Classical Studies
Roman Archaeology and
Civilisation
The Romans and Britain
Intermediate 1 and 2
4743
Spring 1999
HIGHER STILL
Classical Studies
Roman Archaeology and
Civilisation
The Romans and Britain
Intermediate 1 and 2
Support Materials
qrstuv
CONTENTS
Introduction
Support Notes for Staff
Outcomes 1 - 4
The Literary Sources
Books for Staff Reference
Books Suitable for Students
Videos
Educational Visits
The Internet
Student Materials
I. Britain Before the Romans
II. The Roman Conquest of Britain
a) Caesar’s Campaigns
b) The Invasion of Claudius
c) Boudicca’s Revolt
d) Agricola’s Campaigns
III. Romanisation
IV. Life in a Roman - British Town
Classical Studies Support Materials: Roman Archaeology & Civilisation (Int 1&2)
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INTRODUCTION
These staff and student support materials for Classical Studies were developed as part of
the Higher Still Development Programme in response to needs identified at needs analysis
meetings and national seminars.
This support package provides staff notes and student notes and questions to support the
teaching of the historical, Roman civilisation in Britain aspects of the Roman Archaeology
and Civilisation unit at Intermediate 1 and 2. The support notes for staff provide
background information on the unit outcomes and relevant resources that might be used with
students. The support notes and questions for students focus on the main phases of the
Roman conquest of Britain, the reactions of the Britons, and the lasting influences of the
Romanisation which followed.
These materials are designed to be used in a flexible way at the discretion of the teacher or
lecturer. They can be used as they are or they can be adapted and/or added to by the
teacher/lecturer. They may be used in class for comprehension activities and as starting
points for discussion or individual or group investigation. They could also be used in a
supported self-study mode, if required. Most students will benefit from direct teaching using
the materials as a resource for reading, discussion and directed work using the activities
provided and/or others determined by the individual teacher or lecturer. While students will
tackle these activities individually for the most part, there may be opportunities for some
collaborative working and staff will wish to discuss points raised with individuals, groups and
the whole class. The exact way in which this material is used is, of course, at the discretion
of the individual teacher or lecturer.
Many of the questions and activities contribute to the development by students of the core
skill component, Critical Thinking. Attainment of the Classical Studies course at
Intermediate 1 or 2 leads to the automatic award of Critical Thinking at the appropriate
level. For further information on core skills, refer to Core Skills: Information for Senior
Managers, (HSDU 1998).
Advice on learning and teaching may be found in Achievement for All, (SOEID 1996) and
in the Classical Studies Subject Guide.
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SUPPORT NOTES FOR STAFF
OUTCOMES 1 - 4
Outcome 1
The most accessible, though now rather dated, introductory book is probably Roman
Archaeology by Miranda Green. It has chapters on introductory archaeology, the story of
discovery, to dig or not to dig, digging the Bancroft Roman villa, excavators and
excavations, archaeology and science, reconstructing the past and finally what to do and
see. As with all the Aspects of Roman Life series, there are knowledge and understanding
and evaluating questions at the end of each section.
At a higher level, Archaeology: An Introduction by Kevin Greene is well illustrated, not
superficial, and very readable. Also enjoyable is Invitation to Archaeology by Philip
Rahtz. For the more serious student, Past Imperfect - The Story of Rescue Archaeology
by Barrie Jones deals with the problems faced by archaeologists in the 1960s and 1970s as
they saw their evidence being destroyed faster than it could be recorded.
On inscriptions, Understanding Roman Inscriptions by Lawrence Keppie is predictably
thorough and very readable. Easier for students is the Cambridge Latin Course, Unit 3A
p147-155, which explains, in a simple way, how to read Roman inscriptions.
For this outcome, refer also to Archaeological Practice and Evidence (HSDU 1998).
Outcome 2
The video, Campaigns in History: The Romans in Britain, recently shown on The
Learning Channel, thoroughly covers pre-Roman Britain with a good section on the
hierarchical structure of Celtic society, and the reasons for the Roman invasions. It is highly
watchable.
Boudicca’s Revolt by Ian Andrews is a good book for students. It has sections on Britain
before the Romans, the legions come, the Britons are angered, the rebellion, the Romans
strike back, rebirth and a very good concluding chapter on life in Roman Britain as the two
traditions came together. The Cambridge Latin Course, Unit 2A, stages 13-16, has much
useful information on Roman and British interaction.
Graham Webster’s Rome Against Caractacus: The Roman Campaigns in Britain
AD48-58 is very sound on the Celtic opposition to the Romans. For those wishing a more
detailed account of Roman policy in conquered territories, the most impressive work is R.
Brandt and J. Slofstra, Roman and Native in the Low Countries: Spheres of Interaction.
On the Roman Army, it is hard to find more thorough and informative accounts than G.R.
Watson, The Roman Soldier and G. Webster’s excellent The Roman Imperial Army.
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Teachers should have access to S. Ireland’s excellent Roman Britain: A Sourcebook,
which provides a wealth of both literary sources and inscriptions from the earliest contacts to
the decline and collapse of Roman authority in Britain. Not only does it deal thoroughly with
the military and political history, but it also has a section, which may be helpful for Outcomes
3 and 4, on religion, commerce and society.
Students should be encouraged, when considering the extracts provided, to focus on that
key question of historiography, the reliability of the sources. To that end brief notes are
given on the motivation and general approach of Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio Cassius.
Students should also be made aware that this is an area full of potential for comparison with
modern history, for example, the expansion of the British Empire and the European
colonisation of America.
Outcome 3
It is from Roman towns that we can gain the most balanced perception of life in Roman
Britain. The best book on this area is Guy de la Bédoyère’s Roman Towns in Britain.
This looks at why towns were sited where they were, who lived in them, what services and
facilities they provided, how they were organised and their role in trade, industry and
economy. Teachers may also find Patrick Ottaway’s Archaeology in British Towns
interesting. For students, Peter Hodge’s Roman Towns is a reasonable starting point.
As far as individual towns are concerned, there is a reasonable amount of information
available on London, Bath, Colchester, Silchester, York and St Albans. London is
probably best served with a particularly good and well illustrated, 48-page book by Jenny
Hall and Ralph Merrifield, Roman London. For teachers, Peter Marsden’s Roman
London and Ralph Merrifield’s London, City of Romans are both enjoyably readable. On
Bath, there is a host of good information in the Cambridge Latin Course, Unit 3A. The
official guidebook to the Roman Baths and Museum by Barry Cunliffe is full of excellent
illustrations. It should be remembered, however, that Bath is a very special case of urban
development. Roman Colchester, published by the Cultural Activities Committee of
Colchester Borough Council, is a fine account of a town whose history is a microcosm of
Roman-British experience. It also has a very good bibliography, many of the articles in
which students may be able to access through their local libraries. Possibly the most
comprehensive book on any Roman site is George Boon’s Silchester: The Roman Town
of Calleva, though there have been new excavations since its publication in 1974. The
English Heritage book on Roman York by Patrick Ottaway is excellent. The Yorkshire
Museum book by Elizabeth Hartley, Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum, is suitable for
students. A video is available on Roman Verulamium (St Albans).
The requirement of studying life in a town does not mean that Roman Scotland should be
ignored. There are interesting developments at Newsteads, Bar Hill, Bearsden, Camelon
and also at Birrens. The booklet, The Romans in Strathclyde: Educational Visits, by
Lawrence Keppie and Margaret Robb gives details of museums and site visits. Similarly
Hadrian’s Wall with its excellent Roman Army Museum and the
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Vindolanda site is an accessible source of much information. Stephen Johnson’s Hadrian’s
Wall is generally sound and has good sections on further reading and where to visit the wall.
Robin Birley, Vindolanda: A Roman Frontier Post on Hadrian’s Wall is very thorough,
but may be too difficult for students. Also intriguing is rural society in Roman Britain - a
subject dealt with comprehensively by Guy de la Bédoyère in Roman Villas and the
Countryside. All of the above as well as urban life is covered by Jean M Jamieson in The
Romans in Britain which is suitable for students.
Finally, The Time Team series with Tony Robinson on Channel 4 is a very good source, not
only of information but also of inspiration, for young would-be archaeologists.
Outcome 4
This outcome is best attempted as a comparative study by examining aspects of RomanBritish life, language, religion, trade, industry and urban economies and by tracing their links
to modern British society.
It would be advantageous if students were able to show understanding of how, for example,
the synthesis by Roman-British culture of Roman and Celtic cults was reflected by a similar
trend in wider society and to distinguish parallels in contemporary Britain.
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THE LITERARY SOURCES
Tacitus
A good aid for teachers is F.R.D. Goodyear’s Tacitus, (No. 4 in the New Surveys in the
Classics series). Tacitus was born around AD 56, probably of Gallic or north Italian stock.
His major works are the Annals, the Histories and Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law
who was governor of Britain. Although he claims to write dispassionately, his view of
history is coloured by his own experience, especially during the principate of Domitian (8196 AD). He looks back in admiration to the Republic and the senatorial oligarchy that
dominated it. The virtues of those days, he suggests, have been lost under the emperors.
Goodyear interestingly discusses his attitude to the Britons and their leaders, such as
Caractacus and Boudicca. They are presented as examples of outraged virtue or nobility in
distress or, at least, as worthy antagonists. This portrayal is not to be explained as an
attempt to give some expression to ideological opposition to Rome amongst Rome’s
subjects. Nor is it, except subsidiarily, explained by a desire to point a contrast between the
integrity of the barbarians and the degeneracy of Rome, but rather as part of Tacitus’ literary
technique. In presenting the ‘noble savage’ as the adversary of imperial Rome, Tacitus can
partly recreate the heroic tone of republican history, the tones struck by Livy in his early
books, and by so doing relieve the gloom of the political history which forms his central
subject. Few will believe that Tacitus accepts the views he puts in the mouths of chieftains
such as Calgacus.
Suetonius
Born around AD 69, he is an inferior historian in all ways to Tacitus. His main work is 12
biographies on Lives of the Caesars from Julius Caesar to Domitian. Much of what he
writes is interesting and illuminating, but unfortunately no scandal is too sordid, no detail too
salacious to avoid inclusion in his work.
Dio Cassius
Twice consul, Dio wrote a Roman history from the beginning to AD 229. We have only
abbreviations or epitomies of his account of the Romans in Britain. Although distanced in
time from the 1st century AD events he describes, his work provides us with information on
periods not covered elsewhere.
Reliability of Sources
Students should be urged to examine this question closely. The Roman origin of our sources
is clearly an important factor, though it must be made clear that this does not necessarily
indicate partiality or bias. It was a matter of pride to these historians that they were able to
rise above nationalistic and imperialist considerations and deliver an accurate account of the
events, which they describe. Nevertheless there is undoubtedly still a need for caution.
Students should be warned that the speeches in Tacitus and Dio Cassius are fabrications,
intended to give the flavour of what, for example, Caractacus or Boudicca might have said
to their followers. Under such circumstances a degree of selectivity and subjectivity was
unavoidable.
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BOOKS FOR STAFF REFERENCE
Many of these books may not currently be in print but may already form part of the
department ‘library’ built up over the years. A selection is likely to be available for
consultation, however, in many Reference Libraries.
Birley, Robin, Vindolanda: A Roman Frontier Post on Hadrian’s Wall, (Thames and
Hudson, 1997)
Brandt, R. and Slofstra, J. (ed.), Roman and Native in the Low Countries: Spheres of
Interaction, (Oxford, 1983)
Breeze, David, Roman Scotland, (Batsford/HS, 1996)
Cambridge Latin Course: Unit IIA, (Cambridge University Press, 1990)
Cambridge Latin Course: Unit IIIA, (Cambridge University Press, 1990)
Cunliffe, Barry, English Heritage Book of Roman Bath, (Batsford / English Heritage,
1995)
De la Bédoyère, Guy, English Heritage Book of Roman Towns in Britain, (Batsford /
English Heritage, 1992)
De la Bédoyère, Guy, English Heritage Book of Roman Villas and the Countryside,
(Batsford / English Heritage, 1993)
Goodyear, F.R.D., Tacitus, (Joint Association of Classics Teachers / Clarendon Press,
1970)
Green, Miranda, Roman Archaeology, (Longman, 1983)
Greene, Kevin, Archaeology: An Introduction, (Batsford, 1990)
Hall, J. and Merrifield, R., Roman London, (HMSO / Museum of London, 1986)
Hartley, Elizabeth, Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum, (Longman, 1990)
Ireland, S., Roman Britain: A Sourcebook, (Croom Helm, 1986)
Jamieson, Jean M., The Romans in Britain, (Edward Arnold, 1975)
Johnson, Stephen, English Heritage Book of Hadrian’s Wall, (Batsford, 1989)
Keppie, Lawrence J. F., Understanding Roman Inscriptions, (Batsford, 1991)
Marsden, Peter, Roman London, (Thames and Hudson, 1980)
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Merrifield, Ralph, London, City of the Romans, (Batsford, 1983)
Ottaway, Patrick, Archaeology in British Towns, (Routledge, 1992)
Ottaway, Patrick, Book of Roman York, (Batsford / English Heritage, 1993)
Rahtz, Philip, Invitation to Archaeology, (Blackwell, 1991)
Watson, G.R., The Roman Soldier, (Thames and Hudson, 1969)
Webster, Graham, Rome against Caractacus, (Batsford, 1993)
Webster, Graham, The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries AD,
(Constable, 1996)
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BOOKS SUITABLE FOR STUDENTS
There are a large number of books on Roman Britain. The following bibliography is a
selection that can easily be supplemented by individual teachers. Again, not all of these
books are necessarily currently in print.
Andrews, I, Boudicca’s Revolt, (CUP)
Corbishley, M, Town Life in Roman Britain, (Harrap, 1981) (this book has an excellent
further reading list on p 48-9)
Hodge, Peter, Roman Towns, (Longman, 1977)
Hughes, M & Forrest, M, The Romans Discover Britain, (CUP, 1981) (huge amount of
primary source material) + Teacher’s Handbook (CUP, 1981)
Jones, D & P, The Villas of Roman Britains, (Jackdaw)
Liversidge, J, Roman Britain, (Longman, 1983)
Marsden, B, Roman Invaders and Settlers, (Wayland, 1994)
Mason, J, Roman Britain: Resource Book, (Longman, 1991)
Place, R, The Romans: Fact and Fiction, (CUP, 1988)
Sauvain, P, Roman Britain, (MacMillan)
Wilkins, F, Growing Up in Roman Britain, (Batsford, 1979)
Finally, most helpful of all is a collection of History Units and Workcards on the Romans in
Britain published by Longman and written by David Birt in 1976.
Titles are as follows:
Units
Workcards
Invasion
The Roman Conquest of Britain
A Roman Soldier in Britain
Hadrian’s Wall
Roads, Travel and Trade
The Roman Villa
The Roman Town
Religion in Roman Britain
The Legions Leave
Everyday Life in Roman Britain
Britain Before the Romans
Attacking the Wall
Roman Mosaics
Boudicca’s Revolt
Investigating the Druids
Roman Ships
Gladiators
Investigating King Arthur
Pottery in Roman Britain
Siege Machines
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VIDEOS
The following videos may be of some help in this unit.
The Roman Empire and its Civilisation
Running Time: 83 minutes
Distributor:
Telltale International
3 William Street
Edinburgh EH3 7NG
From the founding of Rome to the end of the Empire in the West, this programme presents
an overview of Roman history along with a closer look at selected Roman institutions,
thought, culture and daily life. Weaving together the diverse strands of the Roman
experience, the programme pays particular attention to those factors of character and culture
that determined the course of Roman history. The Rise of the Republic covers the period
from Rome’s founding to 146 BC (including her domination of the Mediterranean), the
Roman character, Republican political institutions, religion and social classes. From
Republic to Empire, chronicles the history of Republican Rome, from the mid-second
century BC to the crowning of Augustus as first emperor in 27 BC, the army, literature,
housing in Caesar’s Rome. The Pax Romana traces the growth of the Empire from the reign
of Augustus to the last of the ‘Five Good Emperors’, Marcus Aurelius; Imperial literature,
games, Roman daily life. Decline and Fall examines Rome from AD 180 to 476; barbarian
incursions, the breakdown of administration; art and architecture, Christianity; Rome’s
legacy to the West.
Rome: The Augustan Age
Running Time: 24 minutes (each)
Distributor:
Open University Educational Enterprises Ltd
12 Cofferidge Close
Stoney Stratford
Milton Keynes MK11 1BY
Introduces students interested in the ancient world to the main cultural, political and social
features of the Roman Empire in the late first century BC and the early first century AD.
Aims to enable the viewer to study, appreciate and, ultimately, to evaluate a wide selection
of ancient source-material (in translation) - literary, historical, philosophical, epigraphic,
archaeological and architectural - thus gaining an informed appreciation of some of the most
important aspects and interrelations of Roman civilisation in this period. This includes Rome
under Augustus, Portrait and Image, Interior Decoration, Town and Country, Architecture
and Town Planning, and Gallia Narbonensis.
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Britain: A Granary for Rome
Running Time: 23 minutes
Distributor:
Guild Sound and Vision Ltd
Woodston House
Oundle Road
Peterborough PE2 9PZ
The state of British agriculture at the time of the Roman invasion is a subject of dispute
among archaeologists. This video explores the implications of this dispute through the study
of two sites: the Lunt Roman Fort, near Coventry, where there are traces of three enormous
granaries, and Buster Ancient Farm in Hampshire where research indicates there could have
been substantial grain production. Dr Peter Reynolds, Director of Buster, concludes that
British supplies of grain may have been the principal reason for the Roman invasion.
Exploring Roman Britain
Running Time: 13 minutes
Distributor:
University of Sheffield
Audio-Visual and Television Service
Sheffield S10 2TN
Part 1: How the Town Grew - traces the history of Verulamium.
Part 2: Living in the Town - reconstructs life in Verulamium.
Part 3: Wider Horizons - looks at the town’s relationship with the outside world.
Roman Britain: The Towns
Running Time: 15 minutes
Distributor:
Hugh Baddely Productions
64 Moffats Lane
Brookman Park
Hatfield
Hertfordshire
AL19 7RU
This video shows the manner in which archaeological excavation followed by a careful
examination of the objects discovered have gradually built up our knowledge of life in
Roman Britain. Roman sites are shown as far afield as Verulamium, Bath, Carleon,
Vindolanda. A Roman family scene is reconstructed using actors in costume.
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Roman Britain: Fortification
Running Time: 14 minutes
Distributor:
Hugh Baddely Productions
64 Moffats Lane
Brookman Park
Hatfield
Hertfordshire
AL19 7RU
Deals with the conquest and occupation of Britain. Fortifications are dealt with in three
sections: typical early forts; Hadrian’s Wall, its construction and method of defence; the forts
of the Saxon shore. Animated maps are used and pictorial re-constructions and models
suggest the appearance of military structures.
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EDUCATIONAL VISITS
CONTACTS AND REFERENCES
Falkirk Council Museums Services
Contact: Mrs Margaret Bowden, Falkirk Museums Education Officer, Callendar House,
Callendar Park, Falkirk FK1 1YR; telephone 01324 503770. Information Pack for
teachers available. Bookings for Kinneil Museum, Bo’ness, are made through Mrs
Bowden.
Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
Contact: Claire Leonard, Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, University Avenue,
Glasgow G12 8QQ; telephone0141 330 4221. Guided talks on the Ancient Greeks and
the Romans in Scotland; collection from the Antonine Wall; costumes and artefact handling
available. Booking well in advance highly recommended. Small administration fee per class.
National Musuems of Scotland - Education Officer 0131 225 7534.
Historic Scotland - Education Officer, telephone 0131 668 8732.
HISTORIC SCOTLAND PROPERTIES IN CARE
Borders
Dere Street Roman Road
Beside Soutra Aisle, just of the A68. O.S. Map Ref: 73 NT 452 580. A good stretch of
the Roman Road running from Corbridge, beside Hadrian’s Wall, to Cramond on the Firth
of Forth. Beside the road are scoops, pits from which the gravel for building the road was
taken.
Central Region - Antonine Wall Monuments
Castlecary
East of Castlecary Village on the B816. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 790 783. The reduced
earthworks of a fort.
Rough Castle
Signposted at Bonnybridge, 1 mile east. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 835 798-845 799. The
best-preserved length of rampart and ditch, together with the earthworks of a fort, the most
complete on the Wall, and a short length of military way with quarry pits.
Seabegs Wood
1 mile west of Bonnybridge. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 835 798-811 792. A stretch of
rampart and ditch with a military way behind.
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Watling Lodge
In Falkirk, signposted from A9. O.S. Map Ref: 65 NS 866 798-863 798. The best
section of ditch.
Strathclyde - Antonine Wall Monuments
Bar Hill Fort
Half a mile east of Twechar, signposted from village. O.S. Map Ref: 64 NS 714 762-706
740. The highest fort on the line of the Wall, containing the foundations of the headquarters
building and bathhouse. To the east sits a small Iron Age fort. The Wall ditch runs past
both.
Bearsden Bathhouse
On the Roman Road, Bearsden. The well-preserved remains of a bathhouse and latrine,
built in the 2nd century AD to serve a small fort.
Croy Hill
Between Croy and Dullatur. O.S. Map Ref: 64 NS 739 769-725 762. The fort here is not
visible, but the Wall ditch survives well and there are two beacon platforms.
Tollark and Garnhall
West of Castlecary. O.S. Map Ref: 64 NS 783 781-769 777. A well-preserved section
of ditch.
Tayside
Ardunie Roman Signal Station
At Trinity Gask, 4 miles north of Auchterarder. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 946 187. The site
of a Roman watch tower, one of a series running between Ardoch and the Tay, dating to the
first century.
Blackhall Roman Camp, Ardoch
Half a mile north of Braco. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 840 109. Parts of the defences of two
Roman camps, probably dating to the early third century.
Muir o’ Fauld Roman Signal Station
East of Ardunie. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 982 189. Another watch tower site in the same
series as Ardunie. O.S. Map Ref: 58 NN 840 189. Another watch tower site in the same
series as Ardunie.
The following extract is taken from Historic Scotland, the Sites to See: A guide to over
300 Historic Sites Spanning 5000 Years.
‘The land now known as Scotland lay on the north west frontier of the Roman Empire.
Roman armies invaded Scotland on several occasions, sometimes defeating the northern
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tribes but never permanently incorporating even the tribes of southern Scotland into their
empire. The nature of the contact between Rome and her northern
neighbours was thus primarily military, and the surviving monuments reflect this. Nearly all
the monuments only survive today as earthworks, but they are a remarkable group and of
international importance.
Each time the Roman army set up camp, it protected itself by constructing a rampart and
ditch, and parts of two such camps may be seen at Black Hill, Ardoch (Tayside). When the
empire ceased expanding, its borders were protected by frontiers. Parts of one such line
survives in Perthshire and is represented by the watch-towers at Muir o’ Fauld and Ardunie,
which appear to date to the first century AD.
Shortly after their construction, the Romans withdrew to the Tyne-Solway line, where they
built Hadrian’s Wall in the 120s. That Wall, in turn, was succeeded in the 140s by a new
frontier line, the Antonine Wall, constructed across Central Scotland from sea to sea. This
frontier, which only lasted about 20 years, can still be traced intermittently today. Behind
the Wall lay forts and fortlets which housed the troops charged with the duties of defending
the province and controlling its inhabitants in the border region. These military installations
were linked by roads, such as that at Soutra beside the A68 (Borders).’
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THE INTERNET
Schools in which a modem is available should be able to access the Internet. Netscape, a
browser, is free for academic use. The following web sites may be helpful.
http://www.gla.ac.uk/Museum/
The web site of the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, provides information and
educational activities on the Romans in Scotland.
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/~nantiq
The web site of the National Museum of Antiquities provides information on and illustrations
of artefacts e.g. weaponry, dress, ornaments, and offers a visit to a virtual Temple of
Mithras.
http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk
The web site of Historic Scotland provides information on sites and activities.
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ROMAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND CIVILISATION
THE ROMANS AND BRITAIN
INTERMEDIATE 1 AND 2
STUDENT MATERIALS
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I.
BRITAIN BEFORE THE ROMANS
The Romans thought, with some justification, that Rome was the centre of the world. Britain
was, on the other hand, as Horace, the Roman poet, writes ‘right at the very end of the
earth.’ Another poet, Catullus, uses the same phrase and, describes Britain as cut off by a
‘terrifying sea’ from the rest of the world. The Romans did not think much of the inhabitants
of these islands. Horace calls them ‘vicious to strangers’. Is this the prejudice of Italianbased writers? Or is there some truth in these claims.
Between 100 BC and 75 BC some of the tribes of the part of Northern France, which the
Romans called Gallia Belgica, migrated to Britain and settled there, establishing themselves
in the south-east of Britain. By using deeper ploughs, the new settlers were able to move
into and clear of forest previously untouched areas. By 55 BC when the Romans came for
the first time, the new tribes were well established in Britain.
These tribes were ruled over by a chief, who with help and support of the nobles of the tribe
(often his relatives) exercised total control over his tribesmen. They resembled in some ways
the Highland clans of 18th century Scotland. The Belgic chiefs would have understood the
attitude of Cameron of Lochiel, the chief of the Camerons, who could call his tribesmen ‘his
children’ but at the same time burn down the houses of any of his clan who refused to join
him in the Jacobite Uprising of 1745. To the Belgic chiefs of the 1st century BC their
prestige and pride were all-important and played a major role in their decisions, especially
those involving warfare. The ordinary tribes-people had hard lives, farming some fields and
producing subsistence levels of wheat and barley. Most tribesmen lived in small
communities, although some urbanisation was beginning to occur. Julius Caesar did not think
much of these tribes.
‘Most of those living in the interior of the island do not sow grain but live on
meat and milk and wear the skins of animals. All of them use woad, a blue dye,
to make themselves appear wild in battle. They have long hair, but shave all
their bodies except their heads and upper lips. They share their wives with 10
or 12 other men, usually relatives.’
There was one other important group in this tribal society. They were the Druids - a group
of priests who combined a wide level of knowledge and intelligence with a belief in the
importance of human sacrifice.
Julius Caesar describes their role.
‘The task of the Druids is to perform sacrifices, see to the worship of the gods
and to interpret matters to do with religion. They are judges in any disputed
matters whether private or public.’
These men clearly had a powerful role within the tribe and unlike the chiefs who concerned
themselves largely with matters specific to their own tribes, the Druids had
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an influence beyond that of their own tribes. They became the focus of resistance to the
Roman invasion, much feared by the Romans who killed any Druid they were able to.
Today we live in a post-imperialistic age - the time of empires has (for the moment, at least)
passed. Because of this people today often look back at pre-imperialistic societies, whether
it is the tribes of Celtic Britain, or of 19th century Africa, or the Indian tribes of North
America and see them as idyllic societies. Some of you will have seen the film ‘Dances with
Wolves’ and its portrayal of Indian life. We should be careful about accepting this
uncritically. The slave chain shown below predates the Roman invasion and suggests that
slavery, perhaps involving people from other tribes captured in war, was a feature of preRoman Britain.
Figure 1: Slave Chain
In studying this topic you should concentrate on the evidence, especially the archaeological
evidence. Do not make assumptions based on late 20th century views. When you are
dealing with written evidence, consider the motives of the author in writing what he (it is
always a he) does.
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Questions
1. What did the Romans think of Britain and the British? Why do you think they felt this
way?
2. What advantage did the Belgic settlers have over the Britons who already lived there?
3. What were the 3 main groups of these tribal societies?
4. How did the chiefs treat their tribes-people?
5. What does ‘urbanisation’ mean? In what ways was urbanisation a threat to tribal
societies?
6. Find out at least 3 pieces of information about the Highland clans before the 1745
rebellion.
7. How do you think Julius Caesar felt about the Britons? Give reasons for your answer.
Should we believe what Caesar writes?
8. What role did the Druids have? Why did the Romans hate them?
9. Of what do we need to be careful when commenting on tribal life in pre-Roman Britain?
10. What 2 rules should you follow when considering historical evidence of life in the
classical world?
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II.
THE ROMAN CONQUEST OF BRITAIN
The following need to be examined:
a) Julius Caesar’s two campaigns
b) The invasion of Claudius
c) Boudicca’s Revolt
d) Agricola’s campaigns.
In each of these areas, three questions must be answered:
a) What prompted the Roman aggression?
b) How did the British tribes react?
c) Why did the Romans win?
A. Julius Caesar’s Two Campaigns
Our main source for Julius Caesar’s campaigns in Britain in 55 BC and again in 54 BC is a
book written by Caesar himself called The Gallic War. Caesar had been fighting and
beating the tribes of Gaul (France) and at the end of summer in 55 BC decided to cross the
Channel and discover what Britain and the British tribes were like. Caesar claims that the
British tribes had been helping the Gauls. There were of course other reasons. Caesar liked
winning battles and the more battles he won, the more secure was his position against his
political enemies in Rome. There were also widespread rumours of great mineral wealth in
Britain. Over 400 years before Caesar’s invasion, Herodotus, a Greek historian, had
written, ‘It is clear that the northern parts of Europe are richest in gold’.
Caesar did not intend to stay in Britain or even to leave Roman troops there. His campaigns
were a mixture of punishment raid (for British help to the Gauls) and reconnaissance (to find
out if the rumours of mineral wealth were true).
Tacitus, a Roman historian, writes:
‘The first man to cross with an army to Britain was the divine Julius. After
winning battles against those living there, he captured the area around the coast.
But he showed the island to future generations rather than bequeathed it.’
Tacitus, Agricola
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There were enormous dangers for Caesar in undertaking this campaign. He had little
information. He claims ‘The Gauls knew nothing either about the size of the island or the
tribes who lived there’. So he sent out a warship commanded by one of his officers to
reconnoitre and report back. Even then the logistics of taking 2 legions plus cavalry support
across the Channel were awesome. Despite all these problems and despite finding the
enemy waiting on the sea cliffs for them when he arrived, the Romans managed to land and
defeat the hostile tribesmen. After this victory some British chiefs came to Caesar to ask for
peace.
Both in 55 BC and the following year, when he returned with a larger force of 25,000 men,
Caesar faced fierce opposition from some tribes. However, he achieved his main aims of
taking hostages to guarantee the good behaviour of the hostages’ tribes and of letting the
Britons see the power of the Roman army.
As to why the Romans won and the Britons lost, we have already mentioned the rivalry
between different tribes. ‘My enemy’s enemy is my friend’ is a simple way of summing up
what many chiefs thought. If a rival tribe was fighting the Romans, then they would help the
Romans.
The Britons were every bit as brave as the Romans. They thought of themselves as
warriors. They raced into battle in chariots, then jumped down to fight, covered in woad
and shrieking loudly. The Romans, however, had one thing the British lacked - military
discipline. They fought not as individuals but as a unit and by doing so were able to defeat
enemy forces that were many times greater in number. In the 1st century BC, the
government of Rome was in disarray with a series of civil wars. But throughout that period
the Roman legions developed into the most effective military force the world had ever seen.
Against them, for all their individual bravery, the Britons stood little chance.
Figure 2: Roman Legionary
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Questions
1. Find 4 reasons why Caesar led his troops to Britain.
2. What dangers did Caesar and his men face in landing in Britain?
3. What were the 2 main reasons for the Roman victories during these campaigns?
4. Imagine you are Julius Caesar and planning to lead your army to Britain. What
precautions would you take to ensure the success of your campaign?
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B. The Invasion of Claudius
After Caesar’s campaigns, Britain remained relatively undisturbed by the Romans for nearly
100 years. During this time, a geographer named Strabo wrote an account of the British:
‘They are taller than the Gauls with hair less yellow and more gangly bodies.
When I saw some in Rome, they were higher by half a foot than the tallest
Romans, though their bodies were crooked and their legs bandy.’
In 43 AD all of this was to change. The Roman emperor, Claudius, had decided to invade
Britain, conquer it and make it part of the Roman empire. Claudius may have been attracted
by the mineral wealth or by the corn-producing capacity of the country. However, the main
reason was probably Claudius’ own position. He had been put into power 2 years
previously by the Praetorian Guard, (the imperial bodyguard regiments based around
Rome), after the assassination of his nephew, the emperor Caligula. He needed a military
victory to show the army as a whole that he was not just a pawn of the Praetorians.
The invasion, under the command of the Roman general, Aulus Plautius, involved 4 legions.
As with Caesar’s campaigns before, some tribes made peace with the Romans, while others
fought. The main focus of resistance to the Romans was the Catuvellauni tribe, led by two
brothers Caractacus and Togodumnus. The Romans used their superior military training,
tactics and weaponry, as evidenced by the catapult bolt below to defeat the brothers and kill
Togodumnus.
Figure 3: Catapult Bolt Through a Backbone
Caractacus fought on bravely but in vain. In this passage Tacitus describes how
Caractacus, prepared for, his final battle against the Romans.
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Tacitus, Annals 12.34
‘The British chieftains went round their men, encouraging them and telling them
not to be afraid but to be of good heart, and urging them to fight bravely.
Caractacus, moving along the battle line, emphasised the importance of this day
and this battle, which would win them back their freedom or make them slaves
forever. He called upon their ancestors, who had driven back Julius Caesar
and bravely saved their present descendants from Roman rule and taxes - and
their wives and children from rape and misery. His troops applauded these
words. Everyone then swore by the oath of his tribe that he would never yield,
even if wounded, to the enemy.’
Questions
1. What obvious point must be borne in mind when considering what Caractacus is alleged
to have said to his troops?
2. There is at least one outright lie in the passage. What is it?
3. Which of the arguments Caractacus makes for resisting the Romans seems to you to be
most emotive?
4. The phrase ‘by the oath of his tribe’ points up one of the main problems Caractacus had
in organising the anti-Roman resistance. Can you identify that problem?
After his capture, Caractacus was taken to Rome where he was brought before Claudius.
The Roman historian, Tacitus, gives an account of this meeting.
Tacitus, Annals 12.36: Caractacus speaks before Claudius, the Roman emperor, in Rome,
to where he has been taken as a prisoner.
‘If I had won only limited success through my ancestry and rank, I would have
come here as a friend not a prisoner and you would have been glad to make an
alliance, without war, with the noble king of many tribes. But yours is the glory,
mine the humiliation. Horses, soldiers, weapons and riches were once mine.
You cannot be surprised that I regret losing such things. You may want to rule
the world but that does not mean that all others welcome being slaves. If I had
given in without a fight before I was brought here, no one would have heard of
my fall or your victory. If you kill me, they will be soon forgotten. Spare me,
and I will be an eternal monument to your mercy!’
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Questions
5. Do you find the arguments Caractacus puts forward in his plea for mercy compelling?
6. Which of these fates would you have preferred had you been in Caractacus’ place?
Give a reason for your answer.
(i)
death in battle at the head of your troops
(ii)
execution after appearing in a Roman triumph
(iii)
living as a pensioner of Rome.
1. Why should we be cautious about accepting Tacitus’ version of what Caractacus says?
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C. Boudicca’s Revolt
Within 15 years most of central and southern Britain was under Roman control. But it was a
fragile control. The Druids, based on the island of Mona (Anglesey), still had the capacity to
stir up fanatical resistance to Roman power. This was, however, a military problem and the
governor, Suetonius Paulinus, was a capable general. There were other difficulties. The
Romans began to seize land from the Britons for their colonists, especially around
Camulodunum, (Colchester). Wealthy Britons had been forced to become priests of the
new temple of Claudius in the town - a ruinously expensive task. Behind the Roman troops
came Roman businessmen, including moneylenders. Seneca, the tutor of Nero, was
prominent among these. He lent out vast sums at high rates of interest. The British nobles
had taken out loans but now, when Seneca wanted them repaid, they could not afford to do
so. His agents used force and British resentment of what they saw as Roman greed
increased.
After the governor the second most powerful man in the province was Catus Decianus, the
procurator. He supported the Roman business community and, after the death of Prastagus,
the king of the Iceni - a tribe based in Norfolk - he attempted to seize the king’s lands.
Boudicca, the queen, was beaten. Her daughters were raped. The Iceni rose in revolt.
The timing of the revolt caught the Romans unaware. Suetonius Paulinus with most of the
province’s military furies was attempting to capture Mona and to destroy the Druids’ main
base.
Tacitus, Annals 14.30:
‘Along the shore stood the enemy in a close-packed array of armed men
interspersed with women dressed like Furies in funeral black, with streaming
hair and brandishing torches. Round about were the Druids, their hands raised
to heaven, pouring out dire curses. The Roman troops were so struck with
dismay at this weird sight that they became rooted to the spot as though their
limbs were paralysed and laid themselves open to wounds. Then, bolstered by
the encouragements of their commander and urging one another not to be afraid
of this mass of fanatical women, they advanced with their standards, cut down
all they met, and enveloped them in the flames of their own torches. After this a
garrison was imposed on the conquered natives, and the groves devoted to
their savage rites cut down; for it was part of their religion to drench their altars
with the blood of captives and to consult their gods by means of human entrails.
While Suetonius was occupied with this, he received reports of the sudden
revolt of the province.’
Questions
1. What did the Druids hope to achieve by their behaviour?
2. Who were the Furies?
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3. What impression of the island of Mona is Tacitus trying to convey?
4. Why were the Romans successful?
5. What did they do after their victory?
6. Why were the Romans so keen to crush Druidism?
Boudicca’s revolt spread as the Iceni were joined by the Trinovantes around Camulodunum.
Boudicca, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, stirred up her people.
‘The Romans are afraid. We British prefer action. The tents we have are safer
than their walls. Our shields give better protection than their armour. Let us
show them they are hares and foxes attempting to control dogs and wolves.’
Questions
7. Do you think that this is the sort of speech Boudicca might have made?
8. What does she mean when she calls the British ‘dogs and wolves’ and the Romans
‘hares and foxes’?
The British captured and destroyed three of the new towns: Camulodunum, the hated centre
of the cult of Claudius; Londinium, the administrative and commercial centre of the new
province; and Verulamium (St Albans). Suetonius had returned from Mona when he heard
of the revolt but chose to abandon London and retreat down Watling Street, for he knew
that tribal armies could rarely hold together for any length of time. But in doing so he
allowed the British to burn, plunder and rape their way through Londinium and Verulamium.
The revenge the British took on these towns was fearful.
Dio Cassius’ description of British atrocities during Boudicca’s rebellion.
This is a very strong passage and students must consider whether they accept it as true or
why it might be judged exaggerated or perhaps even false.
Dio Cassius, 62.7.1-3
‘After she had spoken to her people in this way, Boudicca led her army against
the Romans. They lacked a leader since Paulinus, the governor, had led an
expedition to Mona, an island off the coast of Britain. Because of this she was
able to destroy and ransack two British cities with unimaginable savagery.
Those captured by the Britons were tortured horribly. The most terrible of the
atrocities was this. They hung up the most noble women after stripping them of
their clothes. They then cut off
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their breasts and sewed them to their mouths so that it appeared that they were
eating them. After this they impaled the women on sharp poles. As they
committed these crimes, they made sacrifices, feasted and behaved like
maniacs in all their other sacred places, especially in the grove of Andate. They
believed she was the spirit of Victory and gave her great respect.’
Questions
9. What advantage did the British have at the start of their revolt?
10. Why do atrocities like those described in the passage occur in war? Do they have a
purpose?
11. Do you think the Roman army behaved like this?
12. Why are women so often the victims of such atrocities?
The British had mistaken destroying Roman towns and plundering them for victory. They
were triumphant. But the main Roman army was intact and when the two armies met,
Roman discipline won a notable victory. Tacitus, the historian, claims that 80,000 British
were killed and only 400 Romans. Even allowing for exaggeration, it was a crushing defeat
for the tribes. Boudicca killed herself and her army dissolved to endure a winter of Roman
revenge attacks. Nero sent out Polyelitus, one of his most important freedmen, to try to
ensure that reconciliation rather than revenge became the Romans’ policy. He was largely
successful and out of the ruins of Boudicca’s revolt a new generation of Roman-British
people grew up.
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D. Agricola’s Campaigns
The failure of Boudicca’s rebellion removed the threat of internal disruption to the
Roman-controlled areas of Britain, a frontier marked by the Fosse Way, a road running
from Exeter to Lincoln. It was clear that, if these areas were to be allowed to prosper in
peace, the tribes outside Roman control, in Wales, the north of England and even Scotland
would have to be beaten into subjugation. This process was started in the early 70’s AD by
the governor Cerialis who moved against the powerful Brigantes in the north of England and
by his successor Frontinus who successfully attacked the Silures of Southern Wales and the
Ordovices in the north of Wales. Frontinus was succeeded in 78 AD by Gnaeus Julius
Agricola. We know a lot about this governor because the Roman historian, Tacitus, wrote a
biography about him. Tacitus was Agricola’s son-in-law and he regarded him as a hero.
We should, therefore, be careful about accepting all his views on Agricola’s action.
That Agricola was a good appointment cannot be doubted. He had served in Britain as a
military tribune on Suetonius Paulinus’ staff during the revolt of Boudicca and had
commanded the 20th legion Valeria Victrix when Petilius Cerialis was governor. Perhaps
because of his own experiences during the Boudiccan rebellion, he was determined to crush
the least sign of tribal dissent. The Ordovices were almost exterminated and Mona, the old
centre of tribal resistance, was recaptured. The rest of his governorship, which lasted for
the exceptionally long period of 7 years, was spent in subduing the lowlands of Scotland and
in his final 2 years on invading the eastern Highlands. During his final year as governor, 84
AD, he defeated the Highland tribes at the battle of Mons Graupius. Limits on his
manpower forced the Romans to withdraw from the Highlands.
In the following passage Calgacus, a British chief, urges his troops, before the battle of
Mons Graupius, to resist Roman aggression.
Tacitus, Agricola. 30-32
‘When I think about why we are fighting and the difficulties of our present
position, I feel very strongly that the unity you are displaying today will bring
about freedom for all of Britain. You have gathered here - freemen all of you.
Behind us there are no lands to retreat to - only a sea controlled by the Roman
fleet. In battles with the Romans there was sometimes victory, sometimes
defeat. But hope was never lost, since we remained here in reserve. We live
here on the edge of the world, the last of the free, protected by our remoteness
and seclusion. Now, even these ends of Britain are exposed to our enemies.
Beyond us there is nothing - no nations - only rocks and waves. And do not
think that surrender or good behaviour will satisfy the Romans. They pillage the
world, ruin it by their wholesale plundering. A rich enemy provokes their
greed, a poor one their desire for power. Neither East nor West satisfies them.
They rob, they slaughter, they plunder and call it governing. They create a
desert and call it peace.’
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‘It is natural for a man to feel a special love for his children and relatives. But they
are being snatched to be slaves in other lands. Rape or seduction is the fate
awaiting our wives and sisters. Roman taxation eats up our goods and money.
The produce of our lands is taken to fill their granaries. We have crippled hands
and broken limbs from building roads for the Romans through our forests and
swamps. Most slaves are sold once, then fed by their masters. For us every day
brings a renewing of our slavery. We pay the slave-price and feed our masters.
Just as in any house with slaves the most recent arrival is regarded with contempt,
so we, the newest slaves, will be destroyed by those other nations who have long
been slaves. If we had fertile lands or harbours or mines, we might be spared to
work in them. But we have none. Our bravery and our warlike spirit will only
serve to antagonise our new masters. Our remoteness will not help since the
Romans will regard such seclusion as an opportunity for plotting against them.
Mercy is not an option. We must, therefore, fight for what is precious - life and
honour. The Brigantes, led by a woman, destroyed a Roman colony and a camp.
If they had not relaxed after such successes, they might now be free. We, who
have known oppression, will fight to defend our freedom not to gain revenge for
the injustices of the past. Let us show the world, when the battle begins, the true
quality of Caledonia’s warriors.’
‘It is not that the Romans’ courage in war matches their love of debauchery in
peace? Their success comes from our quarrels and the lack of a unified
response. The greatness of the Roman army is built on the mistakes of its
enemies. It is a mongrel band of different races which will be as surely shattered
by defeat as it is held together now by success. Does anyone believe those
Gauls, Germans or, shamefully, the Britons who now fight for the Romans do so
through loyalty or affection? Whatever they do now, they were Rome’s bitterest
enemies for longer than they have been her slaves. Loyalty is not built on terror
and intimidation. Under our challenge fear will soon turn to hatred.’
‘We have everything we need to spur our men to victory. The Romans have no
wives to inspire their bravery, no parents to rebuke them if they flee. Most do not
even have a motherland they can recall. They are few, frightened and scared by
the strangeness of the sea, sky and forests which surround them. It is the gods
who have delivered them, like prisoners, into our hands. Ignore the gold and silver
of their armour. These can not harm us or protect them. And within their own
army there are those who will help us.
The Britons will see that our cause is the cause of all Britons. The Gauls will
remember their lost freedom. The Germans will desert them as the Usipi recently
did. And beyond this there is nothing to fear - empty forts, colonies of old men,
towns divided between rebellious subjects and cruel masters. The choice is
yours. Either follow me into battle or submit to taxation, to labour in the mines
and all the trials of slavery. This battle will decide whether we must endure these
forever or gain our revenge. To battle, then, remembering not only your
ancestors but your descendants too.’
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Questions
1. Given that there were, according to Tacitus, 30,000 men in the tribal army, do you think
that this speech was ever delivered?
2. Many of the ideas and views in the speech seem Roman. Can you find any 2 points
made by Calgacus which are taken from a Roman lifestyle?
3. What are the main points Calgacus makes when he speaks of the greed of the Romans
and its effect on their subjects?
4. What are the strengths he mentions in the tribes’ army?
5. What weaknesses of the Romans does he mention? Are these real weaknesses?
6. Do you think if you hear a speech like this you would be stirred up to fight against an
invading army?
Tacitus’ version of the battle perhaps owes more to dramatic invention than to the reality,
but there is no doubt that, as so often before, the military skills of the Romans were superior
to those of a numerically greater enemy. After this, although the tribes outwith Roman
control remained a threat periodically, the Roman-British were able to enjoy a long period
of peace.
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III. ROMANISATION
Tacitus suggests that the Romans started to introduce the British tribes to their way of life
during Agricola’s governorship. It was probably a much more gradual process. Some
British tribal chiefs made peace with the Romans to guarantee their own security though this
sometimes, as in the case of Prastagus and the Iceni, proved a brutal friendship. Others may
have genuinely admired the Romans and regarded their civilisation as superior to that of the
British tribes.
Read the following extract and answer the questions that follow:
Tacitus, Agricola 14
‘Certain tribal areas were given to King Cogidubnus - he in fact remained
totally loyal down to our times - in accordance with the Roman People’s old
and long-standing policy of making even kings their agents in enslaving
peoples.’
Questions
1. Cogidubnus full name and titles were Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, King and Legate of
Augustus in Britain. What do these tell us about him?
2. Tacitus describes him as ‘totally loyal’ to the Romans. Does he seem to have much
admiration for the king?
3. Do you think that people like Cogidubnus were traitors? Give reasons for your answer.
4. Tacitus uses the phrase ‘in enslaving peoples.’ Were Cogidubnus’ tribesmen worse off
than before?
The same historian, in a typically emotive passage, describes the Romanisation of Southern
Britain.
Tacitus, Agricola 21
‘The next winter was spent in trying to change society for the better. The
people with whom Agricola had to deal were from isolated communities full of
ignorance and belligerence. Agricola wanted to provide sufficient facilities to
get them used to living peacefully and quietly. And so he privately encouraged
and publicly assisted in the building of temples, market squares and houses.
Although he rebuked the slothful, he did not turn to compulsion since he found
that praising the energetic and encouraging them to compete for honour was
more effective.
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Moreover, he provided a liberal education for the sons of chiefs, and stated that
he preferred the natural British ability to the artificial skills of the Gauls. By
doing this he ensured that the Britons became keen to speak Latin well instead
of loathing it. The Britons also began to wear the toga. By such methods they
were gradually seduced and had their spirits broken by colonnades, baths and
expensive dinner parties. The Britons, suspecting nothing, called these changes
“civilisation”. The truth was that they were part of their enslavement.’
Questions
5. Name 5 ways in which Roman culture was spread among the Britons. Which of these
do you think was most effective?
6. An inscription, found in the forum at Verulamium (St Albans) bearing Agricola’s name,
has been dated to 79 AD. Do you think this is a more reliable piece of evidence than
Tacitus’ account?
7. Do you think it unusual that a Roman historian uses a word like ‘enslavement’ to
describe the process of Romanisation? Is there any other similar phrase in the passage?
8. One feature of Romanisation was urbanisation. What advantages for British society did
the creation of towns bring?
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IV.
LIFE IN A ROMAN-BRITISH TOWN
The details of your answers in this section will vary depending on what town you study but,
as a general rule, your study should focus on the following areas:
1. What types of evidence are available on the Roman town you are studying?
2. Did the town have a wall? When was it built? Was it really necessary all the time or
just during times of trouble? When were those times?
3. What was housing like in the town? How do the houses then compare with houses
today? How were the houses then decorated?
4. What can be found out about fashion at this time? Your answer should cover clothes,
hairstyles and jewellery.
5. What sort of work was available in the town? What were the shops like?
6. How was the town run? Did it have a council? How was it elected? Were all houses
run in the same way?
7. How important were religious practices in the life of the town? Was there only one
religion or a number of different religions?
8. What types of entertainment were available to the inhabitants of this town? Which of
these was the most popular?
9. Did the town have a water supply? How did it get its water? Did it have sewers? Did
it have public baths?
10. Why did the Romans eventually leave Britain? What elements of Roman culture still
influence our lives today?
11. Imagine you are being asked to promote the Roman town you have studied to raise
public interest in Roman Britain. What steps would you take?
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