International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 25 Number 2- July 2015
Cheating Prevention in Visual Cryptography : A survey
Sayali Gapate#1, Prof. Jyoti Rao*2
#
Department of Computer Engg, DYPIET, Pimpri,
Savitribai Phule Pune University,Pune, India.
Abstract—For preserving the security of data there
has been tremendous research areas evolved and explored
since few years. Cryptography is seen to be the dominant
strategy in the information security domain. To
differentiate
security
of multimediadata, visual
cryptography is seen as the prominent way for data
confidentiality and secrecy of information being
distributed.
The mechanism of visual cryptography is widely used
approach which encrypts the secrete image into the many
meaningless share images and decodes by stacking some
or all shares by human visual system. There are many
methods presented for visual cryptography with their own
advantages and disadvantages.. Over the years , in visual
cryptography the scope of research mainly focused on
developing techniques on grayscale , halftone , color
visual cryptography, region incrementing visual
cryptography, minimization of pixel expansion , multiple
secret sharing and cheating prevention in visual
cryptography.
Recently new cheating–preventing scheme has been
found whichis advantageous over a combined approach of
two general VC codebooks. This method resulted into
number of advantages such as computation cost is low;
multi factor cheating detection is involved etc. However,
we identified two research problems such as 1) there is no
efficient generic method of generating (k,n) codebooks
with minimizing the pixel expansion, 2) it is impractical
and time-consuming to stack three or four shares.
Therefore in this project our aim is to extend this hybrid
codebook based method with goal of overcoming above
two listed limitations. We are presenting the efficient
approach for codebooks generation with less timing
consuming while decryption.
Keywords—Contrast,Share,Stacking,Pixel expansion.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Even though the computer technology is advanced
and the efforts of computerizing every possible
systems available is nowadays current trend. Still
using computer to decrypt a secret is not feasible in
some situation. For example, at a highly influential
event a security guard checks for a badge of an invitee
or a secret agent reconstructs an urgent secret at some
distant place without aid of any electronic devices as
lack of such devices at that place used. In these
situations, human visual systems are one of the most
convenient and easy available tool to do checking and
secret recovery.
Secret sharing using visual cryptography is
different from typical cryptographic secret sharing
scheme. VSS allows each party to keep a portion of
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secret and provides a way to know atleast part of the
secret. Encryption using multiple keys is a possible
solution. However this solution requires a large no. of
keys, resulting into troublesome management of no.
of keys.
This survey consists of the work done in this
area of cheating prevention, advantages and
disadvantages of literature aredone. Theproposed
work is comprises of insight of the scheme. This
paper also givesdiscussion of future work along with
the final conclusion.
II.
RELATED WORK
A. Traditional Visual Cryptography
Visual secret sharing also called as visual
cryptography is a popular technique used for
encrypting a secret by means of creating number of
meaningless shares which are distributed among
participants such that the decryption process is done
by stacking some or all of them to reveal the original
secret. The reconstructed secret is evident to human
eyes whether correct secret has been reconstructed
after stacking process. Thus no aid of complex
computations is needed. This visual secret sharing
technique was introduced in 1995 by Moni Naor and
Adi Shamir. A (k,n) VSS means that a secret image
is encoded into n shares and stacking any k or more
shares (k <= n ) can reconstruct the secret image.
The encryption problemis expressed as a k
out of n secret sharing problem. Given the image or
message, ntransparencies are generated so that the
original image (message) is visible if any k ofthem
are stacked together. The image remains hidden if
fewer than k transparenciesare stacked together. It
assumes that the image is a collection of black and
whitepixels, each pixel is handled individually and it
should be noted that the white pixelrepresents the
transparent color. One disadvantage of this is that the
decipheringprocess is lossy, resulting into contrast.
Later extended VC schemes presented using
general access structures generated the meaningful
shares from qualifying sets. The pixel expansion
problem occurred in extended VC scheme using
general access structure was solved by algorithm
proposed by Lee and Chiu
with addition of
meaningful cover image in each share, without
generating noisy pixels. This approach consists of
two phases. In the first phase, depending upon a
given access structure, meaningless shares are
constructed with the help of an optimization
technique. In the second phase, using stamping
algorithm the addition of cover images to each share
is done. The construction problem of VCS for general
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International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 25 Number 2- July 2015
access structures is formulated as a mathematical
optimization
problem
being
solved
using
optimization techniques. They have developed a
hybrid method for EVCS constructions. Withthe use
of stamping algorithm, all present VC schemes can be
changed so that the extended VC schemes are
developed without redesigning codebooks. The
advantage of EVCS is the modularity. Each phase in
the encryption procedure maintained modularity thus
its easy to modify each phase clearly. Another
advantage is that as the density of the cover images is
adjustable, it is easy to modify the display quality of
the cover images. [2].
B. Basic concept of Cheating in Visual Cryptography
As it’s been crucial in today’s fastest computing
social era to keep data secure emerged as a major
concern. As it has been observed by researchers and
experts that information forgery is being done by
cheaters or attackers on all types of data (whether it is
image, text, videos, encrypted source and many
more). So as this, even visual secret sharing scheme
also detected cheating attack, this interests most of
the researchers to work on this area. Since 2006, there
has been huge work undergone in cheating prevention
in visual secret sharing.
The idea of cheating can be understood as when
intended malicious or dishonest participants cheat the
honest ones by giving fake share. According to (2,3)
scheme it can be seen in following figure:
The cheating in (2, 3) scheme is done by
manipulating the sub-pixels of the concerned shares
of participating. Manipulation of pixels indicates that
the white pixel of say participant is replaced by the
black pixel of that share. Such that when stacking is
done, the resultant pixel is different than the original
one. Because of such pixel manipulations the
resultant shares are generated which are vague and
ambiguous. In this way, cheating takes place, the idea
of how it is done can be seen from the following
figure.
Several papers have proposed to solve the
cheating problem. Horng et al. detected first cheating
attack and presented two methods to prevent the
dishonest participants (referred to as cheaters) collude
and want to cheat other participants, which are known
as cheating activity (CA). CA can affect
unpredictable damage to the participants; therefore
the honest participants accept a fake secret image
different from the actual authenticated secret image.
They designed two types of cheating prevention
techniques, share authentication and blind
authentication [3].
Figure 1:The example of cheating in (2, 3) VSS
Share authentication based :
By using the verification image authentication
process performed against all shares along with
malicious share, generated by the cheaters. However,
if the malicious share can pass the authentication, the
victim will accept the stacking result.
Blind authentication based :
With absence of verification image, the cheaters
found it difficult to predict the structure of the shares
of the other participants.
The cheating prevention schemes can be thus,
categorized as share authentication based and blind
authentication based as the schemes presented later
are mostly following these concepts.
C. Share authentication based
Horng et. al. claimed that cheating is possible in
(k, n)-VSS where k <n. The cheating activity of
Horng et. al. is that then cheaters collude to use their
transparencies to predict the secret and derive the
victim’s transparencies Tv, thus they can create a
fake transparencies FT to make the victim to accept
the cheating image by stacking FT + Tv.
They referred a (2, 3)-VSS scheme as an example.
A secret image is encrypted into three different
transparencies, denoted T1, T2 and T3. Then, the
three transparencies are distributed respectively to A,
B, and C. Participants A and B are assumed to
colluding cheaters and C is the victim. In cheating,
T1 and T2 collaborate to create forged transparency
T’2 such that stacking T ’2 and T3 will visually
reconstruct the cheating image. Exactly, by observing
the collections of 3×3 matrices are used to generate
transparencies, cheaters chose to use those matrices to
predict the exact structure of the victim’s
transparency so as to create T’2. For representing a
white pixel of cheating share, the block in T’2 is set to
have the same structure of T3. For representing a
black pixel of cheating share, the block in T’2 is set to
have the distinguished structure of T3.
Later, Hu and Tzeng presented three cheating
schemes and applied them for attacking all existent
VC or EVC schemes. They proposed a generic
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International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 25 Number 2- July 2015
method which is derived from a VCS to another VCS
having the property of cheating prevention which is
share authentication based. After the fake share has
been stacked on the genuine share, the fake secret can
be viewed.
CA-1 and CA-2 are executed by a malicious
participant (MP) and a malicious outsider (MO),
respectively. MP or MO to set a cheating image and
creates FT(fake share) such that the stacking operation
of the victim’s transparency and FT reconstructs the
cheating image. In CA-1, with the MP’s transparency
T1, the MP can construct a fake set of shares using his
genuine share.
InCA-2, with the same scenario, the MO has
knowledge of the share construction, and it does not
keep any transparency. MO is capable of cheating the
VC scheme without having any knowledge of any
correct shares. But as MO is able to generate share
can create fake shares for stacking.
A new verifiable visual cryptography scheme
(VCS) for color image is presented by Han et.al.
which fulfils the distribution and recovery of the
secret image and verifiable image which is relied on
XOR algorithm. The distribution and reconstruction
of the secret image are done using the additive colour
model and the halftone technology respectively. The
presented scheme is simple and efficient. The visual
quality of recovered image is acceptable with the
VCS without incurring any pixel expansion and the
reconstruction of the verification image is clear
without any distortion.
To solve the problem of security, they have
introduced a verification image which is used for
distribution and reconstruction process. This scheme
is less complex with good security and attains the
gold of the optimization parameters. The recovered
secret image is possesses characteristics such as the
good contrast without pixel expansion, and the
recovered verifiable image is clear without distortion
using XOR algorithm for stacking the shares and
verification shares. The shares and the recovery secret
image are having the same size as that of the original
secret image without pixel expansion. Also, the
recovery verifiable images have the same size as of
the verifiable image without distortion.This scheme
introduces trusted third party (TTP) which is used to
validate the cheating activity of the participants [8].
Bin YU, Jin-Yuan LU, Li-Guo Fang stated
participants colluding are an important issue of
cheater
detectable
visual
cryptography
schemes(CCPVCS). Using trusted third party, a cocheating prevention visual cryptography scheme
(CCPVCS) is invented improving checking
efficiency. Checking efficiency is improved by
verifying the truth of several shares simultaneously,
with designed special verification shares. Since the
idea of the scheme is different from previous cheating
prevention schemes presented, the incurred pixel
expansion is less and the recovered secret image was
found to be good for viewing. Through they needed a
peculiar verification share and n optional verification
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shares, to detect the truth of several shares
simultaneously. Not only co-cheating has been
prevented effectively, but also the improved checking
efficiency is the added advantage. However, the
number of verification shares which kept by the third
party is large. Thus, this gave scope for more research
to explore this area more.[9]
Qin Chen proposed (n, n) threshold visual
cryptography scheme for cheating prevention to
improve the generic transformation for cheating
prevention scheme (GTCP).The cheating problem in
the GTCP is analyzed, and presented the cheating
method that is applicable to attack on the GTCP.
Then they constructed the matrices for cheating
prevention having said following features: (a) each
participant can't gain any useful information from his
shares, (b) each pixel has the same number of black
and white sub pixels in the secret share and in the
verification share, (c) one's verification image will be
recovered by stacking of his verification share and the
secret share, (d) the secret image can be revealed by
stacking all the secret shares. The analysis showed
that our scheme can avoid cheating.[10]
P.Y. Lin and C.C. Chang presented cheating
resistant and reversibility oriented visual secret
sharing scheme in 2011. They provide a novel
scheme that confirmed to security essentials such as
detecting and identifying the cheater, the method of
secret sharing presented by the authors is reversible.
That is, only legitimate participants can reconstruct
the cover image without losing any information after
recovering the secret image. To reconstruct a
distortion-free cover image is an important concern
while the cover image is as much of importance as
those of the medical, military and artistic images.
Every bit of image possesses significant information
which is sensitive for the secret image. The
reversibility is applicable to the secret-sharing
mechanism for proven security and to uphold the
fidelity of important cover image..[13]
In 2012, Horng et. al. researched new
authentication based cheating prevention scheme with
Naor-Shamir’s VC scheme. The black patterns are
incorporated with verified stacking result. Ensuring
whether a share transparency is fake or not and with
less pixel expansion. Horng revisited some wellknown cheating activities and CPVSS schemes,
categorized cheating activities into meaningful
cheating, non-meaningful cheating, and meaningful
deterministic cheating. A new cheating prevention
schemes is observed to be secure against the
meaningful deterministic cheating, which does not
depend on additional shares and incur less pixel
expansion than previous schemes. The pixel
expansion problem in many of the VSS scheme is
denoted by m. Thus, Horng et. al. presented a new
ABCP scheme using specific verified patterns
claiming that it is cheating immune with
improvements against some drawbacks which are
seen in previous schemes. They came up with a new
authentication based cheating prevention scheme
which is constructed by referring Nair–Shamir’s 2-
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out-of-n visual cryptography. This scheme follows
the black patterns especially inserted into the
verification share. It prevents cheating by checking
the number of the black patterns used in transparency
to decide transparency is fake or not. If collusive
cheaters know the secret but they cannot randomly
modify a black region with a white region or a white
region with a black region, we can say this scheme is
cheating immune[11].
The pixel expansion problem in many of the VSS
scheme is denoted by m .Random grid (RG) approach
is used to solve the pixel expansion problem. Random
grid (RG) is an approach to solve pixel expansion
problem. However, the previous VSS methods using
RGs are tied to (2, n), (n, n) and (k, n) schemes.
Xiaotian Wu, Wei Sun presented RG-based VSS
schemes for general access structures. One secret
image is encrypted into n random grids using
qualified sets can recover the secret visually. Also, a
cheat preventing method is presented and is efficient
and giving scope for more complex sharing strategies
to research further. They have designed the capacity
of RG to develop VSS schemes for general access
structures. A cheating immune method is presented as
well to provide extra ability of cheat preventing for
RG-based VSS. They presented RG-based algorithms
to share a secret image for general access structures
and cheat preventing method are formulated.
Herein, by using the presented generic method to
transform a RG-based VSS into cheating immune
scheme to prevent the attacks found in earlier. The
proposed cheat-preventing method is based on
authentication. Each participant keeps one
verification share to check the validity of other
shares. Therefore, n verification images V 1,Vn are
required. Each verification image is selected by the
corresponding participant confidentially.
Each participant can check the validity of share
provided by other participant by stacking their own
verification share with the given share together. If the
given share is authenticated, then verification result
reveals the associated verification image. For
construction of verification share, there is a constraint
on the verification shares against the (2, n) collusion
cheating attack. The verification information should
not be set on the locations subsequent black areas of
the original secret image.
The presented algorithm can further extend to
applicable for sharing colour images using halftone
technique,
colour
composition
and
colour
decomposition. Specifically, error diffusion algorithm
is followed for colour images. [14].
D. Blind authentication based
The main concept of Hu-Tzeng’s scheme uses a
generic transformation to create new transparencies
with addition of two sub pixels in each block of each
original share. Then, this scheme generates a
verification transparency for each participant such
that the stacking result of the new transparency with
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the verification transparency will reveal a verification
image. The scheme is a share authentication based
cheating prevention scheme, and it performs the
following steps with inputs S0 and S1 where S0 and
S1 are base matrices as the Nair–Shamir’s (k, n)-VSS
scheme. In the share verification phase of the secret
image, before stacking transparencies, each Pi uses
Vi +Tj to check his own verification image where Tj
is hold by participant Pj , where j represents the
identity of participant holding the verification share
and transparency.[4]
The two cheating prevention schemes presented
by Horng et al. as explained earlier suffered from
following disadvantages. One scheme requires extra
verification transparencies and the other needs larger
number of shares. Thus, a need of more secure
scheme having the cheating problem without extra
burdens by adopting multiple distinct secret images.
Tsai proposed a cheating prevention scheme in which
shares are generated by Genetic Algorithms using
qualified subset disclosing the appropriate
reconstructed secret image. Moreover, for sharing
these secret images simultaneously, the share
construction method of visual cryptography is
redesigned and extended by generic algorithms. The
security analysis shows that this scheme is secure as
compared with the earlier cheating prevention
schemes.
A more secure scheme is given to solve the
cheating attack observed in VCS is eliminating the
need of keeping extra transparencies by taking
multiple distinct secret images. Although, for sharing
the secret images at the same time, the share
generation method of visual cryptography is
redesigned and extended by generic algorithms with
provably secure scheme. This scheme avoids multiple
distinct secret images. In this way, it became a
multiple-objective optimization problem which can
be applicable for multiple secret images in k-out-of-n
scheme. The genetic algorithms (GA) to resolve the
multiple-objective optimization problem has became
an interest of many researchers. Because GA (1) has
less mathematical calculations regarding the
optimization problems, and is flexibility to combine
with different domain dependent heuristics to provide
an efficient implementation for a specific problem
.Moreover, the performance of GASCM is
improvised with regards to altering the initial
population with filtering constraint, crossover
operator with local search and mutation operator for
security[5].
De Prisco and De Santis came up with
development of two cheating immune visual secret
sharing schemes: one is simple scheme and the other
is better scheme. The simple scheme can be
applicable for (2, n)-VSS and (n, n)-VSS, where the
base matrices are C0 and C1. Each of C0 and C1 can
be partitioned into two parts: C1 and C2. Where as C1
is a column of all 0s. And C2 is set as Naor–Shamir’s
base matrix. They have also described a better (2, n)threshold scheme (for short, the better scheme). This
scheme illustrated that one pixel will be expanded to
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International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 25 Number 2- July 2015
2n+ n + 1 sub pixels. The base matrices are
represented with C0 and C1. Each of them is
partitioned into three parts: C1, C2, andC3. Where, C1
contains all the possible 2n binary column vectors
having length n. C2column contains all 0s. C3 is set
with the Naor–Shamir’s base matrix. In this manner,
they prove that this is better scheme in cheating
prevention without a complementary image; hence,
for any black or white pixel, the cheaters cannot
derive the actual value of victim’s sub pixels.[6]
In 2012, Hsu et. al. presented a verifiable visual
cryptography (VC) scheme for verifying the validity
of the shares engaged in a VC decryption process.
The idea is to stamp a continuous pattern on the
shares of the same secret image, and apart of the
pattern can be reconstructed through aligning and
stacking half of two shares together. The visual
consistent among the reconstructed patterns of any of
the pairs of shares provides evidence to the
genuineness of the shares involved in the decryption
process. Compare to the earlier noted cheating
prevention VC schemes, this scheme maintainsthe
original pixel expansion in VC scheme without cheat
prevention ability, and the share verification process
is done without recurring to any additional
verification image. This scheme provided the
verification mechanism which can easily be attached
to any VC schemes in the literature to empower
authenticated users with the ability of cheating
prevention from forged participants.
This method is developed in order to prevent
authorized user from cheating by misleading secrets
provided by malicious users in VC schemes. With
given set of shares froma same secret image that can
be constructed using any reported VC scheme, a
verification pattern stamping process is developed to
stamp an authentication pattern on the created shares
to provide with the evidence of the genuineness of the
shares. It follows the same procedure as those used
for the decoding process of a typical VC schemes, the
secret information contained in the secret image can
be revealed by fully stacking and aligning any subset
of qualified shares. Also, by aligning and stacking
half of two consecutive shares displays a part of the
verification pattern, and the consistent among the
reconstructed patterns provides the evidence about
the genuineness of the shares involved in the
decryption process. Thus, this scheme becomes
efficient yet simple. It can easily be adopted by many
of the VC schemes to avail the cheat preventing
ability against the forged intenders.[7].
In 2013, Horng et. al. revisited some well known
cheating prevention schemes present in literature of
cheating prevention and, then categorize cheating
activities into meaningful cheating, non-meaningful
cheating, and meaningful deterministic cheating.
Moreover, they analyze the research challenges in
CPVSS, and proposed a new cheating prevention
scheme which is better than the previous schemes in
the aspects of some security requirements.
Meaningful cheating:
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The cheaters create a cheating image, and their
intention is generating fake shares and making the
victim to accept the reconstructed cheating image.
However, the cheaters have to modify pixel blocks,
which can be observed by human’s vision. Horng et.
al.’s CA, CA-1, and CA-2 are found as meaningful
cheating.
Non-meaningful cheating:
The cheaters do not set a cheating image, and
their goal is to generate fake shares then make them
acceptable by participants to accept the cheating
image.
The new proposed scheme by Horng et.al. does
not rely on the verification shares. The concept of this
scheme is that a verifiable message finalized by a
participant say Pi is added into the stacking result of
Ti+Tj (i=j) ; without affecting the secret, and Pi can
validate whether Tj is fake or not from the stacking
result of Ti+Tj. This scheme is designed with the two
phases namely, share construction phase and share
recovery phase.[12]
Chih-Hung Lin presented a new cheating general
VC codebooks. With the design of hybrid codebook,
the verification images are abstracted in the shares to
check against the intended share, whether it is fake or
not. Thus, the cheating attacks can be detected. This
scheme has following advantages over the other
schemes presented so far: (i) need of keeping extra
share to check the validity of the other shares is
eliminated, (ii) the computation cost is low, and (iii)
multi-factor cheating detection is involved. The cons
for this scheme as follows: the codebook design of
VC is case-by-case, no efficient generic method of
generating (k, n) codebooks minimizing the pixel
expansion. This gives rise to design of two-factor VC
scheme with cheating prevention into case by case
design reducing time spend on stacking
transparencies[15].So, the proposed system is
focusing on this issues to be resolved with the
efficient cheating detection and prevention process.
For this system, the proposed hybrid codebook
design, such that any two shares can be used to
reconstruct the original secret and verification image.
Unlike previous techniques which were dealing with
creating separate verification shares and the shares
for participating entities using any of the codebooks,
the codebook design was the major part which used
to encrypt both the secret and to hide the verification
shares itself into the generating shares. The hybrid
codebook was designed such that the two codebooks
(2, 2) and (2, 3) were combined for encryption
process.
The concept of verification image in this system is
used for checking the validity of the shares. Any two
shares can reconstruct the verification image by
shifting the generic shares in different locations to hid
the verification images into it . Hence, this system
can detect fake shares. This hidden verification
images itself in the generic created shares removes
the need of maintaining extra verification shares with
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International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 25 Number 2- July 2015
the low computational costs. This system does well
work when cheating attack occurred by giving result
of ambiguous secret shares and verification shares
with the double-check proof by giving the ambiguous
result of verification image.
The performance of the proposed cheatingprevention schemeis evaluated on the basis of
detection ability, computation cost, contrastand
security.
TABLE I.
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT PERFORMANCE
FACTORS
Sr.
No
.
1.
2.
3.
Authors
Extra
share
Pixel
expansion
Com
putation
cost
Chea
ting
preve
ntion
Authentication Based
Blind
Authenticatio
n
YES
2(n)
Low
YES
NO
2(n +l)
Low
YES
Hu
and
Tzeng(200
7)
Authentication Based
YES
Tsai
et
al.[2007]
Blind
Authenticatio
n
YES
Blind
Authenticatio
n
NO
2(n
1)
+
Low
YES
Blind
Authenticatio
n
NO
2n þ n
þ1
Low
YES
Horng
et
al.(2006)
4.
De Prisco
and
De
Santis[2010
]
.
.6
Technique
Applied
III.
In this paper various cheating prevention schemes
in visual cryptography are studied and their
performance is evaluated on four criteria: extra share,
pixel expansion, computational cost and cheat
preventing ability. The categorization of cheating
prevention is mainly done on the basis of two
techniques share authentication based and blind
authentication based depending on the presence of
extra verification shares. All cheating prevention
schemes have been categorized in these two
techniques to evaluate the cheat preventing ability.
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[2]
[3]
2(n +2)
Low
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[4]
[5]
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YES
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
2
n-1
Qin Chen,
Wen-Fang
Pengo Min
Zhang, YiPing
Chu(2010)
Generic
transformatio
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YES
Low
7.
Y.C.Chen,
G. Horng,
D.S.Tsai(2
012)
Authentication Based
YES
2n
Low
YES
.9
Xiaotian
Wu, Wei
Sun(2012)
Authentication Based
YES
1
Low
YES
YES
Chih-Hung
Lin et al
(2014)
Both
NO
[10]
[11]
[12]
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[13]
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Low
YES
CONCLUSION
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