Home Economics
Fashion and Textile Technology
Consumer Studies
[HIGHER]
Ruth Ross
abc
Acknowledgement
Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contribution to the National
Qualifications support programme for Home Economics.
First published 2005
© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2005
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by
educational establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.
ISBN 1 84399 093 8
© Copyright Learning and Teaching Scotland
CONTENTS
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Section 1: Choice of clothing to meet needs
Section 2: Influence of cultural, traditional and religious
factors on choice of clothing and textile items
11
Section 3: Factors which influence consumer choice of
clothing and textile items
13
Section 4: Social trends relating to the purchasing of clothing
and textile items
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Section 5: Labelling
Statutory safety labelling requirements
Voluntary safety labelling requirements
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Section 6: The law and acts of parliament
The difference between civil and criminal law
The Trade Descriptions Act 1968
The Consumer Protection Act 1987
The Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994
The Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers
Regulations 2002
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Section 7: Government agencies and public bodies
Roles and responsibilities of the Advertising Standards
Authority (ASA)
Roles and responsibilies of the British Standards
Institution (BSI)
Roles and responsibilities of the Citizens’ Advice
Bureau (CAB)
Roles and responsibilities of the Office of Fair
Trading (OFT)
An awareness of the purpose of trade associations
and codes of practice
Roles and responsibilities of the Trading Standards and
Consumer Protection Department (TSD)
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References
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CHOICE OF CLOTHING TO MEET NEEDS
SECTION 1
Choice of clothing to meet needs
Elaboration
Individual needs relating to:
• infants
• young children
• teenagers
• adults
• elderly
• disabled
• leisure/work
• pregnancy
• special occasions
Infants
Infants spend a lot of time sleeping and depend on others to clothe
them. Playtime can be on the floor and hence dirty, so clothes will
require plenty of washing.
• Clothing should be easy to care for. Much laundering is required to
cope with messy feeding times and accidents with nappies, etc.
Clothing needs to require little or no ironing. Also desired will be
clothing that can be tumble dried. Carers will have very little time for
anything other than looking after the infant.
• Clothing needs to be easy to put on and take off. This is often to be
done by an adult. Independence in dressing should be encouraged.
• Clothing needs to be safe, with no loose ribbons or ties that may
cause choking. There should be no fabric with an unstable surface
that can be chewed/sucked by the infant.
• Clothing should be comfortable, made with soft fabrics. There should
be no bulky or thick seams. All fastenings should be firmly attached
and there should be no sharp edges on them.
• Clothing should be able to regulate body temperature. Sleepwear
should allow the baby to move. The infant should always be able to
‘shake off’ clothing when s/he is too warm in bed.
• Clothing will require to be replaced often as the infant is growing very
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CHOICE OF CLOTHING TO MEET NEEDS
fast. Care should be taken not to squeeze an infant into clothes that
are too small. Inexpensive clothing should be considered.
• Garments should be aesthetically pleasing for adults as well as for the
infant, as it is usually the adult that will make the choices.
• Clothing is often made from stretch fabrics so as not to restrict body
movement and to allow for growth spurts.
• Clothing needs to be flame resistant.
Young children
At this stage of development it is more important that clothing allows for
independent dressing and that it encourages toilet training.
• Clothes now should appeal to the young child, since many children
by this stage have developed likes and dislikes and will want to make
choices.
• Elasticated waists make nappy changing and undressing for the toilet
easy, particularly during toilet training, as accidents often happen.
They are also easy for the young child to do themselves; encouraging
independence.
• Fastenings such as zips and buttons should be chunky to allow small
hands to manipulate them. Also velcro fastenings are often used as
an easy way to fasten shoes, jackets, etc.
• Young children have no waist to ‘hold up’ clothes’, so they often are
suspended from the shoulders, e.g. pinafores and dungarees. They
also have extendable straps to allow for growth.
• Fabrics should be durable as playtimes can be rough outside.
Children fall over a lot, often outside.
• They need to be easy to care for as with clothing for infants. Clothes
get dirty very quickly. There will be little time for ironing and clothes
that can be tumble dried will help.
• Young children move about and grow rapidly so clothing should be
comfortable.
• Reasonably priced clothing needs to be considered as the young child
is growing rapidly.
• Garments should be aesthetically pleasing to both adult and to child.
Teenagers
• Most teenagers are fashion conscious, so clothing has to be up to
date.
• Peer pressure will often dictate what a teenager will or will not wear.
The parent by this time has little or no influence.
• Teenagers want to be fashionable to express their identity as separate
from their parents.
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CHOICE OF CLOTHING TO MEET NEEDS
• Teenagers have a limited budget, but will want frequent changes in
style.
• Some companies target this age group, producing cheaper ranges to
suit teenagers’ budget.
• Teenage clothing generally does not take durability into account, as
they will have no desire to wear the clothes for more than one
season.
• Teenagers like to stand out from the crowd.
• Some individuals like to make a statement about not conforming.
• Strong group identities will be reflected in dress. Current examples
of these include ‘moshers’ and ‘goths’.
• Teenagers’ clothes often reflect their lifestyle. Many teenagers are
involved in sports or uniformed organisations and special clothing for
these activities may be required.
• Currently the ‘label’ is very important for teenage clothes, from
jackets, to T-shirts to trainers.
• Teenagers are often the victims of ‘fad’ fashions.
Adults
• Adults, particularly those with no dependent children, have more
disposable income to spend on clothes, and clothing often reflects
their income and status. Many adults use clothing to make a
statement about who they are, how much they earn etc.
• Many adults are also influenced by fashion houses and labels. This is
also seen as a status symbol.
• More male adults are fashion conscious and there are more retailers
marketing to the male customer. There is now a greater variety of
clothing available for men.
• Many adults ‘go to the gym’ or take up some sporting activity, and
clothing will be required for these activities.
• Many occupations require adults to have a uniform. This can mean
that more money can be spent on clothes other than for work.
• Adults will have clothes for work and clothes for leisure.
• Adults tend to keep clothes a little longer than teenagers, and so are
more willing to buy from expensive shops.
Elderly
Being elderly is often not dependent on age, but more on state of mind.
There are men and women in their eighties who would not consider
themselves elderly. Yet there are many much younger people who
would. There are many reasons for this.
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CHOICE OF CLOTHING TO MEET NEEDS
• Many elderly people have less money, and they may be living on a
state pension only so have less to spend on clothing. Clothing will
have to last for a long time, therefore.
• Because of limited income many do not heat their home adequately,
so extra clothing will be required.
• Older people often find it difficult to generate their own inner heat,
and so use clothing to keep them warm.
• If the elderly person is immobile for much of the time, they will need
clothing that will help to keep them warm. They are advised to wear
‘many layers’ rather than one thick layer of clothing in colder
weather.
• Warm clothing is required for going out in colder weather, e.g. wool.
Hats, gloves and warm footwear should be worn, as poor circulation
can make them cold.
• Fabric should be easy to care for as elderly do not want to spend a lot
of time washing. If they have poor movement in their hands they may
find washing/ironing difficult.
• Clothing should be comfortable. Many items have elasticated waists
to allow extra comfort.
• Many elderly people have difficulty in dressing because of medical
conditions. This can be made easier with the use of elasticated waists,
chunky buttons and zips, velcro fastenings and the avoidance of
fastenings down the back of a garment. Many elderly people rely on
clothing made from stretchy fabrics that allow for easy dressing.
Disabled
Disabled people need to maintain their dignity, and so have to have
access to clothing that is fashionable and aesthetically appealing. This is
often difficult for them to find.
• Clothing has to match their disability. For example, if a person is
visually impaired then clothing needs to be simple to fasten and put
on and take off.
• Clothing has to encourage independence to allow disabled people to
dress themselves as much as possible.
• Clothing needs to flatter their shape and figure to enable them to be
stylish and have self-confidence in what they are wearing.
• Fabrics used should be easy to care for, and as far as possible require
little ironing; they should also be crease resistant and machine
washable as far as possible.
• Wheelchair users perspire a lot, and so have to have clothing that will
be comfortable next to the skin.
• People who have limited movement or who can’t move for
themselves have to have clothes that will not chaff or irritate the skin.
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CHOICE OF CLOTHING TO MEET NEEDS
Leisure/work
• Leisure is different for many people. Many leisure pursuits require
different types of clothing. These are required over and above
clothes that are used for work.
• Sport is a huge industry, particularly in clothing. Comfort for
movement and stretch is important to consider.
• For many, sportswear is casual wear, even though they are not
involved in sport activities.
• Many sports require performance fabrics, such as fabrics that ‘wick’
and keep the wearer dry during high levels of activity. Fabrics are
worn that reduce ‘drag’ for speed sports and swimmers.
• Much of the ‘cutting-edge’ technological developments in fabrics
happen for outdoor activities. Examples of these are microfibres, to
prevent absorption, breathable membranes, fleece fabrics. These all
allow for comfort and safety in extreme conditions.
• Technological advances mean that much of this type of clothing is
expensive. This must be taken into consideration when
contemplating pursuing a particular sport or interest.
• Workwear clothes often identify an occupation, e.g. a doctor will wear
a white coat; uniforms are worn by police, nurses, pilots, etc.
• Many of these have been developed for protection, e.g. fire fighters
outfit, chef’s outfit.
• The health and safety of the workforce is very important to all
industries, and safety clothing is often required by law. In the
construction industry, hard hats, visibility clothing and steel-toe boots
or shoes have to be worn. Many other industries are the same – fire
fighters, outdoor occupations, dentists with their vinyl gloves and
masks, etc.
• Clothes worn in the presence of bacteria and where hygiene is
paramount – in hospitals or food preparation areas – require to be
disposable or washed at high temperatures to ensure bacteria are
killed.
Pregnancy
Women become larger during pregnancy, and in the later stages
mobility may also be reduced.
• Elasticated waists are worn to allow for comfort and expansion.
• Most women still want to dress fashionably, and so need to have upto-date styles and colours available in shapes that can be worn when
pregnant.
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CHOICE OF CLOTHING TO MEET NEEDS
• If fastenings are adjustable then clothing can be worn for an extended
period during pregnancy. As the clothes are only required for nine
months this will cut down costs.
• Pregnant woman will tire easily, so clothing needs to be easy to care
for and require little ironing.
• Pregnant women tend to get hot, so clothing needs to allow them to
remain cool and comfortable.
• Clothing must not restrict movement, causing distress to the wearer.
• Soft, stretchy fabrics will also allow for comfort and expansion.
Special occasions
These clothes tend to be worn infrequently, e.g. weddings, christenings,
balls, parties, etc.
• They are often made from specialist fabrics and can be highly
decorated, such as sequins, glitter, embroidery. This is indicative of a
special occasion.
• They tend to be more costly, due to the extra trimmings and work
involved in manufacture.
• Exclusive designs are often required for special occasions, so many of
these garments are not produced in the same volume as other
clothing. This also makes them more expensive.
• Most are not easy to care for, requiring the use of dry cleaners.
Although expensive, this is not seen as a problem as the garment is
only worn occasionally.
• People are willing to pay higher prices for these goods as they are
seen as a ‘one-off’ purchase.
• Tradition and culture often dictates the type and style of clothing
worn, e.g. wedding dress.
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CULTURAL, TRADITIONAL AND RELIGIOUS FACTORS
SECTION 2
Influence of cultural, traditional and religious factors on
choice of clothing and textile items
Elaboration
• Choice of clothing/textile items
Cultural factors
• Societies within each culture often encourage a certain dress code for
individuals. Most people accept the cultural requirements and dress
accordingly.
• Business will also often have a ‘culture’ and will have an acceptable
dress code that is usually adhered to by employees. For example,
people working in large city companies often wear suits. Design
companies tend to allow a more relaxed form of dress.
• Teenagers are often the group within a culture that will want to move
away from the recognised dress codes and rebel.
• Culture is often dictated by climate. For example, in Scotland the kilt
is made up with several layers of fabric overlapping. This keeps the
wearer warm in the colder weather. In warmer climates, clothing is
more flowing for men and women to allow the body to remain cool.
• Many cultures are influenced by religious beliefs and so is clothing.
• The patterns used on fabrics, types of fabrics and styles of garments
are often linked to cultures, e.g. Scots and tartan, Japanese and
kimonos, silks and Japan, Inuits and animal skins, Native Americans.
• ‘Youth culture’ will dress the same as their peer group, e.g. ‘goths’.
• Cultures tend to determine what is classed as men’s clothing and
what is classed as women’s clothing. For women in the west, the
ideas are vague, but men tend not to wear skirts.
• Some cultures will not use wool or leather because of their respect
for animals.
• Festivals/celebrations have traditional garments worn on these
occasions, e.g. in western culture, brides wear white.
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CULTURAL, TRADITIONAL AND RELIGIOUS FACTORS
Traditional factors
• Social customs will affect what we wear, not only in everyday
garments but also in what is thought to be right or wrong on special
occasions.
• In western culture, women wear a white/or nearly white wedding
dress, whereas in China the tradition is for the bridal dress to be red.
• At funerals, we tend to wear black as a mark of respect. Men wear a
black tie.
• Formal clothing is worn to a formal occasion and for men this is often
black, with a bow tie. There are only a few variations to this – a white
tuxedo, or kilt.
• Special occasions also mean the use of different textile items.
Textiles are often specially used to decorate, e.g. tablecloths, napkins
with Christmas or birthday scenes on them, white ribbons on a
wedding car.
• Many cultures have an annual festival day when many traditional
clothes and textiles are used.
Religious factors
• It is important in many religions that the dress code of the men or
women reflect the beliefs of the religion.
• Islamic women are encouraged to cover as much of their body as
possible with loose clothing to hide the shape of their body.
• Muslim religion requires women to cover everything but their eyes,
and in some extreme cases sheer cloth also covers the eyes
• Leaders of each religion generally have particular clothing that
indicates who they are. Special clothing is often used for special rites
and occasions.
• Many religious buildings do not allow entry unless the person has
covered their top and their shoulders. In some, men are not allowed
to wear short trousers.
• Some people will be bound by religious beliefs and may want to rebel
against the requirements of their religion’s dress code.
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CONSUMER CHOICE OF CLOTHING/TEXTILE ITEMS
SECTION 3
Factors which influence consumer choice of clothing and
textile items
Elaboration
• advertising/marketing/promotional influences
• available income: wages/salaries/benefits/pensions
• climatic conditions
• cultural and religious influences
• environmental issues: energy saving, eco-friendly products/
production methods to reduce pollution, cruelty-free products
• geographical location/access to clothing/textile shops
• health
• likes/dislikes
• peer pressure
• priorities
• technical innovations
• shopping – online shopping
Advertising
• Advertising communicates instantaneous messages to large groups of
potential customers. It stimulates customer interest and provides
product or company information. Advertising has also been accused
of creating desires and wants, by portraying attractive lifestyles for
consumers to seek to attain.
• It is a very powerful tool that companies use and they spend a lot of
money getting the advert just right. Advertising uses psychologists to
learn about human behaviour and match adverts to people’s thinking/
personality.
• Advertising agencies are businesses that exist to create adverts. They
plan, suggest, organise the production of and market other
companies’ adverts.
• As well as new products, advertising will also be used to ‘relaunch’
existing products.
• Advertisers get their message across in a variety of ways. They can
use:
– catchy tunes, repeatedly throughout the advert
– a catch phrase or jingle, particularly one that is easy to recognise
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– an advert repeated several times over a short period of time; the
same advert will be run several times during one programme on
television
– companies also sponsor some TV programmes and their products
are advertised at commercial breaks, at the beginning and end of
programmes.
– advertisers will use humour and intellect to make their advert
noticeable
– adverts often appeal to a desire/weakness in a person, e.g. they
show cute and cuddly animals or babies.
– in many adverts, famous people are used to promote the products
– some companies are allowed to have branded products on display
during television programmes and in films
• Many forms of media are used for advertising – mail shots through the
door, newspapers, magazines, trade journals, directories – such as
Yellow Pages, internet, e-mail, billboards, transport – buses and taxis,
leaflets and posters at point of sale, carrier bags, hot-air balloons,
radio, television, cinema and many others
Marketing
All textile goods that have been designed and produced have to be
successfully sold in a market with similar products that similar
companies have also produced and want to sell. Marketing is how a
retailer or manufacturer promotes their own goods.
Marketing starts with market research
• Companies will ‘profile’ their customers for each range of products;
they have such departments in their retail outlet. This is done
through careful market research.
• Information/data is also gathered at point of sale. The data will
provide information on what is selling well and whether the purchase
is made with a credit or debit card. An indication of who is making
the purchase can also be gained.
• Market research aims to establish what customers want and need.
• Market research helps to prevent a failed product. Many products fail
each year.
Advertising is a major part of marketing
• Once a company has a profile of who their target market is likely to
be, they will then market their products to those people. They will
aim their advertisements and all promotional materials at them.
• Advertising is always an important part of marketing, as new
customers are always needed as well as existing customers.
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Packaging
• How a product is packaged is an important part of the marketing
process. Packaging serves many purposes: protection, promotion
and providing information.
• Colours used and themes portrayed have to reflect the product and
relate to the target market.
• For many textile goods, the packaging is done at point of sale and
there are many stores/retailers whose carrier bags are very much
sought after. This is generally because of the exclusiveness of the
store. A current example would be Bloomingdale’s in New York and
their ‘little brown bag’.
Promotional influences
Retailers use many means to promote their company, brand and goods.
Good communication is key when promoting goods. It gets a
company’s name and image known.
• This can be done as displays at point of sale. Clothes are often
displayed on mannequins, in window displays or in displays around
the store.
• Promotion is also done through advertising.
• Much promotion within the textile industry, particularly fashion, is
done during trade shows, shows of collections and fashion weeks,
when there is much media and press coverage.
• Magazines and journals run promotions for textile goods. Some may
give free gifts to entice custom.
• To help maintain existing customers, retailers use store cards, loyalty
cards and bonus schemes to entice customers back to the store. They
will give special offers to these customers.
Available income
Clothing choice is a lot to do with available income, particularly income
that is left over when all the bills have been paid. This is often called
‘disposable income’. To get to one’s available income, you have to
establish your total income first. For most people this comes in a salary.
Salary is paid monthly and generally into a bank account. The amount
of money a person earns is expressed as a total amount for a year.
Wages is when a person is paid by an hourly rate or piece rate. The
wages are also paid into the bank. They are usually paid monthly, but
there are still some jobs that pay weekly.
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Benefits are paid when a person is not earning any money as they are
unable to work or are unemployed. Benefits can also be paid over and
above a salary if there is a dependant in the household with a disability.
Pensions are paid when a person is in retirement. This could be a
pension paid by the state or a personal pension for which the person
has made contributions during their working life. Benefits and pensions
are fixed incomes; in other words, they are the same each month.
Choice of clothing varies with disposable income. This is dependent
on a person’s stage in life, how many people are in the family and what
other demands are made on the money coming into the house.
Climatic conditions
• Clothing is known as the ‘second skin’, and a person should always be
comfortable in whatever they are wearing.
• The wearer must have an equal balance of heat and moisture in the
‘microclimate’ between their skin and their clothing. Ventilation
might be required.
• Many items of clothing and textile goods are used for protection.
This can be from severe weather conditions; either very hot or very
cold.
• In the heat, sun-protecting clothing can be used which does not allow
the sun’s rays to get to a person’s skin.
• In the cold, much use is made of breathable fabrics to allow a person
to keep warm, but still allow perspiration to escape. Clothing is also
required to keep out wind and rain.
• It is for severe weather conditions that many new technological
developments have been made in fabrics and textiles.
• The climate a person finds themselves in for either work or leisure
pursuits will determine what clothing/ textile goods are purchased.
Cultural and religious influences
As has been discussed previously (on pages 11–12), these factors have a
definite effect on a person’s choice of clothing and textiles used. An
individual’s personal beliefs are also important.
• Vegetarians may not wear any products made from animal skins.
They will wear footwear made from textiles other than leather.
• Many people are against animal skins being worn and will not wear/
purchase fur.
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• Many people will wear only natural coloured products or buy
products that have been dyed using natural dyes. These products will
be considered more environmentally friendly.
Environmental issues
Energy saving
• Many textile products are made to save energy during laundering.
Fabrics can be washed at low temperatures, saving energy for heating
water.
• Many are made non-iron. This saves fossil fuel energy as well as
people energy.
• Many washing machines are made to have fuzzy logic. This weighs
the wash load and will use just enough water and washing powder for
the size of the load.
• This is also true of tumble dryers.
Eco-friendly products/production methods to reduce pollution/
cruelty-free products
• The textile industry contributes greatly to pollution. This can be in
fabric production, dyeing and transportation. Manufacturers are
aware of this and try to reduce harmful pollution.
• All products also have to be disposed of at the end of their useful life
and this also puts a strain on the environment.
• To make products more eco-friendly manufacturers are working on
and making new developments all the time. One example of this is
Llyocell which was studied in Resource Management.
• Half of all modern fibres are synthetic, made from oil which is a nonrenewable resource. During the burning of oil to produce the fibres,
large quantities of carbon dioxide and other by-products are given off.
These are all harmful to the environment.
• Consumers are much more aware of environmental issues and now
seek alternatives.
• Natural dyes are being used more. Natural/organic methods of
growing and breeding are also sought after.
• Many consumers are recycling clothes more. Many are buying from
second-hand shops. ‘Vintage’ clothing is a current trend in fashion
clothing.
• There are available ‘textile’ collection banks in many towns and cities
for recycling fabrics.
• To ensure a textile, fabric finish or dyestuff is suitable to be used next
to a person’s skin, it has in the past often been tested on animals.
Consumers no longer find this acceptable and manufacturers have to
look for other methods of product testing.
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CONSUMER CHOICE OF CLOTHING/TEXTILE ITEMS
• Eco-labelling is a symbol found on many textile goods which assures
the consumer that the product meets certain standards, either during
production, in use or after disposal.
Geographical location/access to clothing/textile shops
• Consumers living within travelling distance of town/ city centres will
have a large range of shops/clothing/textile choice.
• Consumers with access to cars can visit large superstores situated on
peripheral sites of town. These stores pay less rent/rates, and
therefore may be able to offer cheaper clothing/textile goods.
• They will also be able to offer more choice because of their size.
• Consumers living in isolated locations may purchase clothes by mail
order or online. Because of the internet, where a person lives no
longer prohibits them buying trendy/fashionable goods as most high
street shops and designer shops trade over the internet.
• People living in rural areas have different clothing needs to those in
towns or cities.
Health
• A person may require ‘easy-care’ textile goods as their health
prohibits them from washing and ironing.
• If a person is immobile with their health, they will require clothing
that is stretchy for comfort in movement.
• Clothing will also have to ‘wick’ to allow perspiration to escape.
• A person’s health may make shopping for clothes/textile goods
problematic and they may have to use other methods, such as the
internet and mail order.
• They may require specialist clothing which could have cost
implications.
Likes/dislikes
• Shops sell garments that reflect current fashions, trends, etc.
Depending on a person’s likes/dislikes, choice would be increased or
decreased.
• Colours – garments may only be available in current fashion colours
so may not suit consumers.
• Many people want to impress and be liked and they will buy clothes
to ‘stand out’.
• Market research will be carefully carried out to match target markets’
likes and dislikes.
• Fashion has to follow current consumer thinking or trends will be
unsuccessful.
• Consumers may have prejudices against a particular store or brand.
Likes and dislikes may be driven by the ‘label’ on a product.
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Peer pressure
• Clothing is used to express a ‘belonging’ to a certain group.
Members of the group will want to dress in similar style to others in
the group.
• Peer pressure in the workplace requires a person to conform to a
certain standard/code of dress.
• Teenagers, in particular are aware of peer pressure and want to ‘fit in’
with what their particular group finds to be acceptable clothing.
• Peer pressure can be a problem if a person in the group does not
have the income to ‘keep up’ with the rest of the group.
Priorities
• Amount available to spend on clothing has to be assessed after the
essential expenditure for the household is made.
• To do this a person has to prioritise their spending.
• Some spending on textile goods will be seen as essential – to keep a
person and their home warm. To keep them decent. To protect
them.
• After these basic needs are met, ‘extra’ clothing/textile goods can be
purchased according to the disposable income.
Technological innovations
Online shopping
A wide range of goods can now be purchased over the internet so it is
possible to access goods from all over the world regardless of where you
live.
Benefits for the consumer:
• The consumer can easily ‘window shop’ – research/compare brands
and prices.
• The consumer can easily shop at any time of the day or night and
from the comfort of home.
• Goods are delivered straight to the door.
• Delivery times can be selected which are convenient to the shopper.
• No crowds or queues to contend with.
• Can be cheaper as sometimes special internet discounts available.
• Many consumers now use this facility to do food shopping which
saves the consumer time during a busy week.
• Secure payments can be made using credit/debit cards, which means
as soon as the order is processed goods can be dispatched to the
consumer. In some instances this can be as soon as 24 hours later.
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• It is a very useful method of shopping for people who are
housebound or disabled.
Some consumers are, however, reluctant to purchase on the internet
because:
• In some instances delivery charges substantially increase the cost of
the goods.
• They do not like being unable to actually see/touch the goods, with
the computer screen perhaps not showing the colour/style exactly.
• The hassle involved in returning goods if unsuitable can be offputting.
• They may be hesitant to use credit/debit card as a form of payment on
the website for fear of fraud, especially on unsecure websites.
• Some consumers prefer to speak to someone dealing with their order
and don’t like the anonymity of the process.
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SECTION 4
Social trends relating to the purchasing of clothing and
textile items
Elaboration
Mass manufacture and bespoke tailoring
Mass manufacture
• The clothing industry ranges from small – many items hand-made
(bespoke) – operations up to large industrial garment/textile goods
manufacturing companies.
• Mass manufacture is the term used to describe the production of
garments for the ‘ready-to-wear’ market by mass production means.
• The rise of mass manufacture came from the acceptance of standard
sizing. Clothes/items are sold in specific sizes and are not made to
measure.
• All cutting and making procedures are standardised, meaning that all
items have the same shape and allowances for uncommon shapes and
sizes cannot be made.
• The development of the sewing machine in the mid-nineteenth
century, the adaptation of the band-saw to speed up the cutting
process and the development of pressing equipment all helped to
revolutionise clothing and textile-goods production.
• Because production is on such a large scale many thousands of items
are produced in a fraction of the time it takes for bespoke garments
to be designed and made.
• Because of the scale of manufacture and time to produce, items are
relatively cheap for the consumer.
• Technological developments in the textile industry have given
everyone the opportunity to buy fashionable clothes and goods at
affordable prices. Each year with every new technological step more
costs can be cut and the production and transportation of goods
becomes more cost effective.
• Mass production has led to more frequent style changes, increased
consumer demand for goods and a relative decrease in the price of
goods.
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• The consumer has a wide choice of goods available but has no
influence over any of their design or cut.
• Retail stores have developed alongside mass-production methods,
and a move away from specialist shops to large chain stores has
occurred.
• Mass production is divided into target groupings: women’s, men’s,
and children’s wear.
• Technology has had a major impact on mass production, most
recently in the use of computers in design, manufacture and in data
management.
Bespoke tailoring
• Traditionally, all clothes were made by hand for individual customers
before there was mass production.
• Today, men’s suits are the most common garment that can still be
made this way.
• This production is done on behalf of a client and to their specific
needs – size and requirements. Unusual body shapes can be taken
into account when designing and cutting a garment.
• Because only one item is in production at any one time, items are
generally very expensive and it is an exclusive market that has
enough money to afford garments/textile goods made in this way.
• The client chooses the designs and selects the materials used for the
garment in discussion with the designer/manufacturer.
• Because of the higher costs involved, more specialist fabrics and
trimmings can be used and are often desired by the client.
• It takes much more time to manufacture a bespoke garment; many of
the operations are hand done. It is a highly skilled industry with little
of it automated. Hence, too, the increase in costs for the customer.
• A client may be paying a lot more money, but in return they have a
product that no one else will ever have, and so have exclusivity.
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Major fashion influences
Elaboration
Major fashion influences:
• fashion cycle
• history of fashion
• investigation of the work of three designers – Paul Smith,
Vivienne Westwood and Louis Vuitton (these designers will
change on a regular basis and SQA will inform centres about
changes a year in advance)
• designer labels
• fashion houses
• global fashion influences
• interpretation of fashion trends by high-street retailers
• role models
Fashion cycle
Most fashion garment styles will follow the fashion cycle below.
Introduction of a style
• This is often done by the trend-setters of the day, the fashion
designers, when they show their work during fashion weeks.
• Items at this stage are often quite extreme and unacceptable to many.
• People who have a lot of money to spend on clothes and who are
‘fashion leaders’ will be the first to pick up on a style.
• The style at this stage will be quite exclusive and prices are at their
highest.
The rise
• Style leaders have worn the style and it is likely to have made fashion
headlines in the media.
• Prices are still high and some of the top-end retailers have begun to
market the style.
• Fashion followers will by this time have picked up the style in versions
that are cheaper and a little less extreme.
Maturity
• The style is at its most popular at this stage with most high street
stores selling the style.
• There is now a lack of exclusivity.
• The style will be in a modified form that has been accepted by most
consumers.
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• The fashion leaders will no longer be wearing the style.
The decline
• People are still wearing the style but it is less interesting due to overexposure.
• Stores will have reduced the price and many goods will have been
picked up by factory-outlet stores.
• People with less money or who are less style conscious will pick up
the style at this stage.
Obsolescence
• At this stage the style is often far removed from the original version.
• The style is often vulgar, cheap and poorly made.
History of fashion
The fashion of clothing is about the way people dress. In the beginning,
people only wore clothes for protection, not for adornment or to
decorate themselves. As tastes became more sophisticated so did
clothing, as it was used to disguise unwanted body shape and to
emphasise desired shape.
Styles change as do the current trends in any society and in allowance
with their customs and culture.
• Roman times. Clothing, as with every aspect of life, was very
regulated. Men were allowed to wear two basic garments, a toga and
a cloak. The toga was a symbol of status and Roman citizenship.
Women wore a garment similar to the toga but it was usually fitted,
not left loose.
• Saxons and Normans. The standard garment was a belted tunic that
was worn long or short. If you were a peasant your tunic was split up
the sides. If you were a noblemen, your tunic was sown right the way
up. The female equivalent was ankle length and tied at the waist.
The colour of a woman’s garment was indicative of her financial
status.
• Late middle ages. During the thirteenth century, clothes began to
take on a more elegant shape. This was particularly true for the
wealthy. A wider variety of fabrics were being introduced. It was
during the fourteenth century that styles for men and women began
to differ from each other.
• The Renaissance. It was during this time that the ‘middle classes’ were
established – merchants and trades people. This group of people had
money and began to imitate the aristocracy and this was evident in
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
the fashions of the time. Clothing was extravagant, made from
expensive fabrics such as velvets, silks and brocades. It was during the
1500s that the men’s shirt appeared for the first time.
During the eighteenth century, men’s fashion was to wear wigs.
Women wore very exaggerated shapes. Shapes relied on whalebone
and large hoops. For women, hats were a must.
The French Revolution caused fashion to become more simple and
comfortable for men and women. The textile industry in Britain
became a huge industry. People were able to go out to work and
earn more money, giving them more money to spend on clothing.
Fashion clothing became the right of everyone. Fashion styles were
now established – gowns/dresses for women and jacket and trousers
for men.
The twentieth century began by making even lingerie a fashion item.
During the 1920s and 1930s women’s fashion began to change as they
became emancipated (had greater freedom). This led to short
bobbed hair and a shortening of garment lengths. Sports clothes
took on a significance and the start of the casual look emerged.
The styles during the 1940s were restricted due to the war, lack of
fabric and time to produce goods. Everything was for the war effort.
In 1947, however, that changed with Dior’s introduction of the ‘new
look’ for women: nipped-in waists with rounded busts and hips. It
was also at this time that men’s fashion began to break from tradition.
In the 1950s, the ‘teenager’ was born, and styles for young people
began to be different to that of their parents.
The 1960s saw a fashion revolution with the emergence of the miniskirt and daring fashions for both sexes. Mary Quant was a style
leader in the 60s. Jeans and casual wear became ever more popular.
By 1980s and 1990s, people had a better standard of living and more
money to spend. Technological developments meant cheaper and
more readily available clothing. A significant new fibre was lycra
which has led to figure-hugging clothing. Men’s interest in fashion
also began to grow.
In the twenty-first century technology still has a major influence, with
fabrics that have specific functions as well as high performance.
Fashion today is big business and styles are changing faster than ever
before as manufacturers are able to respond to consumer demands
very quickly – within weeks as opposed to months during the
twentieth century. Branding is very important.
Paul Smith
• Paul Smith began his fashion career as a junior in a clothing
warehouse. In 1960 he opened a store in Nottingham selling designer
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wear and a few of his own designs.
• He studied fashion at evening classes and with the assistance of his
wife, a graduate of the Royal College of Art, his business grew.
• He showed his first collection in Paris in 1976.
• He revived the use of ‘boxer shorts’.
• His style is very British and mainly traditional.
• He introduced bold colours and prints to menswear.
• He opened his first shop in London in 1979, his first in New York in
1987 and Paris in 1993. He now has over 200 shops in Japan.
• His range now includes womenswear, childrenswear and recently
furniture.
• In 1991 he won the prestigious Royal British Designer for Industry
award, was made CBE in 1994 and knighted in 2001.
• His multicoloured stripes are synonomous with the Paul Smith style
and feature across all his clothing. His style has been much mimicked
by high-street shops.
Vivienne Westwood
• She is said to be one of fashion’s most innovative designers and has
created some of the most controversial collections of the twentieth
century
• She opened a shop with Malcolm McLaren in the early 1970s and was
the designer with the most influence on Punk, creating the Sex
Pistols’ punk ‘streetwear look’.
• Her ‘Bondage Collection’ in 1976 was the turning-point of her career.
The garments combined chains, safety pins and leather.
• Tartan bondage suits were followed by kilts, bum flaps and the
infamous ‘Anarchy’ T-shirt, showing the queen with a safety pin
through her nose.
• Westwood was prosecuted several times for her risky designs but this
never dampened her creativity.
• In 1981, she anticipated trends like neo-romanticism with her
colourful ‘Pirates’ collection. 1n 1984 she moved towards
deconstruction, showing clothes with exposed seams, torn fabric and
jackets created in the reverse.
• The year 1985 saw the unveiling of the ‘Minicrini’, a corset dress
created using historic corset-making methods.
• Among her most recognisable fabrics are tartan and tweeds. She
continues to produce inspirational designs, showing collections twice
yearly in Paris and London, and has been awarded an OBE for her
contribution to the fashion industry.
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Louis Vuitton
• The year 1854 saw the creation of the Louis Vuitton firm and the
beginning of the House of Louis Vuitton. They first began to design
and manufacture luggage and travel goods.
• In 1896, the now very famous ‘Monogram’ canvas was created. It is a
lightweight supple, strong sturdy canvas which is completely
waterproof.
• The ‘steamer’ bag soon followed and became one of the Louis Vuitton
‘cult’ bags. It was originally made for laundry.
• The year 1914 saw the first Louis Vuitton building on the Champs
Elysees in Paris. It was the largest travel-items store in the world.
• From 1978 stores were opened in Japan, then Korea, China, Africa
and now Russia.
• Marc Jacobs became creative director in 1997 and since then the
company has been making its biggest changes in decades.
• It was in 1998 that their first clothing and sportswear ready-to-wear
range was launched.
• The Monogram design begins to develop, first to ‘Graffiti’ then in
2002 to a very colourful style of the Monogram.
• The collection today also includes watches and jewellery and the use
of goatskin for goods.
• The house also produces travel and city guidebooks and sponsors
classic-car and yachting events.
• The luggage and handbag ranges are much loved by celebrities and
coveted by fashionistas (followers of fashion).
Designer labels
• These are clothes that have extra status by being associated with a
particular designer’s name. The designer may not have been the
actual designer of the product but someone from their design team.
• The clothing generally tends to be more expensive, as you are paying
for the name as well as the garment.
• Peer pressure makes a lot of young people in particular conform to
buying as much branded wear as possible.
• Cheaper out-of-town designer outlet stores allow more people to
access labelled goods at reasonable prices. These are often the
previous season’s styles and colours.
• Designer labels are often copied and sold for a fraction of the price.
Trading Standards work hard to try to stop this ever-increasing
business.
• Second-hand stores selling designer label goods are also very
popular.
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Fashion houses
• These are companies that are set up by famous fashion designers.
• When a designer sets up their own house they are by this time very
successful.
• It is the fashion-house designers that are the cutting edge of fashion
and are often the trend-setters. Extreme designs are developed, and
the houses all show their collections twice a year during fashion
week.
• Many fashion-house designers are used to develop the lavish
costumes for many films and stage productions.
• They are also the main producers of bespoke garments.
• Most have made ‘diffusion’ collections. These are cheaper collections
made available on the high street, mainly in high fashion stores.
• Examples of fashion houses are Christian Dior, Christian Lacroix,
John Paul Gaultier, Karl Lagerfield, Louis Vuitton, Yves Saint-Laurent,
Issey Miyake and Coco Chanel.
Global fashion influences
• Most fashions are similar now the world over. Many fashion trends
occur because of issues that affect the whole world.
• Films and cinema have a great influence on fashion. Styles have
changes with the release of films such as Moulin Rouge and Pirates of
the Caribbean.
• TV productions also influence fashion, e.g. Sex in the City has made a
huge impact on women’s shoe fashion.
• Other global issues such as the Gulf war and 9–11 also impact on
fashion and current trends. Political beliefs can be demonstrated in a
particular style of dressing, e.g. universal dress in China during Mao
Tse Tung’s era.
• Environmental issues are also a factor, as more consumers are
concerned about the damage to the environment caused by the
textile industry.
• Designers produce for a worldwide market. Most major cities of the
world have in them stores for each of the major designers.
Interpretation of fashion trends by high-street retailers
• Style emerges at a leading fashion event, during fashion weeks.
• Designers working for high-street stores will consider whether the
style has appeal for their target market.
• It may be too extreme, and a watered-down version may be
developed to make it more suitable for their customers.
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• Soon after the event, leading stores will try out the styles. These will
be in prime locations in cities and towns where consumers are
fashion conscious.
• The appeal of the new style will be monitored and analysed according
to sales figures.
• Information gathered may lead to a continuation or to modifications
or to dropping the style altogether.
• Sales continue to be monitored.
• New trends are regularly introduced as the process is repeated.
Role models
• Famous people have influenced fashions for many decades.
• Intense media coverage of their lifestyles leads to a keen interest in
what clothes they are wearing. Many people want to follow the same
fashion styles.
• Media coverage influences consumer aspirations and desires to
emulate their idols.
• Recently, famous people have been used as models on catwalks, e.g.
Victoria Beckham.
• Many companies are using celebrities to endorse their products.
Many celebrities receive free items of clothing, as that way a company
will get free press coverage.
• Role models are often accused of having a negative influence on
society, for example with the use of very thin catwalk models and the
(possibly linked?) increase of eating disorders.
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SECTION 5
Statutory safety labelling requirments
Elaboration
• fibre content labels
• nightwear safety labels
• flammability labels
• The information given on labels helps consumers make informed
choices by advising on the safety, quality, construction and aftercare
of textile goods/products.
• The reaction of textiles to fire (in other words, what happens to them
when they are exposed to fire or a heat source) is governed by
International, European and British legislation. This means there are
laws written to protect consumers.
• Nightwear, bed linen, contract curtains, protective clothing, furniture
and upholstery fabrics should all meet agreed flammability standards.
• Voluntary labelling (not required by law) relating to safety includes
BSI Kitemark and British Lion Safety label for toys.
Fibre content labels
The law on textile composition labelling is called the Textile Products
Indication of Fibre Contents Regulations 1986, 1988, 1994. It applies
mainly to knitted and woven goods and includes carpets and
upholstered furniture.
Where a fibre comprises at least 85 per cent of a product:
• The percentage of that fibre must be stated or
• The label must say ‘85 per cent minimum’ or
• The percentages of all fibres must be given in descending order.
Where each fibre is less than 85 per cent of a product:
• The fibres must be listed in ascending order and
• The percentage of the two greatest fibres must be stated.
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Exceptions
• Where fibres separately amount to less than 10 per cent, they may be
listed as ‘other fibres’ if their total percentage is given and
• Where an identified fibre is less than 10 per cent, the name and
percentage of every fibre must be given.
These rules do not apply to products manufactured from one fibre only.
Fabrics bought by the metre must also have their fibre content clearly
shown at point of sale.
Nightwear safety labels
• Children’s nightwear and dressing gowns must by law be made from
fabrics which comply with BS 5722 (specification for flammability
performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and
dressing gowns).
• No labelling referring to flammability is required.
• Adult nightwear made from fabric which does not comply with BS
5722 must be labelled to show that it does not meet the
requirements.
Nightwear (Safety Regulations) 1985 and Amendments 1987
Consumer Protection Act
• Nightwear which does not meet the flammability performance
requirements must carry a label with the words: ‘KEEP AWAY FROM
FIRE’ (in red letters).
• Nightwear which meets the flammability performance requirements
must carry a label with one of the following forms of words:
– ‘LOW FLAMMABILITY TO BS 5722’ (in black letters), or
– ‘LOW FLAMMABILITY TO BS 5722’ (in black letters) and ‘KEEP
AWAY FROM FIRE’ (in red letters), or
– ‘KEEP AWAY FROM FIRE’ (in red letters).
• Any nightwear which is treated with flame-retardant chemicals must
carry a label with the words: ‘DO NOT WASH AT MORE THAN 50°C.
CHECK SUITABILITY OF WASHING AGENT (in black letters).
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Flammability labels
A
B
For nightwear which does not meet flammability performance
requirements, symbol A must be used.
For nightwear that does meet the flammability performance
requirements one or both of the symbols must be used.
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Voluntary safety labelling requirements
Elaboration
• British Standards Institution (BSI) kitemark
• European Union (EU) standard care labelling symbols
• ‘CE’ mark
• Country of origin
• British Toy and Hobby Association’s ‘lion’ mark
• BEAB label
• organic label
British Standards Institution (BSI) kitemark
• The appearance of this kitemark means that products
have been endorsed by the British Standards Institution
(BSI), an independent organisation. (More on page 52.)
• BSI sets standards, dimensions and specifications for
manufactured goods
• A ‘British Standard’ is a document which stipulates the
specifications, requirements for testing or measuring, which a
product must comply with to be suited to its intended purpose, and
therefore work efficiently.
• Products are tested to destruction to ensure certain safety standards
are achieved.
• Compliance with BSI is generally through choice and is not
compulsory.
• For some manufacturers ‘British Standards’ are compulsory, e.g.
motorcycle crash helmet manufacturers and car seat-belt
manufacturers, as failure to meet exacting standards could be
potentially life threatening.
• Producers who wish to comply can apply for certification for their
product. This allows them to display the BSI kitemark on the
product. This will attract custom, as the product is seen to have
‘added value’.
• Subsequent inspections by BSI inspectors will take place to ensure
they are maintaining the standards.
• These standards state only minimum requirements; producers are
free to set higher standards for themselves.
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European Union (EU) standard care labelling symbols
Care labels provide advice for consumers on looking after the product
to ensure that it will last as long as is required by reasonable use of the
product. These labels may inform of the best way to clean and maintain
the product. Symbols are used so as to ensure understanding and are
found on:
•
•
•
•
Clothing
Detergent packets
Washing machines
Irons
The British Standards Institute in conjunction with the European
committee for Standardisation (CEN) has produced a new textile care
labelling scheme.
• EN 23758: 1993 Textiles – Care Labelling Code, which is identical to
• ISO 3758 1991 published by the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO)
The care symbols are shown on the next page and demonstrate how
well thought out the graphics were. National text in English, French
and German accompany the symbols at the moment, but it is hoped that
the continued use of the symbols will preclude the need for text.
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European ‘CE’ mark
The Toy Safety Directive requires that all toys meet exacting standards
with regard to safety, whether produced, made in or imported into the
European Union.
• The European CE mark indicates that the toy has passed
mechanical, physical, flammability and electrical tests.
• Common items of clothing and textiles found within the
EU can also display the mark.
• All clothing that claims to protect the wearer must be CE
marked; this applies to work and leisure clothing, e.g.
work boots, hard-hats on construction sites.
Country of origin
• Where a product has been manufactured has to be shown on a label.
• If the product is manufactured outside the EU then consumers will
know that the product may not meet the standards expected in the
EU or Britain.
British Toy & Hobby Association (BTHA) ‘lion mark’
• Members must be licensed with BTHA before they are
allowed to display the lion mark on their products.
• Agreement on code of practice covers toy safety matters
and advertising of toys.
• Toys displaying the lion mark comply with BSEN 71 BS
5665 in relation to:
– Mechanical safety – moving parts are not harmful,
e.g. sharp points
– Physical safety – no loose eyes or noses
– Fire resistance – non-flammable materials are used in
production.
BEAB – British Electrotechnicals Approval Board
• This is the new trade mark for the British
Electrotechnical Approvals Board. It indicates that a
sample of the product concerned has been tested and
meets British safety standards.
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Labelling of organic textiles
Organic cotton
Organic cotton is cotton that has been grown for at least three years
without chemical pesticides, defoliants, or fertilisers. Fertilisers that are
used include compost, manure, naturally derived mineral and plant
fertilisers, and crop rotation. Insect controls involve the use of beneficial
insects and natural pesticides certified for organic crops. Organic cotton
is also processed without oils, chemicals and pesticides.
Because of their rapidly developing bodies and immature immune
systems, babies and children can benefit greatly from pure, organic
cotton products. Organic cotton feels softer, smells cleaner, and is less
likely to trigger allergies.
The sustainable farming practices used to grow organic cotton do not
pollute groundwater, surface water, soil, or air. In fact, soil quality is
actually improved by the cultivation of organic cotton. Organic cotton is
safer for farmers, for you, for your baby, for the environment, and for all
the other creatures with whom we share this amazing planet.
Green cotton
Green cotton is conventionally grown cotton that has been processed
without bleaches, dyes and other chemicals such as formaldehyde
finishes. It is also known as untreated, unbleached cotton.
The label below may appear on organic textiles.
The Demeter organic certification symbol is
used throughout the world to indicate that
crops have been grown and processed
according to widely respected biodynamic
production and processing standards.
Biodynamic agriculture is one of the more
sustainable and ecological forms of organic
agriculture in existence and is inspired by a
deepened understanding of nature.
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THE LAW AND ACTS OF PARLIAMENT
SECTION 6
The difference between civil and criminal law
Elaboration
• Civil law – concerned with the rights of individuals
• Criminal law – concerned with protecting the community
Civil law
• The principle of civil law is to provide all citizens with an accessible
and written collection of laws which apply to them, that judges must
follow. (It covers subjects such as land disputes, divorce, contract
breaches between buyers and sellers.)
• It deals with the rights of one individual to another, such as
consumer contracts.
• An example is if a shop sells you faulty goods and refuses a refund.
The matter can be dealt with under civil law.
• Civil cases are heard in Scotland in the Sheriff Court under the Small
Claims Procedure. The more serious matters are dealt with in the
Court of Session.
Criminal law
• Criminal law deals with issues or conduct considered so harmful to
society that they are prohibited by statute (the law), prosecuted and
punished by the government. (Criminal law deals with murder, theft,
fraud, road traffic offences.)
• It is concerned with protecting the community as a whole.
• An example might be a restaurant that is selling food which is unfit for
human consumption.
• In Scotland criminal prosecutions are made by the Procurator Fiscal.
• Minor criminal cases are heard in Scotland by a Sheriff in a Sheriff
Court or in a District Court.
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THE LAW AND ACTS OF PARLIAMENT
Definitions
Acts – Statutes passed by parliament, which can only be modified by
parliament. It is against the law if you don’t comply with an Act of
Parliament, e.g. the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994.
Regulations – Regulations are made by an appropriate government
minister empowered to do so under the terms of a specific act. They
usually deal with specific areas in greater detail than the act, e.g. the
Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations 2002.
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Trade Descriptions Act 1968 (criminal law)
Elaboration
It is a criminal offence to:
• falsely describe goods
• mislead consumers about services
The act sets out to protect consumers from traders who either
deliberately or accidentally mislead consumers.
It is a criminal offence to:
• falsely describe goods, e.g. a cashmere sweater must be made from
cashmere wool
• knowingly mislead consumers about services they provide, e.g. if a
hotel is described as being 50 metres from the beach it should be.
However, the 50 metres may be across a busy road!
The act refers to:
• written and spoken descriptions, e.g. if you are told the jumper is
cashmere and it is not, you have right to complain.
The act also states that:
• goods that are offered ‘for sale’ must have been sold at a higher price
for at least 28 days in the previous 6 months.
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Consumer Protection Act 1987 (Part 1: civil law, parts 2
and 3: criminal law)
Elaboration
It is a criminal offence if:
• traders who supply goods do not make sure they are safe
• traders mislead customers about the true price of goods; for
example, all prices charged to private customers must include
value added tax (VAT)
• This act prohibits the supply of goods that are not in accordance with
general safety requirements or which are unsafe.
• It provides for the safety and protection of consumers by enabling
regulations or orders to be made controlling consumer goods.
Traders who supply goods must make sure they are safe. The aim of
the act is to prevent or reduce injury to consumers by dangerous or
defective goods.
• It provides for approved safety standards to enable compliance with
general safety requirements.
• It provides powers for seizing and forfeiture, and the powers to
suspend the sale of suspected unsafe goods. Goods previously
banned include small scented rubbers, expanding animals and stink
bombs.
• It contains provisions as to the requirement for persons to publish
notices warning of unsafe goods previously supplied.
• It provides for liability for damage caused by defective products.
• It prohibits misleading price indications. It is an offence to give
misleading prices for goods, e.g. VAT must be included when dealing
with private customers. Any hidden extras, delivery, etc. must be
shown.
• The act also applies to special offers.
• It covers both new and second-hand goods.
• It does not cover car-boot sales, jumble sales or private sales, e.g.
selling your car via an advert in a newspaper.
There are many regulations concerned with safety within the act and
they cover a wide range of goods. Some examples are:
– Anoraks for children must not fasten at the neck with a drawstring to
lessen risk of accidental strangulation.
– Chemical products that are dangerous must be clearly labelled with
warnings and safety precautions.
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– Some chemicals must be packaged in child-resistant containers.
– Nightwear for children must meet flame-proof tests. Nightwear for
adults must be flame proof or carry warnings labels.
– Use of poisonous substances is limited, e.g. lead (graphite) in pencils,
paint or chalk.
– Toys must be flame resistant, made without sharp edges, spikes or
parts that can be easily pulled off (e.g. eyes, noses).
– Plastic bags containing toys must have openings too small for a child’s
head, to lessen the risk of suffocation.
The act is enforced by Trading Standards and Consumer Protection
Officers.
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The Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994 (criminal law)
Elaboration
• There is a contract between the seller and the buyer
• Goods must be of satisfactory quality
• Goods must fit the description given
• Goods must be fit for their purpose as made known to the seller
• Consumers have a reasonable period of time to accept the goods
or reject them
This act reinforces the 1979 act stating that goods must be fit for the
purpose for which they are sold.
• There is contract of sale between the buyer and the seller. It
covers the sale of goods, hire purchase, transfer of goods and
redemption of trading stamps for goods.
• Goods must be of satisfactory quality. Goods are of satisfactory
quality if they meet the standards that a reasonable person would
regard as satisfactory.
QUALITY: a definition
The quality of goods includes their state and condition. In the
appropriate cases, the following are, among others, aspects of the
quality of goods:
• Fitness for all the purposes for which goods of the kind in
question are commonly supplied
• Appearance or finish
• Freedom from minor defects
• Safety and durability.
• The goods must fit the description given, e.g. a shirt described as
blue with long sleeves must be exactly that. If it is green with short
sleeves you are entitled to take the product back to the seller. The
Trade Descriptions Act would also cover these items meaning the
seller could be reported to the Consumer Protection or the Trading
Standards Department.
• Goods must be fit for the purpose as made known by the seller, e.g.
if you purchase a waterproof jacket and it lets in the rain it is not fit
for the purpose. You are entitled to return it to the shop.
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• Consumers have a reasonable period of time to accept the goods or
reject them. If you keep goods for a long time without informing the
shop they are faulty, you will lose your right to reject them. Take
faulty goods back immediately.
Other points to remember
• If you change your mind about a purchase you have made, you are
not legally entitled to a refund.
• Goods which are bought when you know there are minor defects
such as a scratch on the door cannot then be returned for this
reason. However, if another fault occurs you can still reject the
goods.
• The retailer is responsible for dealing with the complaint, not the
manufacturer.
• If you purchase a lawn mower in the January sales and don’t use it
until April you are still entitled to return it, if faulty, even after this
time, as it is not reasonable to expect you to use it in the winter.
• Allowing repairs to be carried out does not mean you cannot reject
goods at a later date if still faulty.
• Other financial losses may be included in the claim such as postage
costs or travel expenses. Or cost of replacement clothing, ruined due
to dye running from a T-shirt described as being machine washable.
• Often a trader will offer credit notes instead of a refund. This is only
a piece of paper that promises to give goods in exchange for its value.
• You do not have to accept a credit note for goods that are faulty, not
fit for their purpose, or misdescribed. You are entitled to a full
refund. Accept nothing less.
• Proof of purchase doesn’t need to be a receipt, although this is often
the simplest way of proving you bought the goods. Copies of a
cheque, bank statement, Visa or Switch transaction are acceptable
proof of purchase.
• You are not entitled to replacement goods under the act, but you can
accept a replacement if you wish.
• If the seller is unwilling to exchange, replace or refund under the
terms of the act, the consumer can take the case to the Trading
Standards or Consumer Protection Department, and is therefore
more likely to get satisfaction.
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The Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations
2002 (criminal law)
Elaboration
These regulations have enhanced consumer rights under the Sale
and Supply of Goods Act 1994. Consumers have the legal right to
choose repair, replacement, partial or full refund or compensation if
a fault appears within 5 years. If consumers have a complaint:
• Goods must be faulty at time of purchase
• If the complaint is within 6 months, the onus is on the retailer to
prove the goods were not faulty
• If the complaint is after 6 months, the onus is on the consumer to
prove the goods were faulty
A minimum set of consumer rights on faulty goods in each EU country is
provided for by Directive 1999/44/EC on the sale of consumer goods.
One aim of the Directive is to encourage cross-border shopping, i.e.
from one European country to another. The existing UK legislation, i.e.
The Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994, is retained but slightly
amended.
• Regulations apply to a range of transactions including sale and supply
of goods, hire, and hire purchase.
• Consumers are defined as people who are buying for purposes not
related to their trade, business or profession.
• The regulations do not apply to services in general.
• They do not apply to second-hand goods bought at auction where the
buyer was present.
• Where goods are faulty the consumer can only obtain legal remedy
against the retailer.
• Consumers generally may not make a claim against the manufacturer.
• Consumers may have additional rights under guarantees supplied
with the goods or against credit card companies or finance houses if
goods purchased by means of credit have a price over £100.
A simple summary of the regulations
• Consumers are entitled to goods of satisfactory quality, taking
account of description, price and other relevant circumstances.
• Consumers cannot expect a legal remedy in respect of:
– fair wear and tear
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– misuse or accidental damage
– if they decide they no longer want the goods
– if they are aware the goods have faults when they are bought or
should have been evident on reasonable inspection.
Remedies
If a product was faulty at the time of sale and is returned to the retailer,
the consumer is legally entitled to:
• A full refund, if it is within reasonable time of sale (reasonable time is
not defined in law but is often quite short).
• A reasonable amount of compensation (or damages) for up to six
years from the date of sale (five years after discovery of the problem
in Scotland).
• This does not mean goods must last six years. It is only the time limit
for making a claim in respect of a fault that was present at the time of
sale.
Under new regulations consumers can choose to request instead:
• A repair or replacement.
• A partial or full refund (partial refund may be because the consumer
has enjoyed some benefit from the goods before the problem
appeared).
• Generally the consumer has to prove the goods were faulty. This is
the case if the consumer is requesting an immediate refund or
compensation. Or if goods are returned more than six months after
the date of sale.
• If goods are returned in the first six months from date of sale and the
consumer requests a repair, a replacement or thereafter a partial or
full refund, it is assumed the goods are faulty and the consumer does
not need to prove this. If the retailer does not agree, it is for him to
prove the goods were satisfactory at time of sale.
Other situations covered
• Where installation by the retailer is not satisfactory, e.g. fitted kitchen
wall units that fall off the wall.
• Where installation instructions have serious shortcomings.
• Generally where a good does not match public statements made
about it by retailer, manufacturer, importer or producer.
• Where commissioned goods have relevant failings, e.g. custom-made
furniture that doesn’t fit.
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SECTION 7
Roles and responsibilities of the Advertising Standards
Authority (ASA)
Elaboration
An organisation set up by the advertising industry to monitor and
control the content of advertisements in the press, on bill boards and
in the cinema. It administers two codes:
1.
The British Code of Advertising Practice
2.
The British Code of Sales Promotion Practice
The ASA uses a set of codes to judge if advertisements are acceptable.
There is a set for TV commercials, a set for radio commercials and
another set for advertisements, sales promotions and direct marketing
in all other media.
• The ASA was the independent self-regulatory body for supervising the
content of non-broadcasting advertisements in the UK. However, after
forty years successfully regulating non-broadcast marketing
communications, the ASA became a one-stop shop for advertising
complaints on 1 November 2004 when Ofcom contracted out to the
ASA the regulation of broadcast advertising. (Ofcom is short for the
Office of Communication, the name of the UK’s communications
regulator.)
• It is estimated that there are some 25 million advertisements
published annually in the UK. The ASA spot-checks thousands of
them as part of a rigorous monitoring programme.
• The ASA also advises thousands of advertisers, agencies and
publishers on how to avoid using misleading or offensive
advertisements that may lead to complaints being made. The aim is
avoidance, since complaints are not only costly but may involve
adverse publicity and criticism of the industry.
• The ASA operates on a levy charged on all advertisements. This levy
is collected on behalf of the ASA by the Advertisements Board of
Finance. This separation helps to ensure that the ASA maintains its
independence.
• The ASA has the power to investigate any complaint and compare the
advertisement to the Code of Advertising Practice. The ASA rarely
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•
•
•
•
•
•
tells the advertiser to stop the advertisement immediately, as
advertisers are allowed time to tell their side of the story.
If the advert is found to be unacceptable under the rules of the code,
then the advertiser will be told to drop the advertisement or to
amend it. Failure to do so will entail the advertiser being suspended;
or suffering the withdrawal of privileges, with the publishers of
magazines and newspapers advised not to take their advert.
Further refusal may entail the advertiser being referred to the Office
of Fair Trading for refusing to abide by the code. Under the Control
of Misleading Advertisements Regulations 1988 the organisation can
be restrained from using the advertisement ever again.
The ASA covers all advertisements.
Food Standards Agency, Trading Standards and Environmental Health
Officers cover claims made on packets.
Other rules cover ads aimed at children and ads for alcohol, health
products, beauty products, financial services, employment and
business opportunities, and gambling. There are also rules governing
the types of ads that can be shown around certain programmes.
Complaints must be made in writing to the ASA with as much detail
about the advert as possible. This can be done online on their
website.
The ASA administers the following codes:
1. The British Code of Advertising Practice
• All advertising must be legal, decent, honest and truthful.
• All descriptions, claims and comparisons must be true and evidence
must be available to prove this. This is covered by the Trade
Descriptions Act.
• The description must not be misleading.
• The product must not unfairly attack or discredit other products.
• Advertisers must not misuse scientific or medical terms or imply such
things as success in competitive sports as a result of eating a
particular brand of breakfast cereal.
• If goods or samples are described as ‘free’, they must be supplied at
no cost to the recipient.
2. The British Code of Sales Promotion Practice
• This code includes rules relating to competitions, the use of children
in promotions, and the quality, value and suitability of goods.
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As well as the content of advertisements, three other aspects of the work
of the ASA are important:
• The regulation of the collection of people’s personal data by
marketers and its use for marketing purposes. The direct marketing
rules require marketers to tell consumers when their details are being
collected for marketing purposes and to ensure that those details are
accurate and not used if people have asked not to be contacted.
• The regulation of sales promotions, such as special offers and
promotions with prizes. The sales-promotion rules ensure that
consumers aren’t unduly disappointed or treated unfairly by these
types of short-term offers.
• Helping to obtain goods or refunds for consumers who have had
trouble getting goods they have bought through a newspaper or
magazine ad, brochure or TV shopping channel.
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Roles and responsibilities of the British Standards Institute
(BSI)
Elaboration
• An independent institution
• Setting technical standards for the UK
• The kitemark
• Mandatory and voluntary certification
The British Standards Institute group is divided into four divisions:
• BSI British Standards is the national standards body for the UK and
develops standards and standardisation solutions to meet the needs
of business and society. It works with government, businesses and
consumers.
• British Standards’ trading arm also focuses on providing standards
information and dynamic services that add value to business
standards, best practice and management systems.
• BSI Management Systems operates worldwide to provide
organisations with independent third-party certification of their
management systems. In addition, BSI Management Systems also
offers a range of training services around management systems.
• BSI Product Services is best known for the kitemark, the UK’s first
product quality mark. BSI Product Services exists to help industry
develop new and better products and to make sure they meet current
and future laws and regulations, from commercial construction to
motorcycle helmets, from mobile phones to fire extinguishers, from
car headlights to medical devices.
• BSI Inspectorate is a global commodity inspection and analysis
company, which inspects metals and minerals, oil and petrochemicals,
agricultural commodities and food safety.
The kitemark
• BSI Product Services also provides third-party certification,
specifically for CE marking – a legal requirement for certain categories
of products to be sold within the EU.
• The kitemark is the world’s premier symbol of trust, integrity and
quality. Manufacturers having this associated with their product or
service will reassure customers that it has satisfied the most rigorous
of quality processes and as such will not only be safer to use but will
also be fit for the purpose for which it was designed.
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• A kitemark scheme can be developed using a publicly available
specification. This specification can either be a BS, EN, ISO or a Trade
Association specification.
• In competitive markets, the kitemark is often used as a point of
differentiation, reassuring customers that the company in question
has an ongoing commitment to quality and safety.
• Recent opinion polls showed that over 60 per cent of consumers
would choose a product affixed with the BSI kitemark over a similarly
priced unmarked product.
• The kitemark is not easy to attain because of the high standards
manufacturers must achieve to be awarded this prestigious mark.
• It sets standards which products should reach, as well as testing
products to see that they conform to that standard, as a result of
which the product may be given the BSI kitemark.
Mandatory certification
• Some certification schemes are mandatory, depending on the
intended market for the product or service, and if not applied
correctly are subject to enforcement by law. For example, CE marking
is mandatory if a product falls within the scope of one or more of the
New Approach Directives and the intended market is somewhere in
the European Economic Area (EEA).
Voluntary certification
• Some certification schemes are voluntary and are undertaken by
manufacturers to demonstrate a product or service and gain a market
advantage.
• Standards are designed for voluntary use and do not impose any
regulations. However, laws and regulations may refer to certain
standards, making compliance with them compulsory.
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Roles and responsibilities of the Citizens’ Advice Bureau
(CAB)
Elaboration
• Free and confidential advice and information on any subject
• Trained volunteers and paid staff who all use a national CAB
information system
• Practical help, for example with drafting letters
• Advice on contracts and statutory rights for employers and
employees
• Preparation of cases for tribunals and court
• The CAB may offer free sessions with local solicitors or
accountants
• Advice on a wide range of legal issues.
The Citizens’ Advice Bureau is an independent, local charity that is a
member of Citizens’ Advice Scotland Bureaux. It provides advice and
information to people in need in over 200 locations. The Scottish CAB
service is united by two aims:
• to ensure that individuals do not suffer through lack of knowledge of
their rights and responsibilities, or of the services available to them,
or through an inability to express their need effectively
• to exercise a responsible influence on the development of social
policies and services, both locally and nationally.
CAB works on the following principles:
1.
2.
3.
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A free service – The CAB provides information, advice and
assistance (including representation) free of charge. It does not
withhold its services from any clients seeking help. The service is
advertised to the public as being free of charge to ensure that
members of the public are not discouraged from taking advantage
of the service for fear of being charged.
Confidentiality – The CAB provides confidentiality to clients.
Nothing learned from clients, including the fact of their visits, will
be passed on to anyone outside the CAB service without the
express permission of the client.
Impartiality – The service provided by CAB offices is open to all,
and is regardless of any opinion as to whether or not the client is
deserving.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Independence – The service provided by CAB offices is completely
independent. No other individual will influence the decisionmaking process of the CAB.
Accessibility – The CAB aims to make its services accessible to all
by using premises that are centrally located, easy to enter,
welcoming in appearance and open at times. Each CAB will recruit
volunteers from the local community who are capable of gaining
the confidence of CAB clients.
Effectiveness – The CAB measures the effectiveness of its activities
by the extent to which clients are helped.
Community accountability – The Citizens’ Advice Bureau branch
offices are accountable to the communities they serve.
Client’s right to decide – The service recognises that those who
come to the CAB have a right to decide whether or not to accept
the advice and assistance offered to them.
A voluntary service – The service operates on the principle that
first and foremost it is a voluntary service of advice.
Empowerment – The CAB seeks to assist clients to help
themselves. The CAB helps clients to understand their situation, to
decide which course of action to adopt, and to take steps
themselves to tackle their problems.
Information retrieval – The CAB service will use the evidence
collected through their enquiries to influence the development of
social policies and services.
The services offered by CAB:
• It gives free and confidential advice and information on any subject
• It has trained volunteers and paid staff who all use a national CAB
information system. They use this for any information they require to
give to help their clients.
• It will also give practical help, for example with drafting letters, filling
in application or benefit forms, etc.
• It will give advice on contracts and statutory rights for employers and
employees. Anyone who feels they are not being treated fairly at work
can get advice.
• It will also undertake to prepare people for cases for tribunals and
court; some CAB advisers are trained to undertake representation on
behalf of the client
• It may offer free sessions with local solicitors or accountants
• It gives advice on a wide range of legal issues, including:
– going to court
– claiming compensation
– entitlement to legal aid
– complaints against solicitors and the police.
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Roles and responsibilities of the Office of Fair Trading (OFT)
Elaboration
• Taking action against traders
• Encouraging trade organisations to improve their standards
• Publishing leaflets
• Asking for new laws to be made
• Keeping a check on people in the credit business.
The Office of Fair Trading gives advice to many different sectors of
society
• It gives advice to consumers on all aspects of trading, whether buying
from a store, from the internet or at the door. Its advice could also
be about services – financial, credit. It is particularly interested to
hear complaints about products, services or companies.
• The OFT has legal powers and can take action against companies for a
variety of issues. Some of the areas it covers are:
– competition, making sure that many companies have equal access
to the market
– consumer credit
– misleading advertising
– courts and legal services
– distance selling
– estate agents
– unfair terms in contracts
– and many more.
• It offers information for businesses relating to business and markets.
It gives details of mergers, market studies, Competition Act decisions
and much more.
• It publishes a variety of information and indeed an OFT magazine.
The range of subjects is vast.
• It also offers information for those who advise other people on
trading matters – what people are entitled to and their rights, what is
expected of businesses, etc.
The OFT helps consumers by:
• taking action against traders who consistently break the law.
• encouraging trade organisations to improve their standards to their
customers by agreeing to voluntary codes of practice for fair dealing.
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• publishing leaflets to help people understand their rights and
responsibilities when buying goods or services.
• asking for new laws to be made.
• keeping a check on people in the credit business. Almost everyone
involved in lending money to consumers has to have a special credit
licence issued by the Office of Fair Trading.
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An awareness of the purpose of trade associations and
codes of practice
Elaboration
Identification of two trade associations and their roles:
• Independent Footwear Retailers’ Association (IFRA)
• Mail Order Traders’ Association (MOTA).
(These trade associations will be varied on a regular basis and
SQA will inform centres a year in advance of any changes.)
Codes of practice
• Codes of practice have been set up for almost every industry and
service available.
• They are the rules that have to be followed by the members of a
particular trade association.
• They are intended to protect consumers and to provide a better
service for them.
• Traders will display the code of practice that is relevant to them in
their store or on some documentation depending on what suits their
business.
• A trader is expected to follow the code of practice exactly. This
ensures that the consumer has good service.
• Every trader is encouraged to deal with complaints and problems.
Trades often require a ‘system’ in place which makes it easy for the
consumer to complain about the goods or services provided. This
has always to be done in a polite and prompt manner.
• The codes of practice are different for each industry or service. This
gives the consumer the best possible deal. Hairdressing would
operate by a different code to car maintenance, for example.
• The code of practice should allow for a way that consumer and trader
can settle all disputes.
• A code of practice covers many aspects, from pre-shopping advice to
staff-training guidance.
Independent Footwear Retailers’ Association (IFRA)
• The association is aimed at helping members of the public
throughout the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland to seek
quality, responsible and reliable shoe shops.
• Members of IFRA agree to abide by a code of conduct and therefore
you should be able to purchase their footwear and other allied
products with absolute confidence.
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• Their aim is to raise the standards of professionalism within the retail
footwear industry and ensure the public receive a good deal; and they
undertake to resolve – as far as is possible – any problems that may
arise between a member retailer and their customer.
• IFRA was founded in 1943 as the National Shoe Retailers’ Council
(NSRC) and they now have over 280 member companies representing
in excess of 1,500 retail shops.
• These are situated throughout England, Scotland, Wales, Northern
Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, and the objectives of the
association are to help their members to provide a sound, efficient
and quality service to their customers.
• They also endeavour to help their members to maintain and expand
their profitability and the ranges of footwear they stock.
• Members of IFRA differentiate themselves from other footwear
retailers in that they are all committed to abide by a code of
professional conduct.
• They have all actively invested in their own company and have an
interest, indeed an earnest desire, that their customers should be
totally satisfied with the service they receive and the quality of
product they have purchased.
Mail Order Traders’ Association (MOTA)
• Many large companies which sell through catalogues belong to MOTA
and its members have to comply with a code of practice.
• MOTA also run an independent arbitration scheme, which you can
use if you cannot resolve the problem directly with the trader. There
is a small charge for using the scheme, although this would be
refunded if the arbitration finds in your favour. When consumers have
problems with purchases the consumer can contact MOTA for
arbitration, without losing their existing legal rights.
• The MOTA cover all disputes with mail order.
• If a complaint is not resolved satisfactorily after reference to the
member company, the matter may be referred for conciliation to the
Secretary of the Mail Order Traders’ Association.
• If this fails the customer may seek resolution of the complaint under
special low-cost arbitration arrangements administered by the
Institute of Arbitrators.
• Members of MOTA subscribe to a code of practice and are expected to
abide to the code both by the letter and in spirit. All members are
obliged to state their membership of the association within their mailorder catalogues.
• They must also provide clear instructions on the handling of disputes;
they must examine problems speedily and sympathetically, and they
must take decisive action whenever they can.
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• Where arbitration has been necessary, decisions by the arbitrator are
legally binding and enforceable through the courts.
• Traders using the MOTA symbol must meet dates for delivery, or give
warning of delays to the consumer.
• Members of MOTA who sell to consumers must provide accurate
descriptions and comprehensive information on their products.
• Refunds to consumers for faulty goods must be given promptly by
members of MOTA.
• Surcharges or restrictions on goods sold by MOTA members must be
identified for consumers.
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Role and responsibilities of the Trading Standards/Consumer
Protection Department (TSD)
Elaboration
• Enforcing the Weights and Measures Act 1963
• Enforcing the Trade Descriptions Act 1968
• Enforcing the Consumer Protection Act 1987
• Consumer Direct
• TSD exists to promote and protect the wellbeing of a modern vibrant
economy and to safeguard the health, safety and environment of
citizens by informing consumers, encouraging honest business and
targeting rogue traders.
• TSD plays an important role representing Trading Standards
professionals, arguing the case with government, trade and industry,
for adopting measures and standards to ensure fair trading and
protection for consumers and honest traders alike.
• TSD cooperates willingly with other bodies whose interests include
consumer protection. It meets other relevant organisations on a
regular basis.
• Active in Consumer Education and Advice, TSD informs and educates
both current and future consumers through events such as National
Consumer Week and the Young Consumers of the Year Competition.
• TSD is able to deal with and provide advice on a wide range of
consumer complaints. It can advise consumers on legal rights
associated with the Trade Descriptions Act, the Consumer Credit Act
and the Consumer Protection Act.
• TSD provides a website that provides a wide range of advice online on
a range of different topics. Local offices will provide a service of free
and impartial advice.
• The department looks after the interests of local consumers and
traders by enforcing the fair trading laws and investigating consumer
complaints.
• Inspectors are employed to check factories and market stalls for
inaccurate measurements; and to check factories and market stalls for
fake textile items.
• They will also check advertisements to make sure they are legal and
to make sure they do not make untrue statements or claims.
• Some trading standards departments run consumer advice centres so
that the consumer can go in to ask questions or seek advice.
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Consumer Direct
• Consumer Direct is a telephone and online consumer advice service,
supported by the Department of Trade and Industry.
• It provides clear, practical, impartial advice to help sort out problems
and disagreements that may occur with suppliers of goods or services.
From overcharging to faulty goods, from dodgy workmanship to
reporting dishonest traders and scams, the advisers offer solutions for
individual problems.
• The advice and information Consumer Direct gives is free. People
can call as many times as they need to. Telephone calls are charged
for via the 0845 number.
What does Consumer Direct do?
Consumer Direct can:
• Help sort out problems or disagreements with a trader.
• Help people complain to a trader.
• Help make complaints about traders that a person believes has done
something wrong.
• Tell people what their rights are as a consumer.
• Provide pre-shopping advice before you buy goods or services.
• Provide general advice on how to avoid unscrupulous traders or
‘cowboys’.
• Explain consumer-related issues such as warranties, buying on credit,
internet shopping, refunds and replacements, etc.
• Provide advice on avoiding trading scams and rip-offs (people can
also report any scams they have experienced).
• Direct people to a regulator or other organisation if it is better suited
to assist them.
• Refer a person’s case to their local Trading Standards Authority or
similar agency if they are better suited to assist.
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REFERENCES
References
Bartle, Alison and O’Connor, Bernie, Textiles Technology, Causeway
Press Limited, 1998
Hannelore, Eberle et al., Clothing Technology, Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel,
1999
King, Hazel, Trends in Textile Technology: Fashion, Heinemann, 2001
King, Hazel, Trends in Textiles Technology: The Clothing Industry,
Heinemann, 2001
Messenger, Julie and Wilson, Helen, Textiles Technology: Create,
Heinemann, 2003
Websites
www.vuitton.com
www.asa.org.uk
www.cap.org.uk
www.aslins.com
www.bsi-global.com
www.bsonline.techindex.co.uk
www.consumereducation.co.uk
www.dti.gov.uk
www.firesafe.org.uk
www.oft.gov.uk
www.tradingstandards.gov.uk
www.euroconsumer.org.uk
www.tsi.org.uk
www.consumerdirect.gov.uk
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