Using Historical Sources: A Guide for Students
With particular reference to The French Revolution and the
Tableaux de la Révolution held at Waddesdon Manor
Andrew Holland
in conjunction with Katherine Astbury
University of Warwick
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Contents
1 Introduction
2 The Nature of Sources
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What is a historical source?.....................................................................3
Categorising sources…………………………………………………………………………….3
The Variety of Sources………………………………………………………………………….5
The Hierarchy of Sources………………………………………………………………………6
3 The Critical Analysis and Evaluation of Sources
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Authenticity………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Provenance…………………………………………………………………………………………..8
Purpose…………………………………………………………………………………………………9
The Strengths and Limitations of Sources as Historical Evidence…………14
Appendix 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………….15
Appendix 2…………………………………………………………………………………………………….15
Important
Please not that this is exemplar material and represents work in progress. The final
publication will incorporate specific sections on the nuances in dealing with pictorial
sources. It will also include a much greater range of student activities that will partly link to
the requirements of the major awarding bodies. The exemplar material can be trialled by
schools and colleges with their students but it is part of a bigger package that is under
copyright to the author.
© Andrew Holland 2012
First Edition published in 2012 by the University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL
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Using Historical Sources: A Guide for Students
Introduction
This guide is designed to help you tackle different historical sources in ways demanded by various awarding
bodies and educational institutions. The focus is on:
a)
b)
c)
d)
how to interpret sources i.e. how to make sense of the content of sources
how to compare and contrast sources i.e. to establish degrees of corroboration
how to interrogate sources to establish levels of validity and reliability
how to utilise a range of sources in conjunction with contextual knowledge to solve historical
problems.
Before covering each of these task areas it is worth reflecting on the nature of historical sources. Different
sources have different features which can determine their strengths and limitations as historical evidence.
The Nature of Sources
What is a historical source?
A simple definition would be that a historical source is written or non-written information produced by a
variety of people from the past. People leave information in a variety of formats including letters, diaries,
minutes of meetings, official documents, paintings, cartoons, newspaper articles, artefacts, buildings and
the landscape. The latter is a complicated type of historical source; much of the landscape has not changed
a great deal over time. Where landscape change has occurred it has not always been the result of the
actions of people. The natural elements play an important role in determining the environment we live in.
However, generally, most of the sources historians are interested in are the products of the intentional
and/or unintentional acts of human beings
Categorising sources
1 Primary source
A primary source is one which dates to the period of time that is being studied. It is sometimes referred to
as ‘first-hand knowledge’, ‘eyewitness account’ or information that comes ‘straight from the horse’s
mouth’. Primary sources are often considered to be the most trustworthy of all sources. After all, if
someone produced an account of an event having been there to witness it this must surely make it a
valuable and reliable source for the historian.
2 Secondary source
A secondary source is one which is produced some time after the period of time that is being studied. It
usually comes in the form of a textbook, monograph or academic article. As the writer relies on other,
usually a mix of primary and secondary, sources and did not witness events first hand, secondary sources
are sometimes deemed less useful and reliable than primary sources.
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On reflection this seems to be a rather weak way of categorising sources and assessing their utility. Explain
why this might be the case in the box below
According to the historian Marwick primary and secondary sources are related by the process of historical
research (some might argue that history IS the result of research). For Marwick research means
‘diligent and scholarly investigation in all the available primary and secondary sources, conducted not
merely with the aim of ’making a book’, but in order to extend human knowledge in a particular area’ .
Thus, it is not that one type of source is more reliable than the other that is important but the
complementary relationship between them. Having said this, it is the researcher and/or historian who
engender this relationship. The standard view is that historians firstly survey the secondary material on a
given topic before embarking on the research of primary sources. This enables the historian to interpret
primary source material mainly by placing it in context. It also distinguishes what Marwick has called ‘pop
history’ from academic history.
 Pop history-the communication of knowledge, gained by other historians, about the past in a
popular way
 Academic history-the exploration of the unknown past so as to add to the sum of total knowledge
and by using primary sources
So, in summary it is important NOT to fall in to the trap of arguing that when a source is primary it must be
more reliable. Added to this is the problem of assessing whether in the first place a source is primary or
secondary. For example, is the Bible a primary or secondary source?
The Variety of Sources
There are many different types of primary source. How many can you think of? List them in the box below.
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Compare your list with that provided in Appendix 1. What do you notice? You may have more or less than what is in
the appendix. That does not matter. What is significant is that:
 There is a huge range of primary sources (what is in the appendix is not an exhaustive list).
 Anything that emerged during the period in the past that we are studying could be called a primary source.
 If Marwick’s definition of research is valid then studying all of the relevant and available primary sources for
a given period is problematic. A certain amount of selectivity has to occur which in turn poses questions
about whether history is simply the CONSTRUCT of the historian.
 There is a difference, often blurred, between a SOURCE and TECHNIQUE e.g. between how an individual
looked and how a photographer made them look; between how an event took place and how an engraver
used his/her skill to depict that event; between the words used to denote people and places and philology.
 It is possible and maybe desirable to systematically categorise primary sources. From this a sense that some
primary sources have more purpose than others emerges. In other words, there is considered to be a
hierarchy of primary sources. How useful is the concept of hierarchy in this respect?
 The variety of primary sources enables historians to dig deep to find answers to questions that mount up as
research progresses. The depth and breadth of sources also facilitates the process of corroboration, a
necessary requirement for establishing the reliability of sources. But, sometimes a range of sources does not
exist on a particular topic or the range is disrupted and incomplete. In other words, the historian hits a brick
wall and may have to resort to guesswork to fill in some of the gaps in the story. Once again, this has
implications for deciding on what actually constitutes history.
The Hierarchy of Sources
It is fairly common place for some historians to rank primary (and secondary sources) in order of
importance. Such importance is often linked to how fundamental and detailed sources are. Thus, for
example, official written sources are classified as being above non-official unwritten sources in terms of
significance.
Marwick and others tend to use the following hierarchy as framework for reference.
CATEGORY OF PRIMARY SOURCE
COMMENT
Manuscript sources are more important
than printed sources (and more
‘authentic’?)
A document written in the ‘hand’ of
someone alive in the period being
studied.
Fine but hand-written manuscripts were
often copies of earlier documents. They
may not be exact replicas of the
originals.
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Written sources (manuscript and printed)
are more important than ‘other’nontraditional sources
Archaeological artefacts, pictures, film,
oral testimony etc. are all interesting and
useful in their own right but are often
useless without contextual knowledge
gained from written sources.
True but much depends on the time
being studied and also the topic.
Official documents are more important
than private ones
In this respect official means pertaining
to government i.e. those in
authority/power.
Governments have come in different
shapes and sizes which has influenced
the type of ‘official’ documentation they
have produced. Also, there is something
of a crossover between official and
private; for example, government
ministers often kept non-official diaries
and wrote private letters which revealed
much about political developments. How
would we rank these in terms of
historical importance?
Sources that are mostly primary but
contain aspects of secondary sources
Most obviously these are contemporary
histories (i.e. histories of events written
as they are actually happening or very
shortly afterwards), autobiographies and
studies based solely on the development
of a particular argument (a polemic).
Such sources are problematic in that it is
difficult to discern opinion from fact and
judgement. The ‘intentional record’ is
mixed up with the ‘unwitting testimony’.
For example, Thomas Carlyle’s ‘The
French Revolution’ tell us as much about
Carlyle’s own political stance as it does
about the events in France in the 1790s.
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The Critical Analysis and Evaluation of Sources
Authenticity
Historians will often want to establish how authentic or genuine a source is before proceeding to
analyse and evaluate it as evidence. The work of historians in the past (or HISTORIOGRAPHY) is littered
with examples of where a lack of authenticity has been established resulting in the discrediting of the
findings and judgements made by the historian. The classic, fairly recent, example of this was where
the Oxford academic Hugh Trevor-Roper failed to check on the authenticity of the so-called Hitler
Diaries. Once the diaries were proved to be a fake, he never recovered his reputation as one of the
most eminent historians of the twentieth century.
Most of the time young historians i.e. those at school/sixth form/college ( and even undergraduates at
university) will not be involved in the authentication of sources. They are given sources to handle which
have already been validated. There may be occasions though where an independent study, extended
essay or dissertation is being carried out which does require certain sources to be authenticated. This
would require two methods to be adopted, one of which is likely to require the help of a specialist.
1 INTERNAL checking
After time historians begin to recognise that certain types of source have their own peculiar set of
characteristics. Categories of written documents may be produced using a particular style of language,
a regular type of ink and paper or in a special typeset. They are likely to be set out in a regular structure
with some kind of added, official recognition e.g. a royal seal; government departmental stamp; official
signature. This is also true of unwritten sources such as pictorial sources and objects which will have
their own set of characteristics. Internal checking has been greatly aided by advancements in science
which now allow us to examine whether paper, ink etc. can be dated to the period of time that the
document etc. seems to originate from.
2 EXTERNAL checking
This is where information contained within a source is checked against information that has already
been established as reliable and that has been gained from a range of other sources. The basic facts
relating to when?, who?, and where? Are usually focused on; it gets trickier to carry out external
checks on explanation based information (why? and how?) as this often overlaps with the motives
/intent of the author of the source. Presenting the ‘facts’ is easier than revealing an interpretation of
an event or actions of an individual in the past.
However, if external checks reveal discrepancy this does not necessarily mean that the source under
scrutiny is not authentic. It could mean that the established ‘story’ based on other supposedly
authentic sources needs to be re-evaluated as the newly discovered source might actually contain the
correct version of events.
Provenance
Knowing about the ORIGIN or provenance of sources can help us greatly in our critical analysis and
evaluation. For school/college pupils and students such information is often pre-supplied by teachers
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and awarding bodies (within examination papers that test skill in the handling of sources). Awarding
bodies usually provide information about provenance within a GOBBET sited at the top of the source
based examination exercise. This is likely to supplement other information provided at the end of each
source.
Pupils/students are strongly advised to take note of this information and use it when answering the
questions they have been set. It is often neglected but can help greatly when it comes to both
interpreting and analysing each source.
You will see that with each exercise you carry out using material from the Waddesdon collection of
prints on the French Revolution a relevant gobbet is provided at the start.
The origin of a source relates to:
 WHO produced it (authorship); what was their role/status in society? E.g. rich person/poor
person; male/female; old/young; black/white.
 WHEN it was produced (date/time) e.g. then/now.
 WHERE it was produced (region) e.g. West/East; North/South; rural/urban; France/Britain.
 HOW the source was produced (method).
In the box below explain how knowing about the provenance of a source can help you make balanced
judgements about the usefulness and reliability of sources.
PROVENANCE FACTOR
COMMENT ON IMPORTANCE
Who?
When?
Where?
How?
Purpose
When talking about the purpose of a source we interested in the motives/intentions of the author. Sources
of information exist for a number of reasons. As hinted at in the section on hierarchy, sources can be
produced intentionally or unintentionally to provide a record of the past. This point applies to both primary
and secondary sources.
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Below is an exemplar list of sources and the likely motives behind their production
TYPE OF SOURCE (and provenance)
LIKELY MOTIVE
A book written by Edmund Burke titled
Reflections on the Revolution in France,
1790
Burke wrote this book at the time of the
Revolution to express his disgust at the
actions of the revolutionaries. He was
particularly critical of the way old
institutions and traditional customs were
destroyed. Burke saw the need for
reforms but thought revolution was far
too drastic a way for change to occur. He
also thought that the French Revolution
would have a negative impact on Britain.
A letter written by Marie Antoinette to
Mercy-Argenteau, 3 February 1791
Marie-Antoinette wrote this letter to her
mentor, the former Austrian ambassador,
to express her ideas on how Louis XVI
should respond to the Revolution. She
believed for the need to ‘pardon the
people which (sic) has only been led
astray…except from the pardon the
revolutionary leaders…’ Historians often
refer to this source to show that MarieAntoinette was displaying independence
of thought and that she was doing her
best to influence how Louis should tackle
the issues facing the monarchy.
However, Louis’ 1791 declaration was
quite different from the proposals
outlined by his wife.
King Louis XVI’s declaration on leaving
Paris, 20 June 1791
This was drawn up by Louis XVI in the
months before he left Paris for Lorraine.
The declaration seems to have been
made to express Louis’ feelings about his
acceptance of the Civil Constitution of
the Clergy and the role of the
Constituent Assembly. In general, it is a
set of complaints that highlights Louis’
anger over the loss of his executive
powers.
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Prints depicting events during the
French Revolution
There are many different types of prints
depicting events during the French
Revolution. Many of them are satirical in
nature and use humour to criticise those
who held positions of authority, the
wealthy and those who attempted to
obstruct the course of the revolution.
Thus, they are mainly forms of protest
although they also reflect more generally
the ideas, values and beliefs of the
authors.
Now complete the following table making comments about likely motives for the production of the
pictorial sources listed in the left column. To do this you will need to:
a) Access the Waddesdon Collection of prints on the French Revolution to be found at
http://collection.waddesdon.org.uk/advancedSearch.page.do?collection=28
b) Search for each print using the title and accession number
c) Use the commentary material that goes with each print.
TYPE OF SOURCE (and provenance)
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LIKELY MOTIVE
Title: ‘The Patriotic Dentist’
Artist or maker: Unknown
Date: 1790
Place of Production: Paris, France
Accession number: 4232.2.4.2
See commentary for more
information on provenance and
context
 Title: 'Pas de Deux Between a
Jacobin and a Feuillant'
 Artist or maker: Unknown
 Date: January 1792
 Place of Production: Paris, France
 Accession number: 4232.2.6.7
 See commentary for more
information on provenance and
context
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 Title: a Woman Being Punished
for Showing Disrespect to Necker's
Portrait
 Artist or maker: Unknown
 Date:1789
 Place of Production: Paris, France
 Accession number: 4232.1.19.40
 See commentary for more
information on provenance and
context
Notice how knowing about the provenance of a source is likely to be helpful in establishing the motive of
the author. Often, though, it is difficult, especially with secondary sources, to establish the purpose behind
the sources. Historians are motivated to write texts and articles for a variety of reasons. These may
include:
 The need to promote a set of arguments and findings
 The desire to write popular history (and to therefore make some money!)
 The need to publish because the institution the historian works for is putting them under pressure
to do so
More generally, writers of secondary works are consciously or sub-consciously influenced by
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Their gender
Their race and/or cultural background
Their socio-economic status (past and present)
Their age
Their geographical location
The time in which they are writing
For students of history it can be a frustrating task to answer questions about the usefulness and reliability
of sources when it is not obvious that the author may be taking a particular APPROACH towards the
research of a particular historical topic. In this case a number of tasks can be carried out:
1 Basic internet research can be done on the background of historians
2 Dust jackets and the first pages of books often contain biographical material on authors
3 If the author has passed away, obituaries can be found, again on-line, which provide invaluable
information about the approaches taken by authors to their work.
Read the following obituary of the populist historian Christopher Hibbert and page 11 from his book ‘The
French Revolution’ (see Appendix 2)
What kind of approach do you think Hibbert adopted when writing about The French Revolution?
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 What aspects of Hibbert’s life were likely to have influenced the way he interpreted and
approached his study of historical characters and events involved in the French Revolution? Explain
your observations.
 How far does the extract from Hibbert’s work shown in Appendix 2 support the observations you
have made about his interpretation of and approach to studying the French Revolution?
Christopher Hibbert: Popular historian whose favourite subject was Italy by Francis
Sheppard
Source: The Guardian, Tuesday 27 January 2009
It is a well known fact that Christopher Hibbert, who has died aged 84, was the best loved and most widely
read popular historian of the latter part of the last century. "It's a well known fact that ..." was how he
would start, and embark on some wildly exaggerated and embroidered story to the delight of his friends
and family. "No, really! An extremely well known fact," he would insist.
Hibbert was not a specialist; his oeuvre encompassed topics ranging from the Battle of Agincourt (1964) to
The English: a Social History 1066-1945 (1987) to a biography of Benjamin Disraeli (2004). His fourth book,
The Destruction of Lord Raglan (1961), won the Heinemann Award for Literature. He had more than 50
books published and was, said the Times Literary Supplement, "perhaps the most gifted popular historian
we have".
His favourite subject was Italy. He wrote Benito Mussolini (1962), Garibaldi and his Enemies (1964), Anzio
and the Bid for Rome (1970), The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici (1974), biographies of Rome (1985),
Venice (1988) and Florence (1993). Throughout his career, his works, extensively researched, were always
written in a spidery longhand, which would later be transcribed by a stenographer. One such, a woman
who had led a somewhat sheltered life, was dealing with a racy passage in his The French Revolution
(1981). She stopped typing and turned to her husband: "What's pornography, pet? Because I think I'm
typing it."
Hibbert, though, was never sensational for sensation's sake. He wrote in a careful, measured and
meticulous style, not seeking to impose his personality on his prose, preferring to present the facts to the
reader, to set his story out before them, rather than to embellish his research with supposition, theory and
conjecture.
He was born in Enderby vicarage, Leicestershire, where his father was the vicar - and later canon. Hibbert
was the second of three children, and christened Arthur Raymond. He went to Radley school in Oxfordshire
and later Oriel College, Oxford, but reading history was interrupted when he was called up.
He joined the London Irish Rifles in 1943, where, on his first day in uniform, he acquired his new name. His
regimental sergeant major caught sight of the 18-year-old Hibbert, who looked even younger than his
years: "What have we got here? Christopher fucking Robin?" The name Christopher stuck.
He served as a London Irish Rifles infantry officer with the 8th Army during the Italian campaign, being
awarded the Military Cross during the attack on the German fortification on the River Senio during the
winter of 1944-45. He was wounded twice while fighting along with the partisans during the battle of Lake
Comacchio in April 1945. He then moved on to become personal assistant to General Alan Duff at allied
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force HQ in Italy. In a field hospital in Italy, he met the actor Terence Alexander - most famous for playing
Charlie Hungerford in the TV series Bergerac. Hibbert was in the next bed to a German soldier. At least one
nurse neglected to dress the German's bandages. Hibbert and Alexander tenderly did so, on the grounds
that the war was hardly this individual's fault, any more than it was theirs.
Back at Oxford, Hibbert met Susan Piggford, a fellow undergraduate, who was reading English at St Anne's
College. She was the love of his life and they married in 1948. After graduating, he began a career as a land
surveyor (1948-59) which he did not greatly enjoy. He wrote in his spare time, and, became television critic
of the now defunct Truth magazine.
His wife supported his wish to make a living out of writing even though money would inevitably be tight,
but she may have cut short his career as a fiction writer. Hibbert had written a radio play about adultery.
Sue typed it for him but omitted the raunchy and saucy parts on the grounds that it would upset his
parents if broadcast. The play was declined by the BBC. It was only some time later that his wife confessed
to that; but by then, his career as a historian had started.
His first book, The Road to Tyburn (1957), was accepted by Longman, Green. There his editor was John
Guest, who continued to be Hibbert's editor until his death in 1997. Then came King Mob (1958), on the
Gordon riots and Wolfe at Quebec (1959). It was then that he became a full-time writer.
In 1971 he produced The Personal History of Samuel Johnson. Johnson was one of his heroes, and in 1979
he edited Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson. The following year he was asked to become president of the
Johnson Society. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, he was awarded a DPhil by Leicester University
in 2000.
He enjoyed gardening, bringing home mud-caked vegetables for his wife from his "allotment" - a big corner
of a friend's garden - the Simpsons and Coronation Street. The house was crammed with cats when his
family was growing up. He was not a connoisseur of film, but liked the adventure of going to the pictures
and loved taking his children to appallingly unsuitable films. He enjoyed anything from westerns to Carry
On and was proud that he once helped Sid James park his car in Jermyn Street. Above all there was his
family, and friends, for whom he would give big parties with big drinks.
Hibbert died in Henley-on-Thames, his home since 1954. He had had just over 60 years of an
extraordinarily happy marriage. He was described by JH Plumb as a "writer of the highest ability", and by
the New Statesman as a "pearl of biographers". He could not write a dull word if he tried, suggested the
Sunday Times. He was uxorious and philoprogenitive, generous, loving, and loved. He was devoted to his
children, James, Tom and Kate, and to his three granddaughters, as they were to him.
Christopher (Arthur Raymond) Hibbert, historian, born 5 March 1924; died 21 December 2008
The Strengths and Limitations of Sources as Historical Evidence
1 Validity
Historical sources are said to have ‘strength’ if they are valid i.e. if they are relevant to the topic being
researched and if they can be validated (seen to make sense; are logical). This is obviously linked to
reliability.
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2 Reliability
If sources are reliable then they are considered to be trustworthy i.e. they are speaking the ‘truth’
(whatever that might mean!). The more reliable a source, the stronger its utility.
But how are validity and reliability established? Part of the answer to this has already been hinted at. The
answer is by looking at:
 The nature (type) of the source
 The origin of the source
 The purpose of the source
It is also important to be able to interpret the language of the source both in terms of what is explicitly and
implicitly communicated.
Students often find it difficult to interpret written sources if they are produced in a code of language that is
not familiar to them. The main solution to this is to continual practise reading, annotating and analysing
such sources until a familiarity with the language develops. Common sense will also tell you that ‘big
words’ should be researched using a dictionary. Also, it is really helpful to read contextual material as this
will help with interpretation.
Implicitly communicated messages in sources can usually be untangled by paying attention to the style of
language used and the general tone of writing. How emotive is the writing? How reasoned is the writing?
How much is emotion mixed with reason?
It is also helpful to analyse text in terms of FACT, OPINION and JUDGEMENT.
 Fact-something that is definitely the case, that can be proven to be true by appealing to a range of
evidence
 Opinion-a personal point of view not necessarily based on fact
 Judgement-usually a decision made by a person that is based on fact.
Appendix 1
The following list provides some idea of the range and diversity of primary sources used in historical
research. It is an edited version of a list taken from Arthur Marwick's Introduction to History (Open
University, 1977):
1.Records of central government: e.g. laws, charters, dispatches; Parliament, Council, Cabinet; tax and
fiscal records; local records: parish registers, police files, marrorial courts, electoral registers; records of
institutions, societies, political parties, trade unions; private business or legal records, company archives
2.Official surveys and reports (from Domesday Book to recent Royal Commissions).
3.Chronicles and histories: e.g. monastic, civic, institutional.
4.Family and personal: e.g. private letters, diaries, journals.
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5.Media records: e.g. newspapers, pamphlets, treatises, cartoons, posters, advertisements, films, videos.
6.Archaeology: e.g. coins, buildings, inscriptions, costumes.
7.Literary and artistic works: e.g. novels, plays, poetry, painting, sculpture.
8.Others: e.g. maps, photographs, oral testimony, folk songs.
Appendix 2
‘This is a narrative history of the French Revolution from the meeting of the Estates General at Versailles in
1789 to the coup d’etat of 18 Brumaire which brought Napoleon to power ten years later. It concentrates
on events and people rather than ideas, particularly upon those journees (days of popular action) which
helped to decide the course of the Revolution and upon those men and women involved in them. It is
written for the general reader unfamiliar with the subject rather than the student.’ P.11
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French Revolutionary Prints: a Guide for Students
By Claire Trévien, University of Warwick, August 2012
What is a print?
At its most basic, a print designs the process of transferring ink from a prepared surface (a metal
plate for instance) to some other material (such as a sheet of paper). A carved potato dipped in ink
and pressed against some paper would count as printing for instance. The act of pressing the
plate into paper leaves a mark of the outline of the plate into the paper, which is called the platemark.
Different Types
There are two main types: relief printing and intaglio. Most Revolutionary prints are intaglio.
Intaglio is an Italian word for engraving, and within it there are many different types of techniques
which will be outlined below, mostly using copper plates as their base.
Relief printing is when you raise the surface; intaglio is when you carve into the surface. A rubber
stamp is a type of relief printing for instance. It's less accurate than intaglio, more messy. Intaglio
on the other hand allows for many different techniques; at its most basic, varying the depth of lines
within the plate can subtly vary the shading of the image.
Types of intaglio
Engraving: uses a burin (a tool with a sharp V-shaped point) to carve into the copper plate. This
creates a very steady line, and requires great skill. It is often the tool used for texts under the
images.
Etchings: Most popular Revolutionary prints are etchings. Instead of using a burin, the copper
plate is heated with wax rubbed across its surface. Once cooled, the craftsman etches into the
wax, exposing the copper. The plate is then immersed into acid (for varying lengths of time
depending on effect wanted). The wax is impervious to acid. What this technique allows for is a
much more fluid style than engraving. It looks like a sketch and is generally less formal than
engravings. In the more sophisticated prints, an artist would first etch the plate then engrave over
it later, combining both methods.
The next two techniques discussed are often added to etchings. Just as etching looks like a pencil,
these two methods were also created to replicate other drawing and painting techniques. Indeed,
unlike drawings and paintings they could be mass produced so the techniques could be used to
replicate a famous painting for instance.
Stipple engraving: This is a technique used to look like chalk or crayon. The effect is created
thanks to an instrument called a roulette. This was a metal wheel with a variety on sharp points
that could be rolled over the waxed copper plate. Later this evolved to the use of a mace-head, a
tool you'd punch into the waxed plate. This can add a grainy texture to etchings.
Aquatint: This reproduced the effect of a watercolour. Substances, such as resin, or asphalt can
be applied to metal in two ways, the most common was to dissolve it in alcohol and pour this
combination on to the plate. The other was to apply it as a dust, then burn it into the plate.
Colour
Most Revolutionary prints were hand-coloured after the image had been pressed. Occasionally
you will find prints whose colours have been printed. One tell-tale sign of this is if you see multiple
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plate-marks, one for each time the printer added coloured ink to the recesses of the plate. If the
colour is uniformly applied with no white dots or shapes, then it is almost certainly hand-coloured.
What do the names below the image mean?
You will sometimes see directly below an image one or two names. The general convention is that
the name on the left is that of the original artist (or designer) while the name on the right is that of
the craftsman who created the printed image.
The names are often accompanied by abbreviations that provide further clues. These are some of
the most common:
del. means 'drew', indicates generally that this is the name of the artist.
exec. means 'struck out' or 'made', indicates either the publisher or the craftsman.
fecit means 'made' or 'did', often used to indicate the name of the artist who also crafted it.
inv. means 'invented', used to indicate name of original artist.
sculp. or sc. means 'carved', and has variable uses. Generally provides a clue that engraving was
employed, and often indicates craftsman.
The Text
If the letters are inverted that's almost certainly because the craftsman forgot that he has to etch or
engrave his text in reverse into the plate so that it appears correctly on the sheet. Texts are
generally engraved, unless they are very wispy and uneven, in which case it is probably an
etching!
Who produced these prints, and how were they sold?
In Revolutionary Paris, prints were predominantly sold in the quartier Saint-Jacques, the left bank
of the Seine near the Quai des Augustins, and the Palais-Royal. They were sold by street hawkers
as well as in shops and stalls. A large portion of caricatures were anonymous and a larger amount
still are without dates, making it difficult to contextualize conclusively a substantial portion of prints.
However, some names of publishers re-occur on several prints such as Basset. It is also known
that Villeneuve, who created many prints would sell these at Basset’s, which suggests that anyone
who owned the means to create prints could do so at their own discretion and sell them through
either a well-known channel, such as Basset, or through some less official stalls and hawkers.
Who bought them?
No known records have survived of purchases at Basset but we can determine through the prices,
which occasionally appear on the prints, how affordable they would have been. Etchings are
always cheaper than more sophisticated engravings as easier to produce (etchings could be
created in a matter of days, engravings, particularly on a large scale, could take months). An
etching would have been worth less than a third of a worker’s daily wage, so was not out of reach
for a member of the working class.
Some conclusions can be drawn derived from price: expensive prints would go to rich owners and
sketchier and cheap caricatures would be bought by poorer members of the population. Nothing
necessarily stops the reverse from having happened of course, poorer workers could have saved
17
up for particularly fine engravings, rich bourgeois could have a taste for caricatures. Print shops
also had a system of loan, whereby you could rent a print to adorn your wall, making them more
affordable. That they were bought goes without saying, the multiplication of publishers during the
Revolution demonstrates an insatiable demand.
An example: La Liberté (Waddesdon Manor, accession number 4232.1.76.156).
If you look closely at this print, you can see
that directly below the image there is some
small text. It reads: ‘Dessiné par Boizot /
Gravé par la Cne. Lingée fe. Lefevre’.
This makes identification easier since they
have not used obscure terms to indicate
who did what. Boizot was the artist who
designed the print (and is on the left as
convention dictates) while Citizen Lingée (a
woman, as indicated by Cne, short for
Citoyenne) the wife of Lefevre, engraved it.
Further down, below the title ‘La Liberté’ is
some more text: ‘A Paris chez Basset, rue
Jacques au coin de celle des Mathurins.’
which tells us that it is sold by Basset in his
shop. If this print were adorned in
someone’s home for instance, this would
easily allow others to know where to
purchase their own copy.
What of the techniques used? This is
sophisticated print utilizing more than one
technique (the first clue of this is in the
identification of everyone involved in its
creation, demonstrating that it is a respectable print). The text is engraved, which you can tell from
its controlled quality. The print itself is etched with stipple engraving. You can tell that it is stipple
engraving being used rather than aquatint because of its grainy (rather than watercolour) effect.
Finally, though it is hard to tell without a magnifying glass, this was printed in red, white, blue
green and brown inks.
Who do you think would have bought it?
18
The French Revolution and the Three Estates: an exercise in the
interpretation of prints
Study the print below and complete the tasks listed underneath.
Waddesdon Manor Accession number 4232.1.25.50
The print is of an etching produced in Paris, France in 1789. The author is unknown. The print shows
members of the Three Estates playing with a dice. To help you interpret the print and complete the tasks
you will need to read:
a) The background information on the Three Estates in box 1
b) The translations in box 2 of the text in the ribbons, banner and flag shown in the print
Box 1: Background information on the Three Estates
19
In the eighteenth century French society was divided into three groups referred to as the
Estates of the Realm. The first two estates were considered to be superior to the third; this
caused relations between the states to become increasingly tense.
The states were as follows:
 The First Estate. This consisted of the clergy and religious orders. By the 1780s the
First Estate was being heavily criticised as a result of plurality and absenteeism, tithe
issues, exemption from paying taxes and widening powers of censorship.
 The Second Estate. This consisted of the nobility (c350, 000) of different ranks. The
special privileges of the nobility caused resentment from the other estates. Despite
the introduction of new and more extensive taxes in the eighteenth century, such as
the vingtième in 1749, the nobility seemed to get away with paying less than the rest
of society. They were particularly adept at avoiding the most hated of taxes, the
taille.
 The Third Estate. Everyone who did not belong to either of the first two estates was
considered to be part of the Third Estate. Broadly speaking, the Third Estate was
divided into the bourgeoisie (which consisted of merchants, financiers, doctors,
writers, lawyers, civil servants) the peasantry and urban workers. The main concern
of the bourgeoisie was to have more political representation while peasants,
depending on their social standing in rural society, were simply worried about
survival. The growing band of urban workers was increasingly vociferous about
worsening living and working conditions. Of particular note were the artisan workers
(or sans-culottes) who tended to be more educated and articulate than other
workers. They became the more revolutionary and extreme members of urban
society.
Box 2: Translations of the text in the ribbons, banner and flag
 Ribbon in hand-‘Blast the scatterbrain who made me miss my turn’.
 Ribbon in hat-‘Oh well, everyone has a turn’.
 Banner-‘It is your fault. You should not have suggested the game’.
 Flag-‘Oh dear, for a long time now I’ve always lost with you’.
Tasks
1 On the picture, number and label who you think is
a)
b)
c)
d)
A (peasant?) worker
A member of the nobility
A clergyman
A lawyer
Explain your decisions in the following boxes. Indicate which estate each individual belonged to. The first
box has been completed for you to give an example of how you should proceed
Number and character
1 A lawyer (Third Estate)
Explanation
Number one seems to be a lawyer as he has a very learned,
serious look on his face. He is wearing a long black gown and tall
20
black hat. This is rather formal looking attire suggesting the
person in question is someone of authority. He is holding a
banner which reads ‘It is your fault. You should not have
suggested the game’. This kind of judgement is in line with what
someone in the legal profession might have made at the time.
However, it is not totally clear as to who he is blaming for
starting the game although it is likely to be the clergyman.
2 A clergyman (First
Estate)
3 A member of the
nobility (Second Estate)
4 A sans-culottes (Third
Estate)
2 The large drum is decorated with a royal coat of arms
a) What does the drum represent?
b) Why do you think the dice is being rolled on top of the drum?
c) Who do you think has thrown the dice? What does this symbolise? Explain your answer.
3 Why do you think the artist has drawn a hand at the top of the pole holding up the banner?
4 Why do you think the artist has drawn a spade lying on the floor?
5 What message is being conveyed by the artist about the role of the Three Estates in the lead up to the
French Revolution? Explain your answer.
Further resources
Access to other Waddesdon prints, online articles and other information about the French Revolution can
be found here:
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/french/research/revolutionaryprints/furtherresources/
Has this exercise changed the way you think about the Revolution? If so, tell us how and be in
with a chance of winning a £20 Amazon voucher in our monthly draw by going to:
21
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/french/research/revolutionaryprints/studentfeedback/
Suggested answers
1
Number and character
1 A lawyer (Third Estate)
2 A clergyman (First Estate)
Explanation
Number one seems to be a lawyer as he has
a very learned, serious look on his face. He is
wearing a long black gown and tall black hat.
This is rather formal looking attire suggesting
the person in question is someone of
authority. He is holding a banner which
reads ‘It is your fault. You should not have
suggested the game’. This kind of judgement
is in line with what someone in the legal
profession might have made at the time.
However, it is not totally clear as to who he
is blaming for starting the game although it
is likely to be the clergyman.
The clergyman is the person sitting
immediately behind the drum. He is wearing
a hat and band (collar) characteristic of
clergy apparel at the time. He looks rather
demure and slightly taken aback. The
comment attributed to him via his hat
suggests that he believes the lawyer and/or
noble are next in line to gamble their
positions in society. It also suggests that
maybe the clergy felt immune to any radical
reforms that might be imposed as the
Church was sympathetic towards the plight
of the lower classes.
3 A member of the nobility (Second Estate)
The noble sits on the chair to the left of the
picture. He looks fearful possibly as he feels
that he is about to lose all of his privileges, at
the throw of a dice, to the Third Estate. The
ribbon claims he has missed his turn at
throwing the dice to gamble on his position.
This may represent the idea that the nobility
were reluctant to accept proposed reforms
especially those that would end feudalism
and give more political representation to the
lower classes.
4 A sans-culottes (Third Estate)
The artisan is shown standing to the right of
the picture having just thrown the dice. He is
working the traditional garb of the sans22
culottes; a waistcoat and breeches that fall
just below the knees. The message on the
flag that he is holding suggests that for some
time the Third Estate has lost out to the
other two Estates. It was now time for the
Third Estate to gamble to improve their lot.
2



The drum probably represents the King (Louis XVI) and the Royal Court.
The dice is probably being rolled on the drum to symbolise that the monarchy was under threat. Its
future was dependent on the roll of a dice.
The dice is being thrown by a sans-cullottes. This suggests that the instigation for change was from
below (i.e. the Third Estate). It signifies that the Third Estate was about take away much of the
political power held by the monarch and the other two Estates.
3 It is difficult to say for sure what the hand represents. It might signify a wish for proceedings to be halted
or it might depict ‘the hand of fate’.
4 The spade is symbolic of the working classes who were part of the Third Estate. It reinforces the idea that
the figure on the right is a sans-cullotes.
5 The main aim of the artist seems to be to convey the idea that the Third Estate are about to gain much
authority and power from the other two Estates. The Third Estate was the group that had thrown the dice
first and, it is implied, scored highly indicating that the time was ripe for radical change. However, the
desire for a move towards a constitutional monarchy by the Third Estate is seen as a gamble. Success in the
‘game’ would be partly dependent on how the other players responded and how lucky they were.
23
The French Revolution and its short-term impact: an exercise in the
interpretation of historical prints (2)
Study the print below and complete the tasks listed underneath.
Waddesdon Manor Accession number 4232.1.80.164
The print is a satirical etching produced in Paris, France in 1790. The printmaker was known as A.P. and
was one of the most prolific producers of humorous prints during the period 1789-92. The print is quite
busy and complex, depicting a number of events and issues that arose in the aftermath of the fall of the
Bastille. To help you interpret the print and complete the tasks you will need to read:
a) The background information in box 1 on some of the characters shown in the print.
b) The translations in box 2 of the text shown at the top of and on the walls in the print.
24
Box 1: Background information on characters shown in the print
Seven characters are depicted in the print.
 One is a soldier in uniform, wearing a bearskin hat and epaulettes. The coats of arms
of France and Navarre appear on his hat. He carries a sword on his waist. He is
undoubtedly a member of the National Guard. The Guard was formed on the 15th
July 1789 shortly after the storming of the Bastille. The Guard was formed from the
citizens’ militia on the instruction of the new governors of Paris, the Commune. The
main aims of the Guard were to protect property against possible attacks from the
menue peuple (ordinary urban dwellers) and to defend Paris against royalist forces.
Thus, the Guard was essentially bourgeois in nature (sans-culottes were not allowed
to be members of the Guard). However, the Guard belonged to the Third Estate and
were, in the main, hostile towards the other two Estates (see exercise in
interpretation of historical prints 1 for definitions of each estate).
 Another is a peasant who is clearly supportive of the actions of the soldier.
 There are two members of the Second Estate shown; both are wearing bicorn hats
with feathers in but their predicaments are rather different.
Four other members of the Second Estate are shown in the posters on the left hand
wall. These posters depict the enemies of the Revolution who were associated with
the Bastille, and were either executed or vilified by popular opinion. The characters
are:
-The Marquis de Launey, last governor of the Bastille;
-the Baron de Besenval, who had deployed troops around Paris in July 1789;
-the Marquis de Favras, who had plotted to abduct the king;
-François Foulon, who was appointed in 1789 as Controller-General of Finances and
minister of the King's household. He was unpopular in most circles as he seemed
obsessed with accumulating personal wealth at the expense of the poor.
 There are also two members of the First Estate in the picture. The priests are both
wearing the same dress (long tailed coats and bands) but, as with the aristocrats,
their predicaments are different.
 Finally, there is a character that looks like an ape or monkey.
Box 2: Translations of the text shown at the top of and on the walls in the print
The title of the print translates as ‘With my crap they will never recover’. The sign on the left hand wall
shows the ‘Street of Liberty’. The names on the four posters below the street sign are Besenval, Foulon,
Favras, and de Launey (see Box 1). Below the lamp is a sign that says ‘The Aristocrat's Cul de Sac’ and
above the archway a notice proclaiming ‘Hôtel de Broglie, for sale’. Above the double doors located on the
25
right is another sign which reads ‘String them up on the lampposts. Benevolent Louis the restorer’. Finally,
the poster located above the right shoulder of the character on the right-hand side denotes ‘Ecclesiastical
goods for sale: house in the market of Saint-Germain and Saint-Martin. Château located in Auteuil. Ask at
the Abbey Saint-Genevieve’.
Tasks
1 On the picture, number and label who you think is/are
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The soldier
The peasant
The two members of the Second Estate
The two members of the Third Estate
The ape looking character
Explain your decisions in the following boxes. The first box has been completed for you to give an example
of how you should proceed.
Number and character
1 The soldier
Explanation
Number one is obviously the soldier as he is the only figure in
military uniform and is carrying a sword.
2
3
4
5
2 Some commentators have suggested that this print refers to a number of events of 1789. These events
are listed in the table below. What evidence is there in the print to indicate that it is depicting these
events? By the side of each event list the evidence you can find. The first box has been completed for you
to give an example of how you should proceed. You can also use your own knowledge to help you develop
your comments.
26
Event
Evidence from the print
1 The rising power of the After the formation of the National Constitutional Assembly and
Third Estate
the fall of the Bastille many of the Third Estate obtained voting
rights and greater political representation. This new found
power is depicted by the soldier defecating on an aristocrat (but,
note, not on a clergyman). The authority of the Guard is
emphasised not only by his position but also by his size; he is
much bigger than the figures in the sewer below.
2 The storming of the
Bastille
3 The renunciation of
feudal privileges
4 The nationalisation of
church property
5 Emigration
3 How and why is the peasant shown as being supportive of the action of the National Guard?
4 Why do you think the two characters in the centre and background of the picture are shown in an
alleyway called the Aristocrat’s Cul de Sac?
5 Explain the significance of the lantern and sign on the building on the right hand side of the picture.
6 What is the overall message being conveyed by the artist about the impact of the early stages of the
French Revolution? Explain your answer.
Further resources
Access to other Waddesdon prints, online articles and other information about the French Revolution can
be found here:
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/french/research/revolutionaryprints/furtherresources/
Has this exercise changed the way you think about the Revolution? If so, tell us how and be in
with a chance of winning a £20 Amazon voucher by going to:
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/french/research/revolutionaryprints/studentfeedback/
27
Suggested answers
1
Number and character
1The soldier
Explanation
Number one is obviously the soldier as he is the only figure in
military uniform and is carrying a sword.
2 The peasant
The character standing on the right of the picture appears to be
the peasant. He is shown wearing peasant type clothes; a
waistcoat or jerkin, knee-length breeches, a plain shirt and clogs.
A tricolour cockade decorates his hat. He is also represented
alongside animals (a dog, a dead rabbit and dove or pigeon) thus
reflecting a connection with the countryside.
3 The two members of
the Second Estate
The two members of the Second Estate (nobles) are shown in
separate locations. One is shown in the open sewer alongside a
member of the clergy. As it is unlikely that even a satirist would
be so ungodly as to depict a member of the clergy being
defecated on the person in the sewer suffering this indignity
must be a noble. The other noble is shown in the alley way,
sitting down and staring rather morosely at the Guard. The
nobles can also be identified by the bicorn hats with feathers in
that they are wearing.
4 The two members of
the Third Estate
The two members of the First Estate are located in the same
place as those of the Second Estate. The clergy can be identified
by their long coats and bands. The one shown in the alleyway
appears to be engaged in a manual task, probably the grinding of
cutlery or knives. This may be an attempt to indicate that the
First Estate had fallen to the status of the Third Estate. The fact
that the other clergyman is shown in the sewer being abused
from above by the Guard reinforces this idea.
5 The ape looking
character
The character on the far left is the man with simian or ape-like
features. He is staring from behind a wall marked with the street
sign 'RUE DE LA LIBERTÉ'. He seems to be watching the soldier
although it is not clear as to why he has his index finger held to
his lips. He wears a cone-shaped hat with a cockade indicating
that he is a representative of the revolutionaries.
2
Event
Evidence form the print
1 The rising power of the After the formation of the National Constitutional Assembly and
Third Estate.
the fall of the Bastille many of the Third Estate obtained voting
rights and greater political representation. This new found
28
power is depicted by the soldier defecating on an aristocrat (but,
note, not on a clergyman). The authority of the Guard is
emphasised not only by his position but also by his size; he is
much bigger than the figures in the sewer below.
2 The storming of the
Bastille
This event is represented through the wall posters showing
notables of Paris who were executed after the fall of the Bastille.
There is further reference to the execution of opponents of the
revolution in the form of decapitated heads (on the wall in the
background) and the depiction of the lantern (see answer to task
5).
3 The renunciation of
feudal privileges.
The formal dismantling of the feudal system occurred from 4 to
11 August 1789. All forms of personal service were abolished
without the demand that compensation should be paid by
peasants. The popular symbol of this renunciation of feudal
privileges (and hunting rights) was a dead dove or pigeon and a
rabbit. These can be seen lying at the feet of the peasant. The
general ‘freeing’ of members of the Third Estate is also
emphasised by the role being played by the central character in
the picture.
4 The nationalisation of
church property.
On the building above the peasant, a sign indicates a list of
churches for sale, representing the nationalisation of church
property. The inclusion of a Château highlights that many
churchmen were also seigneurs (lords holding substantial
property).
5 Emigration
In the background, at the end of the cul-de-sac, there is another
for sale sign placed on the Hôtel de Broglie. The Hôtel stands at
73, rue de Varenne (75007). The Duc de Broglie was supposedly
'a high-flying aristocrat, cool and capable of mischief'. He was
called upon by Louis XVI to serve as the general of royal troops in
the area around Paris. In July 1789 he ordered troops to march
to the centre of Paris to quell potential disorder. This appeared
to contribute to the decision to storm the Bastille. The artist links
the de Broglie reference with a for sale sign to illustrate the
Duc’s departure from Paris for Germany. Such an action would
have been part of the more widespread emigration of aristocrats
that was also occurring at this time. Within two months of the
storming of the Bastille over 20,000 émigrés had fled abroad.
3


‘How’-The peasant is showing his support for the actions of the soldier by laughing and clapping
while looking in his direction.
‘Why’-Peasants had suffered badly as a result of the bad harvests of the 1780s, particularly that of
1788. They had played no part in the build-up to the revolution until the spring of 1788. Rising
29
bread prices and falling opportunities to make extra income from the production of textiles led to
widespread discontent. After the fall of the Bastille there were rural demonstrations against taxes,
the tithe and feudal dues. The Church and large owners were associated with grain hoarding. This
was understandable as grain had been collected as part of the tithe and feudal dues. From as early
as 20 July 1789 attacks on the chateaux of the very wealthy occurred and became part of what was
called the Grande Peur (Great Fear). The peasant in the picture stands for all of the grievances
peasants had by 1789.
4 The alleyway's street sign reads 'Cul de Sac des Aristocrate' which is a kind of pun (a word with more than
one meaning); it suggests that both the aristocracy and clergy had found themselves at a political dead
end. There was nowhere for them to go as they were now at the mercy of the Third Estate.
5 The term 'to the lantern or, to the gallows', suggests that this lantern may represent the lantern of the
Place de Grève, where acts of popular justice were carried out just after the fall of the Bastille. Some who
were deemed to be 'enemies of the people' were hanged. Louis XVI is shown looking over the scene in the
form of a bust. The text, 'Benevolent Louis the restorer' shows that the general population still thought of
the King as someone who could rule in a kindly way and restore stability to France. This text provides the
image with another pun naming Louis not only as a restorer of liberty, but perhaps as a restaurateur as
well i.e. one who runs a restaurant. This could also reference establishments that served 'restorative'
bouillons (a healthy soup). In other words there was a possibility that law and order would soon be
restored under an ‘enlightened’ king.
6 The overall message is that after the fall of the Bastille the Third Estate was in a strong position. They had
taken away a large amount of authority of the other two Estates. Reforms had occurred which had
completely changed the nature of French society. However, there is indication that the artist believed that
the story was not over. Louis XVI is depicted as still having a degree of popular support and the way the
clergyman and noble are depicted in the alleyway suggests that there was a possibility of a counterrevolution. This is reinforced by the reference to emigration, the implication being that although the
nobility had fled there was a possibility they would return at a later date to take revenge.
30