (editing).
A frame by frame analysis of the opening sequence of most films will reveal valuable
information about the style of product, its purpose(s), its anticipated audience, its
institutions and so on. A useful exercise is to take those opening sequences used in
Outcome 1 and perform a close analysis of them using shot sheets. Students must be
exact in their identification of camera technique, mise-en-scene and editing style.
They will find that this microscopic analysis will not only deliver a body of
knowledge but will also provide much more information with which to underpin
Outcome 1 in addition to providing an introduction to Outcome 2 – the interrelated
nature of these outcomes becoming thus apparent. The performance of this exercise
is, in fact, crucial to an in-depth appreciation of all the key aspects.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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If you have easy access to video cameras, this might be a good time for a practical
lesson in how it works! A very useful reference text for production work in all media
is the Heinemann GNVQ series "Advanced Media - Communication & Production"
by Peter Morrissey and Sue Warr. If you don't have easy access to video cameras
similar objectives can be achieved using a still camera. Failing that, the creation of
a storyboard can also deliver the goods. Whilst the construction of storyboards is
useful in the context of media education, it should not be considered as an example of
professional practice per se. Increasingly, where actual film making is concerned,
storyboards tend only to be used when planning complex technical scenes or for
particularly complicated plot manoeuvres.
Students could return to the practical exercise they completed in Outcome 1 and build
further detail to storyboards. They should, this time, concentrate on their use of
technical and cultural codes.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Students should know and be able to identify the following:
Camerawork
(Technical Codes)
*
3 main features - angle, distance and movement
*
The language of the camera stations/positions directs us
*
Generally Angle:
High
inverse pyramid can suggest instability,vulnerability
Straight On
most common - viewer is onlooker
Low
pyramid can suggest power and threat
Canted
diagonal to horizon - out of kilter
Distance:
Extreme long shot (ELS)
human figure barely visible, frames landscapes, bird's eye
views and other vistas
Long shot (LS)
figures more prominent, background dominates, balance of
figure and surroundings
Medium shot (MS)
frames body from waist up, gesture and expression more visible
Close up (CU)
head, hands, feet, small objects - emphasis on facial gesture or
significant object
Extreme close up (ECU)
singles out a portion of the face - isolates/magnifies.
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Point of View (POV)
camera acts as eyes of character - helps audience identify with
particular characters
Focus:
Sharp
Classic
Soft
enhance romantic effect/ expose inability of character to make
sense of what's going on
Movement:
Tracking/dolly
when the camera is being moved by means of wheels - on a
dolly - on tracks, in a car, on a crane. Camera can follow
characters and keep them centred
Pan/tilt
camera as a whole does not move - it rotates. Mimics
neck movement - turns its head right or left; swivels up or down.
Does not change position itself
Steadicam
attaches the camera to the operator's body by means of a
brace. Operator can go anywhere - flexibility of hand-held but
smooth stability of movement without the need for tracks/dollies
Hand-held
Cinema-verite effect
Zoom
substitutes for moving camera back and forward. Can be very
dramatic but seldom used in mainstream - draws attention to
the camera and interrupts illusion of reality
*
Angle/distance/movement attempts to mimic the experience of
viewing without drawing attention to the camera
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Mise-en-scene
(Cultural codes)
*
iconography :
the study of images
setting, props, costume, movement/performance and
their arrangement
*
framing :
the way in which subjects and objects are framed within
a shot produces specific meanings - the rule of thirds.
Frame size and shape can guide the spectator's
attention. Size, volume and position in the frame says
as much as dialogue. Rectangular frame is standard but
there are other frame shapes, multiple and split screen.
The frame selects an image for us to see (on-screen) but
we sense that a world exists beyond (off-screen).
*
lighting :
involves choice of level and direction
3 point in mainstream narrative film:
key light
principal source of light. In high key lighting most of
the light for the scene is provided by the key.
Dominant illumination and strong shadows.
In low key lighting, less of the light comes from the key
and more is provided by other sources
fill light
"fills" in and softens shadows
back light
behind the subject. Illuminates only the edge of
figure - almost a silhouette
special effects:
computer generated graphics
models and miniatures
glass shot
rear/back projection
matte
ALL THESE CODES WORK TOGETHER TO FORM THE SHOT!
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Editing
(Technical codes)
*
how the shots are arranged together
*
the combination of shots which construct a film flowing over time
*
Joins -
Cut
the most common. Splices two shots together
Fade out
gradually darkens the end of a shot to black
Fade in
gradually lightens a shot from black
Dissolve
superimposes the end of one shot and the beginning of
another
Wipe
second shot pushes first off screen
*
fades, dissolves and wipes can suggest the passage of time
*
the filmmaker has the choice of 4 basic areas of control when linking shots -
*
1)
graphic
2)
rhythmic
3)
spatial
4)
temporal
continuity editing
dominant mainstream editing style
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purpose:
*
to tell a story coherently and clearly in an undistracting way.
It creates a smooth flow from shot to shot.
It produces a system of telling a story in such a way as
to set out the action of the narrative together with its position
in space and time - spatially and temporally - so that it is clear
to the audience but not obtrusive.
It must continue the illusion of reality.
It must not make the mechanics of the text visible
(also called 'the invisible style'),
story telling in mainstream should do nothing to draw attention
to itself; the apparatus of the cinema,
the physical sense of the equipment or to be aware of
the process of editing
basic rules of continuity editing organising the space - spatial continuity
establishing shot
a long shot which enables the spectator to understand how
everything is arranged in the space: objects, performers and so on
180 degree rule
in order to maintain 180 degree rule shot-reverse-shot
a shot of the opposite end of the axis of action
eye-line match
one shot of someone looking at something off-screen (off-screen
space); next shot shows us what is being looked at. Neither shot
includes looker and object
match on action
a movement that must carry across the break between shots.
Movement begins in one shot and continues in the next
•
if the 180 degree rule is adhered to everyone will be looking/moving in
a continuous direction and backgrounds will be consistent
•
if another character enters the space, a re-establishing shot might be
used to re-establish the space
•
most narrative films draw on the 180 degree principles
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*
time must also be organised in keeping with the development of the
narrative to avoid the obvious dichotomy between screen time and
story time - temporal continuity
events usually presented chronologically
flashback device used when necessary to go back in time
sound can carry across shots and suggest time continuity
entire time to perform action (real time) edited to remove unnecessary
/unwanted/uninteresting footage
sometimes necessary to draw attention to time passing - montage
sequence
cross-cutting (alternating shots from one line of action in one place
with shots of other events in other places) disturbs spatial continuity
but allows temporal simultaneity and so binds the action
*
rhythmic relations movement creates a visual beat
rapid cutting can reflect the degree of excitement
in a sequence - can reflect mood
long shots can similarly reflect mood
*
graphic relations similarities of shapes, colours, arrangements and
so on, from one shot to the next
*
depending on how the graphic, rhythmic, spatial and temporal
relations are assembled gives us the type of editing
*
continuity editing - mainstream - transparent, illusion of reality
*
montage - where one shot does not follow another. That
juxtaposition has a dynamic significance. The way one shot is
mounted next to another in order to create ideas not present in the shot.
Creates a more active audience.
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Select several key sequences in the film and perform a frame by frame analysis. If
you have access to several copies of the film, several video players and monitors, it is
useful to identify those key sequences and instruct each group to perform a
microscopic analysis. Distribute blank shot sheets and ask them to identify camera
techniques and appropriate elements of mise-en-scene. Each group would then report
back and present the findings of their analysis. You might wish to perform an
example for them, depending on their ability and experience.
Have a look at the opening Houston sequence of "Local Hero" and compare it with
the sequence of shots which first establishes "Ferness".
Students should note that the opening titles establish institutional details - "An
Enigma Production for Goldcrest". Key production personnel appear at this point and
these should be noted in the order in which they appear. Discussions later can tease
out the reasons for the order, the size of the lettering, the length of time for which it
appears on the screen, what else occupies the frame and so on. A rigorous analysis at
this point will be helpful to students at other points in the unit.
The difference between the levels here is that a more mechanistic approach might be
expected from an Int 2 student - to be able to identify and describe what they see in
the frame and interpret its meaning A Higher analysis should be more detailed than
an interpretation and should include a wider consideration of myth and ideology.
All students should be able to identify the camera techniques used to track the white
Porsche. They should be able to understand the effects of these techniques. They
should be able to say something about the light and the environment. They should
pay attention to what they can hear and be aware that we are listening to a radio - they
might speculate where the sound is coming from - and this anchors the viewer in
North America. They should also take note of the buildings, the other cars and the
road system which are further anchoring devices. Students should also be encouraged
to use a more general knowledge and try to identify the exact location; the type of
music, the DJ's accent can be used as clues. The DJ later reveals that we are in
Houston. The cut to a medium shot inside the Porsche reveals further information
about the driver - a white male, wearing spectacles and a dark suit - who is listening to
the car radio. Int 2 students should be able to interpret the car as a status symbol.
They should also be able to interpret the appearance and demeanour of the driver in
terms of where he is going and the type of work he might be involved in. A Higher
level student should be able to say something about the type of society of which he is
a part. Some reference to the trappings of capitalism would be appropriate. Such
students might also be able to speculate that this is a conformist, a conventional
character who lacks individuality. He may be wealthy in a materialistic sense but he
has little imagination or creativity. Astute students will also have noted the reference
to pollution and be able to develop their ideological analysis further. Dialogic
analysis during the scene in the boardroom will also reveal ideological inferences.
A similarly detailed analysis should be undertaken when the location changes to
Scotland. Higher level students will be able to identify how the use of technical and
cultural codes reinforce the image of a mythical Scotland. They may also feel that the
contrasts between the two locations are too heavy-handed - this can be followed up
with a consideration of other key aspects.
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All students should understand the principles of continuity editing and be able to
identify its distinguishing characteristics. Frame be frame analysis will again
underpin this. Sketching the main elements in the frame will suffice. You might use
stick figures for this exercise!
Such a microscopic analysis is very demanding and one of the most successful ways
to complete it is to think of it as a jigsaw. To map your planned sequence, note only
one type of information at a time on a blank storyboard. Groups can be organised to
perform different tasks and share the information through a report back activity.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Outcome 3 (Int 2)
Explain media texts in terms of narrative
Performance criteria
a)
Explanation is accurate in terms of narrative structure
b)
Explanation is accurate in terms of narrative conventions
Outcome 3 (Higher)
Analyse media texts in terms of narrative
Performance criteria
a)
Analysis is accurate in terms of narrative structure
b)
Analysis is accurate in terms of narrative codes
When we refer to the narrative of a film we are concerned with the way in which the
filmmaker has organised the material so that the audience will take meaning from it.
Narrative does not have to be fictional. Students at both levels should be able to
determine 2 levels of meaning in a film; its referential meaning (the story) and its
explicit meaning (the 'moral' of the story). Students at Higher level should be able to
identify an implicit meaning (the underlying meaning) where such exists.
Narration is a process - the activity of selecting, arranging and presenting material in
order to achieve a purpose; the organisation of a set of cues for the construction of a
story, Films have different styles and plots and it is the identification of these that
give the audience clues as to the purpose - the motivation - of the film.
It may be helpful to set the parameters within which we are working *
plot:
the actual arrangement of events in the film
*
story :
the chronological sequence of cause-and-effect events
which the audience constructs in order to make sense of
what is seen
[Plot and story may be the same or different]
*
style:
the techniques used to construct the plot - shot and editing
*
schemata:
"packets" of knowledge already possessed by the audience
and applied to the text which enables them to understand and
anticipate the story
*
narrative:
plot and style
*
narration:
all the factors involved in storytelling
*
5 different ways in which plot and style interact producing different
styles of narration
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Students could be given information regarding the five different ways in which plot
and style can interact in film, although it is only necessary that they understand that
there are different styles. Clips of films demonstrating these differences will be most
instructive. The majority of their experience will have been with classical narrative
because most Hollywood product employs this method. They may, however, have
encountered some examples of postmodern narrative. In reality, most films contain
elements of more than one mode.
The identification of who, what, where, why and when should be relatively
straightforward in classical narrative mode. Students might also be asked to recount
the story of a film they know well to others in the group. Are there differences
between the way they have told the story and the way it is told in the film? Can they
give reasons for these differences? Students at both levels will understand the
difference between story and plot. A film's style is also important when determining
its narrative mode. The use of trailers is a useful device in this activity.
Films may share a narrative pattern, but each film will demonstrate difference
according to its genre, the way it is made (its style) and the message the filmmaker
wants to communicate (its motivation).
Editing in classic narrative film tends to create a coherent and credible fictional world
and establishes relationships between narrative space and time - maintaining the
continuity of space and time in the finished film. If audiences did not understand the
conventions of continuity editing, fiction films would be incomprehensible.
1)
Classical narration:
as exemplified by Hollywood, especially the
cinema of the 1930s to the 1960s. Commercial.
Style subservient to plot.
2)
Art-Cinema narration:
predominantly a certain type of European cinema
that is experimental in technique and narrative.
Typically produces low to mid-budget film. Often
produced outside dominant cinema systems.
More concerned with style than plot.
3)
Historical-Materialist
narration:
existed mainly after the Bolshevik Revolution of
October 1917. A loosely knit group of
Soviet film makers experimented with film style and
technique and brought the cinema of the Soviet
Union to worldwide attention by the mid-1920s.
It was seen as a way of educating people rather
than entertaining them.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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4)
Parametric narration:
quite a rare form. It is the opposite of classical
narration in that it combines elements of style to
create patterns which are intended for display.
Distinctly visual. Has not arisen from a movement
but involves isolated filmmakers in various
countries from various periods.
5)
Postmodern narration:
emerged in mainstream and independent
US and European cinema from the 1980s
onwards. Style more important than plot.
Its purpose includes imagistic and audio display,
intertextual reference, distracted viewing and
creation of cult.
FILMS MAY CONTAIN ELEMENTS FROM MORE THAN ONE MODE OF
NARRATION!
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It may be useful to compare the narrative of classical cinema and art cinema, using
specific examples taken from your initial selection at the beginning of the unit, in
more detail with your students.
Classical Narration
*
purpose - simple story telling
*
the style serves to explain the plot
*
realistic motivation
*
the narrative of this cinema rests upon the tripartite system of
order/disorder/order-restored
*
the beginning of the film will put into place an event that disrupts an
apparently harmonious order which in turn sets in motion a chain of
events that are causally linked
*
use of redundancy - audience given similar plot information via
several means e.g. visual, dialogue, inter-title, music
*
the audience asks what will happen next and how will it end? Cause
and effect serves to move the narrative along. At the end the
disorder is resolved and order once again in place
*
characters tend to be "well-rounded" with clear individual identity
*
style is subordinate to plot - shots, lighting, colour must not
draw attention to themselves any more than the editing, mise-enscene or sound. The style must be invisible
*
continuity editing
*
reality is ordered and made to appear natural - "Life's just like that!"
The narrative is goal-oriented and so are the characters.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Art-Cinema Narration
*
purpose - complexity and ambiguity. To show the complexities of
modern life - not as simple as classic narration would have us believe
*
the audience asks why the story is being told and what does it mean what is the meaning behind the film?
*
the narrative line is fragmented so there is no seamless cause
and effect storyline . Events may only be loosely linked together.
May finish without events being resolved. Psychological effects in
search of causes
*
characters often individual with problems at crisis point
*
these films tend to be character rather than plot-led but there are no
heroes. An absence of heroes is an important feature of art-cinema
*
wide range of editing techniques unlike the continuity editing
which characterises classic narration. Expressive
*
style is more important than plot. Style often reflects the
authorial mark - often interpreted as a statement by the author.
Economy in provision of plot information.
Artistic and compositional motivation
*
intentionally distances spectators to create a reflective space
for them to assume their own critical space in relation to the film classical narration subsumes the audience into the film.
Segmentation is the process by which a story can be broken down into its constituent
parts. This division should reveal the distinct phases of action occurring within a
relatively unified time and space. Students could be asked to make notes on the
narrative events in a film. The production of a segmentation is a first step in
considering questions of narrative structure •
What questions/enigmas are set up for the narrative to deal with?
•
By what narrative processes are they dealt with?
•
To what extent are they resolved?
Segmentation can also deliver the basis for work on other aspects of film such as
genre, ideology and the audience.
Students could be asked to plot the narrative of a favourite film - one they know well using the process of segmentation and see how well it conforms to classical
characteristics.
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The structure of narratives makes certain basic demands on how the story is told.
Firstly, it demands that cinematic codes function to carry the story along from the
beginning to the end. Secondly, in the telling of fictional stories, the causal link
between each event should be clear and logical. Thirdly, a credible fictional world
must be established. One of the tasks of narration is to create believable characters
and establish their agency in the story.
The Russian writer, Vladimir Propp, claimed to have identified types of character who
always appeared in Russian folk-tales and also a set of actions and events. His basic
characters were *
*
*
*
*
*
*
the hero - who is seeking something
the villain - who is in opposition to the hero
the donor - who provides an object with magic power
the helper - who assists the hero
the princess - who acts as a reward for the hero
the dispatcher - who sends the hero on his way
the false hero - who disrupts the hero's hope of reward
An alternative interpretation of the Propp model of character roles is as follows -
Good power
Evil power
Intermediary/Messenger
Hero
Rival
Sidekick(s)
Villain
Comic butt(s)
Helpers
Henchmen
Heroine
Temptress
Society
It is instructive to analyse "Local Hero" using this model! How do we map out the
functions of the characters? Accounting for the different perspectives students will
bring to the exercise is also an important point of discussion.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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To return to "Local Hero", students at both levels should be able to analyse the plot
using the narrative diagram and conclude that the story takes the form of cause and
effect. They should also be able to identify that the story is told from multiple
viewpoints. When asking the question who knows what and when, they must include
themselves in that analysis. The audience often has more knowledge than any one
character but may also have knowledge that no other character possesses. Students
should also be able to explain with which characters they are intended to identify and
how this effect is achieved. This relatively unrestricted narration should be compared
to examples of restricted narration, particularly those which include voice-over.
Students will also be able to identify its invisible style because the mechanics of the
text are not apparent. They will note it conforms to the conventions of classical
narrative.
Students at Higher level should understand and be able to identify the following
narrative codes •
proairetic (action code) - organises the sequences of events within the narrative
•
hermeneutic (enigmatic code) - constantly poses and reposes the central enigma
- it arouses and sustains the viewer's interest until the story is resolved. It works
from the disturbance of the equilibrium to the restoration of that equilibrium
•
semic - deals with psychological and atmospheric characteristics, the giving of
attributes or qualities. The repetition of certain themes - refers to 'flickers' of
meaning scattered throughout a text
•
symbolic - refers to oppositions which are introduced at the beginning of the
narrative and which provide the basic structure of the film
•
cultural - "what everybody knows". This involves the reader’s existing cultural
knowledge and explains how we are able to make sense of any given narrative.
The cultural code suggests how popular narratives not only draw on common
knowledge and ideological positionings but actively reproduce them
It is not essential they commit the terms to memory but they should be aware of the
part they play in the structure of narrative.
A sequence analysis will provide a rigorous demonstration of these codes.
Students at this level must also be able to understand the ways in which the narrative
structure and style relate to the reinforcement of myths and ideologies contained
within the film.
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Outcome 4 (Int 2)
Explain media texts in terms of representation
Performance criteria
a)
Explanation is va lid in terms of selection and portrayal
b)
Representations are related appropriately to the perceived cultural
assumptions of a target audience
Outcome 4 (Higher)
Analyse media texts in terms of representation
Performance criteria
a)
Analysis is valid in terms of selection and portrayal
b)
Analysis of representation is valid in terms of ideological discourses
The cultural oppositions in "Local Hero" are established mainly through the
representations of "Ferness" and Houston and those of their inhabitants. It is
important that students at both levels understand how these representations are
constructed as well as the implications they hold.
One very straightforward way of establishing the idea of representation and ideology
is to list as many "Scottish" films as come to mind. Students will probably have a
contemporary knowledge of such. Showing brief extracts from a selection ranging
across time would be a good starting point - particularly if "Brigadoon" and the Bill
Douglas trilogy is available to you! This particular teaching group had knowledge of
the Tennents advertisement, "Tennents Galore" and "Local Hero" so they were well
on the way to a definition of stereotype! Comparing characters - their appearance,
dress, behaviour, roles, speech and so on; locations and 'moral' to the stories being
told gave the students valuable ideological insights. They tracked characters across
all three products and were surprised by their results.
This Outcome is informed particularly well by work completed in Outcome 2.
Neither can it be done properly without consideration of audience, narrative and
categories. Higher level students should, by now, be able to assimilate the necessity
of articulation.
Students should brainstorm words of association suggested by the representations of
"Ferness" and Houston. They should construct a list and then set about working out
how these ideas have been established. The final question to address will then be
why these images have been established. To ask students what has been left out as
opposed to what has been included is a productive way forward. This would
articulate well with audience and institution.
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If, for example, students were asked to explain how "Knox Oil and Gas" is
represented, they will have noted in their semiotic analysis of the opening of the film
(Outcome 2) that its connotations are of power and success, and that its power is
controlled by Happer (Burt Lancaster - consideration should be given to who
Lancaster is and the type of role usually associated with him) who is represented as a
god-like figure in the film's narrative.
They should also have noted that the company logo is of geometric design, has hard
edges with metallic blue and silver hues. Its cold, harsh and determined character
thus connoted. The title of the promotional film they are watching - the opportunity
to discuss this different type of product is useful - signifies certain success "A Knox
Industries Film for The World". Dialogue will further underline the character of the
company, revealing it to be arrogant "Look after Africa while I'm gone" and racist
"...you'll be dealing with your own people...you won't be dealing with a bunch of
Indians".
Students should not ignore the establishment of a "special" relationship with Scotland.
The representation of "Ferness" as a more cosmopolitan environment is of immediate
interest.
In very general terms, the representations of Houston and "Ferness" - which will, in
turn, be read as North America and Scotland - have been established in order to create
a series of binary oppositions and students should be able to draw up a fairly extensive
list of those oppositions. In this way it will be possible to move towards an
understanding of ideology. The attempt to identify binary opposites is a useful
exercise with any film.
Students could also look at the representation of women and youth - they will find that
these are not as progressive as a cosmopolitan "Ferness" might lead us to expect!
This type of exercise is also very useful when interrelated with work on audience and
institution.
Int 2 students are asked to make this relationship with a target audience explicit in
PC b.
Higher students must demonstrate that they recognise ideological discourses at work.
When thinking about the ideology of a film, we are concerned with the values and
beliefs we can identify within its structure. Ideologies are expressed through
discourses. At its simplest, discourse means verbal expression. The term has evolved
and encompasses the social process of creating meaning as well as the end product of
that process. Discourse analysis, therefore, refers not only to the study of language
and linguistic patterns, but also to images, sounds and design used on the presentation
of media texts. A search is made for coherent patterns of meaning - for the 'typical'
representations and narratives found in texts.
Students should list the values and beliefs they can identify in a film. They should
then set about working out the ways in which these values/beliefs are communicated
to them using the work they will have done on representation so far.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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It useful to use clips from products which demonstrate a different system of values
and beliefs in order to underline the point about ideology and discourse. The
importance of having an eclectic range of films at your disposal is again to be
emphasised.
Students could be asked to select a film of their own choice and analyse how beliefs
and values are communicated through representation and narrative. A presentation to
the group using their own clips would consolidate their learning. Students could use
this opportunity to learn how to edit clips together using any technology which is
available to them - desk editor, computer programme, 2 VCRs and so on. They will
also re-visit the importance of context.
At this level, students will be concentrating on how dominant systems of values and
beliefs are communicated. It is important that they realise there are also oppositional
ideologies in society and to think about how these are expressed.
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Outcome 5 (Int 2)
Explain media texts in terms of audience
Performance criteria
a)
Definition and description of a target audience is justified by reference to the text
b)
Different audience reactions are inferred and explained
Outcome 5 (Higher)
Analyse media texts in terms of audience
Performance criteria
a)
Analysis is valid in terms of target audience, mode of address and preferred
reading
b)
Different audience reactions are inferred and explained in terms of differential
decoding
This Outcome clearly articulates with categories, language, narrative and
representation. Students will, by now, be very obviously revisiting work carried out
in other areas. They will also find that the further they progress, the more this will
give them cause to use new gains in understanding to inform earlier learning. This
should do much to dissolve the impression of a linear narrative in media studies!
•
•
•
•
•
Ask students to interview older friends or household members in order to find out
about their cinema habits in the past.
Which cinemas did they go to?
Who did they go with?
How often did they visit the cinema and in what context?
A further research activity which will establish film-watching in a historical/social
context involves finding out where cinemas used to be and note how the buildings
are used now.
Students could undertake a survey of how films are watched in their own households.
• How do individuals choose which films they will watch?
• Account should be taken of the criteria used when selecting films which are
delivered through different means - terrestrial television channels, satellite/cable
channels, video, cinema.
• Which films do people watch together, which films do people watch alone?
• What are the differences between individuals' and collective tastes and
preferences.
• Can they be accounted for?
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Contact with cinema managers will help in constructing audience profiles using the
films exhibited over the past three months, for example. Find out about their
campaign tactics when marketing films.
Contact with video shop managers will reveal which films are hired out most and
whether any patterns can be established. How do they target their audiences?
Returning to film posters, students might analyse how their construction will appeal to
audiences with particular interests.
Students could map the marketing of just one film in terms of its pre and post-release
publicity and how audience appeal is constructed. Work on teaser trailers and full
launch trailers can be very useful here.
Students could be asked to compare press reviews or reviews of films on television, or
at the cinema in order to understand the perceived characteristics of different
audiences in these different contexts.
Working with an older film can present difficulties in the location of
publicity/marketing materials.
1. The Internet is a good resource in this instance.
2. The British Film Institute will also conduct research on a particular film on your
behalf - they will point you in the right direction with regard to reference material
as well.
3. Scottish Screen is another point of contact particularly when using a "Scottish"
product. Depending on how much time has passed since the release of a film, the
distributor holds valuable information - including posters and press-packs - which
they may be prepared to pass on.
4. The British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) will also provide information
about its role with regard to audience.
Students will have to work harder describing a target audience for a relatively
unfamiliar film. They will have to consider textual and contextual elements in greater
depth. The certificate awarded any film for public exhibition is a good starting point.
"Local Hero" was given a PG rating when it was released for public exhibition in
1983. It was delivered on a relatively low budget - £3 million - and can be described
as a whimsical comedy. Directed by Bill Forsyth, shot mainly on the north-east and
north-west coasts of Scotland, produced by David Puttnam and starring Burt
Lancaster, its main subject is culture clashes and the oil business. It would seem an
unlikely project!
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Outcome 6 (Int 2)
Explain media texts in terms of institutional contexts
Performance criteria
a)
Description of ownership and external controls is accurate
b)
Effects of ownership and external controls are identified and explained
Outcome 6 (Higher)
Analyse media texts in terms of institutional contexts
Performance criteria
a)
Description of internal and external controls is accurate
b)
Effects of internal and external controls are described and explained
Students need to understand the industrial nature of mainstream film - cinema as
institution - and as such it is organised along industrial lines whose function is to
create a product. They should also understand that that product is expensive and must
ultimately be paid for; either at the box-office or by the tax-payer. Control is exerted
at the allocative level where the responsibility for finance, management, marketing,
and distribution is held and also at the operational level where the responsibility for
actual production lies. Distribution and Exhibition on the one hand versus Production
on the other and there is a permanent state of tension between them. It is this battle
between the profit-seeking businessperson and the actual filmmaker which determines
the final form of the film. Students should research the precise functions of
Production, Distribution and Exhibition.
"Screen International" is a good resource when researching industrial questions. It
contains information that is difficult to obtain elsewhere including the most up-to-date
box office figures across a range of countries. It is an accessible way of keeping in
touch with what is an ever-changing environment! The Internet is helpful here too.
Distribution companies also produce publicity packs and information about future
releases - once again, it is worth developing links with them. If the companies
themselves are reluctant to help, exhibitors may be able to provide that information.
Students will be able to begin researching the institutional contexts of films by paying
attention to the text on posters, for example. Here they will find key personnel - or
what is perceived as 'key'. Students should select a number of posters or video jackets
and note down the type of information given in these sites.
They should also pay close attention to a variety of credit sequences, opening and
closing, and note down the information they find. Students should be encouraged to
make a note of any role description they do not understand – Key Grip, for example –
and use reference material to find a definition.
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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It is instructive for students to identify the type of product particular directors can be
associated with. It is similarly useful to make lists of the type of product particular
production companies can be associated with. Students should follow this through
with all key personnel. They will begin to form a much bigger picture! Cross-media
ownership and interests cannot be ignored either.
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Appendix 1
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
34
Appendix 2
Film Posters
Picking up clues
Do a quick analysis of your posters under the following headings:
• Denotation -
exactly what you see in the frame
• Connotation -
the implicit meaning of what you see
• Anchorage -
ways in which the preferred meaning is secured
• Audience -
who the poster – and subsequently the film – is aimed at
• Genre -
what expectations we can reasonably hold
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Appendix 3
Analysis Summary (Outcome 2)
1. Describe and identify the effects of camera technique -
•
•
•
angle
distance
movement
2. Describe and identify the effects of mise-en-scene -
•
•
•
•
composition
lighting
props
colour
3. Describe and identify the effects of editing -
•
•
similarity
dissimilarity of
composition
changes of rhythm
how passage of time is
indicated
•
•
4. Describe and identify the effects of sound -
•
•
•
sound effects
speech
music
5. What information does the result of your analysis of film form and film making
provide about the overall nature of the film? What can you predict about its
characters, the genre, its style, cultural background, narrative structure, etc?
6. Select one extract you would like to use for a report back on your findings.
What additional knowledge do you bring to your understanding of what you are
watching?
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Interrogation of Narrative (Outcome 3)
1. Which story events are directly presented to us in the plot and which must we infer?
2. What is the earliest story event of which we may learn? How does it relate through a
series of cause and effects to later events?
3. Has order, frequency or duration been manipulated in the plot to affect our
understanding of events?
4. Does the closing reflect a clear-cut pattern of development that relates it to the
beginning? Do all narrative lines achieve closure, or are some left open?
5. How does the narration present story information to us? Is it restricted to one or a few
characters’ knowledge, or does it range freely among the characters in different spaces?
Does it give us considerable depth of story information by exploring the characters’
mental states?
6. Does this film belong to a particular genre? If so, what conventions of that genre does
the narrative employ in order to guide our expectations?
7. How closely does the film follow the conventions of the classical Hollywood cinema? If
it departs significantly from those conventions, what formal principle does it use
instead?
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Appendix 4
Media Studies: Media Analysis : Film (H and Int 2)
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Appendix 5
Counting the Shots
Shot number
What do we see/hear?
Camera activity
Position:
Angle:
Movement:
Duration of shot:
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