Course: Dance
Level: Higher
March 2014
This advice and guidance has been produced for staff who provide learning,
teaching and support, as learners work towards qualifications. These materials
have been designed to assist staff with the delivery of programmes of learning
within the new qualifications framework.
These support materials, which are neither prescriptive nor exhaustive,
provide suggestions for approaches to learning and teaching which will
promote development of a range of knowledge, understanding and skills.
Staff are encouraged to draw on these new materials, and existing
materials, to develop their own programmes of learning which are
appropriate to the needs of learners within their own context.
Staff should also refer to the course and unit specifications and support notes
which have been issued by the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
http://www.sqa.org.uk
We would like to thank the pupils and staff at Monument Dance Centre for
providing video exemplification and sharing good working practice.
Acknowledgement
© Crown copyright 2014. You may re-use this information (excluding logos) free of
charge in any format or medium, under the terms of the Open Government Licence.
To view this licence, visit http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-governmentlicence/ or e-mail: psi@nationalarchives.gsi.gov.uk.
Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain
permission from the copyright holders concerned.
Any enquiries regarding this document/publication should be sent to us at
enquiries@educationscotland.gov.uk.
This document is also available from our website at www.educationscotland.gov.uk.
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Contents
Introduction
4
What does effective learning and teaching look like in Higher Dance?
10
How does effective learning relate to qualifications?
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The information included in this guide is intended to support learning and
teaching in dance at Higher level. The suggested approaches are neither
prescriptive nor exhaustive and can be used to build on existing good practice
and materials. Higher Dance provides a broad practical experience of dance
genres and the choreographic process, as well as developing dance
appreciation. In the main, learning should be practical and experiential, with an
emphasis on active and personalised learning.
Higher Dance builds on the knowledge and skills learners will have developed
through undertaking relevant national qualifications at level 5 (National 5 or
NPA) and at level 4 (NPA). Staff should therefore take account of learners'
prior knowledge to plan programmes of learning that promote progression and
allow for breadth, challenge and application.
Progression from this course may be to HNC/HND dance courses or to
musical theatre-based courses at level 6 (NPA).
Dance is a practical and experiential subject. In this course, and its component
units, there will be an emphasis on skills development and the application of
those skills. In turn, this will inform and influence the development of individual
creativity and self-expression through dance. Learners will experience a range
of roles and responsibilities enabling them to develop interpersonal skills
which contribute to their social and emotional development. Learners will have
the opportunity to demonstrate initiative, decision-making and problem solving
skills.
Higher Dance should encourage learners to be inspired and challenged when
developing technical dance skills, and performing, creating and appreciating
dance. Learners will use theoretical knowledge to inform practice and develop
understanding of a range of dance techniques and choreographic skills. The
skills that learners acquire by successfully completing the course will be
valuable for learning, for life and for the world of work, as Higher Dance
provides learners with opportunities to continue to acquire and develop the
attributes and capabilities of the four capacities.
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Guidance for staff
Higher Dance is a broad-based course that is open to a wide range of
learners. The main aims of the course are to enable learners to:
 develop a broad range of technical dance skills
 understand and apply knowledge of a range of choreographic skills to
create a dance
 work imaginatively and demonstrate individual creativity through problem
solving, critical thinking, analysis and reflective practice
 co-operate, support and lead others, and communicate thoughts, meaning
and ideas when creating a dance
 use a range of theatre arts to enhance dance
 develop knowledge, understanding and appreciation of dance practice
 apply the principles of safe dance practice in relation to physical wellbeing
 evaluate their own work and the work of others.
Key aspects
The course offers:
 an integrated approach to learning and includes a mix of practical learning
and analysis
 practical and experiential learning opportunities, with an emphasis on skills
development, application and creativity
 an opportunity to acquire, extend and apply knowledge, understanding and
skills in two specific dance genres
 scope to learn progressively and independently, and express creativity and
individuality
 opportunities to experiment with and use a range of stimuli, techniques and
theatre arts
 opportunities to work independently and co-operatively, prioritise tasks,
manage rehearsals and work within deadlines
 a greater understanding of dance techniques to appreciate aesthetic and
cultural values, identities and ideas
 solo performance opportunities
 scope to learn to evaluate their own work and the work of others, both
choreographically and technically
 opportunities to reflect on learning.
It is important that learners have access to a wide range of resources to
support personalisation and choice. Through the delivery of this course, staff
should consider making links with industry professionals and local arts
organisations to share expertise and resources.
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INTRODUCTION
Course structure
Higher Dance at SCQF level 6 is made up of two mandatory units, Dance:
Choreography and Dance: Technical Skills, and a course assessment.
The units
 Dance: Choreography
 Dance: Technical Skills
Dance: Choreography
In this unit learners will develop choreographic skills, applying them in short
studies, and evaluate the use of choreographic principles and theatre arts
before using the knowledge they gain to create a short group piece of
choreography and evaluate their creative process.
The aim of this unit is to provide learners with the skills and knowledge
required to plan and create a piece of group choreography. Learners will
expand their knowledge of choreographic devices and structures, and apply
them to a range of stimuli. They will explore a range of theatre arts to enhance
their choreography. Through this process, learners will develop creative and
problem-solving skills, as well as evaluative skills in relation to their own work,
the work of peers and the work of professionals.
Learners who complete this unit will:
1.
2.
3.
develop knowledge and understanding of complex choreographic
principles
be able to apply choreographic principles to create a piece of group
choreography
develop creative and problem-solving skills, and evaluative skills in
relation to their own work, the work of peers and the work of
professionals.
Dance: Technical Skills
The aim of this unit is to develop technical skills in contrasting dance styles for
solo dance performances. Dance techniques will be explored through
structured dance classes before being applied in short group sequences.
These skills will be further applied in longer staff-choreographed dance
performances. Learners will apply their understanding of safe practice when
dancing.
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Learners will also develop knowledge and critical understanding of the social
and cultural factors influencing their chosen dance styles. They will apply
critical-thinking skills when developing knowledge and understanding of dance
styles and practitioners.
Learners who complete this unit will be able to:
1.
2.
develop knowledge and critical understanding of a selected dance style
apply technical dance skills in contrasting dance styles.
Unit assessment
There is a wide range of approaches to assessment for the units, but the key
feature is holistic assessment of unit outcomes.
There are three assessment support packages or approaches exemplified by
SQA:
1.
2.
3.
unit by unit
portfolio
combined.
Unit by unit assessment meets each individual performance criteria through
separate assessments.
The portfolio and combined approaches offer opportunities for dual
assessments and crossover between the units.
These approaches to assessment also allows learners to select how they wish
to present their work. Within the course there are opportunities for written
assessment (essays, blogs, posterboards, etc), oral assessment (report,
presentation, video diary, etc) or any method staff deem will demonstrate the
performance criteria. However, some performance criteria can realistically only
be achieved by actually performing dance genres or presenting a
choreography.
Course assessment
The course assessment is split into two parts – practical activity and
performance. The performance will consist of two technical solos in different
dance styles, each lasting 90 seconds to 2 minutes, where each solo is worth
35 marks. The practical activity is split in two parts: a group choreography
(worth 35 marks) and a choreographic review, which includes responses to
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INTRODUCTION
questions about the planning and development of the choreography, and
discussion of choreographic skills (35 marks).
What’s different and what has stayed the same?
One of the strengths of the existing Higher Dance course was the balance
created by the choreography, technical skills and written work components.
This balance has been carried into the new Higher Dance. However, in
comparison to the existing Higher Dance course there are some differences
and many similarities.
Units
The new course is made up of two mandatory units: Dance: Choreography
and Dance: Technical Skills. The existing course has one mandatory unit,
Choreography, and a choice of four dance genre units from a possible seven.
The units continue to be marked pass or fail.
The key change in the course is that the technical skills unit encompasses all
the various dance styles, which previously were individual units. There is also
a written element to the unit that asks learners to consider social and cultural
influences on their dance style, as well as comparing and contrasting their two
chosen dance styles.
The unit continues to assess structured technique classes before a solo
performance of each genre, but there is no longer a set technical study and
staff can choreograph their own solos for learners or use a solo from existing
dance resources.
The choreography unit continues to develop choreographic skills before
requiring learners to apply these skills to create sequences and evaluate the
process.
Course assessment
To gain an award for the course the learner must pass all of the units as well
as the course assessment. The course assessment will provide the basis for
grading attainment in the course award. Similar to the current Higher, learners
will perform a solo in contrasting dance genres (i.e. two solos) and present a
choreography for a group of three or more dancers.
Differing from the current Higher, the learners’ plan for their choreography will
no longer be assessed, although learners will continue to be encouraged to
plan their choreography before undertaking rehearsals. Nor will there be a
personal action plan to identify learners’ strengths and weaknesses in the
solos.
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The written element of the course assessment comprises a choreographic
review. During their choreographic process learners will undertake a
choreographic review, relating their piece and process to that of a professional
they have studied or researched.
To take into account the revised course award assessment there are also
revised marking systems, with each of the four components being marked out
of 35 and the overall course award being marked out of 140, as opposed to
the current 200 marks.
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WHAT DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND TEACHING LOOK LIKE?
What does effective learning and teaching look
like in Higher Dance?
It is important that the learners’ experience on their journey through the course
is one where learning is active and provides many opportunities for them to be
creative and innovative, with encouragement to take investigatory and
experimental approaches to learning.
Staff should draw on a varied range of inclusive methodologies to support and
enrich the learning experience for every learner. A focus on personalisation
should ensure that the course is tailored to the needs of individual learners
and provides motivation and challenge.
How should staff plan for the learner journey?
To ensure that the principles of curriculum design are taken into account (ie
personalisation and choice, challenge and enjoyment, breadth, progression,
depth, coherence, relevance) staff could:
 explore briefly a range of dance styles with learners before focusing on two
genres
 plan for study of the work of a range of professional practitioners from
different eras, as so many styles interact and infuse with each other
 research local live performances and professional companies, who often
offer free workshops to schools to allow interaction with many different
practitioners
 have a variety of choreographic tasks, inspiring themes, and planned
technique classes and solos pre-prepared.
What would take place in the classroom at the start of the learner
journey?
Staff may wish to read the course outline with the class and discuss any
relevant points raised by learners. At this point it may be useful to look at
examples of previous work: technique classes, solos, choreographies, plans,
evaluations, etc. This will help to make it clear to learners the practical
demands of the course as well as the theoretical aspects involved. It would
also be helpful to make it clear to learners the importance of self-presentation,
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organisation, time management and commitment, which are all needed from
the outset of the course.
What approaches should staff take to ensure personalisation and choice
to allow for individual learning needs and interests?
There are opportunities for personalisation and choice in both the units and
the course assessment of Higher Dance. For example, in choreography
workshops there is opportunity to watch YouTube clips learners have
researched as homework to inspire choreographic tasks. Alternatively,
learners can choose their own stimuli and theme for choreographic workshops
and tasks rather than being directed by staff. These approaches would allow
staff and learners to agree contexts for learning that will be relevant, enjoyable
and challenging. It would also present opportunities for learners to be inspired
by aspects of the world around them, eg world events, politics, music, poetry,
lyrics from songs, nature, etc.
Within technical skills learners can choose cultural issues related to their
selected dance genres which interest them to research for assessment, rather
than making this a class activity, eg a social and cultural factor may relate to
any of the following: time and/or place of development, historical contexts or
events, race and/or gender issues. Within technique classes a range of
musical styles could be used for accompaniment to exercises and sequences.
For course assessment learners choose the theme of their choreography and
lead their group through their choreographic process. This starting point may
have been studied as part of a class task or it may be a new idea. The
choreographic review will relate to the individual research and
choreographers’/choreographic works learners have studied as part of this
process.
What activities might staff provide and learners experience in terms of
different levels of challenge and opportunities to apply their skills?
In both the Dance: Technical Skills unit and the Dance: Choreography unit
ongoing evaluation is encouraged of self, peers and the work of professionals.
This may be in a sharing of work and a group discussion, or filming and
reviewing performances. From this, learners are encouraged to identify
strengths as well as areas for development, and identify how those areas
could be improved using their knowledge and understanding of technical and
choreographic skills developed during the course.
Within the Dance: Technical Skills unit there are opportunities to set different
levels of challenge. For example, short movement sequences can be set at
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the start of the journey before being lengthened, speeded up or progressively
increased in complexity.
How might learning be organised for learners to work collaboratively and
share information and ideas?
A group performance piece could be undertaken, led by staff, to allow the
group to experience the creative process involved in creating a group
choreography. Having provided opportunities for learners to collaboratively
research a chosen theme and create improvised dance responses to their
research, staff could select movements to create a series of motifs. From this,
staff could either choreograph sections in response to these motifs, discussing
the choreographic choices along the way, or ask learners to work in groups to
apply specific devices to selected motifs, working together to structure the
piece. Furthermore, the performance of the finished piece would allow
learners to develop their performance skills for the Dance: Technical Skills
unit.
There is also opportunity for interdisciplinary learning, which will allow learners
to transfer skills and knowledge personal to them or from other areas of the
curriculum and apply these to new possibilities within dance. Staff could pool
expertise to provide a wider range of shared resources and methodologies, for
example creating a school show with the music and drama departments or
creating costumes/back drop in art and design, or exploring a common theme
or context in English and dance.
What innovative and creative ways of using technology might staff use
to ensure that all learners are included? What opportunities and
activities might the learner experience to support the development of
personal learning?
 YouTube video to provide instruction to reinforce the application of
techniques or to demonstrate the use of theatre arts or the use of
choreographic processes (see examples in the suggested course and unit
resources and approaches section).
 Purposeful and structured online research and investigation of
choreographers or themes/stimuli.
 Blogs capturing learners’ thoughts, observations and reflections on their
learning.
 Digital library on the school intranet or Glow so that learners can share
resources.
 Online music resources, eg Spotify (https://www.spotify.com/uk/).
 Sound-editing software, eg Audacity (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/).
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Suggested course and unit resources and approaches: Dance:
Choreography
Suggestions for resources
Council for Dance Education and
Training www.cdet.org.uk/
Suggestions for choreographers
http://dance.about.com/od/famousdance
rs/tp/Famous_Choreographers.htm
Courses Careers UK
Shobana Jeyasingh
Creative Scotland
Jasmin Vardimon
http://www.creativescotland.co.uk/
Richard Alston
Dance UK
Akran Khan
https://www.danceuk.org/
Pina Baush
Foundation for Community Dance
Christopher Bruce
http://www.communitydance.org.uk/
Siobhan Davies
Londondance (companies, reviews,
jobs) http://londondance.com/
Edward Louk
National Dance Teachers Association
Matthew Bourne
http://www.ndta.org.uk/
Gillian Lynne
The Stage (newspaper)
Bob Fosse
http://www.thestage.co.uk/
Itzik Galili
YDance
Isadora Duncan
http://www.ydance.org/
Doris Humphrey
Youth Dance England
Martha Graham
http://www.yde.org.uk/main.cfm
George Balanchine
National Dance Resource Centre
Ashley Page
www.surrey.ac.uk/library/nrcd
Merce Cunningham
Scottish Ballet
Jose Limon
http://www.scottishballet.co.uk/
Paul Taylor
New York City Ballet
Rudolf Laban
http://www.nycballet.com/
Gregory Hines
Royal Ballet
Kenneth Macmillan
Alvin Ailey
http://www.royalballetschool.org.uk/
DV8
http://dv8.co.uk/
Scottish Dance Theatre
www.scottishdancetheatre.com/
Rambert
http://www.rambert.org.uk/
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Suitable choreographic devices for
Higher
Suitable choreographic structures
for Higher
Canon
Binary form (AB)
Unison
Ternary form (ABA)
Retrograde
Rondo form (ABACAD)
Accumulation
Narrative form
Fragmentation
Theme and variation (A1, A2, A3)
Repetition
Chance
Substitution
Collage
Inversion
Space
Timing
Rhythm
Levels
Size instrumentation
Direction
Transposition
Dynamics
Stillness
Addition
Deletion
Embellishment
Question and answer
Example workshop tasks
Workshop tasks should become progressively more challenging, starting with
simple ideas and building to complex structures and devices. Each stage of
the workshop should be filmed for evidence. These tasks are by no means
prescriptive and can be used and developed in any way staff desire, eg solo
tasks, group tasks. At the beginning of the course it is suggested that tasks
are tackled by learners working in pairs or small groups to build confidence
before they start choreographing on their own.
Create a motif from a theme or idea, eg flying
Work with learners to find movements which express their theme using
improvisation before finding ways to link them together to create a short motif.
Film the motif.
Create a motif from words
Using a poem studied in English, choose a short verse and assign a
movement to each word. Pick out the key words/movements which express
the theme/idea of the verse and use improvisation to link the movements
together to create a motif. Film the motif.
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Basic motif development
Using a motif previously created develop the motif with levels, pathways and
dynamics, each time returning to the original motif and filming the end product.
Once this is completed use the best bits from each developed sequence to
create a new sequence that has a pathway, use of levels and dynamics as
appropriate to the original theme/idea.
Individual task
Use your body to write your name, using a different body part to lead each
letter. Develop this motif with levels, dynamics and a pathway and film the
developed sequence. Make the developed motif interact with another learner’s
motif, eg using points of contact, mirroring, etc
Devices
This is a big task and may need to be carried out over a few lessons. Working
in pairs (or small groups) make a motif with a theme of ‘weather’, trying to
incorporate levels, dynamics and pathways in its creation as you link
improvised movements together. Then follow these steps, filming each one:
A
B
C
D
Develop the original motif using the device of inversion.
Develop the original motif using the device of embellishment.
Develop the original motif using the devices of instrumentation and size
at the same time.
Using the best bits from A, B and C create a ‘finished’ movement
phrase.
Split the groups up and reassemble with a person from each pair in the new
group of four. These groups teach each other the four finished movement
phrases. Develop the first phrase in unison, in the second use cumulative
canon, in the third simultaneous canon and in the fourth reverting canon,
filming at each stage.
Structure and devices
This is also a big task that may need to be carried out over several lessons.
Using the theme of ‘love and hate’, choose an appropriate starting
point/stimulus for each aspect. Create a motif for ‘love’ and a different motif for
‘hate’, trying to incorporate levels, dynamics and pathways in its creation as
you link improvised movements together. Working with the ‘love’ motif follow
these steps, filming each one:
A
B
C
D
Develop the original motif using the device of retrograde.
Develop the original motif using the device of accumulation.
Develop the original motif using the devices of stillness and direction at
the same time.
Using the best bits from A, B and C, create a finished movement phrase.
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Working with the ‘hate’ motif follow these steps, filming each one:
A
B
C
D
Develop the original motif using the device of transposition.
Develop the original motif using the device of addition.
Develop the original motif using the device of fragmentation.
Using the best bits from A, B and C create a finished movement phrase.
Once you have the two finished movement phrases do the following:
A
B
C
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Make your ‘love’ phrase interact with someone else’s ‘love’ phrase in an
appropriate manner to the theme, eg points of contact, mirroring, etc.
Develop your ‘hate’ phrase with another person’s ‘hate’ phrase using
question and answer.
Using any of your previous work explore how you can use your
movement phrases within the different structures of binary, ternary,
rondo and collage.
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Choreographic support notes
The process of composing a dance
The process of composing a dance can be compared to problem solving. The
choreographer must solve a series of problems sequentially in order to
produce a creative and meaningful composition. Below is the process you
should go through when creating your choreography.
Select a stimulus or theme as a starting point.
Research and explore the starting point.
Improvise and experiment with movement relating to chosen
theme.
Select and refine movement material which conveys your
chosen theme.
Organise movement to create a motif that embodies the
essence of the theme.
Develop the motif using choreographic devices.
Repeat the process to create more material.
Select a structure.
Work with dancers and adapt material to suit their needs.
Select theatre arts to enhance your choreography.
The procedure above can be broken down into the following manageable
sections, which relate to the marking criteria for the planning stage:




starting point, research and movement development
choreographic devices and structure
methodology for working with dancers
theatre arts.
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WHAT DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND TEACHING LOOK LIKE?
Starting point
The starting point for your dance may be a theme or a stimulus, there is no
right answer. For example, once you have selected a theme on which to base
your choreography and articulated why you have chosen this particular theme,
you must identify a starting point or stimulus.
What is a starting point?
A starting point stimulates the mind and incites activity. It is the inspiration and
the basis of the dance. From a stimulus a choreographer then creates
movement material. There are five types of stimuli that you can choose from.
Auditory: This is also known as the aural setting for the dance and the most
obvious choice is music. However, there are other options such as poems,
songs, words, percussion instruments, human voice sounds and silence. If the
stimulus is auditory then the dance is normally performed to that stimulus.
For example, music from any of the following artists would be appropriate
choices as a stimulus or as an accompaniment for choreography:







Michael Nyman
Yiling Huang
Hans Zimmer
Luis Bacalov
John Williams
John Powell
Sigur Ros.
Visual: A visual stimulus is something that you can see, for example pictures,
sculptures, objects, patterns or paintings. The choreographer will take the idea
behind the images or the shapes and translate this into movement.
For example, a chair could be viewed:






for its angularity
for its purpose
as a throne
as a trap
as an object to hide behind/underneath
as a weapon.
Water could be explored for:
 the different forms it adopts
 how it moves
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 the sounds it makes
 the contrasts between when the sea is calm and rough
 the fact that it is a basic but essential unit of life.
It may be interesting to explore a human character from a painting, for
example Hotel Lobby (1943) by Edward Hopper (1882–1967) or Composition
VIII (1923) by Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944). Learners may also like to
explore paintings from the following artists:






Salvador Dali
M.C. Escher
Picasso
Magritte
Matisse
Andy Warhol.
Ideational: This is the most popular stimulus and it will result in the
choreography conveying an idea or unfolding a story. For example, the learner
may decide to base their choreography on a specific historical or political
event such as:









the fall of the Berlin Wall
landing on the moon
assassination of John F. Kennedy
Martin Luther King’s speech, ‘I have a dream …’
the twin towers (ground zero)
the end of World War II
the bombing of Hiroshima (atomic bomb)
the Boxing Day tsunami
the credit crunch.
You may want to base your choreography on a poem, a case study, a wellknown saying, mythology, a story or a news article that you have studied in
another subject or that you are particularly interested in, for example:
 Dulce et decorum est (1917) Wilfred Owen
 Mockingbird Don't Sing (2001) Harry Bromley Davenport.
You may prefer to base your choreography on one of the following ideas:





recycling
rainforests
the carbon footprint
opposites
films
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









different phobias
the weather
the four elements (earth, air, fire ,water)
witchcraft
addiction
a labyrinth
a city street
everyday movements
storm at sea
the stages of growing old.
Tactile: This type of stimulus may produce a kinaesthetic response, which
then becomes the starting point for the piece. The feel of something, such as a
piece of soft velvet, might inspire the choreographer. A tactile stimulus can
often become an accompanying object in the dance. For example, a silk scarf
may inspire you to incorporate flowing, sustained movements whereas a rope
may inspire you to incorporate aspects of feeling trapped and tied down.
Kinaesthetic: Movement itself and movement phrases may inspire you to
create a dance piece. There is no communication purpose other than the
nature of the movement. Any movement can take the role of a kinaesthetic
stimulus and the dance is then derived from this basis and is about the
movement itself. This is usually referred to as a dance study, in which you
select a particular choreographer and study their choreographic style and
methodology, using this as the basis of your choreography.
The movement does not have to have a communicative purpose other than
the nature of itself, but it can have a:




style
mood
dynamic range
pattern or form.
Similarly, you may decide to base your dance on specific movement
components such as:






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impulse, momentum and falling
swing, suspend and drop
legato, staccato and allegro
circles, spiral and strike
ricochet and revolution
velocity
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Alternatively, you could compare and contrast the movement associated with
the following words:





hold out and surrender
suppression and expression
torment and pleasure
vulnerable and confident
agitation and contentment.
Research
Before creating any movement you must research your chosen theme in depth
so that you can portray it in a realistic manner that is sensitive to the audience.
You must also decide which aspect of your chosen theme you wish to portray
through your choreography and what you hope to convey to the audience
through the performance of your choreography. Research will also provide the
choreographer with an insight into their theme, which will inspire movement
ideas.
There is a wide variety of methods you can use for research, such as the
internet, books, documentaries, case studies, museums, the library, the media
and professional dance repertoire. You should use as wide a variety of
methods as possible to gain a broad understanding of your theme and inspire
your imagination.
You should collect all of your research in a folder and take time to organise
your information and describe your theme by making mind maps,
brainstorming words relating to your theme and finding images, pieces of
music and art work that relate to the theme. All of these resources will help
you to choreograph movements that illustrate your theme. These movements
will later combine to form a motif. Examples of the most influential research
could go onto a mood board to help you introduce your dance to the examiner.
Once you have completed your research you should search for an aural
setting that will enhance your theme (music, lighting, costume, staging,
scenery, make-up, etc). There are many ways you can do this depending on
what type of aural setting you decide to use.
Forming a motif
Once the aural setting has been decided the choreographer can then analyse
it and see how they might reflect the music in their choreography, for example
what is the structure of the music and is there a climax? Is more than one
piece being edited together? Following this, the choreographer will be able to
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take all the research and accompaniment into the dance studio and use it to
experiment and improvise movement that will relate to the theme. The
movements that the choreographer creates will be inspired from the research
and will therefore embody the essence of the chosen theme.
Improvisation
Improvisation is when dancers create movement spontaneously, ranging from
free-form to highly structured environments, but always with an element of
chance and collage. If you are using a prop to improvise with, this approach is
known as experimental. It provides the dancer with the opportunity to bring
together elements quickly, and requires focus and concentration.
Improvisation is instant and simultaneous choreography and performance.
Movements created through improvisation are evaluated through the following
questions:






What movements feel right?
What movements fit into the image to be portrayed?
What movements have meaning and are relevant to the dance idea?
What movements are interesting?
What movements are original?
What movements have potential for development?
From the evaluation, you will be able to select and refine the movements that
you want to use in your choreography. The choreographer will then develop
these movements through rehearsal to form the initial motifs and sequences
for their choreography.
What is a motif?
A motif is an easily identifiable single movement or short movement phrase
which embodies the style or intention of the dance and which can be
manipulated and developed. How you devise your motif will depend on the
stimulus of your dance, but the actions should link clearly to your theme. For
example, if your stimulus is a picture then the movement in your motif might
reflect the shapes, lines and colour of the images.
A motif must be seen more than twice within a dance, as a dance without a
motif is like a song without a chorus. The motif can be repeated, varied and
developed by manipulating the movements within it. This allows the
choreographer to develop the essence of the idea and move their
choreographic ideas on. The audience has a sense of coherence as it sees
echoes of significant movement recur but with something adapted, creating
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more variety and interest. The motifs may be associated with character,
enabling the audience to identify clearly the essence of specific characters.
Once the original motif has been composed, pictures can be taken of the
individual movements and put onto the mood board along with an explanation
of each movement.
Choreographic structure
When composing a piece of formal writing you are expected to have a
particular structure, i.e. a beginning, a middle and an end. Similarly, when
choreographing a dance it should have a structure that is clear to the
audience.
Choreographic structure (definition)
Choreographic structure refers to how the motifs and sections are linked
together. Motifs are typically known as motif A, motif B and motif C for ease of
explaining the well-known structures.
The choreographic structure of your piece will depict the shape of the overall
dance. Choreographic structures are traditional frameworks that have set
patterns. Using these pre-set structures for your choreography can be a
helpful way to put your ideas in order. You must use them in a way that is
appropriate to what your dance is trying to convey. The form that you select
will affect how your dance performance is organised. It is the framework into
which your movement motifs can be organised.
A-B structure: binary (two parts)
Binary structure involves two related motifs, A and B, like a verse and a
chorus in a song. The first section is contrasted by a second section. A and B
are repeated many times and in any order: A-B-A-B, A-B-B-A etc. This form is
typical of many folk dances.
A-B-A structure: ternary (three parts)
This is a three-part structure where A is the unifying theme that returns either
as an exact repetition or as a recognisable variation or development. The final
section can be a development of the first section but it needs to be closely
connected. The A phrases need to offer a contrast to the middle B section.
The final section is used to create a clear structure that returns to the
beginning going round full circle, which gives a satisfying feeling of
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completeness, balance and unity. Although these sections are independent
they are also connected, giving the piece balance and unity.
A-B-A-C-A-D structure: rondo structure
In rondo structure, the principal theme A alternates with one or more
contrasting themes, for example A-B-A-C-A or A-B-A-C-A-B-A. A must appear
at least three times, but it can itself be varied. The number of themes can vary
and the recurring element is sometimes embellished or shortened in order to
provide variation. The contrasting sections should be linked by appropriate
transitions to provide continuity for the audience.
Theme and variation
This compositional structure involves developing variations of an individual
motif. The initial dance statement is followed by variations of this. Each
becomes the basis for the next. The framework for this dance therefore
becomes A-A2-A3. For example, you are taught motif A in class and then put
into groups and instructed to adapt the original motif. Group 1’s motif will then
become A1, group 2’s motif will become A2, etc.
Chance
Merce Cunningham and composer John Cage were the pioneers of this type
of structure in the early 1950s. Cunningham made a detailed chance system
showing timing, spatial designs, sound and movements, and then through
using dice, cards or tossing coins worked out the order of movements in the
performance.
Collage
A choreographic structure that consists of a series of movement phrases that
are often unrelated in movement, but are inspired by the same theme and
have been brought together to create a single dance with a beginning, a
middle and, to best effect, an end.
Narrative
If your choreography has a narrative structure then it will have a gradual
unfolding of a story or idea.
You must decide on the structure for your dance and clarify why you have
chosen that particular structure.
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Choreographic devices
Choreographic devices are technical tools that will enable you to choreograph
your dance. They are tools that can be used to change the way a movement is
performed. The motif can be repeated, varied and developed by manipulating
the movements within it. You should use them to enhance your intentions for
your choreography.
Motif and development
Motif development is a way of producing a lot from a little while avoiding too
much repetition, which may be monotonous for the audience.
The motif forms the ‘building blocks’ of a dance. Rather than continually
inventing new movements for a dance once a motif has been developed
variations can be used to develop the motif into a dance composition. By
varying the motif the choreographer is making the dance unique.
How to develop a motif using choreographic devices
Choreographic devices are technical tools that will enable you to choreograph
your dance. They are tools that can be used to change the way a movement is
performed. The motif can be repeated, varied and developed by manipulating
the movements within the motif.
Repetition
This is the easiest device to begin with. The same actions are performed in
the same order in the same place on the stage.
A direct repeat can be effective if you are trying to communicate:
 a sense of rhythm and routine
 a feeling of boredom or tedium
 a sense of pattern in an abstract piece.
Variation
This is slightly more complicated and is useful to demonstrate the following:
 The use of different locations or directions can imply a sense of building
panic.
 The use of different dynamics can affect the mood: slower usually suggests
calmer; faster often implies anger.
 Size can infer a sense of freedom or restriction.
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 Different levels can give a sense of power. Performing a movement at a low
level, such as floor work, can give a sense of weakness, whereas using
higher levels, such as elevation, can give a sense of power.
In variation the same actions are performed in the same order, but one or
more of the following might change:
1.
Space: Where the movement is performed is changed, for example the
original motif is performed centre stage facing the front. This might be
later varied by performing it downstage, left, facing the side. The stage
area is typically split into nine areas; the placing is always taken from the
performers’ point of view.
Up stage right
(USR)
Stage right
(SR)
Down stage right
(DSR)
Up stage
(US)
Centre stage
(CS)
Down stage
(DS)
Up stage left
(USL)
Stage left
(SL)
Down stage left
(DSL)
The choreographer should use upstage when trying to communicate
ideas such as solitude, alienation, vulnerability, etc, whereas the down
stage areas build intimacy, familiarity, detail, etc.
2.
Timing: One movement or the whole motif can be performed at a
different speed, for example slow motion or in double time.
3.
Rhythm: This can be used to change the way the movements are
performed because you will alter the pattern of the beats, without
altering the tempo or length of the motif.
4.
Size: The movements can be exaggerated, extending the
movement/motif through space, time or energy. This can be done by
using more space, time or energy to perform a specific movement or
motif.
5.
Direction/staging: Performing the motif or movement in a different
place, or facing a different direction in the performance space.
6.
Dynamics: This is the expenditure of energy in relation to the
movement, therefore the movement can either be performed with
greater strength or greater flow. Changing the dynamics can assist in the
communication of the meaning, attribute certain qualities to the
movement or simply provide variation within the composition.
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7.
Levels and planes: Change the motif to a different level. Use different
planes to perform the same motif – vertical, horizontal, sagittal.
We are referring to the body in terms of anatomical planes (flat
surfaces). These planes are imaginary lines – vertical or horizontal –
drawn through an upright body. Each rotational movement that you
make will rotate around one of these planes.
1.
2.
3.
Vertical axis
Sagittal axis
Horizontal axis
8.
Inversion: Perform the motif upside down or on the other side, for
example if your original motif was performed standing up change the
body base to lie on the floor or if you originally performed the motif on
the right change to the left.
9.
Embellishment: Adding detail to a movement.
10.
Transposition: This means shifting from a movement achieved in the
upper space (standing up) to a movement in the lower space (floor) or
changing a jerky movement to a slow and continuous movement.
11.
Instrumentation: Use a different body part to perform the movement
motif, eg from a move led by the elbow to a move led by the knee.
Development
This is the most involved methodology of using a motif. In development, the
motif may make significant changes by changing the order of the actions
involved. The order of the actions can be changed through the following:
Addition: While doing your original motif, simultaneously (at the same time)
execute any kind of jump, turn or travelling pattern (triplet, run, slide).
Deletion: Taking away a movement from the motif.
Substitution: Changing a movement to another movement.
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Repetition: Repeating one section of the motif.
Retrograde: Reversing the order in which a motif is performed, like re-winding
a film.
Stillness: Moments of stillness.
Fragmentation: Using only a part of the motif, any part. Consider it as an
entity in itself. Try using several parts of the motif (a piece a third of the way
through, a piece part-way through, a piece at the end) to create a new
movement.
Accumulation: This is a choreographic pattern in which movements and
phrases are repeated in a sequence, adding a new movement/phrase at the
end of each repetition. For example, do one short movement, repeat it and
add a new one. Repeat the two movements and add another one. For
example:




turn
turn, jump
turn, jump, twist
turn, jump, twist, swing, etc.
As well as changing the order of the movements the changes possible through
variation can also be used. A fast and forceful travelling sequence may be
reduced to a simple gesture sequence or a motif of three actions may be
increased to a motif of eight or nine actions that lace the original three
together in a new order.
Combination: To develop interesting possibilities, combine any of the above
choreographic devices so that they happen at the same time, eg
inversion/retrograde and time or instrumentation/addition and space. You may
also want to consider a combination in relation to structure, for example a
sequential approach where an arrangement of movements or phrases
produce an overlapping effect in time, eg rondo motif performed in cannon.
Developing the movement material is useful for demonstrating the following:
 a clear understanding of motif development
 building up a sense of climax or tension
 complex emotional states evoked through combinations of size, level and
direction
 conveying the mood or narrative more clearly through new material than via
a direct interpretation of the stimuli.
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Other devices
When choreographing a group piece, unison and canon can also be effective.
How you place dancers in groups can determine a particular mood or enforce
an idea. For example, using a similar shape to a rugby scrum in a dance
(whole group huddled facing inward in a circle) might suggest a group of
people concentrating on a common purpose. You may want your group
dancing in unison (performing the same movements at exactly the same time)
or dancing in canon (performing the same movement at different times).
Canon
Canon is a compositional form in which the original motif is reinforced and
amplified as it is stretched over a longer period of time. Individuals and/or
groups perform the same movement or phrase beginning at different times.
This device involves at least two dancers performing one or more motifs at
different times. Canon creates interesting relationships within the group, such
as leader and follower, question and answer, co-operation and confrontation.
It is satisfying as it has unity and variety built into it and gives a sense of
progression. The fact that the motif is shared gives the dance a sense of unity.
Simple, simultaneous and cumulative canons all have a cohesion and logic to
them, leading to a sense of a solid structure. There are different ways in which
this device can be used and some of these are explained below.
Simple or reverting canon: This is the most basic form of canon. Each
dancer performs an entire motif and then stays still while another dancer takes
over. This device can be developed by having the dancers begin the motif four
counts after each other, placing demands on the dancers’ musicality and
ability to perform in a group.
Dancer 1
Dancer 2
Dancer 3
Section 1
Still
Still
Section 2
Section 1
Still
Section 3
Section 2
Section 1
Still
Section 3
Section 2
Still
Still
Section 3
Simultaneous canon: This involves dancers doing the same motif at the
same time but starting from different points in the phrase. This creates a
dense, coherent and interesting look.
Dancer 1
Dancer 2
Dancer 3
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 2
Section 3
Section 1
Section 3
Section 1
Section 2
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Cumulative canon: Each dancer joins in with the lead dancer at various
stages during the dancing of a motif and they all finish at the same time. This
gives a look of an increase in force or power as more dancers are added.
Dancer 1
Dancer 2
Dancer 3
Section 1
Still
Still
Section 2
Section 2
Still
Section 3
Section 3
Section 3
Unison: When dancers are performing in unison they are performing the
same movements at the same time.
Groupings
Within your choreography you may have a range of different groupings which
can enhance the meaning of your choreography, for example a solo, a duet, a
trio or a quartet. You may have more than one of these groups performing at
the same time, for example you could have a soloist and a duet or trio dancing
different motifs at the same time.
Question and answer
One group performs a question motif, whilst the other freezes. When finished,
group 1 freezes whilst group 2 performs an answer motif. This process can be
repeated to create a conversation. Questions and answers can be overlapped
and several conversations can take place at the same time.
Theatre arts
Although the dancers and the movements of a dance are extremely important,
the way they are presented on stage is nearly as vital. The lighting, costume,
set, props and sound all help to enhance the theme and create an intriguing
dance.
Lighting
Lighting is an important aspect of every dance. It can enhance the dance idea
by helping to communicate mood and atmosphere. Lighting can also generate
a variety of effects, such as a wash of light, spotlights and a corridor of light.
In everyday life we respond to changes in the light around us and naturally this
is exploited in the theatre. A change in light triggers an automatic response in
us and therefore it has a huge influence on the audience’s reactions. Not only
does it attract our attention, it can depict atmospheres of warmth, danger,
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isolation and fear. The choice of lighting can change the mood, create images
and add a symbolic meaning to enhance the dance.
Changing the intensity of the lighting can also add to the dramatic effects. For
example, at the start of the dance the dancers may gradually be visible or they
may appear as silhouettes and likewise at the end there may be a slow fade to
black out or a snap to blackout. Below are examples of lighting techniques that
could be used to enhance the intention of your choreography.
Wash of light: This is created by stage lights having different coloured gels
attached to them. The different colours create different moods and
atmosphere, for example blues create a cold and eerie feeling, whilst reds and
yellows create a warm feeling.
Spotlight: This is where a single, strong beam of white light is directed
specifically on certain dancers. It is used to highlight certain characters or
movements. It creates a more intimate feeling and the audience is drawn to
watch specifically what is being focused on.
Corridor of light: This is similar to a spotlight, but the light appears as a long
vertical shaft. This is often used from the sides of the stage as opposed to
from the audience’s perspective. Swansong (Christopher Bruce, 1987) uses a
corridor of light shining from upstage left towards which the dancer seems to
be performing.
Side lights: These give depth and mould well to the flexible body of the
dancer due to the height at which they are positioned.
Cross light: Light is directed onto the stage from more than one direction.
Large amounts of light from front-of-house above will give a stagy look, whilst
light shone from a low level only can create eerie shadows.
Cross fade: As some lights fade up, others fade down. This is an effective
approach to change from one scene to another.
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Costume for dance
Costume is an important aspect of a dance as it can help to communicate the
dance idea and can be used in many different ways. There are a number of
different types of costume designs that are used for dance:




realistic/everyday wear
dance wear
character
abstract.
The dancer or choreographer can either make the most of costume
restrictions or use them to enhance the general visual design and the
particular theme of the dance. Masks and face paints offer further possibilities.
Realistic/everyday wear
This type of costume design is often used to show real life in biographicalbased dances. It is basically clothes that are used for people in everyday life.
It could be jeans, T-shirts or street clothing. There are advantages and
disadvantages of using this type of clothing. It is cheap and easy to produce
as it can be bought in high street stores or the dancers can wear their own
clothes. Although many items of everyday clothing are easy to move in, items
such as jeans can be restrictive and baggy clothing will distract from the
movement as you will not be able to see the line of the body. Everyday
clothing can add to the dance idea and support the everyday nature of the
dance. An example of a professional work that uses realistic/everyday wear is
The Groove to Nobody's Business (2007) by Camille Brown.
Dance wear
This type of costume is what is commonly used for dancing in. Traditionally it
is mainly used in ballet or contemporary pieces. It will often be plain colours,
for example black leotard and tights, tutu or dance trousers. There are
advantages and disadvantages of using this type of clothing. It is cheap to
produce and it is very easy to move in as the material will be stretchy therefore
you will clearly be able to see the line of the body. However, it is very plain
and simple therefore it could be boring and might not add to the dance idea.
An example of a professional work that uses dance wear is Swamp (1986) by
Michael Clark.
Character costume
A choreographer may choose this type of costume in narrative-based pieces
to highlight the different characters or roles in the dance. The costumes may
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be very elaborate and detailed. They are useful to clearly identify the different
characters and they can add to the dance idea, aiding the audience’s
understanding. However, they can be very expensive to produce and may be
heavy and very difficult to move in. An example of a professional work using
character costume is Still Life at Penguin Café (1989) by David Bintley.
Abstract costume
This type of costume design is often weird and unusual. It is a costume which
leaves the meaning open to interpretation from the audience. It can be cheap
to produce, easy to move in, add to the dance idea and provoke a reaction
from the audience. However, it may also be restrictive, the audience may find
it difficult to understand and you may not be able to see the line of the body.
An example of a professional work that uses abstract costume is Lamentation
by Martha Graham (1930).
Whatever costumes the choreographer decides to use, they should enhance
the intentions of their choreography by emphasising the mood, enhancing the
movement or clarifying character and story.
Accompaniment
Music
If learners decide to use music as their aural setting they may compose their
own and record it or enlist the help of a friend who is an accomplished
musician to play the piece live. By doing this the music will echo the structure
and mood of your choreography. If this is not a viable option then learners can
search for music on the internet using sites such as YouTube
(www.youtube.co.uk), iTunes (www.apple.com/uk), last fm (www.last.fm) or
Spotify (www.spotify.com/freetrial), or by watching films relating to their theme
and taking note of any instrumental tracks that would enhance their theme.
The most obvious thing to do is to set movements to music. A poor choice of
music can ruin a dance. Ideally the dance and the music should support one
another. There are a number of things that should be considered when
choosing music:
Balance: A piece of music that has a large number of instruments may not
always be suitable for a solo composition. Similarly, music that is sparse in
style may not be ideal for a large group dance.
Avoid the obvious: Music from the top ten or old favourites are not always
the best for dance. Similarly, some well-known classical music/hits from West
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End shows can also prove difficult. People know them very well and already
have set ideas about them. This could lead to your choreography being
overpowered by preconceptions.
Quality: It is important to use top-quality recordings. Try to avoid recordings
that are full of scratches and jumps, or that are hardly audible.
The music that you use should be interesting, but it should not have an
overpowering beat or inappropriate lyrics that could overshadow your
choreographic ideas. The music should enhance your choreography. The
choreography and the music should support one another but the dance should
not be fully dependent on the music. Ideally you should select an original
piece of music that you are not familiar with so that you do not have any
preconceptions about the movement. Poor choice of accompaniment will ruin
a dance. You should also ensure you have a good-quality recording of your
music and if you have edited it that the sections run smoothly together.
Sound
If you wanted to use only sound you could record sounds such as stepping,
stamping, door bells and the wind. Watch extracts of Frank Ejara’s
performance from the Breaking Convention (2007)
(http://www.breakinconvention.com/videos/all/2007) to see how effective this
can be. Your own technology music can be made using Garage Band or Sony
Vegas.
Non-human sounds from nature and the environment can be very appropriate
for some dances. The sounds of wind, water, storms, street activity, railway
stations, birds and telephones are just some of the possibilities.
The sounds the dancers themselves make can often serve as
accompaniment. Stamping, clapping and breath sounds all provide possible
aural settings. Tap dance, Indian and Flamenco all use the sounds of the feet
and hands to enhance the rhythmical experience for the audience.
Voice
The voice could be used by reading out a poem or extracts of a letter, or
speaking words which add to the theatre arts of the performance. When
people move, they often accompany their movements with voice, in song or in
words quite naturally. The voice can include words and human sounds, like
giggles, sighs and song. The choice is wide ranging and the speech does not
always have to make sense.
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Silence
Without any sounds to hide behind, a dance must be clear and strong in
content, and have its own vibrant internal rhythms and form. All kinds of
movement and atmospheres are possible in silence. Sometimes, a few
seconds of silence at the start, end of or during a dance can add contrast and
avoid predictability. It may also serve to highlight moments of greater
importance by allowing the onlooker’s ear to rest and appreciate the
movement more.
Stage and set
Proscenium theatre
The main feature of a proscenium theatre is a large archway at or near the
front of the stage through which the audience views the performance. The
audience directly faces the stage, which is typically raised several feet above
front row audience level. The main stage is the space behind the proscenium
arch, often marked by a curtain that can be lowered or drawn closed. The set
is designed to be seen only from the front and the dancers are likely to work
predominantly in front of it. Lighting in a proscenium theatre is usually focused
on the performance space and does not spill into the audience. The dancers
disappear from sight when they exit the stage and therefore can make an
unexpected entrance.
Theatre in the round
A theatre in the round is any theatre space that has the audience surrounding
the stage area. The set design will need to be seen from every angle and is
likely to be three dimensional, allowing the dancers to work around it/inside it,
creating a closer relationship between the set and the movement. The dancers
can sometimes be seen even before the entrance and after the exit. It is often
difficult in the round to differentiate clearly between performance space and
auditorium.
When choreographing a performance to be performed in this type of theatre
the choreographer must take into consideration that the audience is all around
and formations will be viewed from every angle, which could affect
interpretation and interest in a piece. A range of perspectives will be
presented.
The lighting will also need to be planned carefully as the placement of lights
could blind or frustrate audience members sitting in the line of lights.
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Set
Cyclorama
A cyclorama is a large curtain or wall, often concave, positioned at the back of
the stage area. It can be made of unbleached canvas or muslin (smaller
versions), or seamless translucent plastic. A cyclorama could be used to
provide the audience with additional information on when and where the
performance is set. The advantages of this are that it allows the stage to be
left clear of any obstructions which could cause injury and the backdrop can
be changed to allow for scene changes.
Realistic set design
A realistic set design uses furniture and props to realistically recreate the
shop, jungle, café or city street. This can help communicate the dance idea
and is interesting for the audience to look at.
Abstract set design
This type of set design can literally be anything unusual. An abstract set
design could use a sculpture, a piece of artwork or anything that is not a literal
interpretation of something real. The dancers can reflect and interact with the
design, and the audience can make their own interpretation.
Methodology for working with dancers
What is a methodology?
When talking about a choreographer’s methodology we are referring to their
working methods: how they go about creating something to achieve their
results. Every choreographer’s methodology will vary and what works for them
as individuals may differ from your preferred methodology.
In order to formulate your own methodology for choreographing a dance and
working with your dancers you must first understand what a methodology is
and the different methods adopted by professional choreographers.
Mathew Bourne and Pierre Lacotte are famous for recreating the classics. The
following excerpt is from an essay comparing and contrasting their
methodologies for creating a ballet d’action and will help you understand the
different approaches choreographers use.
Bourne’s approach to creating a ballet is populist as he attempts to make
ballet more accessible to a wider audience (Acocella, 2007; Sucato, 2007).
Bourne’s purpose in such revisions is not simply satirical but an attempt to
uncover a deeper meaning. Conversely, Lacotte recreates and re-stages a
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ballet the way it was first seen to give a fair but enhanced impression of the
original.
The choreographer’s approach
Bourne approaches the entire dance piece as though it is a play as opposed
to choreography for a dance performance. He looks at the plot in terms of a
series of questions, for example what will the first scene be and when will the
hero meet the heroine. It is a dramatic construction not a choreographic one.
Bourne wishes each dancer to identify with their character deeply, so much so
that for the length of the production each dancer assumes the name of the
character they are playing. Bourne (1998) believes that ‘it‘s almost like pure
cinema …. it’s like a silent film’.
This is evident even in the early stages of his methodology as he focuses on
the plot, the acting and the theatrical accoutrements of set design and sound
effects as much as on the music and technical aspects of the dancing (Lyman,
1998).
Initially, Bourne works alone, listening to the music and plotting out the show
(Acocella, 2007). His inspiration comes from cinematic images as opposed to
conventional stage shows. On the first day of rehearsals he shares visual
stimuli such as photographs, newspaper and magazine cuttings, books and
video footage which have enhanced and developed his inspiration and
understanding of the period that the ballet was originally created in.
While Bourne is developing the ballet into a 21st century performance and
unravelling its hidden depths, Lacotte remains traditional. He thinks of the
whole ballet as a work of art and commissions a designer to recreate the sets
and costumes of the original version in as much likeness as possible.
Choreographing the movement material
Pierre Lacotte is a natural step maker. He studied classical ballet intensively
and therefore the entire classical vocabulary has gone through his body.
Ashton (1998) believes that you cannot be a choreographer if you have not
been a dancer. Lacotte can create original and interesting enchainment (a
short series of steps in ballet comprising a phrase that can be repeated or
varied) that maintains the style of the 18th century and therefore his ballets
have little quotes from the original (Dixon, 2007). He does not allow his
dancers to create any of the steps. He choreographs the movements and
teaches the dancers their steps and there is no collaboration.
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Contrastingly Bourne is less technically able and is not a natural step maker.
Bourne (2004) states that he is:
Not completely trained in any one area – I'm not a tap person or a ballet
person. I don't have a big back-up of steps; I can't just fall back on what I
know.
Consequently he does not choreograph the movement material for his pieces.
He holds what he calls ‘workshops’ with a small group of dancers. The
participants are given themes to create the steps. As the dancers improvise,
Bourne directs them and highlights material that he believes will bring the
characters to life (Acocella,). Results are videoed to help him create the
movement material. Bourne considers himself a director as opposed to a
choreographer and Dixon agrees that he is a theoretical genius but not a
choreographer. He then moves onto rehearsals with the whole company and
starts to create their characters in greater depth. Bourne provides them with a
rough outline of who they are and suggestions for books to read and movies to
watch. The dancers then fashion a personality for their character and present
it to the whole cast (Acocella,). The characters watch the movement material
that emerged from the workshops and Bourne asks them to further develop it,
based on their new personalities. He then adapts what he likes to synchronise
the dancers’ routines.
When hiring dancers Bourne does not necessarily hire technically strong
dancers. He hires those who he feels have a strong dramatic presence, who
can act and who he thinks have the ability to work as part of an ensemble that
will work together and respond to each other’s creations. Part of the audition
process for ‘New Adventures’ includes character improvisation to determine
the candidates’ acting ability (Motzkus). His dancers are good performers.
Bourne’s strength lies in his use of the ensemble to create a dramatic mood.
His downfall is that he cannot provide the vocabulary to match the original
dramatic music.
Lacotte works with technically sound dancers and trains them in the style of
the era that the dance was set. He is adamant that the precision, detail and
elegance must be put over with respect. The movement material in his ballets
is of the highest quality and it matches the dramatic climax of the musical
score, holding the audience’s attention.
Both choreographers have successful methodologies which have contributed
towards making them successful choreographers. Aspects of both
methodologies could be utilised in the dance class. At times learners can be
encouraged to improvise and develop their own choreography as Bourne does
in his workshops. Learners may be more likely to be successful at this task if
inspiration is taken from familiar sources such as multimedia. On the other
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hand, it is essential when training classical dancers that the teacher is a
profound step maker and can create interesting enchainment that encourages
musicality and requires precision. Dancers must be trained in both methods if
they wish to become professional dancers so that they can adapt to
choreographers’ methodologies.
You must now consider what your own personal methodology will be
1.
You must consider how you are going to select your dancers or whether
staff will do this for you. You should identify their strengths and
weaknesses in order to select safe content for your dance.
2.
A timetable will need to be devised to ensure there is sufficient
performance space and time for each choreographer to choreograph,
teach and learn the dances that they are performing in. This may also
determine the groups depending on learners’ other commitments. This
should be done as a whole class or groups should work together and
come back to staff to say when they can rehearse. Once complete the
timetable will go in the appendices of the action plan.
3.
The choreographer should then create a choreography timeline,
including SMART (Specific, Manageable, Achievable, Realistic and
Timed-based) targets for each session. This will ensure that in each
lesson learners stay on track and are focused, and sessions are
relevant, challenging yet attainable. This can be presented in a format
that suits the learner. Examples are in the appendices.
4.
The first time the choreographer meets with their dancers they should
explain the plan for their choreography and share any research or visual
stimulus that will help the dancers relate to the chosen theme. The
dancers must understand the intention of the choreography and the
emotions involved if they are to portray the choreography in a sensitive
and realistic manner. The choreographer must also inform the dancers
of their expectations and let the dancers know that they will be
approachable if anyone is having any difficulties with the choreography.
They will also need to enquire whether anyone has any injuries so that
they know that the movement material is safe and will not cause further
injury.
5.
The next stage in the methodology will depend on whether or not the
choreographer has chosen to be the sole step maker. If they are going
to be the sole step maker they will begin teaching sections of their
choreography. If they are going to adopt an approach similar to Bourne’s
then they may hold workshops giving the dancers specific tasks to
develop the movement material.
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To ensure the choreographer uses time effectively and have sufficient time to
choreograph, teach and learn each other’s choreography they must create a
rehearsal timetable for themselves and dancers.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Time
Time
You will also need to create a basic choreography timeline, indicating specific
targets of what you want to achieve during each session. This will ensure you
use your time effectively and that you complete your choreography and perfect
it in time for your practical exam.
Week
Target
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Work on my own,
analysing research and
creating movement
material to form motif.
Ask my dancers to
improvise movement
relating to a specific
element of my theme.
Start teaching
section A of my
choreography.
Give dancers a specific task
of adapting the original motif
using a chosen
choreographic device.
Exam
Week 1
Show my dancers all of my
research, explain my theme and
what I want to achieve through
my choreography. Show
dancers a film relating to my
theme.
Adapt movement ideas
from my dancers and
begin teaching dancers my
motif and the style of
movement within my
choreography.
Clean section A Revise sections
and move onto A and B and
continue on to
section B.
the next
section.
Continue cleaning
dance and setting
in the performance
space.
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Suggested course and unit resources and approaches: Dance:
Technical Skills
The following dance societies offer structured dance genre syllabi:
Imperial Society for Teachers of Dancing (ISTD): www.istd.org
British Association for Teachers of Dance (BATD): www.batd.co.uk
Royal Academy of Dance (RAD): www.rad.org.uk
Council for Dance Education and Training (CDET): www.cdet.org.uk
International Dance Teachers Association (IDTA): www.idta.co.uk
Scottish Official Board of Highland Dancing (SOBHD): www.sobhd.net
Scottish Dance Teachers Alliance (SDTA): www.sdta.co.uk
Video exemplification
Staff can view examples of choreographies, technique classes and solos on
the video clips provided by Education Scotland
http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/nqcoursematerials/subjects/d/nqresource
_tcm4828702.asp
(copy and paste this link into your browser after you have logged in to Glow).
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Suggested dance skills for dance genres
Ballet
Barre
demi and full pliés, with port de bras
combined battement tendu and glissé
rond de jambe à terre, with varying speeds
battement fondu, with port de bras
battement frappé – to second
développé en croix
fouetté of adage
grand battement
port de bras with forwards and sideways bend
Centre
positions of the feet – first, second, third, fourth and fifth
positions of the arms – first, second, third, fourth open and crossed, fifth
port de bras, with use of épaulement, croisé and ouvert
battement tendu and glissé, with port de bras and changing directions
temp lié – en avant, en arrière, à la seconde
chassé – en avant, en arrière, à la seconde and passé
arabesques and attitudes
développé devant
single pirouette – from fifth or fourth
Travelling steps
pas de bourrée devant, derrière, dessous and dessus
balances de côté, en avant and en arrière, turning
glissade devant, derrière, dessous and dessus
Allegro
sauté, échappé, changements (jumps in first, second, fourth and fifth)
assemblé dessus and dessous
jeté ordinaire – devant and derrière
coupé – dessous and dessus
temp levé in 1st arabesque
pas de chat with port de bras
sissone fermé
grand jeté
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WHAT DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND TEACHING LOOK LIKE?
Contemporary
Centre work
lateral spine curves
high release
spirals
contractions
roll downs – parallel, first and second
pliés in parallel, first, second and third with upper body curves
tilts
tendus and foot work in parallel and turnout en croix
grand battements en croix
Floor exercises
swings
curves
high release
tilts
falls
rolls
second position
transitions from standing to floor and reverse
Centre
combinations of swings with rolls to floor and jumps
swings and lunges with upper body curves
developpés en croix
tilts
Travelling
triplets with turns and spirals
leaps
skips
sparkle jumps
movement phrases using directions, floor patterns and floorwork
Highland
Warm up
jumps in first, second, third, fourth and fifth positions
springs from foot to foot
hopping right and left foot
combinations of the above
combinations of the above using hand positions – first, second, third, fourth
and fifth
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Basic positions
standing in first position and point in second, third, fourth and fifth – both feet
hopping and using the same positions as above
standing in first position and working foot to second aerial, third aerial, third
rear aerial, mid fourth and mid fourth aerial, fourth intermediate, fourth
intermediate aerial
hopping and using the same position as above
Movements and steps
bow
shedding
backstepping
toe and heel
rocking
cross-over
pas-de-basque
open pas-de-basque
highcutting
brushing
shuffles
shaking
hop brush beat beat
shake shake down
leap
Strathspey
Highland reel
spring points
propelled pivot turn
double shakes
spring point turn
toe and heel in fourth opposite fifth position
balance
travelling balance
side heel and toe
pivot turn
double leap
shake and travel
assemble and travel
cross over
last shedding
addressing the sword
fling step
leap and shed
side heel and toe – two shakes, two turns
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Strathspey
Highland reel
Jazz
Warm up
roll downs
isolations using heads, shoulders, ribs, hips, feet
lunges
foot exercises
preparation for jumps – first, second, fourth position
cardiovascular movements, eg swings, runs, etc
Centre work
tendus and glissés developing use of arms, speeds, facing, directions
jazz pliés (parallel/turn out – first, second, fourth position and arms)
isolations sequence to include head, shoulders, ribs, hips – develop use of
speeds and qualities
ripples, including dolphin and snake movements, contractions and releases
preparation for developpé and developpés in first and second
single pirouettes
pas de bourrée with turning
kicks (both flick and high)
round kicks
hitch kicks
Travelling
Elevation, including step hops, sautés
leaps – swish and flick, forward and side
attitude leaps with varying body and arm positions
turns, including open turns and jazz turns
step ball change
cross ball change
flick ball change
jazz walks with use of direction
straight leg kick combinations, including forwards/back and side with use of
arms
combination of travelling movements with varying body and arm positions,
develop intricacy using speeds and directions
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Tap
Warm up
springs and tap springs
toe taps
tap step ball change
tap step heel
tap heel ball
shuffle ball change
hop
flap
stomp
ball and heel beats
buffalo
Close work
shuffles, front, side, back
toe flam
five-beat cramp roll
stamps
pull backs
crawl
paddles to varying rhythms
double time step, with break (pick up or shuffle)
Travelling steps
five-beat riffs
pick-up change
shuffle spring
pick-up hop shuffle step
pick-up spring shuffle step
drop pick-up change
Turning steps
step turn step
pencil turn
step ball change turning
single pirouette
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Observation checklists
The observation checklist should identify a range of key skills being assessed
within a structured technique class to support the video evidence. The
checklist provides evidence of the assessment judgments being made – video
evidence on its own is not enough. In a jazz class an observation checklist
may have the following format, in which the skills are demonstrated through a
series of different exercises:
Skill
Warm up
Stretches
Sit up
Press ups
Plies
Tendus
Glisses
Arm exercise
Isolations
Kicks
Sequence of walks
Turns
Foot warm up
Combination steps
Leaps
PASS OR
FAIL
Good Satisfactory
Poor
Comments
Comments
The columns within an observation checklist should also be explained in order
to understand against what standards assessment judgements have been
made. In the above example good means:
 as appropriate to the dance style, there is sustained control, fluidity and
smooth transitions between parallel and turnout throughout the sequence
 the specific skill being assessed is performed with a high level of technical
accuracy
 centring, balance, alignment and posture are sustained throughout the
exercise
 stamina, strength and flexibility are sustained throughout the exercise
 the exercise is accurately recreated with to regard timing and dynamic
quality.
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Satisfactory means:
 as appropriate to the dance style, there is some control, fluidity and smooth
transitions between parallel and turnout throughout the sequence
 the specific skill being assessed is performed with a degree of technical
accuracy
 centring, balance, alignment and posture are mostly sustained throughout
the exercise
 stamina, strength and flexibility are mostly sustained throughout the
exercise
 the exercise is recreated with almost correct timing and dynamic quality.
Poor means:
 as appropriate to the dance style, there is a lack of control, fluidity and
smooth transitions between parallel and turnout throughout the sequence
 the specific skill being assessed is performed with little technical accuracy
 there is a lack of centring, balance, alignment and posture demonstrated
throughout the exercise
 there is a lack of stamina, strength and flexibility demonstrated throughout
the exercise
 the exercise is not accurately recreated with regard to timing and dynamic
quality.
The learner passes the dance genre where the majority of skills are
demonstrated at a satisfactory or good level.
Further practical guidance
Ydance periodically run courses for Higher Dance staff and learner
workshops, and can provide teaching resources to support both. Alternatively
some councils run SQA dance training days. Staff could also participate in
regular adult dance technique classes at dance schools to improve their
technical skills and knowledge, and keep up to date with trends in dance.
Written exemplification
Only a few styles have been exemplified for each outcome, and these are by
no means the only acceptable answer. They are designed to give staff a
flavour and direction to lead learners in.
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WHAT DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND TEACHING LOOK LIKE?
Suggested skills and characteristics of dance genres
Learners must be able to describe in detail at least one social or cultural factor
relevant to a chosen dance style and explain how this factor influenced or is
reflected in technical steps characteristic of the style.
These social or cultural factors may relate to any of the following:




time and/or place of development
historical contexts or events
race and /or gender
any other relevant influence.
Jazz
Throughout its history, jazz dance has developed in parallel to popular music
so it doesn’t relate to any kind of music specifically, although a key
characteristic of the music is a syncopated rhythm. Key characteristics of the
style are a low centre of gravity and use of isolations. Moves used in jazz
dance include jazz hands, kicks, leaps and pirouettes.
Tap
Tap is performed in special hard-soled shoes that have metal plates on the
heels and toes to create sound. It relies on good rhythmic timing to both the
music and the other dancers. Steps include ripple (a pick-up with one foot and
a tap spring with the other, at the same time) and a four-beat rift (a toe heel,
heel toe beat sequence that travels from back to front, swinging from the hip,
whilst being grounded in the floor).
Suggested topics for social and cultural influences on dance genres
Topics may be specific to individual dance performances or choreographers,
or relate to the genre as a whole.
Ballet
Costume: The bell-shaped Romantic dress of the mid-1800s gave way to the
tutu at the end of the 19th century as the connoisseurs of ballet, the Russians,
wanted to see the new technical feats and fancy footwork of their ballerinas.
Pointe shoes developed from the desire for dancers to appear weightless and
sylph-like and have evolved to enable dancers to dance en pointe (on the tips
of their toes) for extended periods of time, although they originally started out
as high-heeled shoes.
Vocabulary: In 1661 Louis XIV founded the Académie Royale de Danse
(Royal Dance Academy), which was charged with establishing standards for
the art of dance and the certification of dance instructors. In 1672, following
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his retirement from the stage, Louis XIV made Lully the director of the
Académie Royale de Musique (Paris Opera), in which the first professional
ballet company, the Paris Opera Ballet, arose. This origin is reflected in the
predominance of French in the vocabulary of ballet.
Contemporary
Gender: Matthew Bourne reversed the gender roles for his Swan Lake,
making the normally female swan a male. He did this by altering the style of
movement to reflect the more masculine and powerful traits of the swans.
Highland
History: After the defeat of Bonnie Prince Charlie on 16 April 1746 by the Duke
of Cumberland it was decreed that the wearing of the kilt be outlawed. The
English forced men to stop wearing their kilts and start wearing trousers
because in their opinion it made them look feminine. The Scots rebelled
against this order. Their struggle is portrayed in the traditional dance the
Seann Truibhas, in which the kicking motions of the dance mimic the kicking
off of the trousers and the longing to return to wearing a kilt. The dance was
devised as a sign of contempt and derision against the act of proscription
brought in by the government of England, who were determined to suppress
all Jacobite influences in a desire to curb the national spirit and characteristics
of the Highlanders.
Analysing and evaluating technical dance skills in own and other’s work
The learner must be able to analyse and evaluate skills in some detail of their
own and others’ (peer or professional) work. Strengths and areas for
improvement should be dealt with where appropriate in relation to at least two
of the following:





posture and alignment
use of control, strength and flexibility
quality of movement/dynamics
timing and musicality
performance style.
Examples are given to illustrate what learners might make reference to in
evaluations.
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Highland
Learners may discuss the following:
Posture and alignment
Erect posture, turn out, arm lines, alignment of feet position, head position.
Control, strength and flexibility
Centre control, controlled movements, eg a shake.
Flexibility for leaps, turn out (strength and control).
Strength needed in the feet and legs.
Quality of movement/dynamics
The differences between men and women’s quality of movement, in particular
national dances, strength and dynamic qualities, or particular steps.
Timing and musicality
The rhythm of beating steps, the relationship of movement to musical
changes, i.e. the quick step at the end of a sword dance or the stamina
required to keep in time to the music.
Performance style
The difference between the sense of performance required in a competitive
performance to that of a show performance, how the head position and eye
line contribute to the desired sense of performance or the different sense of
performance required for different Highland/national dances.
Contemporary
Learners may discuss the following:
Posture and alignment
Erect posture, combined use of turn out and parallel, arm lines, alignment of
feet positions, alignment of the body during a spiral.
Control, strength and flexibility
Centre control in a contraction, or the control needed for subtle movements
of the body, eg high release, flexibility for leaps, strength and control required
to transition between turnout and parallel, strength needed in the body for
lifting.
Quality of movement/dynamics
The differences between different sections in the choreography or particular
steps, or the movement qualities of the genre as a whole, or the style of a
specific choreographer, eg Bourne has a very fluid movement style and often
uses specific gestural or characteristic movements to help tell the story in his
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choreography, such as when the swans in Swan Lake make use of broad
arm gestures to mimic wings.
Timing and musicality
The relationship of movement to musical changes, or how the music and
movement can seem independent from one another.
Sense of performance
the different sense of performance required for different styles of
contemporary, or how the sense of performance in the studied choreography
was relevant to the theme.
Ballet
Learners may discuss the following:
Posture and alignment
Erect posture, turn out, arm lines, alignment of feet positions, use of head
positions.
Control, strength and flexibility
Centre control, controlled movements, eg a developpe, control of turnout
(strength and control), strength needed in the feet and legs for pointe.
Quality of movement/dynamics
The differences between men’s and women's quality of movement and
dynamic or the quality/dynamic of particular steps or styles of ballet.
Timing and musicality
The rhythm of beating steps, the relationship of movement to musical changes
or the stamina required to maintain the timing of the steps to the music.
Sense of performance
How the use of head position and eye line contribute to the desired sense of
performance or the different sense of performance required for different styles
of ballet.
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HOW DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING RELATE TO QUALIFICATIONS?
How does effective learning relate to
qualifications?
It is important that staff provide effective guidance for learners so that they
understand what they need to produce in order to be presented for the course
award.
The key aspect of this course is the preparation for assessment through depth
of understanding. Learners build skills in the units and apply them in the
course assessment.
In the Dance: Choreography unit learners should study the work of
professionals, looking at the use of devices, structures, theatre arts and
themes/stimuli. They should also take part in choreographic workshops and
tasks to develop their skills in the same area. These skills will then be used to
create a short choreographic study/dance. Throughout the unit learners should
be evaluating their own, their peers and professional choreographers’
choreographies.
For the course assessment the choreographic study used for unit assessment
can be further developed or learners can use the skills developed in the unit to
create a new piece of work. The study of professional choreographers’ work
will also allow learners to undertake the choreographic review, which requires
learners to compare their creative process and choices to that of
professionals.
In the Dance: Technical Skills unit learners will develop their technical skills in
two dance genres before applying them in short sequences. For the course
assessment learners will perform two longer solos. These solos can be an
extension of the unit assessment solos. This will allow learners to develop
their performance skills, as well as increase their technical skills. Ongoing
technique classes are good working practice as part of preparation for the
course assessment. As learners extend a sequence they already know they
can focus on the execution of the movement rather than trying to remember
what move comes next in the sequence.
It should also be recognised that although it is important to fulfil the demands
of the course in order to secure a qualification, staff and learners should look
beyond the course requirements and consider that the knowledge,
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understanding and skills learned are valuable and transferable. It is important
that staff emphasise that the knowledge and understanding gained in the
present is an investment that can be built upon and accessed at any point in
the future.
Staff should highlight the assessment process at strategic points in planning
the course in order to support learning. It is good practice for staff to regularly
engage in dialogue with individual learners, building in time to review, discuss
and reflect on the learner’s progress at points when unit and course work is
live and incomplete.
Higher-order thinking skills
It is important that staff provide ongoing opportunities for learners to develop
higher-order thinking skills in an environment where the learner’s creativity can
flourish. The course provides scope for learners to demonstrate skills relating
to analysis, application, evaluation and problem solving through aspects of
both practical and analytical work.
An example of where the learner’s analytical and problem-solving skills are
tested is the requirement to identify what has influenced the work of a
choreographer in a chosen genre, and use the knowledge gained to shape
their own creative work in the Dance: Choreography unit. It is therefore
essential that by this point staff have taken steps to ensure learners have had
repeated opportunities to develop these skills.
Evaluative skills are clearly required throughout every unit of the course, as
learners are asked to reflect on their own, peers’ and professionals’ work, its
strengths and areas for development.
Developing a shared language and understanding of skills is essential to
ensure that learners are able to discuss and write about the skills they have
developed and which ones need to be developed further. Staff should ensure
this key requirement is kept at the forefront of their plans at both individual and
establishment level.
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HOW DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING RELATE TO QUALIFICATIONS?
How the Higher Dance course helps to develop the four capacities
Successful learners
Confident individuals
Motivated learners
Improving achievement through
inspiration by, and comparisons with,
professional performers and
choreographers.
Independent learners
Researching aspects of chosen
dance styles and genre through use
of the internet, Glow and library books
for home and personal study.
Open to new ideas
Appreciating the aesthetic and
cultural properties of a broad range of
dance genre.
Technological skills
Continuously building on ICT and
investigation and research skills, and
selecting appropriate information and
imagery for chosen themes and
stimuli.
Literacy skills
Building on and applying literacy skills
through listening, discussing, writing
and presenting in relation to their own
work and the work of professional
dancers and choreographers.
Applying learning to new and
sometimes unfamiliar situations
Transferring skills in, for example,
investigation, choreography and
presentation to other areas of the
curriculum.
Respect and value for self and others
Gaining respect and value for self and
others through self/peer assessments
and, for example, through
performances in own and others’ work.
Physical, emotional and mental
wellbeing
Physical, emotional and mental
wellbeing nurtured through the
learner’s response to the challenges
and pressures of managing workload
and deadlines.
Ambition
Striving to achieve their potential
through agreed targets and
opportunities for peer and selfassessment.
Managing themselves
Learning how to manage themselves
through the sharing of resources,
individualised practise routines and
meeting deadlines.
Self-awareness
Becoming aware of feelings through
personal response to what may be
emotionally challenging subjects.
Communicate own views
Expressing ideas and feelings in
response to a chosen stimulus and
communicating responses to own work
and the work of peers and other
professionals.
Achieve success
Feeling a sense of achievement and
celebrating success through, for
example, performance of a final
choreography.
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HOW DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING RELATE TO QUALIFICATIONS?
Responsible citizens
Effective contributors
Understand/respect/tolerate
differences
With raised awareness of cultural
similarities and differences through
investigating, for example, a range of
dance styles from different countries
and cultures.
Understanding of global and national
awareness
With raised awareness of local and
global issues, relating these to
selected themes.
Awareness of environmental issues
With raised awareness of the issues
that are affecting our planet through a
variety of compositional style, for
example choreographers’ responses
to environmental issues.
Ethical and complex issues
Learning how choreographers and
performers can use the experiential
nature of dance to challenge
perceptions and promote their ideas
and feelings about the world they live
in.
Enterprising
Drawing on their experiences in wholeschool and interdepartmental activities
and applying their knowledge, skills
and resources to enterprising
opportunities.
Communication skills
Developing and enhancing their skills
in performance, and written and oral
communication.
Team player/leadership role
Learning how to work well with others,
contribute to discussion and group
work, and help others to succeed
through the use of sharing strategies
and good practice in peer assessment.
Creative skills
Being experimental and sometimes
original in their use of Choreographic
devises and techniques, and
demonstrating imagination,
appreciating and creativity through the
production and performing of
choreography.
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HOW DOES EFFECTIVE LEARNING RELATE TO QUALIFICATIONS?
References
Acocella, J. (2007). Onwards and Upwards with the Arts, SWANS’ WAY, Why
Matthew Bourne’s dances are different. The New Yorker. NY
Ashton, F. (1998) cited in Vaughan, D. (1998). Frederick Ashton and His
Ballets. Dance Books Ltd. UK
Bourne, M. (1998) cited in Lyman, R. (1998). A Choreographer Who Sees
Ballet as a Silent Film; After Male Swans, ‘Cinderella’ in Wartime. The New
York Times. NY
Bourne, M. (2004). cited in Kirkman, A. (2004). Bourne to Dance. Dancing
Times Magazine. UK
Macaulay, Alistair (ed.) (1999). Matthew Bourne and His Adventures in Motion
Pictures: In Conversation with Alistair Macaulay. London: Faber and Faber.
Motzkus, H.T. (2006). The Stories We Tell: Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake. Phi
Kappa Phi Forum, Auburn University. USA
Sucato, S. (2007). Matthew Bourne’s ‘dance play’ Edward Scissorhands story
without words. The Arts, Entertainment & News Weekly. Pittsburgh City
Paper.
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