UCL INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY
ARCL3035
Archaeology of Early South Asia
Course Handbook for 2015/2016
Year 2/3 Option, 0.5 unit (TERM 1)
Turnitin Class ID: 2970195
Turnitin Password: IoA1516
Course Co-­ordinator: Dr Julia Shaw
julia.shaw@ucl.ac.uk
(R. 407a, Tel 0207 679 4753)
Office hours: Monday 12-­1 pm, Wednesday 12-­1 pm, and Friday by arrangement
Teaching Session: Term 1, Fridays 12-­2 pm
Classroom: Institute of Archaeology, R.412
**Please see the last page of this document for important information about submission and
marking procedures, or links to the relevant webpages
1
OVERVIEW
Short description
The course will cover aspects of the archaeology of the Indian Subcontinent (comprising the modern
nations of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and parts of Afghanistan), from the Mesolithic / Neolithic,
through the Bronze Age, to appearance of iron in the late second, to early first millennium BC. It tracks the
development and spread of agriculture during the Neolithic, through to the rise of Harappan urbanism in
the third to second millennium BC.
The focus then shifts to the Gangetic valley, central India, and the South, with an examination of the
chalcolithic cultures that co-­existed with Harappan urbanism and continued after its decline, and the
developments that led to the emergence of the ‘second urbanisation’ during the first millennium BC.
Themes of discussion include early state formation origins of urbanism, agrarian change, metallurgy,
religion, and art, including rock-­art, texts and archaeology, and approaches to death. There is a strong
emphasis on theoretical and methodological issues, with students being encouraged to situate the South
Asian material within wider archaeological debates.
Basic Texts
Allchin, B. and F.R. Allchin, 1997. Origins of a Civilization: the Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South
Asia. New Delhi: Viking, Penguin Books India (ch. 2). INST ARCH DBM ALL
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic
Foundations. Delhi: Oxford University Press. DBMA 100 CHA (Standard;; 1 Week);; Issue Desk
IOA CHA 18 (3 hour)
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1995. The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities. Delhi: Oxford University Press. DBMA
100 CHA (1 week);; Issue Desk IOA CHA 17
Kenoyer, J. M. 1998. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press. INST
ARCH DBMA 12 KEN
Petraglia M and B. Allchin (eds.), 2007. The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia.
Inter-­disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics.
Dordrecht: Springer. INST ARCH BB 1 PET
Possehl, G. L. 2002. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.
INST ARCH DBMA 12 POS
Settar S., and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vols I-­IV. New Delhi: Manohar.
ISSUE DESK INST ARCH SET
Southworth F. 2005. The Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. London: Routledge. INST ARCH DBM SOU
Weber, S. A., and W. R. Belcher (eds.), Indus Ethnobiology. New perspectives From the Field. Lanham:
Lexington Books. ISSUE DESK IOA WEB 4
Theory and method
Johansen, P. G. 2003. ‘Recasting the foundations: new approaches to regional understandings of South
Asian archaeology and the problem of Culture history’, Asian Perspectives 42(2): 193-­206.
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asian_perspectives/v042/42.2johansen.pdf
Kenoyer, J.M. 1997. ‘Early city-­states in South Asia: comparing the Harappan phase and early historic
period’, in, D.L. Nichols, and T.H. Charlton (eds.),The Archaeology of City-­States: Cross-­Cultural
Approaches. INST ARCH BD NIC
Morrison, K. 1994. ‘States of theory and theories of states of Asia: regional perspectives on states in Asia’,
Asian Perspectives 33:183-­196. Archaeology Periodicals;;
http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/17046/AP-­v33n2-­
183-­196.pdf?sequence=1
Smith, M. 2006. ‘The archaeology of South Asian cities’. Journal of Archaeological Research 14(2): 97-­142.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/smith/2006SmithJARSouthAsianCities.pdf
2
Week-­by-­week summary (all lectures by Julia Shaw unless indicated otherwise)
Autumn Term (Fridays 12-­2 pm)
1) Oct 9
o
o
2)
Oct 16
o
o
3)
Oct 23
o
o
4) Oct 30
Introduction to the course
Regional and chronological orientation
South Asian archaeology: historiography, theory and method
Mesolithic and Neolithic of South Asia
The South Asian Mesolithic and the development of agriculture in the Northwest
Subcontinent
The Transition to Agriculture in South, North and East India
From the first villages to early urbanism in north-­west South Asia (Ken Thomas, IoA)
Beyond Mehrgarh
Towards integration
o
o
Bronze Age urbanism 1
Early Harappa: prelude to urbanism
Mature Harappa site distribution and archaeology
o
o
Bronze Age Urbanism 2
Seminar 1: Social organisation and theories of state
New directions in Mature, Late Harappa and Post Harappan archaeology
5) Nov 6
Nov 13
6) Nov 20
o
o
7) Nov 27
Reading Week -­ NO CLASS
Prehistoric art, religion and ideology
Introduction to Prehistoric Indian religion and art
Harappan art, religion and ideology
o
o
Urban decline, and the Indian Chalcolithic
Central Indian and Deccan chalcolithic (during and after Harappa)
Seminar 2 : Urban decline
o
o
Indian rock art
South Asian Rock Art Studies
Rock art in the landscape
8) Dec 3
9) Dec 11
o
o
Theory and Method
Landscape and settlement archaeology
Seminar 3: theory and method in South Asian archaeology
10) Dec18
Texts and Archaeology
Prelude to the Early-­historic period
Mortuary archaeology
o
o
3
Methods of assessment
This course is assessed by means of two essays, each of 2,375-­2,625 words, to be submitted during the
week after Reading Week (Term 1) and the beginning of Term 2 respectively.
Essay #1 is worth 40% and essay #2 is worth 60% of the final mark. If students are unclear about the
nature of an assignment, they should discuss this with the Course Co-­ordinator.
The Course Co-­ordinator is willing to discuss an outline of the student's approach to the assignment,
provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission date.
Teaching methods
The course is taught through lectures and a small number of seminars. It is highly recommended that
students attend ALL lectures and seminars.
**It is imperative that all students complete at least the key reading for each session.
Seminar-­based discussion, in particular, is untenable unless the majority of students have
completed the required reading.
Workload
There will be 17 hours of lectures and 3 hours of seminars for this course. Students will be expected to
undertake around 5-­6 hours of reading per week for the course, 5-­6 hours preparation per seminar, plus
30-­40 hours preparing for and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of not more
than 188 hours for the course.
Prerequisites
While there are no formal prerequisites for this course, a minimum expectation is that students will have
taken previous courses in archaeology for at least one year.
2
AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT
Aims
By the end of the course students will be expected to:
x have gained knowledge of the key stages in the history of South Asian archaeology and how
archaeological theory and method impacts on received models of understanding regarding
ancient political, economic and religious history
x be able to discuss current models and theories used to interpret evidence for the origins and
spread of agriculture, the origins of urbanism and complex societies, state-­formation, and socio-­
political / religious change in South Asia
x be able to assess critically current interpretations based on analysis or review of the archaeological
evidence.
Objectives
On successful completion of the course students should be able to demonstrate/have developed:
x Critical reflection of Western theoretical archaeological approaches to South Asian cultures
x Ability to draw on cross-­cultural comparisons for the origins of agriculture, urbanism and complex
socieites
x Application of knowledge acquired during earlier courses on South Asian archaeology
x an overview of the key phases and regional variation of the South Asian archaeological record.
x Understand the key research issues and debates that drive current theoretical and analytical work in
the region.
x Recognise key aspects of the material record under discussion during the course.
4
x
Be familiar with the history of archaeological research in the area and its impact on interpretative
models.
Learning outcomes
On successful completion of the course students should be able to demonstrate/have developed:
x understanding current debates on the interpretation of the South Asian archaeological record
x familiarity with varied material culture over different regions of South Asia and application to
specific arguments.
Coursework
The course is assessed by means of two essays, each of 2,375-­2,625 words. Essay #1 is worth 40% and
essay #2 is worth 60% of the final mark.
Essay 1: due Friday 20 November 2015 (Term I, week following Reading Week)
1.
‘The Mature Harappan grows out of the older, pre-­ and early-­Harappan cultures of the western Indus
borderlands’. Discuss, citing specific archaeological case-­studies.
2.
To what extent does the organisation of Harappan civilisation resemble or differ from other examples
of ‘pristine’ states? What is the significance of such comparisons to the debates about whether
Harappan civilisation was a chiefdom or a state?
3.
Discuss the major theories regarding the emergence and spread of agriculture in the South Asian
Neolithic, with particular reference to the dynamic between imported crop packages and locally
domesticated species. Focus your answer on at least two of the key zones of agricultural development
(Northwest frontier region, Gangetic valley, and South India).
4.
To what extent was the Harappan ‘civilisation’ unified by a single identifiable ‘Harappan’ material-­
culture idiom? Discuss with reference to the 'uniformity v. diversity' debate.
5.
Describe and assess the internal and external trade patterns of the Harappans. How important were
they to Harappan society?
6.
Has the ‘urban’ element of Harappan ‘civilisation’ been over-­emphasised? Illustrate your answer with
reference to specific archaeological examples and case-­studies.
Essay 2: due Monday 11 January 2016 (first day of Term II)
1.
Discuss the impact of ‘culture history’, processualism and post-­processualism as epistemological
paradigms on the understanding of complex society in ancient India. How appropriate are these labels
to the South Asian context?
2.
What are the relative merits and weaknesses of the environmental, climatic and social explanations for
the decline of the Harappan civilisation? In your answer, draw on specific archaeological case-­studies.
3.
How satisfactory are theories that stress the element of continuity between prehistoric religion and
later historically attested forms of classical Indian culture (including religion, systems of healing and
yoga)? Illustrate your answer with reference to specific archaeological examples from at least two of
the following contexts: i) prehistoric rock-­shelters and related sites;; ii) the Chalcolithic of central India
and the Deccan;; iii) Harappan urbanism.
5
4.
To what degree have innovations in landscape and survey archaeology in South Asia altered scholarly
understanding of either: a) state formation and urbanisation;; or b) history of ritual and religions;; or c)
history of land-­use and food change. Are there any special regionally specific considerations when it
comes to designing a landscape-­based archaeological project for South Asia?
5.
The understanding of states in ancient India is closely related to the history of archaeological thought
in South Asia, and also reflects the prevalence of Colonial and Orientalist modes of interpretation.
Discuss.
6.
Comment on the contemporary scholastic position regarding the question of the ‘Aryans’ and Vedic
archaeology? How understanding progressed from nineteenth century perceptions based on the
literary and archaeological record?
If students are unclear about the nature of an assignment, they should discuss this with the Course Co-­
ordinator.
Students are not permitted to re-­write and re-­submit essays in order to try to improve their marks.
However, students may be permitted, in advance of the deadline for a given assignment, to submit for
comment a brief outline of the assignment.
The Course Co-­ordinator is willing to discuss an outline of the student's approach to the assignment,
provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission date.
Word counts
The following should not be included in the word-­count (2,375-­2,625): title page, contents pages, lists of
figure and tables, abstract, preface, acknowledgements, bibliography, lists of references, captions and
contents of tables and figures, appendices.
Penalties will only be imposed if you exceed the upper figure in the range. There is no penalty for using
fewer words than the lower figure in the range: the lower figure is simply for your guidance to indicate the
sort of length that is expected.
6
3
SCHEDULE AND SYLLABUS
Teaching schedule
Classes will be held on Fridays 12-­2 pm in Room 412 (IoA).
Except in the case of illness, the 70% minimum attendance requirement applies to the main
lecture/seminars.
Syllabus
The following is an outline for the course as a whole, and identifies essential and supplementary readings
relevant to each session. Information is provided as to where in the UCL library system individual readings
are available;; their location and Teaching Collection (TC) number, and status (whether out on loan) can
also be accessed on the eUCLid computer catalogue system. For each lecture / seminar, students are
required to read at least five of the listed ‘Key readings’ which are considered essential to keep up with the
topics covered in the course. In most cases, copies of individual articles and chapters identified as essential
reading are in the Teaching Collection in the Institute Library (where permitted by copyright) or are
available online
_______________________________________________________________________
1:
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE (9 Oct)
LECTURE 1.1
Regional and chronological orientation
Geography, climate, regional and chronological themes. Language groupings. The South Asian ‘prehistoric’
Key reading
Allchin, B. and F.R. Allchin, 1997. Origins of a Civilization: the Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South
Asia. New Delhi: Viking, Penguin Books India (ch. 2). INST ARCH DBM ALL
Allchin, F.R. (ed.), 1995. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (esp. chs. 1-­2, for an introduction to South Asian
archaeology, and environmental context). INST ARCH DBM ALL (1 week), or Issue Desk IOA
ALL 5 (1 hour)
Fuller, D. Q. 2007. ‘Non-­human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia’, in M.
Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.), The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia.
Springer, Netherlands. 393-­443. INST ARCH BB 1 PET;;
http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/Fuller%20in%20Petraglia&Allchi
n.pdf
McMahon, A and R., 2007, ‘Language families and quantitative methods in South Asia and elsewhere’, in M.
Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.), The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia.
Springer, Netherlands. INST ARCH BB 1 PET
Further reading
Possehl, G. and P.C. Rissman 1992. ‘The chronology of prehistoric India: from earliest times to the Iron
age’, in R.W. Ehrich (ed.). 1992. Chronologies of Old World Archaeology. University of Chicago
Press. ISSUE DESK IOA EHR (3 hour)
Southworth, F. C. 2005. The Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. London: Routledge. INST ARCH DBM
SOU
Southworth, F. C., and D.W. McAlpin, 2013. ‘South Asia: Dravidian linguistic history’, in The Encyclopedia of
Global
Human
Migration.
Wiley.
Available
online
(UCL
Login
required):
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm830/pdf
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7
LECTURE 1.2
South Asian archaeology: historiography, theory and method
History of South Asian archaeology. Indology, colonialism and Orientalism. Post-­colonial and nationalistic
archaeology;; theoretical paradigms (to be discussed in more detail in week 9).
Key Reading
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic
Foundations. Delhi: Oxford University Press. (esp. pp. 1-­40). INST ARCH DBMA 100 CHA or
Issue Desk IOA CHA 18
Chakrabarti, D. K. ‘The development of archaeology in the Indian subcontinent’, World Archaeology 13 (3):
326-­43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/124387
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1997. Colonial Indology: Sociopolitics of the Ancient Indian Past. Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal. INST ARCH DBMA 200 CHA (1 week)
Trautmann, T.R, and C.M. Sinopoli. 2002. ‘In the beginning was the word, excavating the relations
between history and archaeology in South Asia’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
Orient 45 (5). http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632874
2:
MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF SOUTH ASIA (Oct 16)
LECTURE 2.1
The South Asian Mesolithic and the development of agriculture in the
Northwest Subcontinent
Focussing on the seventh to third millennia BC, with particular attention to early developments in
agriculture. The picture here is a complex mosaic of different patterns in different regions. It included the
introduction of important crops from elsewhere, such as the Near East, as well as locally domesticated
species in several parts of India. We will focus in particular on the emergence of social complexity in the
regions to the west of the Indus River. Unfolding over a period of several millennia, these early
developments provide the cultural background for the emergence of Mature Harappan urbanism during the
Bronze Age, to be discussed later in the course.
Key reading
Agrawal, D. P. 1982. The Archaeology of India. Copenhagen: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies:
Monograph Series No. 46, ch. 5. Rock Art. INST ARCH DBMA 100
Allchin, B and R. Allchin, 1997. Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Geography of South Asia:
New Delhi: Viking, pp. 88-­112, 125-­140. INST ARCH DBM ALL, TC 2219
Kennedy, Ken R. 2000. God-­Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology in South Asia: Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press, chs. 9-­11 (pp. 189-­241). INST ARCH DBM KEN
Meadow, R. 1996. ‘The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in northwestern South Asia’, in
D.R. Harris (ed.), The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. London: UCL
Press, 390-­412. INST ARCH HA HAR;; Issue Desk IOA HAR 8 (3 hour)
Shaffer, J.G. 1992. ‘The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand traditions: Neolithic through Bronze Age’,
in R. Ehrich (ed.), Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd edition), volume 1. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 441-­464. ISSUE DESK IOA EHR (3 hour)
8
Further reading
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History;; Delhi: Oxford University Press. Ch. 3, pp. 91-­116,
and ch. 4, pp. 117-­150. INST ARCH DBMA 100 CHA
Fairservis, W. A. 1971, The Roots of Ancient India: The Archaeology of Early Indian Civilization. London:
Allen and Unwin, 82-­101. INST ARCH DBMA 100 FAI (1 week; Standard)
Possehl, G. L. 2002. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective;; Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.
Ch. 2 (in part), pp. 23-­40. INST ARCH DBMA 12 POS
Settar, S. and R. Korisettar (eds.), 2002. Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. New Delhi: Manohar, vol. 1,
Chapters on Mesolithic and Neolithic. INST ARCH HA HAR
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LECTURE 2.2
The Transition to Agriculture in South, North and East India
We will examine the latest evidence for early agriculture in India and Pakistan. The picture here is a
complex mosaic different patterns in different regions. It included the introduction of important crops from
elsewhere, such as the Near East, as well as locally domesticated species in several parts of India. In many
cases crops that were important in the Neolithic have been largely lost and forgotten by more recent
farmers as other species, including some from Africa, came to be favoured.
Key reading
Boivin, N. 2004. ‘Landscape and cosmology in the South Indian Neolithic: new perspectives on the Deccan
ashmounds’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 14(2): 235-­57. Available online:
http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/web_project/pubs.html
Fuller, D.Q. 2011. ‘Finding plant domestication in the Indian Subcontinent’, Current Anthropology 52(S4),
S347-­S362. doi:10.1086/658900.
Singh, P. 2001. ‘The Neolithic Culture of Northern and Eastern India’, in S. Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.),
Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume I. Prehistory, Publications of the Indian Council for
Historical Research. New Delhi: Manohar, 127-­15. INST ARCH DBMA 100 SET (1 week)
Fuller, D.Q., and C. Murphy, 2014. ‘Overlooked but not forgotten: India as a center for agricultural
domestication’, General Anthropology, 21 (2): 4-­8. doi:10.1111/gena.01001
Fuller, D.Q., G. Willcox, and R.G. Allaby, 2012. ‘Early agricultural pathways: moving outside the 'core area'
hypothesis in Southwest Asia, Journal of Experimental Botany, 63 (2), 617-­633.
doi:10.1093/jxb/err307
Fuller, D. Q and L. Qin, 2009. ‘Water management and labour in the origins and dispersal of Asian
rice’, World Archaeology 41(1): 88-­111 [with a focus on the section on India]. INST ARCH
Periodicals;; http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00438240802668321
Further/ alternative readings
Further reading on South Indian ash mound tradition here:
http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/web_project/pubs.html
9
Boivin, N., R. Korisettar, and D.Q. Fuller, 2005. ‘Further research on the Southern Neolithic and the
Ashmound Tradition: the Sanganakallu-­Kupgal Archaeological Research Project interim report’, Journal of
Interdisciplinary Studies in History and Archaeology (Allahabad) 2(1): 63-­92. Available online in four
parts: http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/web_project/pubs.html
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History;; Delhi: Oxford University Press, ch. 6, pp. 205-­
261. INST ARCH DBMA 100 CHA
Chattopadhyaya, U. C. 1996. ‘Settlement pattern and spatial organization of subsistence and mortuary
practices in the Mesolithic Ganges valley, North-­Central India’, World Archaeology 27: 461-­476.
http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/stable/124936
Fuller, D. Q. 2002. ‘Fifty years of archaeobotanical studies in India: laying a solid foundation’, in S. Settar
and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume III. Archaeology and Interactive
Disciplines. Delhi: Manohar, 247-­363. INST ARCH DBMA 100 SET (1 week);; Downloads
available from: http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/downloads.htm#syntheses
Fuller, D.Q. 2003. ‘An agricultural perspective on Dravidian historical linguistics: archaeological crop
packages, livestock and Dravidian crop vocabulary’, in P. Bellwood, and C. Renfrew (ed.), Examining
the Language/Farming Dispersal. INST ARCH HA Qto BEL
Fuller, D. Q. 2005. ‘Ceramics, seeds and culinary change in prehistoric India’, Antiquity 79 (306): 761-­777.
Available online: http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/web_project/pubs.html
Fuller, D.Q. 2006. ‘Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia: a working synthesis’. Journal World
Prehistory 20: 1-­86. http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/JWP20.pdf
Fuller, D. Q. 2008. ‘ASIA, SOUTH: Neolithic Cultures’, in D. Pearsall (ed.), Encyclopedia of Archaeology,
Springer, 56-­768.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123739629002119
Fuller, D.Q., G. Willcox, and R. G. Allaby, 2011. ‘Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins:
arguments against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East’, World
Archaeology 43:4, 628-­652.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/00438243.2011.624747#tabModule
Meadow, R. and A.K. Patel, 2001. ‘From Mehrgarh to Harappa and Dholavira: prehistoric pastoralism in
North-­Western South Asia through the Harappan period’, in S. Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian
Archaeology in Retrospect. II. Proto-­History. New Delhi: Manohar, 391-­408. INST ARCH DBMA
100 SET.
Meadow, R. and A.K. Patel, 2003. ‘Prehistoric Pastoralism in Northwestern South Asia from the Neolithic
through the Harappan Period’, in S.A Weber and W.R. Belcher (eds.), Ethnobiology and the Indus
Civilization. An Interdisciplinary Approach to Subsistence, Environment and Change. Lanham:
Lexington Books. INST ARCH DBMA 12 WEB;; TC 2319.
Saraswat, K. S. 2004. ‘Plant economy of early farming communities’, in B.P. Singh (ed.), Early Farming
Communities of the Kaimur (Excavations at Senuwar). Jaipur: Publication Scheme, 416-­535. INST
ARCH DBMA 14 SIN
10
3:
FROM THE FIRST VILLAGES TO EARLY URBANISM IN NORTH-­WEST SOUTH ASIA (Oct
23)
Professor Ken Thomas, Institute of Archaeology
We will explore approaches to the development of social complexity in the later Neolithic, Chalcolithic and
pre-­Harappan Early Bronze Age periods in what is today Pakistan, with special reference to regions to the
west of the Indus River (Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and the Punjab – but see also the paper by
Ajithprasad (2002) on Gujarat.
The lecture is organised into two parts:
i. Beyond Mehrgarh. Settlement and cultural variability in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases on
the borderlands of northern South Asia. The principal focus will be on the field work by the
speaker and colleagues in the Bannu basin and the Gomal plain. Emphasis will be on the sites,
their material cultural remains and chronology.
ii. Towards integration. Locus, scale, mode and tempo in the emergence of regional identities and
social complexity in northwest South Asia up to the earliest occupation phase at Harappa. This
part of the lecture will be more theoretical and consider models for the expansion of settlement
from the hills and foothills onto the alluvial plains.
Key Reading
Jarrige, J.F. 1993. ‘Excavations at Mehrgarh: their significance for understanding the background of the
Harappan civilization’, in G. Possehl (ed.), Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective. Warminster,
U.K: Aris and Phillips Ltd, 79-­84. Issue Desk IOA POS4 (3 hour)
Kenoyer, J.M. 1991. ‘The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India’, Journal of World Prehistory
5: 331-­385. INST ARCH PERS
Petrie, C., F. Khan, R. Knox, K. Thomas, and J. Morris, 2010. ‘The investigation of early villages in the hills
and on the plains of western South Asia’, in F. Khan, J.R. Knox, K.D. Thomas, C.A. Petrie and J.C.
Morris (eds.), Sheri Khan Tarakai and Early Village Life in the Borderlands of North-­West Pakistan.
Oxford: Oxbow Books, 7-­28. DBMA11 Qto KHA
Petrie, C.A. and K.D. Thomas, 2012. ‘The topographical and environmental context of the earliest village
sites in western South Asia’, Antiquity 86: 1055-­1067.
http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/086/ant0861055.htm
Shaffer, J.G. 1992. ‘The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic through Bronze Age’,
in R. Ehrich (ed.), Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd edition), volume 1. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 441-­464. IA ISSUE DESK IOA EHR (3 hour)
Thomas, K.D. 2003. ‘Minimizing risk? Approaches to pre-­Harappan human ecology on the NorthWest
margin of the Greater Indus system’, in S. Weber, and W.R. Belcher (eds.), Indus Ethnobiology:
New Perspectives from the Field . Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 397-­429. INST ARCH
DBMA 12 WEB
Further reading
Ajithprasad, P. 2002. ‘The pre-­Harappan cultures of Gujarat’, in S. Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian
Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume II: Protohistory, Archaeology of the Harappan Civilization.
New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 129-­158. INST ARCH DBMA 100 SET
11
Kenoyer, J.M. and R.H. Meadow, 2000. ‘The Ravi Phase: a new cultural manifestation at Harappa’, in M.
Taddei and G. de Marco (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1997, volume 1. Rome: Istituto Italiano
per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 55-­76. INST ARCH DBM TAD
Khan, F., J.R. Knox, and K.D Thomas, 1991. Archaeological Explorations and Excavations in Bannu
District, North-­West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Occasional Paper of the British Museum No. 80.
London: British Museum (pp. pp. 151 + viii). INST ARCH DBMA 11 KHA
Khan, F., J.R. Knox, K.D. Thomas, C.A. Petrie, and J.C. Morris, 2010. ‘Sheri Khan Tarakai and early village
life in western South Asia’, in F. Khan, J.R. Knox, K.D. Thomas, C.A. Petrie and J.C. Morris (eds.),
Sheri Khan Tarakai and Early Village Life in the Borderlands of North-­West Pakistan. Oxford:
Oxbow Books, 407-­418. INST ARCH DBMA11 Qto KHA;; Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/3686046/Khan_F._Knox_J.R._Thomas_K.D._Petrie_C.A._a
nd_Morris_J.C._2010_._Sheri_Khan_Tarakai_and_early_village_life_in_the_north-­
west_Pakistan_Petrie_C.A._ed._._Bannu_Archaeological_Project_Monographs_-­
_Volume_1
Meadow, R.H. 1996. ‘The origin and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in South Asia’, in D.R. Harris
(ed.), The Origin and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 390-­412. INST ARCH HA HAR
Petrie, C.A.,J. Morris, F. Khan, J.R. Knox, and K.D. Thomas, 2007. ‘The dynamics of late prehistoric ceramic
production and distribution in the Bannu and Gomal Regions, NWFP, Pakistan’, South Asian Studies
23: 75-­94. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02666030.2007.9628669
Thomas, K.D. 1999. ‘Getting a life: stability and change in social and subsistence systems on the North-­
West Frontier, Pakistan, in later prehistory’, in C. Gosden and J. Hather (eds.), The Prehistory of
Food: appetites for change. One World Archaeology 32. London: Routledge, 306-­321. INST
ARCH HA GOS
Thomas, K.D., J.R. Knox, and F. Khan, 1997. ‘Technology transfer and culture change: an example from
northwest Pakistan’, in R. Allchin, and B. Allchin (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1995, volume 1.
New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing, 237-­51. INST ARCH DBM ALL
4:
BRONZE AGE URBANISM 1(Oct 30)
LECTURE 4.1
Julia Shaw (IoA)
Early Harappa: prelude to urbanism
We will examine the key phases and manifestations of the Early Harappan, and discuss theories regarding
its relationship to urban culture of the subsequent Mature Harappan (c. 2500 BC)
Key reading
Gupta, S.P. 1978. ‘Origin of the Form of Harappa Culture: A New Proposition’, Puratattva 8: 141-­146.
SOAS library
Kenoyer, J.M. and Meadow, R.H. 2000. ‘The Ravi Phase: a new cultural manifestation at Harappa’, in M.
Taddei and G. de Marco (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1997, volume 1. Rome: Istituto Italiano
per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 55-­76. INST ARCH DBM TAD
12
Possehl, G.L. 1999. ‘Conclusions: the Early Harappan stage, a prelude to civilization?’, in Indus Age: The
Beginnings. New Delhi : Oxford and IBH, 713 – 725. INST ARCH DBMA 100 POS (Standard)
Possehl, G. 2002. ‘The Early Harappan’, in K. Paddaya (ed.), Recent Studies in Indian Archaeology. New
Delhi : Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 112-­128. INST ARCH DBMA 100 PAD (Standard;; 1
Week)
-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­
LECTURE 4.2
Harappan urbanism: site distribution and archaeology
We will examine the key sites and material culture associated with the urban manifestation of the Mature
Harappan (c. 2500 BC).
Key reading
Allchin, B. and R. 1997. Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Geography of South Asia. New
Delhi: Viking, chs. 2-­4. ISSUE DESK IOA ALL 6 (3 hour)
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, ch. 5. INST
ARCH DBMA 100 CHA
Chakrabarti, D.K.1995. Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities (a guide to the important sites). INST ARCH
DBMA 100 CHA (1 week);; Issue Desk IOA CHA 17 (3 hour)
Kenoyer, J.M.1998. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press
University Press. INST ARCH DBMA 12 KEN
Possehl, G.L. 2002. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press
(contains useful introductions to the key sites and topics of debate). INST ARCH DBMA 12 POS;;
Issue desk IOA POS 6 (3 hour)
Settar, S. and R. Korisettar (eds.), 2002. Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Publications of the Indian
Council for Historical Research. New Delhi: Manohar, Vol 2 (see especially chapter by Possehl)
INST ARCH DBMA 100 SET (1 week)
Further reading
Fairservis, W. 1967. The Origin, Character and Decline of an Early Civilization. New York: American
Museum of Natural History, Novitiates No. 2302. DBMA 100 FEI 3 (3 hour)
Lal, B.B. and S.P. Gupta (eds.), 1984. Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Books & Books. INST
ARCH DBMA 11 Qto WHE
Marshall, J. (ed.), 1931. Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization Vol. 1. London. Probsthain. INST ARCH
DBMA 12 Qto MAR
13
5:
BRONZE AGE URBANISM 2 (Nov 6)
5.1:
SEMINAR (1)
Julia Shaw, IoA
Social organisation and theories of state
In this seminar, we will examine major debates including the issue of internal and external trade, unity v.
regionalism, the centralized (or not) nature of the Harappan ‘state’ (taking into account for example
approaches to water management and irrigation), and the question as to whether there has been over-­
emphasis on the element of urbanism in archaeological accounts of Harappan culture.
Key reading (to be divided amongst the class)
The ‘State’ question
Jacobsen, J. 1986. ‘The Harappan Civilization: an early state’, in J. Jacobson (ed.), Studies in the
Archaeology of India and Pakistan. Delhi: Oxford University Press University Press/IBH/AIIS, 137-­
173. Issue Desk IOA JAC 1;; TC 2823
Kenoyer, J.M. 1994. ‘The Harappan state: was it or wasn’t it?’, in J.M. Kenoyer (ed.), From Sumer to
Meluhha: Contributions to the Archaeology of South and West Asia. Madison: Wisconsin
Archaeological Reports, vol. 3, 71-­80. INST ARCH DBMA 100 DAL
Kenoyer, J.M. 1997. ‘Early city-­states in South Asia: comparing the Harappan phase and early historic
period’, in D.L. Nichols, and T.H. Charlton (eds.), The Archaeology of City-­States: Cross-­Cultural
Approaches. INST ARCH BD NIC
Miller, H. 2006. ‘Water supply, labor organization and land ownership in Indus floodplain agricultural
systems’, in C. Stanish and J. Marcus (eds.), Agricultural Strategies. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology
Press. INST ARCH HA MAR;; Available online:
http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/~w3hmlmil/miller.chapter.pdf
Possehl, G. L. 1997. ‘The transformation of the Indus Civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory 11: 425-­471.
INST ARCH PERS. reprinted in (2000) Man and Environment 24(2): 1-­34. INST ARCH PERS
Possehl, G.L. 1998. ‘Sociocultural complexity without the State: the Indus Civilization’, in G.M. Feinman,
and J. Marcus (eds.), Archaic States. SAR Press, 261-­291. INST ARCH BD FEI (1 Week);; ISSUE
DESK IOA FEI 3 (3 hour)
Vidale, M. and H.M. Miller, 2000. ‘On the development of Indus technical virtuosity and its relation to social
structure’, in M. Taddei and G. de Marco (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1997, volume 1. Rome:
Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 115-­132. INST ARCH DBM TAD
Harappan Trade and External Contacts
Dani, A.H. 1986. ‘Bahrain and the Indus Civilization’, in H. al Khalifa and M. Rice (eds.), Bahrain Through
the Ages Vol. 1: The Archaeology. London: KPI, 383-­388. Issue Desk IOA BAH 1 (3 hour)
Hoffman, B., and H. Miller, 2009. ‘Production and consumption of copperbase metals in the Indus
civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory 22(3): 237-­264.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25801273
Lal, B.B. and S.P. Gupta (eds.), 1984. Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Books & Books (various
chapters). INST ARCH DBMA 11 Qto WHE
14
Lamberg-­Karlovsky, C.C. 1972. ‘Trade mechanisms in Indus-­Mesopotamian interrelations’, Journal of the
American Oriental Society 92: 222-­229. http://www.jstor.org/stable/600649
Possehl, G. 1996. ‘Meluhha’, in J.E. Reade (ed.), The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul/British
Museum (also see other chapters in same volume). INST ARCH DBMA REA
Rao, S.R. 1986. ‘Trade and cultural contacts between Bahrain and India in the 3rd and 2nd millennia’, in H.
al Khalifa, and M. Rice (eds.), Bahrain Through the Ages Vol. 1. the Archaeology. London: KPI, 376-­
382. Issue Desk IOA BAH 1 (3 hour)
General models of state in ancient India
Johansen, P.G. 2003. ‘Recasting the foundations: new approaches to regional understandings of South
Asian archaeology and the problem of culture history’, Asian Perspectives 42(2): 193-­206.
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asian_perspectives/v042/42.2johansen.pdf
Kulke, H. 1995. ‘The study of the state in pre-­modern India’, in H. Kulke (ed.), The State in India 1000-­
1700. Delhi: Oxford University Press: 1-­47. INST ARCH DBMA 200 KUL (Standard and 1 week
loan).
Morrison, K. 1994. 'States of theory and states of Asia: regional perspectives on states in Asia', Asian
Perspectives 33(2): 183-­196 (excellent historiographic account).
http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/17046/AP-­v33n2-­
183-­196.pdf?sequence=1
Sinopoli, C. 1994. ‘The archaeology of empires’, Annual Review of Anthropology 23:159-­180. TC# 2439;;
Anthropology Periodicals (Science Library)
Sinopoli, C. 2003. The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 1350-­1650.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (chs 1-­3). DBMA 100 SIN
Smith, M. 2006. ‘The archaeology of South Asian cities’, Journal of Archaeological Research 14(2):97-­142.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/smith/2006SmithJARSouthAsianCities.pdf
Further / background reading
Chakrabarti. D.K. 1990. The External Trade of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. INST
ARCH DBMA 12 CHA
Kenoyer, J.M. 1991. ‘Urban process in the Indus tradition: a preliminary model from Harappa’, in R.H.
Meadow (ed.), Harappa Excavations 1986-­90, Madison: Prehistory Press.
Potts, D.R. 1991. The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. INST ARCH DBF
POT
Ratnagar, S. 1981. Encounters: the Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization. Delhi: Oxford University
Press 2nd edition (2004) published as Trading Encounters from the Euphrates to the Indus. INST
ARCH DB RAT (3 hour)
Ratnagar, S. 1991. Enquiries into the Political Organization of Harappan Society. Pune: Ravish Publishers.
INST ARCH DBMA 12 RAT
15
Scarre, C. and B. Fagan, 1997. Ancient Civilizations. New York: Longman. Chapters 1-­2. INST ARCH
1346;; also INST ARCH BC 100 SCA (ISSUE DESK)
Service, E. R. 1975. Origins of the State and Civilization: The Process of Cultural Evolution. Chapters 1-­4,
16-­17. New York: Norton. SCIENCE: ANTHROPOLOGY D 70 SER
Wright, H. T. 1986. ‘The evolution of civilizations’, in D. J. Meltzer, D. D. Fowler, and J. A. Sabloff (eds.),
American Archaeology, Past and Future: A Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology
1935-­1985, pp. 323-­365. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institute. INST ARCH DE MEL 12 (ISSUE
DESK)
-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­
LECTURE 5.2 – New directions in Mature, Post and Late Harappan archaeology
Key Reading
Chase B., D. Meiggs, P. Ajithprasad , and P.A. Slater, 2014. ‘Pastoral land-­use of the Indus Civilization in
Gujarat: Faunal analyses and biogenic isotopes at Bagasra’, Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (1), 1-­15.
Available online: doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2014.04.005
Fuller D.Q, and M. Madella, 2001. ‘Issues in Harappan archaeobotany: Retrospect and prospect’, in S.
Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. II. Protohistory. New Delhi:
Manohar, 317-­90. DBMA 100 SET (1 week)
Fuller, D. Q. 2001. ‘Harappan seeds and agriculture: some considerations’, Antiquity 75: 410-­414.
http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/075/Ant0750410.htm
Mughal, M. R. 1990. ‘The proto-­historic settlement patterns in the Cholistan Desert’, in M. Taddei (ed.),
South Asian Archaeology 1987. Rome: IsMeo, 143-­56. INST ARCH DBM TAD (Standard);
Stores
Petrie, C.A. and R.N. Singh, 2008. 'Investigating cultural and geographical transformations from the
collapse of Harappan urbanism to the rise the great Early Historic cities: a note on the Land, Water
and Settlement Project', South Asian Studies 24(1): 37-­8.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02666030.2008.9628680
Further reading
Mughal, M. R. 1982. ‘Recent archaeological research in the Cholistan Desert’, in G.L. Possehl (ed.),
Harappan Civilization, a Contemporary Perspective. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. INST
ARCH DBMA 12 POS;; Issue desk IOA POS 6 (3 hour)
Rao, S.R., 1982. ‘New light on the Post-­Urban (Late Harappan) phase of the Indus Civilization, India’, in
G.L. Possehl (ed.), Harappan Civilization. New Delhi, 353-­359. ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTOS RA
595 POS
Singh, R.N., C.A. Petrie, P.P. Joglekar et al., 2013. ‘Recent excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: a
preliminary report’, Man and Environment 38 (1) 32-­54. Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/3849781/Singh_R.N._Petrie_C.P._Joglekar_P.P._Neogi_S.
_Lancelotti_C._Pandey_A.K._and_Pathak_A._2013_._Recent_Excavations_at_Alamgirp
ur_Meerut_District_A_Preliminary_Report
16
_____________________________________________________________________
READING WEEK (Nov 13) NO CLASS
_____________________________________________________________________
6:
PREHISTORIC ART, RELIGION AND IDEOLOGY (Nov 20)
This session, arranged roughly into two parts, provides a brief introduction to Indian religious frameworks,
moving on to examine in more detail the issue of prehistoric art, religion and ideology, from the upper
Palaeolithic through the Bronze Age and Chalcolithic. In the second half we will examine examples of
Harappan sculpture, terracottas and seals, and also evidence for religious architecture including the role of
water / water architecture in Harappan ideology. Consideration will also be given to theories that have
stressed the element of continuity between prehistoric and later forms of Indian religion, particularly
modern Hinduism (definitions of which will be discussed), and religious /cultural traditions such as yoga,
caste, and classical Indian systems of healing and medicine. The latter will be taken up in more detail in
Week 10 (Texts and Archaeology)
Key reading: Part 1
Bednarik, R.G. 1993. ‘Palaeolithic art in India’, Man and Environment 18 (2): 33-­40. INST ARCH PERS
Boivin, N.L. 2007. ‘Anthropological, historical, archaeological and genetic perspectives on the origins of
caste in South Asia’, In M. Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.), The Evolution and History of Human
Populations in South Asia. Springer, Netherlands. INST ARCH BB 1 PET
Chakravarty, K.K., V.S. Wakankar, and D.M. Khare, 1989. Dangawada Excavations. Bhopal: Archaeology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh: Chapter 4: Religion of the Chalcolithic people (reprinted from
Wakankar, V.S. 1982. ‘Chalcolithic Malwa’, in R.K. Sharma (ed.). Indian Archaeology: New
perspectives. Delhi: 225-­37) DBMA 15 CHA or DBMA 100 SHA
Kenoyer, J.M, J.D Clark et al. 1983. ‘An upper palaeolithic shrine in India?’, Antiquity 57: 88-­94. INST
ARCH PERS;; http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/057/Ant0570088.htm
Smith, B.K. 1987. ‘Exorcising the transcendent: strategies for defining Hinduism and religion’, History of
Religions 27: 32-­55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062532
Further / alternative reading
Boivin, N. 2005. ‘Orientalism, ideology and identity: examining caste in South Asian archaeology’, Journal
of Social Archaeology 5 (2): 225-­52.
http://jsa.sagepub.com/content/5/2/225.full.pdf+html
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic beginnings to early historic
foundations. Delhi: Oxford University Press (pp. 88-­9;; 110-­116). DBMA 100 CHA or Issue Desk
IOA CHA 18.
17
Coningham, R., and R. Young. 1999. ‘The archaeological visibility of caste: an introduction’, in T. Insoll,
(ed.), Case Studies in Archaeology and World Religions: The Proceedings of the Cambridge
Conference. Oxford: BAR International Series. INST ARCH FA Qto INS
Kenoyer, J.M. 1992. ‘Socio-­ritual artefacts of upper Palaeolithic hunter-­gatherers in South Asia’, in G.L.
Possehl (ed.) South Asian Archaeology Studies. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Pub. Co, 227-­40. On
order
Kosambi, D. D. 1962. ‘At the crossroads: a study of Mother Goddess cult sites’, in D. D. Kosambi, Myth and
Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian culture. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 82-­109. STORE
09-­0522/2
Key reading Part 2
Clark S.R. 2003. ‘Representing the Indus body: sex, gender, sexuality, and the anthropomorphic terracotta
figurines from Harappa’, Asian Perspectives 42: 304–28. INST ARCH PERS.
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asian_perspectives/v042/42.2clark.pdf
Possehl, G. 2002. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press,
ch. 3 (‘The Indus Civilization’, for the importance of water in Harappan religion and ideology), ch. 6
(‘The Art of the Indus Civilization’), and ch. 9 (‘Indus Religion’). INST ARCH DBMA 12 POS;;
Issue desk IOA POS 6 (3 hour)
McEvilley, T.1981. ‘An archaeology of yoga’, RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 1: 44-­77.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20166655;;
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/smith/2006SmithAmAnthFoodPreference.
pdf
Mahadevan, I. 1997. ‘The sacred filter standard facing the unicorn. more evidence’, South Asian
Archaeology 1995. INST ARCH DBM ALL
Marshall, J. (ed.), 1931. Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization Vol. 1. London. Probsthain, Vol. 1, pp. 15-­
26;; 48-­78. INST ARCH DBMA 12 Qto MAR
Further / background reading
Allchin, F.R. 1985. ‘The interpretation of a seal from Chanu-­daro and its significance for the religion of the
Indus Valley’, in J. Schotsmans and M. Taddei (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1983. Naples:
Insititu Universitario Orientale, Series Minor 23, 369-­84. INST ARCH DBM SCH
Ardeleanu-­Jansen, A. et al. 1983. ‘An approach toward the replacement of artifacts in the architectural
context of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-­daro’, in G. Urban and M. Jansen (eds.), Forschunsprojekt
DFG Mohenjodaro: Aachen: Reinische-­Wesfalischen Technischen Hockschule, 43-­69. INST ARCH
DBMA 12 JAN
Ardeleanu-­Jansen, A. 1984. ‘Stone sculptures from Mohenjo-­daro’, in G. Urban and M. Jansen (eds.),
Interim Report: Reports on Field Work Carried Out at Mohenjo-­daro, Pakistan 1982-­84 by the
IsMEO-­Aachen University Mission Vol. 1. Aachen/Rome: German Research Project/IsMEO, 139-­57.
INST ARCH DBMA 12 Qto JAN
18
Bisht, R.S. 2000. ‘Harappans and the Rg Veda: points of convergence’, in, G.C. Pande (ed.), History of
Science, philosophy, and culture in Indian civilization. vol. 1: The Dawn of Indian civilization up to
600 BC. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilization, 393-­442. INST ARCH DBMA 200 PAN
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: An Archaeological History;; Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 179-­186;; 194-­
200;; 221-­243. INST ARCH DBMA 100 CHA or Issue desk IOA CHA 18
During Caspers, E.C.L. 1992. ‘Rituals and belief systems in the Indus valley civilization’, in, B. Van dern
Hoek, D.H.A Kolff, and M.S. Oort (eds.), Ritual, State and History in South Asia: Essays in Honour
of J.C. Heesterman. Leiden, 102-­127. INST ARCH DBM HOE
Hiltebeitl, A. 1978. ‘The Indus valley ‘proto-­Siva’ re-­examined through reflections on the goddess, the
buffalo, and the symbolism of vahanas’, Anthropos 73: 767-­97. SOAS library
Jansen, M. 1985. ‘ Mohenjo-­daro HR-­A, house I, a temple? Analysis of an architectural structure’, in J.
Schotsmans and M. Taddei (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1983. Naples: Insititu Universitario
Orientale, Series Minor 23, 157-­206. INST ARCH DBM SCH
Jansen, M. 1993. Mohenjo Daro: Stadt der brunnen und kanale City of wells and drains, Wasserluxus vor
4500 jharan Water Splendour 4500 years ago. Frontinus-­Gesellschafte. Dual German-­English Text.
Bergisch Gladbach. INST ARCH DBMA 12 Qto JAN
Mahadevan, I. 1985. ‘The cult object on unicorn seals: a sacred filter?’, in K.N. Diskhit (ed.),
Archaeological Perspectives of India Since Independence. Puratattva 13-­14: 165-­186. INST ARCH
PERS
Miller, D. 1985. ‘Ideology and the Harappan Civilization’, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4: 34-­71.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0278416585900133
Parpola, A. 1985. ‘The Harappan priest-­king’s robe and the Vedic tarpya garment: their interrelation and
symbolism (astral and procreative)’, in J. Schotsmans and M. Taddei (eds.), South Asian
Archaeology 1983. Naples: Insititu Universitario Orientale, Series Minor 23, 385-­404. INST ARCH
DBM SCH
________________________________________________________________________
7.
URBAN DECLINE AND THE INDIAN CHALCOLITHIC (Nov 27)
LECTURE 7.1
Central Indian and Deccan chalcolithic (during and after Harappa)
This lecture will focus on chalcolithic sites in central India and the Deccan, with an emphasis on settlement
patterning, agriculture and religion, and drawing on both excavation and survey related data. Trading
relations with Harappa.
Key Reading
Boivin, N. 2000. ‘Life rhythms and floor sequences: excavating time in rural Rajasthan and Neolithic
Çatalhöyük’, World Archaeology 31(3): 367-­88. http://www.jstor.org/stable/125107
Dhavalikar, M.K. 2002. ‘Early farming cultures of central India: a recent perspective’, in S. Settar and R.
Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. III: Prehistory. New Delhi: Manohar, 253-­262.
ISSUE DESK IoA SET 3
19
Hooja, R. 1988. The Ahar Culture and Beyond: settlements and frontiers of ‘Mesolithic’ and early
agricultural sites in south-­eastern Rajasthan, c. 3rd-­2nd Millennia B.C. Oxford: BAR. INST ARCH DBMA
15 Qto HOO
Misra, V.N. 1997, ‘Balathal: a chalcolithic settlement in Mewar, Rajasthan, India: results of first three
seasons' excavation’, South Asian Studies 13 (1): 251-­73.
http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/doi/citedby/10.1080/02666030.1997.96285
40#tabModule
Shinde, V. 2000. ‘The origin and development of the Chalcolithic in central India’, Bulletin of the Indo-­
Pacific Prehistory Association 19 (3).
http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/227/217
Further Reading
Miller, D. 1985. Artefacts as Categories: A Study of Ceramic Variability in Central India. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
INST ARCH DBMA 15 MIL
(3 Copies: 1 Week Loan)
Sankalia, H.D., S.B. Deo et al., 1971. Chalcolithic Navdatoli: The Excavations of Navdatoli, 1957-­59. Poona:
Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute. INST ARCH DBMA 15 SAN
Shinde, V. 1994. ‘The Deccan Chalcolithic: a recent perspective’, Man and Environment 19: 169-­178.
Archaeology Periodicals
-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­
7.2: SEMINAR (2)
Urban decline
Seminar and student presentations. We will explore the various explanations for the decline of Harappan
urbanism. What role did floods, changing water courses, and climate change play, and what was the role of
economic and social factors? We will also touch upon theories which attribute some of these changes to
the destructive forces of a dominant ‘Aryan’ elite (discussed in more detail in Week 10)
Reading
Key reading (to be divided between class)
Enzel, Y., L. L. Ely, S. Mishra, R. Ramesh, R. Amit, B. Lazar, S. N. Rajaguru, V. R. Baker, and A. Sandler,
1999. ‘High-­resolution Holocene environmental changes in the Thar Desert, Northwestern India’, Science
284: 125-­128. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2899151 .
Giosan, L. et al., 2012. ‘Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization’. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 109:
E1688–E1694. Available online: http://www.pnas.org/content/109/26/E1688.full
Misra, V. N. 1984. ‘Climate, a factor in the rise and fall of the Indus Civilization’, in B. B. Lal and S. P Gupta
(eds.), Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Books and Books, 461-­489. INST ARCH DBMA 11
Qto WHE. TC 2702.
Possehl, G. L. 1997. ‘The transformation of the Indus civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory 11: 425-­471.
INST ARCH PERS;; http://www.jstor.org/stable/25801118;; reprinted in (2000) Man and
Environment 24(2): 1-­34. INST ARCH PERS
20
Raikes, R. 1964. ‘The end of the ancient cities of the Indus’, American Anthropologist 66: 284-­299.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/669009
Singh, R.N. and C.A. Petrie. 2009. ‘Lost rivers and life on the plains’, in Sarasvati River: A Perspective.
Proceedings of the International Conference Kurukshetra University. Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/15169940/R.N._Singh_and_C.A._Petrie_2009_Lost_rivers_a
nd_life_on_the_plains_Paper_published_in_the_conference_proceedings_of_the_Interna
tional_Conference_Sarasvati_River_-­_A_Perspective_Kurukshetra_University
Weber, S. A. 1999. ‘Seeds of urbanism: paleoethnobotany and the Indus civilization’. Antiquity 73: 813-­
826. http://antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/073/0813/Ant0730813.pdf
Wheeler, R.E.M. 1947. ‘Harappan chronology and the Rigveda’, Ancient India 3: 78-­85. Stores
Periodicals
Witzel M, and S. Farmer, 2000. ‘Horseplay in Harappa: The Indus Valley Decipherment Hoax’, Frontline.
Oct. 13: 4-­14. http://www.safarmer.com/frontline/horseplay.pdf
Further reading
Allchin, B, and R. Allchin, 1997. Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Geography of South Asia.
New Delhi: Viking, 206-­222. INST ARCH DBMA 100 ALL.
Dales, G. F. 1964. ‘The mythical massacre at Mohenjo-­Daro’, Expedition 6(3), 36-­43.
Dales, G. F. 1966. ‘The decline of the Harappans’, Scientific American 214(5): 92-­100. Available online:
http://ucl-­
primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=UCL_VU1&do
cId=TN_nature_a10.1038/scientificamerican0566-­92&fn=permalink
Kenoyer, J. M., 2005. ‘Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa: new insight on Vedic
Arya issues’, in E. F. Bryant and L.L. Patton (eds.), The Indo-­Aryan Controversy, Evidence and Inference in
Indian hHstory. New York: Routledge Curzon. INST ARCH DBMA 100 BRY (Standard)
Ratnagar, S. 2000. The End of the Great Harappan Tradition. New Delhi: Manohar. INST ARCH DBMA
100 RAT
Staubwasser M, F. Sirocko, P.M. Grootes, M. Segl, 2003. ‘Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of
the Indus Valley Civilization and Holocene South Asian monsoon variability’, Geophysical Research Letters
30: 1425-­29. Physical Sciences Periodicals
8:
INDIAN ROCK ART (Dec 4)
1. South Asian Rock Art Studies
2. Rock Art and its landscape setting
This lecture will begin by situating South Asian rock art within a global perspective through an introduction
to the theories and methods of rock-­art research worldwide. The focus will then shift to Indian rock art
research, its history, and the major issues / problems such as chronology, interpretation, and
archaeological context. The second half of the lecture will present case-­studies from South India and
21
Central India, focussing in particular on the contribution of landscape archaeology to the interpretation of
rock art.
Key reading
Boivin, N. 2004. ‘Rock art and rock music: Petroglyphs of the south Indian Neolithic’, Antiquity 78 (229):
38-­53 (essential reading as it deals with one of the case-­studies discussed in the second half of the
lecture). INST ARCH PERS;; http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/078/Ant0780038.htm
Blinkhorn, J., N. Boivin, P.S.C. Tacon, and M.D. Petraglia, 2012. ‘Rock art research in India: historical
approaches and recent theoretical directions’, in J. McDonald and P. Veth (eds.), A Companion to
Rock Art. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 179-­196. INST ARCH BC 300 MCD;; Available
online:
https://www.academia.edu/1892492/Rock_Art_Research_in_India_Historical_Approa
ches_and_Recent_Theoretical_Perspectives
Bednarik, R.G. 2002. ‘The development of Indian rock art studies since Independence’, in S. Settar and R.
Korisettar (eds.) Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Prehistory, Archaeology of South Asia. Delhi:
Manohar, 353-­75. DBMA 100 SET;; 1 week loan
Brooks, R. and V.S. Wankankar, 1976. Stone Age Painting in India. New Haven: Yale University Press.
DBMA 392 Qto BRO
Chakravarty, K.K., R.G. Bednarik et al. 1997. Indian Rock Art and its Global Context. Delhi;; Bhopal: Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers;; Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya (esp. pp. 29-­94 for good
introduction to Indian rock art). INST ARCH DBMA 390 CHA
Mathpal, Yashodhar. 1984. Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India. New Delhi: Abhinav
Publications. DBMA 15 MAT
Neumayer, E. 2013. Prehistoric Rock Art of India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Further / alternative reading
Allchin, F.R and B. Allchin. 1994-­95. ‘Rock art of North Karnataka’, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-­
Graduate and Research Institute 54-­55: 313-­39. SOAS Periodicals
Bahn, P. 1998. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Prehistoric Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press (provides a good overview of rock art research, but thin on interpretation). INST ARCH BC
300 BAH (1 week)
Bednarik, R.G. 1993. ‘Palaeolithic art in India’, Man and Environment 18 (2): 33-­40. INST ARCH PERS
Chandramouli, N. 1991. ‘Rock paintings of Budagavi, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh’, Man and
Environment 16 (2): 71-­80. INST ARCH PERS
Chippindale, C. and P.C. Taçon. 1998. ‘An archaeology of rock art through informed methods and informal
methods’, in C. Chippindale and P. C. Taçon (eds.), The Archaeology of Rock Art. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISSUE DESK IOA CHI 7 (3 hours);; INST ARCH BC 300 CHI (1
week)
Clottes, J. 2002. World Rock Art. Los Angeles: Getty Publications (a good general introduction to rock art
from a global perspective). INST ARCH BC 300 CLO (1 week)
22
Fawcett, F. 1892. ‘Pre-­historic rock pictures near Bellary, South India’, Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly
Review (n.s.) 3: 147-­57. SOAS Periodicals
Fu, Chen Zhao. 2001. ‘Rock art of Southern Asia’, in D.S. Whitley (ed.), Handbook of Rock Art Research.
Altimira Press, pp. 760 -­ 785. (See also pp. 770 -­ 774 for a cursory overview of Indian rock-­art.
Many more articles in the handbook give good introductions to various aspects of rock art
research). INST ARCH WHI (3 hours)
Ganapayya Bhat, P. 1981. ‘Rock art of Karnataka’, Man in India 61 (1):46-­54. SOAS Periodicals
Gordon, D.H. 1951. ‘The rock engravings of Kupgallu Hill, Belary, Madras’. Man 51: 117-­119.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2794078
Gordon, D.H. and F.R. Allchin. 1955. ‘Rock paintings and engravings in Raichur, Hyderabad’. Man 55: 97-­
99. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2793625
Mathpal, Yashodhar. 1998. Rock Art in Kerala. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts: New Delhi
(Good account of rock-­art of a single region). DBMA 17 MAT
Neumayer, E. 1993. Lines on Stone: The Prehistoric Rock Art of India. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers &
Distributors. INST ARCH DBMA 390 NEU
Pant, S. 2000. ‘Cave paintings of central India’, in G,C. Pande (ed.), History of Science, Philosophy, and
Culture in Indian civilization. Vol. 1: The Dawn of Indian civilization up to 600 BC. Delhi: Centre for
studies in civilization: 205-­231. INST ARCH DBMA 200 PAN
Tacon, P.S.C., N. Boivin, J. Blinkhorn et al, 2010. ‘New rock art discoveries in the Kurnool District, Andhra
Pradesh, India’, Antiquity 84, 335-­350. Available online:
http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/84/ant840335.htm
Vahia, M.N., A.A. Banday et al., 2006. ‘Astronomical interpretation of a Palaeolithic rock carving found at
Sopor, Kashmir’, Puratatva (Journal of Indian Archaeological Society). Available online:
http://web.tifr.res.in/~vahia/comets.pdf
________________________________________________________________________
9:
THEORY AND METHOD (Dec 10)
LECTURE 9.1
Landscape and Settlement Archaeology
Development of landscape and survey archaeology in South Asia and its impact on understanding of
settlement history, urbanisation, state formation, trade and religious history, land-­use and food change.
Case studies.
Key reading
Bauer, A. M., P. Johansen, and R.L. Bauer, 2007. ‘Toward a political ecology in early South India:
preliminary considerations of the socio-­politics of land and animal use in the Southern Deccan,
Neolithic through early historic periods’, Asian Perspectives 46(1): 3-­35.
https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17257
Blinkhorn, J., J. Bora, J. Koshy, R. Korisettar, N. Boivin, and M.D. Petraglia, 2010. ‘Systematic transect
survey enhances the investigation of rock art in its landscape: an example from the Katavani Kunta
valley, Kurnool District’, Man and Environment 34 (2),1-­12. Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/823701/Systematic_Transect_Survey_Enhances_Investig
23
ations_of_Rock_Art_in_its_Landscape_Setting_An_Example_from_the_Katavani_Kunt
a_Valley_Kurnool_District_Andhra_Pradesh
Boivin, N. 2004. ‘Landscape and cosmology in the South Indian Neolithic: new perspectives on the Deccan
ashmounds’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 14: 235-­257.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0959774304000150
Johansen, P.G., and A.M. Bauer, 2013, ‘The Maski Archaeological Research Project (MARP): investigating
long-­term dynamics of settlement, politics and environmental history in ancient South India’,
Antiquity 87 (336). http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/johansen336/
Singh, R.N., C.A. Petrie et al., 2010. ‘Changing Patterns of Settlement in the Rise and Fall of Harappan
Urbanism and Beyond: a Preliminary Report on the Rakhigarhi Hinterland Survey 2009’, Man and
Environment 35(1): 37-­53. Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/3849846/Singh_R.N._Petrie_C.A._Pawar_V._Pandey_A.K.
_Neogi_S._Singh_M._Singh_A.K._Parikh_D._and_Lancelotti_C._2010_._Changing_patt
erns_of_settlement_in_the_rise_and_fall_of_Harappan_urbanism_preliminary_report_
on_the_Rakhigarhi_Hinterland_Survey_2009
Sinopoli, C. M., P. Johansen, and K.D. Morrison, 2009. ‘Changing cultural landscapes of the Tungabhadra
Valley, South India’, In S. Falconer and C. L. Redman (eds.), Polities and Power: Archaeological
Perspectives on the Landscapes of Early States. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 11–41. INST
ARCH AH FAL
Further Reading
Fuller, D. Q. 2005. ‘Ceramics, seeds and culinary change in prehistoric India’, Antiquity 79 (306): 761-­777.
http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/ant/079/ant0790761.htm
Fuller, D. Q., and L. Qin. 2009. ‘Water management and labour in the origins and dispersal of Asian rice’,
World Archaeology 41(1): 88-­111.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00438240802668321
Fuller, D.Q. 2000. ‘Ashmounds and hilltop villages: the search for early agriculture in southern India’,
Archaeology International 4: 43-­46. http://www.ai-­journal.com/article/view/164
Jacobson, J. 1975. ‘Static sites and peripatetic peoples in the archaeology of population mobility in eastern
Malwa’, in S. Leshnik and G.D. Sontheimer (eds.), Pastoralists and Nomads in South Asia.
Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 68-­91. INST ARCH DBM LES
Petrie, C.A. and Thomas, K.D. 2012. ‘The topographical and environmental context of the earliest village
sites in western South Asia’, Antiquity 86, 1055-­1067.
http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/086/ant0861055.htm
Shaw, J. 2007. Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social
Change, c. 3rd century BC to 5th century AD. London: British Association for South Asian Studies,
The British Academy. London (pp 60-­77). INST ARCH DBMA 15 Qto SHA
Sinopoli, C.M., K.D. Morrison, and R. Gopal. 2008. ‘Late prehistoric and early historic South India: recent
research along the Tungabhadra River, Karnataka’, Antiquity 82 (317).
http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/sinopoli/
24
Smith, M. 2006. ‘The archaeology of food preference’, American Anthropologist 108 (3): 480-­93.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/smith/2006SmithAmAnthFoodPreference.
pdf
-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­
9.2: SEMINAR (3)
Theory and method in South Asian archaeology
Seminar and student presentations. Paradigms in South Asian archaeology: culture-­history to
processualism. Post-­processualism and ‘indigenous epistemologies’. Problems and challenges. Regionally
specific frameworks, e.g., in relation to settlement archaeology?
Key reading
Fuller, D and N Boivin. 2001. 'Beyond description and diffusion: a history of processual theory in the
archaeology of south Asia', in S. Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect.
Vol. IV: History, theory and method. New Delhi: Manohar. ISSUE DESK IOA SET;;
Downloadable from:
http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/downloads.htm#syntheses
Fuller, D., and N. Boivin. 2001. ‘Looking for post-­processual theory in south Asian archaeology’, in S. Settar
and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. IV: History, theory and method.
New Delhi: Manohar. ISSUE DESK IOA SET;; Downloadable from:
http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/downloads.htm#syntheses
Johansen, Peter. G. 2003. ‘Recasting the foundations: new approaches to regional understandings of South
Asian archaeology and the problem of culture history’, Asian Perspectives 42(2): 193-­206. INST
ARCH PERS;; http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17188
Kennet, D. 2004. ‘The transition from early historic to early medieval in the Vakataka realm’, in H. Bakker
(ed.), The Vakataka Heritage: Indian Culture at the Crossroads. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 11-­18
(focuses on later periods, but excellent discussion of methodological issues). INST ARCH DBMA
17 Qto BAK;; TC 3487
Lahiri, N. and U. Singh. 1999. ‘In the shadow of New Delhi: understanding the landscape through village
eyes’, in P.J. Ucko and R. Layton (eds.), The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping
Your Landscape. London: Routledge, 175-­88. AH UCK (1 week);; Issue Desk IOA UCK 2 (3
hour)
Padayya, K. 1995. ‘Theoretical perspectives in Indian archaeology: a historical review’, in P.J. Ucko (ed.),
Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective;; 110-­149. INST ARCH AH UCK (1 week);; Issue
Desk UCK 5 (3 hour)
Further reading
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1997. Colonial Indology: Sociopolitics of the Ancient Indian Past. Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal. DBMA 200 CHA (1 week)
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1982. ‘The development of archaeology in the Indian subcontinent’, World Archaeology
13 (3): 326-­43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/124387
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1989. ‘Archaeology in Indian universities’, in P. Stone and R. Mackenzie (eds.), The
Excluded Past. London: Unwin Hyman, 24-­32. INST ARCH AQ STO (1 week)
Paranjape, M. 1990. ‘The invasion of 'theory’: an Indian response’, New Quest 81: 151-­161. SOAS Library
25
10. TEXTS AND ARCHAEOLOGY (Dec 18)
LECTURE 10.1
Mortuary archaeology
The history and archaeology of mortuary practices in ancient India including the megalithic tradition and its
relationship to later customs in both the historical Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions.
Key reading
Bakker, H.T., 2007. ‘Monuments to the dead in ancient North India’, Indo-­Iranian Journal, 50 (1): 11-­47.
http://www.springerlink.com.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/content/h50t14w145004716/
Boivin, N., R. Korisettar, P.C. Venkatasubbaiah, H. Lewis, D. Havanur, K. Malagyannavar, and S. Chincholi,
2002. ‘Exploring Neolithic and Megalithic South India: the Bellary District Archaeological Project’,
Antiquity 76: 937-­8. http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/076/Ant0760937.htm
Mohanty, R.K. and V. Selvakumar, 2002. ‘The archaeology of megaliths in India: 1947-­1997’, in S. Settar
and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. III: Prehistory. New Delhi: Manohar,
313-­352. ISSUE DESK IoA SET 3 (3 hours)
Pant, P.C. 1978. 'The megaliths of Jangal Mahal and the Vedic tradition', in V.N. Misra and P. Bellwood
(eds.), Recent Advances in Indo-­Pacific Prehistory. Oxford and IBH. INST ARCH DB REC
Joshi, J.P. 2000. ‘Religious and burial practices of Harappans: Indian evidence’, in G.C. Pande, (ed),
History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization. vol. 1: The Dawn of Indian
civilization up to 600 BC. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilization, 377 – 391. INST ARCH DBMA
200 PAN
6KDZ-,Q3UHVV
%XGGKLVWDQGQRQ%XGGKLVWPRUWXDU\WUDGLWLRQVLQDQFLHQW,QGLDVWźSDVUHOLFV
and the archaeological landscape', in C. Renfrew, M. Boyd, and I. Morley (eds.), 'Death Rituals and
Social Order in the Ancient World: Death Shall Have No Dominion. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. On Order (Available as Class Copy)
Further reading
Boivin, N., R. Korisettar, and P.C. Venkatasubbaiah, 2003. ’Megalithic markings in context: graffiti marks on
burial pots from Kudatini, Karnataka’, South Asian Studies 19: 1-­12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02666030.2003.9628618
Joshi, J. P. 1999. ‘Religious and burial practices of Harappans: Indian evidence‘. In G.C. Pande (ed.), The
Dawn of Indian Civilization (up to c. 600 B.C). New Delhi: Project of History of Indian Science,
Philosophy, and Culture;; Centre for Studies in Civilization, 377–90. INST ARCH DBMA 200 PAN
Leshnik, L. S. 1974. South Indian Megalithic Burials: the Pandukal complex. Wiesbaden: Steiner. INST
ARCH DBMA 17 Qto LES
Mushrif, V., N. Boivin, R. Korisettar, and S.R. Walimbe, 2003. ‘Skeletal remains from the Kudatini
sarcophagus burial’, Puratattva 33: 74-­83. INST ARCH Pers
Sayers, M.R. 2006. ‘Death and dying in Indian Religions: a bibliography’, SAGAR: A South Asian Graduate
Research Journal 16: 79-­93. http://www.academicroom.com/bibliography/death-­and-­
dying-­indian-­religions-­bibliography
Schopen, G. 1996. ‘Immigrant monks and the proto-­historical dead: the Buddhist occupation of early burial
sites in India’, in, F. Wilheln (ed.), Festschrift Dieter Schlingloff. Reinbek:Verlag fur Oreintalistische
26
Fachpublikationen, 215-­238. (Reprinted in Schopen, G. 2004, Buddhist Monks and Business
Matters: Still More Papers on Buddhist Monasticism in India. Studies in the Buddhist Traditions.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.). INST ARCH DBMA 200 SCH
Singh, P. 1970. Burial Practices in Ancient India: A Study of the Eschatological Beliefs of Early Man as
Revealed by Archaeological Sources. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. INST ARCH DBMA 100 SIN
Singh, P. 1978. 'Megalithic remains in the Vindhyans', in V.N. Misra and P. Bellwood (eds.), Recent
advances in Indo-­Pacific prehistory. Delhi: Oxford and IBH. INST ARCH DB REC
Taylor, P.M. 1941. Megalithic Tombs and other Ancient Remains in the Deccan. Collected papers with an
introduction by G. Yazdani. Hyderabad: Hyderabad State Archaeological Department. STORE 97-­
02797
-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­-­
LECTURE 10.2
Prelude to the early-­historic period: dark age or continuum?
We will explore theories regarding the political changes that were taking place between the decline of
Harappan urbanism, and the re-­emergence of urbanism, together with monarchical states and new
religious traditions in the Gangetic valley in the mid' first millennium BC. In this respect, we will discuss the
problematic identity of the ‘Aryans’ (and their supposed link with certain material culture traits attributed to
the Indian ‘Iron age’, particularly Painted Grey Ware) and theories regarding Harappan linguistics. The key
text during this period is the Rg Veda. However is there such a thing as Vedic archaeology?
Was this really a ‘dark age’ as sometimes referred to, or a period which despite the paucity of
archaeological evidence, provides strong indicators of continuum with later ‘Classical’ strands of Indian
culture, such as religion, medicine and yoga?. In this respect we will discuss in general the sometimes
problematic interface between textual and archaeological approaches to religious and social history in this
very early period of textual history.
Key reading
Erdosy, G. 1995. ‘Language, material culture and ethnicity: theoretical perspectives’, in G. Erdosy (ed.),
The Indo-­Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1-­31.
INST ARCH DBMA 100 ERD
Shaffer, J.G. 1984. ‘The Indo-­Aryan invasions: cultural myth and archaeological reality’, in J.R. Lukas (ed.),
The People of South Asia. New York: Plenum Press. TC 2824
Singh, D., B. Vikrama, and D. K. Kushwaha, 2014. 'Painted Grey Ware settlements: spatial analysis and
interpretation of inter-­site behaviour’, Man and Environment 39 (2), 78-­90. Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/8835187/Painted_Grey_Ware_Settlements_Spatial_Analy
sis_and_Interpretation_of_Inter-­site_Behaviour
Tewari, R. 2003. ‘The origins of ironworking in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the
Eastern Vindhyas’, Antiquity 77: 536-­544. INST ARCH PERS;;
http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf
Thapar. R. 1999. ‘Some appropriations of the theory of Aryan race relating to the beginnings of Indian
history’, in D. Ali (ed.), Invoking the Past: the Uses of History in South Asia. Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 15-­35. INST ARCH DBMA 200 ALI (standard and 1 week)
27
Trautmann, T.R, and C.M. Sinopoli. 2002. ‘In the beginning was the word, excavating the relations
between history and archaeology in South Asia’. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
Orient 45 (5). http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632874
Further reading
Bryant, E. 2002. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-­Aryan Migration Debate. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press. INST ARCH DBMA 100 BRY (Standard, and 1 week)
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1997. Colonial Indology: Sociopolitics of the Ancient Indian Past. Delhi:Munshiram
Manoharlal. INST ARCH DBMA 200 CHA (1 week)
Lal, B.B. 1997. The Earliest Civilization of South Asia. Rise, Maturity, Decline. New Delhi: Aryan Books
International. INST ARCH DBMA 100 LAL
Metcalf, T. 1994. Ideologies of the Raj. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. INST ARCH DBMA 200
MET (1 week loan)
Morrison, K. D. and M. T. Lycett, 1997. ‘New approaches to combining the archaeological and historical
records’, Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 4 (3/4): 215-­237. Available online:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20177366
Singh, R.N., C.A. Petrie, P.P. Joglekar et al., 2013. ‘Recent excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: a
preliminary report’, Man and Environment 38 (1) 32-­54. Available online:
https://www.academia.edu/3849781/Singh_R.N._Petrie_C.P._Joglekar_P.P._Neogi_S._Lanc
elotti_C._Pandey_A.K._and_Pathak_A._2013_._Recent_Excavations_at_Alamgirpur_Meerut_
District_A_Preliminary_Report
Singh, R. N. 2013. ‘Alamgirpur’, in D.K. Chakrabarti, and M. Lal (eds.), History of Ancient India,
New Delhi: Vivekananda International Foundation and Aryan Books. Vol 2, VII, I, 630. Issue Desk IOA
CHA 25
Witzel, M. 2001, ‘Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts’, Electronic
Journal of Vedic Studies 7-­3: 1-­115. http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-­7-­3.pdf
Wujastyk, D., 2009. ‘Interpreting the image of the human body in premodern India’, International Journal
of Hindu Studies 13: 189-­228. Available online : http://www.jstor.org/stable/40608024
Zysk, K. G., 1986. ‘The evolution of anatomical knowledge in ancient India, with special reference to cross-­
cultural influences’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 106(4). Available online:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/603532
Zysk, K. G., 1985. ‘Religious healing in the Veda’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 75(7):
i-­311. Available online: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20486646
_______________________________________________________________________________
28
4
ONLINE RESOURCES
The full UCL Institute of Archaeology coursework guidelines are given here:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/administration/students/handbook
The full text of this handbook is available here (includes clickable links to Moodle and online reading lists if
applicable)
Moodle
This handbook is available in digital format on the course Moodle page (access code: ARCL3035. PDF
versions of all course presentations will be made available via Moodle shortly after each lecture. Notices
regarding events as well as cancellations or alterations to the usual class schedule will also be posted to
students via Moodle. For any queries or problems with Moodle please contact Charlotte Frearson in room
G4 (c.frearson@ucl.ac.uk).
5
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Libraries and other resources
Most of the essential readings -­ books, journal articles, photocopies in the Teaching Collections (TC) -­
required for the course are held in the Institute of Archaeology Library. For books or book chapters the
relevant shelf marks are given if they are in the Institute Library. Periodical articles are not marked (apart
from those available online).
Some of the books on the reading list are marked as being ‘on order’. Please check with the library staff
for details. A small selection of readings not available in the Institute Library are held in the personal
collection of the Course Co-­ordinator and are marked in the Handbook as ‘Class List’. Please discuss with
the Course Co-­ordinator if you are interested in obtaining such a copy. If you are experiencing problems
with obtaining any of the reading in this handbook please contact the Course Co-­ordinator as soon as
possible. It is important that you don't wait until the end of the course to report such problems.
NB leaving essential reading until the last minute is not a valid excuse for not being able to
obtain literature!
In addition to the Library of the Institute of Archaeology, other libraries in UCL with holdings of particular
relevance to this degree are:
Science Library (DMS Watson Building).
Libraries outside of UCL which have holdings which may also be relevant to this degree are:
SOAS Library.
At the end of this Handbook, you will find an extensive bibliographic list (Appendix B). Please don’t let its
length alarm you! It is intended to provide students with the necessary bibliographic background to the
history and archaeology of South Asia and to provide additional resources for students with an interest in
specific topics (particularly useful for students writing South Asia-­related dissertations).
Attendance
A register will be taken at each class. If you are unable to attend a class, please notify the lecturer by
email. Departments are required to report each student’s attendance to UCL Registry at frequent intervals
throughout each term. Students are expected to attend at least 70% of classes.
Information for intercollegiate and interdepartmental students
Students enrolled in Departments outside the Institute should obtain the Institute’s coursework guidelines
from Judy Medrington (email j.medrington@ucl.ac.uk), which will also be available on the IoA website.
29
Feedback
In trying to make this course as effective as possible, we welcome feedback from students during the
course of the year. All students are asked to give their views on the course in an anonymous questionnaire
which will be circulated at one of the last sessions of the course. These questionnaires are taken seriously
and help the Course Co-­ordinator to develop the course. The summarised responses are considered by the
Institute's Staff-­Student Consultative Committee, Teaching Committee, and by the Faculty Teaching
Committee.
If students are concerned about any aspect of this course we hope they will feel able to talk to the Course
Co-­ordinator, but if they feel this is not appropriate, they should consult their Personal Tutor, the Academic
Administrator (Judy Medrington), or the Chair of Teaching Committee (Dr. Mark Lake).
APPENDIX A: INSTITUTE OF ARCHAELOGY COURSEWORK PROCEDURES
General policies and procedures concerning courses and coursework, including submission procedures,
assessment criteria, and general resources, are available in your Degree Handbook and on the following
website: http://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/archadmin. It is essential that you read and comply with these. Note
that some of the policies and procedures will be different depending on your status (e.g. undergraduate,
postgraduate taught, affiliate, graduate diploma, intercollegiate, interdepartmental). If in doubt, please
consult your course co-­ordinator.
GRANTING OF EXTENSIONS.
New UCL-­wide regulations with regard to the granting of extensions for coursework have been introduced
with effect from the 2015-­16 session. Full details will be circulated to all students and will be made
available on the IoA intranet. Note that Course Coordinators are no longer permitted to grant extensions.
All requests for extensions must be submitted on a new UCL form, together with supporting
documentation, via Judy Medrington’s office and will then be referred on for consideration. Please be
aware that the grounds that are now acceptable are limited. Those with long-­term difficulties should
contact UCL Student Disability Services to make special arrangements.
APPENDIX B: SUPPLEMENTARY READING LIST
1. Some useful online resources
ASI online library: http://www.ignca.nic.in/asp/searchBooks.asp
Grove Art Online (a very useful resource for art and architecture worldwide): http://www.groveart.com/
Huntington art database: http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/database.php
American Institute of Indian Studies digital South Asia library database:
http://dsal.uchicago.edu/images/aiis/
1. General references and introductory works
1a. Archaeology and Geography
Agrawal, D.P. 1982. The Archaeology of India. Copenhagen: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies:
Monograph Series No. 46
Allchin, F.R. (ed.). 1995. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: the Emergence of Cities and States.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30
Allchins, Bridget and Raymond 1982. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Ibid. 1997. Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Geography of South Asia. New Delhi: Viking
Chakrabarti, D. K. 1995. The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India: an Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic
Foundations. Delhi: Oxford University Press
Ghosh, A. (ed.) 1989. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Spate, O.H.K. 1967. India and Pakistan: a general and regional geography. London: Methuen, 3rd edition.
1b. Indian history
Chattopadhyaya, S. 1976. Early History of North India (from the fall of the Mauryas to the death of Harsa).
Delhi:
Thapar, R. 2002. Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Keay, J. 2000. India: A History. London: Harper Collins Publishers.
Kulke, H. 1995. The State in India, 1000-­1700. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Kulke, H. and D. Rothermund. 1986. A History of India. London: Croom Helm.
Majumdar, R. C. and A: D. Pusalker. 1954. The Classical Age. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
1c. Early (colonial) archaeological reports
Archaeological Survey of India Reports. vols. I-­ XXIII (1861/2 – 1883/4). For the original archaeological
reports by Cunningham and others.
Archaeological Survey of India Annual Report (from 1902 onwards).
The Imperial Gazetteer of India: Oxford: Clarendon Press (1908). Separate volumes for different regions.
Contains useful information on archaeology, geography, economic conditions etc.
2. History, theory and method
2a. Historiography, theory and politics of archaeology
Bryant E. 2002. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-­Aryan Migration Debate. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1988. A History of Indian Archaeology from the Beginning to 1947. Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal.
Ibid. ‘The development of archaeology in the Indian subcontinent’, World Archaeology 13 (3): 326-­43.
Ibid. ‘Archaeology in Indian Universities’, in P. Stone and R. Mackenzie (eds.), The Excluded Past. London:
Unwin Hyman, 24-­32
Ibid. 1997. Colonial Indology: Sociopolitics of the Ancient Indian Past. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Ibid. 1999a. ‘Documenting Heritage: Some Observations on the Indian Situation’, in H.J. Hansen and G.
Quine (eds.), Our Fragile Heritage: Documenting the Past for the Future. Copenhagen: Danish
National Museum, 15-­22.
Coningham. R.A:E and N. Lewer (eds.) 2001. Archaeology and Identity in South Asia: Special edition of
Antiquity 74.
Erdosy, G. 1995. ‘Language, material culture and ethnicity: theoretical perspectives’, in G. Erdosy (ed.),
The Indo-­Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1-­31.
Fuller, D. Q. 2007. Non-­human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia. In M.
Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.) The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia.
Springer, Netherlands. Pp. 393-­443.
Fuller, D and N Boivin. 2001. 'Beyond description and diffusion: a history of processual theory in the
archaeology of south Asia', in S. Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect.
Vol. IV: History, theory and method. New Delhi: Manohar.
31
Fuller, D., and N. Boivin. 2001. ‘Looking for post-­processual theory in south Asian archaeology’, in S. Settar
and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. IV: History, theory and method.
New Delhi: Manohar.
Kennet, D. 2004. The transition from early historic to early medieval in the Vakataka realm’, in H. Bakker,
ed. The Vakataka Heritage: Indian Culture at the Crossroads. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 11-­18
Malik, S.C. 1968. Indian Civilization: The Formative Period. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
Malik, S. C. 1975. Understanding Indian Civilization: a Framework of Enquiry. Simla: Indian Institute of
Advanced Study.
McMahon, A and R., 2007, ‘Language Families and Quantitative Methods in South Asia and Elsewhere’. In
M. Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.) The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia.
Springer, Netherlands.
Metcalf, T. 1994. Ideologies of the Raj. Cambridge: University Press.
Miller, D. 1985. Artefacts as categories: a study of ceramic variability in central India. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Navlakha. G. 1994. ‘Archaeology: recovering. uncovering or forfeiting the past?’ Economic and Political
Weekly 29 (19 Nov.): 2961-­3.
Padayya, K. 1995. ‘Theoretical Perspectives in Indian Archaeology: A Historical Review’, in P.J. Ucko (ed.),
Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective;; 110-­149.
Pappu S.. 2000. ‘Archaeology in schools: an Indian example’, Antiquity 74 (285): 485-­486.
Paranjape, M. 1990. ‘The invasion of 'theory’: an Indian response’, New Quest 81: 151-­161.
Possehl, G. and P.C. Rissman 1992. ‘The chronology of prehistoric India: from earliest times to the Iron
age’, in R.W. Ehrich (ed.). 1992. Chronologies of Old World Archaeology. University of Chicago
Press.
Sankalia, H. D. 1977. The New Archaeology: its Scope and Application to India. Lucknow: Ethnographic
and Folk Culture Society.
Settar, S. and R. Korisettar (eds.) 2001. Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. IV: History, Theory and
Method. New Delhi: Manohar
Shaffer, J.G., 1984. The Indo-­Aryan Invasions: Cultural myth and Archaeological Reality. in J.R. Lukas
(ed.). The People of South Asia. New York: Plenum Press.
Sinopoli, C.M. and Tratumann, T.R. 2002. ‘In the beginning was the word: excavating the relations
between history and archaeology in South Asia’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
Orient 45 (4): 492 – 523.
Smith. M. L. 2000. ‘Bangladesh: building national identity through archaeology’, Antiquity 74 (285): 701-­
706.
Thapar. R. 1999. ‘Some appropriations of the Theory of Aryan Race Relating to the Beginnings of Indian
History’. in D. Ali (ed.), Invoking the Past: the Uses of History in South Asia. Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 15-­35.
Witzel, M. 2001, ‘Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts’, Electronic
Journal of Vedic Studies 7-­3: 1-­115.
Witzel M, and S. Farmer 2000 – Horseplay in Harappa: The Indus Valley Decipherment Hoax’, Frontline.
Oct. 13: 4-­14.
2b. Landscape and survey archaeology: theory and method
Erdosy, G. 1988. Urbanisation in Early Historic India. Oxford: BAR International Series 430.
Lal, M. 1984. Settlement History and the Rise of Civilisation in the Ganga-­Yamuna Doab (from 1500 BC-­AD
300). Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation.
Shaw, J. 2007. Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi hill and archaeologies of religious and social
change, c. 3rd century BC to 5th century AD. London: British Association for South Asian Studies,
The British Academy. London.
32
2c. Models of state
Johansen, Peter. G. 2003. ‘Recasting the foundations: new approaches to regional understandings of South
Asian archaeology and the problem of Culture history’. Asian Perspectives 42(2): 193-­206.
Kenoyer, J.M. 1997. Early city-­states in South Asia: comparing the Harappan phase and early historic
period. In, D.L. Nichols, and T.H. Charlton (eds.) The archaeology of city-­states: cross-­cultural
approaches. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Kulke, H. 1995. ‘The study of the state in pre-­modern India’, in H. Kulke (ed.), The State in India 1000-­
1700. Delhi: Oxford University Press: 1-­47.
Morrison, K. 1994. 'States of theory and states of Asia: regional perspectives on states in Asia', Asian
Perspectives 33(2): 183-­196
Scarre, C. and Fagan, B. 1997. Ancient Civilizations. New York: Longman. Chapters 1-­2.
Service, E. R. 1975. Origins of the State and Civilization: The Process of Cultural Evolution. Chapters 1-­4,
16-­17. New York: Norton.
Smith, M., 2006 The archaeology of South Asian cities. Journal of Archaeological Research 14(2):97-­142.
Sinopoli, C. 1994. The archaeology of empires. Annual Review of Anthropology 23:159-­180.
-­-­-­-­. 2003. The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 1350-­1650.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (chs 1-­3).
Wright, H. T. 1986. The evolution of civilizations. In D. J. Meltzer, D. D. Fowler, and J. A. Sabloff (eds.),
American Archaeology, Past and Future: A Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology
1935-­1985, pp. 323-­365. Washington DC, Smithsonian Institute.
3. Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Allchin, F.R. 1963. Neolithic Cattle Keepers of South India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Allchins, B and R. 1997. Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Geography of South Asia: New
Delhi: Viking, pp. 88-­112, 125-­140.
Agrawal, D. P. 1982. The Archaeology of India;; Copenhagen: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies:
Monograph Series No. 46, ch. 5. Rock Art.
Bauer, A. M ;; Johansen, Peter ;; Bauer, Radhika L, 2007, ‘Toward a Political Ecology in Early South India:
Preliminary Considerations of the Sociopolitics of Land and Animal Use in the Southern Deccan,
Neolithic through Early Historic Periods’, Asian Perspectives, 2007, Vol.46(1): 3-­35.
Boivin, N., 2000. Life rhythms and floor sequences: Excavating time in rural Rajasthan and Neolithic
Çatalhöyük, World Archaeology, 31(3),367-­88.
-­-­-­-­. 2004. Landscape and Cosmology in the South Indian Neolithic: New Perspectives on the Deccan
Ashmounds. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 14, pp 235-­257.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999b. India: An Archaeological History;; Delhi: Oxford University Press. Ch. 3, pp. 91-­
116, and ch. 4, pp. 117-­150;; ch. 6.
Chattopadhyaya, U. C. 1996. ‘Settlement Pattern and Spatial Organization of Subsistence and Mortuary
Practices in the Mesolithic Ganges Valley, North-­Central India’, World Archaeology 27: 461-­476.
Chakravarty, K.K., V.S. Wakankar, and D.M. Khare, 1989. Dangawada excavations. Bhopal: Archaeology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh: Chapter 4: Religion of the Chalcolithic people (reprinted from
Wakankar, V.S. 1982. Chalcolithic Malwa. In, R.K. Sharma (ed.). Indian Archaeology: New
perspectives. Delhi: 225-­37)
Dhavalikar, M.K. 2002. ‘Early farming cultures of central India: a recent perspective’, in S. Settar and R.
Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. III: Prehistory. New Delhi: Manohar, 253-­
262.
Fuller, D.Q. 2000. ‘Ashmounds and hilltop villages: the search for early agriculture in southern India’,
Archaeology International 4: 43-­46.
-­-­-­-­. 2002. 'Fifty years of archaeobotanical studies in India: laying a solid foundation', in S. Settar and R.
Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Archaeology and interactive disciplines. New
Delhi: Manohar 3, 247-­363.
33
-­-­-­-­. 2003. 'Indus and Non-­Indus Agricultural Traditions: Local Developments and Crop Adoptions on the
Indian Peninsula', in S.A. Weber and W.R. Belcher (eds.), Indus Ethnobiology: New Perspectives
from the Field. New York;; Oxford: Lexington Books, 343-­395.
-­-­-­-­. 2003. ‘An Agricultural Perspective on Dravidian Historical Linguistics: Archaeological Crop Packages,
Livestock and Dravidian Crop Vocabulary’, in Bellwood, P. and Renfrew, C. (ed.), Examining the
Language/Farming Dispersal.
-­-­-­-­. 2005. ‘Ceramics, seeds and culinary change in prehistoric India’, Antiquity 79 (306): 761-­777.
-­-­-­-­. ‘Ashmounds and hilltop villages: the search for early agriculture in southern India’, Archaeology
International 4: 43-­46.
-­-­-­. 2006. ‘Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia: a working synthesis’. Journal World Prehistory
20: 1-­86.
-­-­-­-­. 2008. ASIA, SOUTH: Neolithic Cultures. In Encyclopedia of Archaeology, edited by D. Pearsall.
Springer, 756-­768.
-­-­-­. 2011. Finding Plant Domestication in the Indian Subcontinent.Current Anthropology 52(S4), S347-­S362
Fuller, Dorian Q & Qin, Ling. 2009. Water management and labour in the origins and dispersal of Asian
rice. World Archaeology 41(1): 88-­111 [with a focus on the section on India]
Fuller, D.Q., R. Korisettar, and P.C. Venkarasubbaiah. 2001. ‘Southern Neolithic cultivation systems: a
reconstruction based on archaeological evidence’, South Asian Studies 17: 171-­187.
Fuller, D.Q., G. Willcox & R. G. Allaby, 2011. ‘Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins: arguments
against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East’, World Archaeology
43:4, 628-­652.
Jacobson, J. 1975. ‘Static sites and peripatetic peoples in the archaeology of population mobility in eastern
Malwa’, in S. Leshnik and G.D. Sontheimer (eds.), Pastoralists and Nomads in South Asia. Wiesbaden:
O. Harrassowitz, 68-­91. Kennedy, Ken R. 2000. God-­Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology in
South Asia: Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, chs. 9-­11 (pp. 189-­241).
Johansen, P.G., and A.M. Bauer, 2013, ‘The Maski Archaeological Research Project (MARP): investigating
long-­term dynamics of settlement, politics and environmental history in ancient South India’,
Antiquity 87 (336)
Kennedy, Ken R. 2000. God-­Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology in South Asia. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press.
Korisettar, R. et al., 2001. ‘Brahmagiri and Beyond: the Archaeology of the Southern Neolithic’, in Settar
and Korisettar (eds.) 151-­237.
Meadow, R.H. 1996. ‘The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in South Asia’, in D.R. Harris
(ed.), The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. Washington D.C:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 390-­412.
Meadow, R. and Patel, A. K. 2001. ‘From Mehrgarh to Harappa and Dholavira: Prehistoric Pastoralism in
North-­Western South Asia through the Harappan Period’, in S. nSettar and R. Korisettar (ed.), Indian
Archaeology in Retrospect. II. Proto-­History. New Delhi: Manohar, 391-­408.
-­-­-­-­. 2003. ‘Prehistoric Pastoralism in Northwestern South Asia from the Neolithic through the Harappan
Period’, in S.A Weber and W.R. Belcher (ed.), Ethnobiology and the Indus Civilization. An
Interdisciplinary Approach to Subsistence, Environment and Change. Lanham: Lexington Books.
Mehra, K.L. 1997. ‘Biodiversity and subsistence changes in India: the neolithic and chalcolithic age’, Asian
Agrihistory 1(2): 105-­26.
Miller, D. 1985. Artefacts as categories: a study of ceramic variability in central India. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Misra, V.N. 1973. ‘Bagor, a Late Mesolithic Settlement in North-­West India’, World Archaeology, 5: 92-­100
-­-­-­-­. 1984. ‘Climate, a factor in the Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization’, in B. B. Lal and S. P Gupta (eds.),
Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Books and Books, 461-­489.
-­-­-­-­. 1997, ‘Balathal: A Chalcolithic Settlement in Mewar, Rajasthan, India: Results of First Three Seasons'
Excavation’, South Asian Studies 13 (1): 251-­73.
Morrison, K.D. and Junker, L.L. (eds.) 2002. Forager-­Traders in South and Southeast Asia. Long term
histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 2 (by K.D. Morrison), pp. 21-­40, &
Chapter 3 (by J.R. Lukacs), 41-­61.
34
Sankalia, H.D., S.B. Deo et al., 1971. Chalcolithic Navdatoli : the excavations of Navdatoli, 1957-­59. Poona:
Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute.
Saraswat, K.S. 1992. ‘Archaeobotanical Remains in Ancient Cultural and Socio-­Economical Dynamics of the
Indian Subcontinent’, The Palaeobotanist 40, 514-­545.
-­-­-­-­. 2004. ‘Plant economy of early farming communities’, in B.P. Singh (ed.), Early Farming Communities of
the Kaimur (Excavations at Senuwar). Jaipur: Publication Scheme, 416-­535.
Settar, S. and R. Korisettar (eds.), 2002. Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. New Delhi: Manohar, vol. 1,
Chapters on Mesolithic and Neolithic.
Shaffer, J.G. 1992. ‘The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic through Bronze Age’,
in R. Ehrich (ed.), Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd edition), volume 1. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 441-­464.
Shinde, V. 1994. ‘The Deccan Chalcolithic: A Recent Perspective’, Man and Environment 19: 169-­178.
Singh, Purushottam 2001. ‘The Neolithic Culture of Northern and Eastern India’, in S. Settar and R.
Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume I. Prehistory, Publications of the Indian
Council for Historical Research. New Delhi: Manohar, 127-­150.
Sinopoli, C.M. 2009. Late prehistoric landscapes of the Tungabhadra Corridor: recent excavations at
Kadebakele (Koppal District, Karnataka), in K. Paddayya, P.P. Joglekar, K.K. Basa & R. Sawant (ed.)
Recent research trends in South Asian archaeology: proceedings of the Professor H.D. Sankalia birth
centenary seminar: 279–94. Pune: Deccan College Post Graduate Research Institute.
Smith, M. 2006. ‘The archaeology of food preference’, American Anthropologist 108 (3): 480-­93.
4. Harappan archaeology
http://www.harappa.com/indus/indus0.html. Follow link to ‘essay’.
Agrawal, D.P. 1972-­73. ‘Genesis of Harappa Culture’, Purattatva 6: 37-­41.
Agrawal, D.P. and R.K. Sood 1982. ‘Ecological Factors and the Harappan Civilization’, in G. Possehl (ed.),
Harappan Civilization: a contemporary perspective. Warminster: Aris & Phillips in cooperation with
American Institute of Indian Studies, 223-­231.
Agrawal, D.P. et al, 1980. ‘Remote Sensing and the ‘Lost Sarasvati’’, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of
Sciences (Earth and Planetary Sciences) 89 (3): 317-­331.
Ajithprasad, P. 2002. ‘The pre-­Harappan cultures of Gujarat’, in S. Settar and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian
Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume II: Protohistory, Archaeology of the Harappan Civilization. New
Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 129-­158.
Allchin, F.R. ‘The Legacy of the Indus Civilization’, in G. Possehl (ed.) Harappan Civilization: a contemporary
perspective. Warminster: Aris & Phillips in cooperation with American Institute of Indian Studies,
325-­333.
Allchin, F.R. 1985. ‘The interpretation of a seal from Chanu-­daro and its significance for the religion of the
Indus Valley’, in J. Schotsmans and M. Taddei (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1983. Naples:
Insititu Universitario Orientale, Series Minor 23, 369-­84.
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History of Science, philosophy, and culture in Indian civilization. vol. 1: The Dawn of Indian
civilization up to 600 BC. Delhi: Centre for studies in civilization, 377 – 391.
Leshnik, L. S. 1974. South Indian megalithic burials: the Pandukal complex. Wiesbaden: Steiner.
Mohanty, R.K. and V. Selvakumar, 2002. ‘The archaeology of megaliths in India: 1947-­1997’, in S. Settar
and R. Korisettar (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol. III: Prehistory. New Delhi: Manohar,
313-­352.
Mushrif, V., Boivin, N., Korisettar, R. & Walimbe, S. R., 2003. Skeletal remains from the Kudatini
sarcophagus burial, Puratattva, 33,74-­83.
Olivelle, P. 2009. ‘The Living and the Dead: Ideology and Social Dynamics of Ancestral Commemoration in
India’, in H. L. Seneviratne (ed.), The Anthropologist and the Native: Essays for Gananath
Obeyesekere, Florence: Societa Editrice Fiorentina. 65-­74.
Pant, P.C. 1978. 'The Megaliths of Jangal Mahal and the Vedic Tradition', in V.N. Misra and P Bellwood
(eds.), Recent advances in Indo-­Pacific prehistory: Oxford and IBH.
Sand, ER 1986 'The Sraddha according to some important Puranas', in A. Parpola and B.S. Hansen (eds.),
South Asian Religion and Society, London: Curzon Press.
41
Sayers, M.R., 2006. ‘Death and Dying in Indian Religions: A Bibliography’, SAGAR: A South Asian Graduate
Research Journal 16: 79-­93.
Schopen, G. 1996. ‘Immigrant monks and the proto-­historical dead: the Buddhist occupation of early burial
sites in India’, in F. Wilheln (ed.), Festschrift Dieter Schlingloff. Reinbek: Verlag fur Oreintalistische
Fachpublikationen, 215-­238.
Singh, P., 1970. Burial Practices in Ancient India: A Study of the Eschatological Beliefs of Early Man as
Revealed by Archaeological Sources. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan.
-­-­-­-­. 1978. 'Megalithic Remains in the Vindhyans', in V.N. Misra and P. Bellwood (eds.), Recent advances in
Indo-­Pacific prehistory. Delhi: Oxford and IBH.
Taylor, P.M. 1941. Megalithic tombs and other ancient remains in the Deccan collected papers with an
introduction by G. Yazdani. Hyderabad: Hyderabad State Archaeological Department.
8. Indian religions
8a. Buddhism
Bailey, G. and I. Mabbett, 2003. The Sociology of Early Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barnes, G. 1995. ‘An introduction to Buddhist archaeology’, World Archaeology 27: 165-­182.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1995. ‘Buddhist Sites across South Asia as Influenced by Political and Economic Forces’,
World Archaeology 27: 185-­202.
Cohen, R. S. 1998. ‘Naga, Yaksini, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta’, History of
Religions 37: 360-­40.
Coningham, R. 2001. ‘The Archaeology of Buddhism’, in T. Insoll (ed.), Archaeology and World Religion.
London: Routledge, 60-­95.
-­-­-­-­. 1998. ‘Buddhism ‘Rematerialized’ and the Archaeology of the Gautama Buddha’, Cambridge
Archaeological Journal 8: 121-­26.
-­-­-­-­. 1995. ‘Monks, Caves and Kings: a Reassessment of the Nature of Early Buddhism in Sri Lanka’, World
Archaeology 27: 222-­42.
Dutt, S. 1962. Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: their History and their Contribution to Indian
Culture. London: Allen and Unwin.
Flood, G. 1996. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fogelin, L, 2006. Archaeology of Early Buddhism. New York: Altamira Press.
Gombrich, R. 1988. Theravada Buddhism: a social history from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo.
London: Routledge.
Gunawardana, R.A.L.H. 1971. 'Irrigation and hydraulic society in early medieval Ceylon', Past and Present
53: 3-­27.
-­-­-­-­. 1979. Robe and Plough: Monasticism and economic interest in early medieval Sri Lanka. Tuscon:
Association for Asian Studies, University of Arizona Press.
Hartel, H. 1991. ‘Archaeological Research on Ancient Buddhist Sites’, in H. Bechert (ed.), The Dating of the
Historical Buddha. Gottingen, 61-­89.
Heitzman, J. 1984. ‘Early Buddhism, Trade and Empire’, in K.A: R Kennedy and G.L. Possehl (eds.), Studies
in the Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology of South Asia. New Delhi.
Mitra, D. 1971. Buddhist Monuments. Calcutta: Sahitya Samsad.
Morrison, K. 1995. ‘Trade, urbanism, and Agricultural Expansion: Buddhist Monastic Institutions and the
State in Early Historic Western Deccan’, World Archaeology 27: 203-­21.
Schopen, G. 1997. Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy,
and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
-­-­-­-­. 2004. Buddhist Monks and Business Matters: Still More Papers on Buddhist Monasticism in India.
Studies in the Buddhist Traditions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Shaw, J. 2007. Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi hill and archaeologies of religious and social
change, c. 3rd century BC to 5th century AD. London: British Association for South Asian Studies,
The British Academy. London.
Shimada, A., and Hawkes, J., 2009, eds., Buddhist Stupas in South Asia: Recent Archaeological, Art-­
Historical, and Historical Perspectives. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
42
Skilton, A: 2001. A Concise History of Buddhism. Birmingham: Windhorse Publications.
Williams, P. 1989. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.London: Routledge.
8b. Hinduism
Boivin, N. 2005. ‘Orientalism, ideology and identity: examining caste in South Asian archaeology’, Journal
of Social Archaeology 5 (2): 225-­52.
Boivin, N.L. 2007. Anthropological, Historical, Archaeological and Genetic Perspectives on the Origins of
Caste in South Asia, In M. Petraglia and B. Allchin (eds.) The Evolution and History of Human
Populations in South Asia. Springer, Netherlands.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 2001. ‘The Archaeology of Hinduism’, in T. Insoll (ed.), Archaeology and World Religion.
London: Routledge, 33-­60.
Coningham, R., and R. Young. 1999. ‘The archaeological visibility of caste: an introduction’, in T. Insoll,
(ed.), Case studies in archaeology and world religions: the proceedings of the Cambridge
conference. Oxford: BAR International Series.
Kosambi, D. D. 1962. ‘At the Crossroads: a Study of Mother Goddess Cult Sites’, in D. D. Kosambi, Myth
and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian culture. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 82-­109/
Kulke, H. 1993a. ‘Max Weber's Contribution to the Study of ‘Hinduization’ in India and ‘Indianization’ in
Southeast Asia’. In H. Kulke, Kings and cults: State Formation and Legitimation in India and
Southeast Asia. Delhi: Manohar, 240-­61.
Lahiri, N. and E.A. Bacus, 2004. ‘Exploring the archaeology of Hinduism’. World Archaeology 36: 313-­325.
Shaw, J. 2004. ‘Naga sculptures in Sanchi’s archaeological landscape: Buddhism, Vaisnavism and local
agricultural cults in central India, first century BCE to fifth century CE’, Artibus Asiae LXIV(1): 5-­59.
Smith, B.K. 1987. ‘Exorcising the transcendent: strategies for defining Hinduism and religion’, History of
Religions 27: 32-­55
Srinivas, M. N. 1967. ‘The Cohesive role of Sanskritization’, in P. Mason (ed.), India and Ceylon: Unity and
Diversity. London: Oxford University Press.
Srinivasan, D. 1979. ‘Early Vaisnava Imagery: Caturvyuha and Variant Forms’, Archives of Asian Art
Willis, M. D. 2009. The archaeology of Hindu ritual: temples and the establishment of the gods. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
9. Periodical resources
AFGHANISTAN
Afghanistan is a journal which has occurred sporadically over the years. It contains several key papers on
Afghan prehistory.
BANGLADESH
Bangla Desh Archaeology has appeared in one issue.
INDIA
Ancient India is the Bulletin of the Archaeological Survey of India. This journal contains both articles of a
synthetic nature and reports on excavation and exploration.
Indian Archaeology, A Review is an annual report of the Archaeological Survey of India: It contains
summaries on field work, epigraphy, treasure trove and other topics.
Man & Environment is the organ of the Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies.
Puratattva is the Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society and is one of the key archaeological journals
in India.
43
Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute has a number of papers and reports on the archaeological
work done by the faculty at Deccan College.
Journal of the Oriental Institute of the M. S. Univ. of Baroda contains many fine articles on prehistoric
research, especially in Gujarat.
Pragdhara is the journal published by the Department of Archaeology of Uttar Pradesh. A very well
produced, regular publication;; an important source of recent excavation reports.PAKISTAN
Pakistan Archaeology is a publication of the Pakistan Dept. of Archaeology. Volumes 1-­10 have appear(ed.)
There are several key site reports in this journal.
Ancient Pakistan is the journal of the Dept. of Archaeology at the Univ. of Peshawar. Five volumes were
published before publication ceased.
Journal of Central Asia is a publication from the Quaid-­i-­Azam Univ. with some articles on South Asian
prehistory.
SRI LANKA
Ancient Ceylon is the organ of the Sri Lankan Dept. of Archaeology.
Spolia Zeylanica has occasional papers on Sri Lankan prehistory, especially dealing with the Stone Age.
10. Other journals
East and West is the periodical for IsMEO in Rome. Key articles on Italian research in Swat and Iran will be
found here.
Silk Road Art and Archaeology. Journal of the Institute of Silk Road Studies, Kamakura
South Asian Studies. Annual publication of the Society for South Asian Studies (British Academy). The
main publication for South Asian archaeology in UK.
South Asian Archaeology, while this is not strictly speaking a periodical, these publications contain the
papers delivered at the bi-­annual conference of the Western European Society for the Promotion of South
Asian Archaeology.
The following Journals are useful for South Asian archaeology and anthropology.
Asian Perspectives, Artibus Asiae;; Journal of the Economic and Social history of the Orient, Man in India,
Eastern Anthropologist, Iran, Iraq, Journal of Oman Studies, Palaeorient, Proceedings of the Seminar for
Arabian Studies, Sumer
Some relevant Art-­History journals: Lalit Kala, Ars Orientalis, Artibus Asiae, Marg
Of the more general archaeological and anthropological journals the following frequently contain articles
relating to South Asia:
American Antiquity;; Annual Review of Anthropology;; Antiquity;; Journal of Social Archaeology;; World
Archaeology;; World Archaeology
44
11. Bibliographic resources
Those wanting to go beyond the reading list and explore other works will find the following publications
useful:
ABIA (Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology). An excellent web-­resource providing a searchable
bibliography (publications from 1996 onwards) which is updated every year:
http://www.iias.nl/host/abia/
Bhatia, Kanta 1978. Reference Sources on South Asia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania South Asia
Regional Studies No. 77.
Bonnenfant, P 1979. Bibliographie de la Peninsula Arabique & Sciences de l’Homme. Paris: Editions du
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
Hingorani, R. 1978. Site Index to ASI Site Reports. Delhi: AIIS.
Khan, M. 1980. ‘The Bibliography of Soviet Publications on the Archaeology of Soviet Central Asia’, Journal
of Central Asia 3, 41-­54.
King, D. 1975. A Comprehensive Bibliography of Pakistan Archaeology: Palaeolithic to Historic Times. East
Lansing: Michigan State University: South Asia Series, Occasional Papers, No. 24.
Ibid. 1986. Indian Archaeology A Review: Guide to Excavated Sites, 1953/54 through 1983/84. Occasional
Paper of the Asia Section. Philadelphia: The University Museum.
Ramachandran, K.S. 1971.A Bibliography on Indian Megaliths. Madras: Tamil Nadu Department of
Guide to Pronunciation and Diacritical Marks
DŅ±,QGLDQODQJXDJHGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQORQJDQGVKRUWYRZHOVDQGWKHORQJHUYHUVLRQLVPDUNHGZLWKD
PDFURQŅVRXQGVVRPHWKLQJOLNHWKHDLQcan’t
au, ai – in Sanskrit, au is pronounced as in now, in Hindi as in soar. ai in Sanskrit as in aye, in Hindi as in
say. This can lead to some contradiction, especially when you hear the Sanskrit Maurya pronounced
differently to the Anglicised Mauryan.
Xź±WKHORQJYRZHOLVVRPHWKLQJOLNHWKHRRLVgood;; u is never pronounced as in pun.
Lŝ±VRPHWKLQJOLNHWKHHHLQghee
бDVLQ)UHQFKSURQRXQFHGDVVK
‫ٿٓڈ‬HWF±WKHVHDUHNQRZQDVUHWURIOH[FRQVRQDQWVDQGDUHJLIWVWR6DQVNULWIURP'UDYLGLDQ7KH\DUH
pronounced with the tip of the tongue pointing upwards towards the palate. Although to the untrained ear
they may sound little different to “normally” produced consonants they operate as different sounds in
,QGLDQODQJXDJHV7KH‫ٿ‬VRXQGVOLNHVK
th, ph etc. Pronounced not as in there, but like a t, though with an extra exhalation of breath – known in
linguistics as an aspirated consonant.
ٟ QDVDOLVHG VRXQGLQJ VRPHWKLQJ OLNH WKH )UHQFK son. When “converted” into English it is very often
represented by n – eg sangha
Historical works tend to use diacritical marks;; archaeological ones tend to avoid them. If you wish to use
them in your essays and have access to your own computer, you can download the Indic Times font from
WKH:HEWKHUHDQXPEHURIVLWHVWKDW\RXFDQVHDUFKIRULQ*RRJOHŅŝDQGźDUHDYDLODEOHRQ:RUGYLD
Insert – Symbol).
Otherwise, be consistent;; it is fine to use either Shiva or Siva instead of ĝLYD, but not both in the same
essay!
45
A Selection of Useful Terms
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
$GLYŅVL – member of tribal group speaking language belonging to Dravidian or Austro-­Asiatic
DSVDUŅV – female sky divinities, often portrayed playing instruments or dancing.
Aryans – a term found in Vedic and ancient Iranian texts with the implication of “noble” and which
may or may not have been used to indicate ethnic affiliation. The term “Indo-­Aryan” is used to
describe the north Indian languages of Sanskrit and its descendants.
ŅĞUDPD – the four stages of life laid down in early brahmanical law codes – student: householder:
hermit: ascetic
EKLN‫ٿ‬X – Buddhist or Jain mendicant.
Bodhisattva ± DQ HQOLJKWHQHG EHLQJ D %XGGKDWREH ZKR EHFRPHV LPSRUWDQW LQ 0DKŅ\ŅQD DV D
EHLQJ ZKR SXWV RII QLUYŅ٣D XQWLO KH KDV VDYHG RWKHUV $YDORNLWHĞYDUD WKH ERGKLVDWWYD RI
compassion, becomes the most popular.
%UDKPŅ – nominally one of the three main gods in the Hindu Triad, with the status of Creator;;
though in fact there are only two temples dedicated to him in the whole of India. He has four
KHDGVDQGLVPDUULHGWRWKHJRGGHVVRIZLVGRP6ŅUDVZŅWŝ
EUŅKPD٣DV – the priestly class. In English, the word is often written as brahmin.
Buddhas – each age is meant to have five who achieve Enlightenment and revive Buddhist teaching
WKH'KDUPDĝŅN\DPXQLRU*DXWDPDLVWKHIRXUWKRIWKHSUHVHQWDJHZLWK0DLWUH\DWKHILIWKWR
come at a usually unspecified future time.
Buddhism – a religion developing from the ferment of the mid-­first millennium B.C. Its founder’s
dates are now subject to debate. It has developed into a number of sects, the most basic divisions
EHLQJ +LQD\ŅQD /HVVHU 9HKLFOH IRXQG LQ 6UL /DQND DQG 6RXWKHDVW $VLD DQG 0DKŅ\ŅQD *UHDWHU
Vehicle) in Tibet, China and Japan. It is based on the institution of the monastery and decline of
official patronage of monastic foundations is largely responsible for its decline in India. It survived
ORQJHVWXQGHUWKH3ŅODG\QDVW\LQHDVWHUQ,QGLDXQWLOWKHWZHOIWKFHQWXU\5HFHQWO\LWLVHQMR\LQJD
revival.
caste±DOWKRXJKWKHUHDUHWKRXVDQGVRIFDVWHVMŅWLLQ,QGLDWKHWHUPLQFRUUHFWO\RIWHQUHIHUVWR
WKHIRXUPDLQFODVVHVRUYDU٣DV±EUŅKPD٣DRU%UDKPLQWKHSULHVWO\FODVVN‫ٿ‬ŅWUL\DWKHQREOHRU
UXOLQJFODVVYDLĞ\DRULJLQDOO\WKHSHRSOHEXWFRPLQJWREHWKHWUDGLQJDQGZHOOWRGRDJULFXOWXUDO
FODVV DQG WKH ĞźGUDV WKH IDUPLQJODERXULQJ FODVV 2XWVLGH WKH YDU٣DV DUH WKH ³RXWFDVWHV´
Outcastes DUH WKRVH ZKR IDOO EHORZ WKH YDU٣DV EXW LW LV RQO\ WKH ILUVW WKUHH FODVVHV WKDW DUH
considered high-­caste. These are the ones who are “twice-­born” and who wear (if male) the
sacred thread.
dating – one of the thorny issues in Indian history and archaeology. Often dates are given as
though they are reliable, yet their basis if often flimsy. For instance, the Rig Veda’s dates are often
cited as 1500-­900 B.C. – yet the process of composition could have stretched from 2000 B.C. (or
earlier) to the mid-­first millennium B.C.
Carbon dating is a handle on absolute chronology, but it ought to be remembered that many sites
only have a single date, the range of variation is often not cited and the quality of the sample has
not been cross-­checked. Recently, a good number of AMS dates from reliable samples are
becoming available.
Indian archaeologists are usually happy to work with the B.C./A.D. system and so it is followed in
this course;; but please feel free if you wish to use BCE/CE.
dharma – law, social and ritual code, differing according to one’s caste and life-­stage.
(SLFV ± WKH 0DKŅEKŅUDWD DQG WKH 5ŅPŅ\D٣D ERWK VWDUWLQJ RII DV EDUGLF QDUUDWLYHV DQG WKHQ
HODERUDWHGRYHUFHQWXULHVLQWRVWRUHKRXVHVRIVWRULHVUHOLJLRQDQGSKLORVRSK\7KH%KŅJDYDG*ŝWDLV
DVHFWLRQRIWKH0DKŅEKŅUDWD
JUŅPD -­ village
Hinduism – a complex term that encompasses religious developments over 4000 years. In its
recent form it is monotheistic;; though it recognises millions of gods all are aspects of the divine.
However, one alone (if any) is the most perfect manifestation. Its earliest appearance is in the
hymns of the Rig Veda.
46
x
x
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-DLQLVP±DUHOLJLRQIRXQGHGSUREDEO\LQWKHPLGILIWKPLOOHQQLXP%&E\DVDJHNQRZQDV0DKŅYŝUD
(Great Soul), although the religion recognises 23 predecessors – the 24 together are known as
7ŝUWKŅ١NDUDV. Jainism was a product of eastern India, but eventually came to be strongest in the
ZHVW,WLVNQRZQIRULWVHPSKDVLVRQQRQYLROHQFHDKLٟVD
janapada – at first a people, came to designate an ethnic or territorial group. The early kingdoms
and republics in the first millennium B.C are known by this name.
-ŅWDNDV – literally “birth stories”. A series of stories from the many lives of the Buddha prior to his
final birth. Many of them are drawn from a stock of folk stories and
karma – action. In developed Hinduism, one’s actions determine one’s fate and karma from
previous lives have consequences for the present one. The elimination of karma – good and bad –
is what allows one to achieve liberation.
0DKŅ\ŅQD – the “Greater Vehicle”, a branch of Buddhism that developed in the early centuries A.D.
It is characterised by an emphasis on compassion for all sentient beings and for salvation for all.
The Bodhisattvas are beings who have many of the characteristics of gods, but who are men who
KDYHSXWRIIHQWHULQJQLUYŅ٣DXQWLODOOEHLQJVDUHVDYHG
PD‫ډ‬KD – Hindu monastery
Mauryans – dynasty that came to power in the fourth century B.C. and over the next century
became the first India-­wide empire. Their founder was Chandragupta, but the most famous ruler
ZDVKLVJUDQGVRQ$ĞRNDZKRZDVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHVSUHDGRI%XGGKLVP
PXGUŅ – one of a number of hand gesture, each one having a particular significance. For instance,
DEKD\DPXGUŅ is the hand held up with the palm outwards and indicates protection. $xMDOLPXGUŅ
(two hands together, pointed upwards) symbolises respect.
QŅJD±VHUSHQWGHLW\SURPLQHQWLQHDUO\-DLQLVPDQG%XGGKLVP7KHIHPDOHHTXLYDOHQWLVQŅJL٣L
QŅJDUD – a town or city, also known as pura. A ward or other subdivision is known as nigama.
1ŅJDUDalso refers to the north Indian style of temple architecture.
3ŅOL – the language of Buddhist texts. It seems never to have been spoken but was a literary
construct that shows an origin point somewhere in western India.
3UŅNULWV – the middle stage of Indo-­Aryan linguistic development, a variety of dialects that
HYHQWXDOO\ HYROYH LQWR PRGHUQ ,QGR$U\DQ ODQJXDJHV LQ WKH PHGLHYDO SHULRG $ĞRND¶V HGLFWV DUH
PRVWO\ LQ D 3UŅNULW DV DUH WKH -DLQ WH[WV 0ŅJDGKL IURP HDVWHUQ ,QGLD 3ŅOL LV DOVR FRQVLGHUHG D
3UŅNULW, though an artificial one.
3XUŅ٣DV – medieval compendia of history and myth. Supposedly 18 major and 18 minor. The
VHFWLRQVRIPRVWKLVWRULFDOLQWHUHVWDUHWKHDFFRXQWVRIG\QDVWLHVNQRZQDVLWLKŅVD
Sanskrit – the language from which all Indo-­Aryan languages e.g. Hindi and Bengali are descended.
Its first manifestation is as the language of the Rig Veda, composed during the second millennium
%& DQG ZDV FRGLILHG E\ WKH JUDPPDULDQ 3Ņ٣LQL LQ WKH PLGILUVW PLOOHQQLXP %& DV FODVVLFDO
Sanskrit.
ĝLYD – the Destroyer in the Triad, and one of the two main gods in classical and modern Hinduism.
+LVFRQVRUWLV'XUJD.ŅOLRU3ŅUYDWŝDQGKLVPDLQV\PEROVDUHWKHWULGHQWDQGWKHSKDOOLFOL١JD
ĞUDPD٣D – an ascetic or monk from outside the brahmanical tradition
VWźSD – dome-­shaped monument associated particularly with Buddhism and containing relics of the
%XGGKD RU D %XGGKLVW VDLQW /DUJHU VWźSDV ZLOO W\SLFDOO\ KDYH D FHQWUDO GRPH VXUPRXQWHG E\
XPEUHOODV DQG VXUURXQGHG E\ D UDLOLQJ ZLWKLQ ZKLFK LV D VSDFH SUDGŅN‫ٿ‬LQD LQ ZKLFK PRQNV
processed around the monument. Associated with these could be many smaller ones, known as
YRWLYHVWźSDV
Tantra – Tantric practices are found in both the Buddhist and brahmanical traditions. Broadly
speaking, they are associated with magical ritual practices, sometimes sexual, and in the case of
Buddhism a de-­emphasis on the position of the monk.
7KHUDYŅGD ± EUDQFK RI +LQD\ŅQD ZKLFK KDV VXUYLYHG LQ 6UL /DQND DQG 6RXWKHDVW $VLD ,W LV
FKDUDFWHULVHGE\LWVXVHRI3ŅOLIRULWVVDFUHGWH[WV
9DMUD\ŅQD – Tantric Buddhism, one of the three main strands of the Indian Buddhist tradition
Vedas – early sacred texts of Hinduism, the oldest being the hymn collection in 10 books known as
the Rig Veda. Vedas RIWHQUHIHUVWRWKHIRXUROGHVW³ERRNV´WKH6DٟKLWŅVEXWPRUHFRUUHFWO\DOVR
UHIHUV WR WKUHH RWKHU VWUDWD WKH %UŅKPD٣DV FRPPHQWDULHV WKDW FRQWDLQ PXFK ULWXDO PDWHULDO EXW
47
x
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also give clues to developments in polity and society;; the Aranyakas, texts that reflect a growing
DVFHWLF WUDGLWLRQ DQG WKH 8SDQL‫ٿ‬DGV DGYDQFHG SKLORVRSKLFDO WH[WV WKDW VWDQG DW WKH DSH[ RI WKH
Vedic tradition. These roughly date to the mid-­first millennium B.C.
YLKŅUD – Buddhist monastery
9L‫ٿ‬٣X – one of the main gods of classical and modern Hinduism. In the Triad he is the Preserver.
+LVFRQVRUWLVĝULRU/ŅN‫ٿ‬PŝDQGKLVV\PEROVLQFOXGHWKHGLVFXVWKHVFHSWUHDQGWKHFRQFKVKHOO+H
EHFDPHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHWKHRU\RIDYDWŅUDVE\ZKLFKKHKDVDSSHDUHGLQQLQHLQFDUQDWLRQVDQG
ZLOODSSHDULQWKHIXWXUHLQDWHQWK7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQWRIWKHVHLQFDUQDWLRQVDUH.ULVKQD.‫ٿٷ‬٣D
DQG5ŅPDERWKRIZKRPKDYHVHSDUDWHFXOWV+LVQLQWKLQFDUQDWLRQZDVWKH%XGGKD
\DN‫ٿ‬D – demi-­god or spirit, prominent in early Jain and Buddhist texts. The female equivalent is
\DN‫ٿ‬L٣ŝ or \DN‫ٿ‬ŝ
48