Environmental Monitoring
& Technology Series
Collect & evaluate
meteorological data
For Technicians
Study module 1
cffet.net/env
Collect & evaluate meteorological data
Study Module 1
Assessment details
Purpose
This subject covers the ability to site and set up basic ‘ground level’ meteorological
equipment and collect and record reliable data. It also includes the ability to assess data
quality, interpret significant data features and use the data to ensure the validity of air and
noise monitoring measurements.
Instructions
◗ Read the theory section to understand the topic.
◗ Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
◗ Attempt to answer the questions and perform any associated tasks.
◗ Email, phone, book appointment or otherwise ask your teacher for help if required.
◗ When completed, submit task by email using rules found on last page.
Student declaration
I have read, agree to comply with and declare that;
◗ I know how to get assistance from my assessor if needed…
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◗ I have read and understood the SAG for this subject/unit…
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◗ I know the due date for this assessment task…
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◗ I understand how to complete this assessment task…
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◗ I understand how this assessment task is weighted…
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Details
Student name
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Assessor
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N&M
Assessment name
Study module 1
Due Date
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Total Marks Available
66
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Final Mark (%)
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Marker’s Initials
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Date Marked
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Weighting
This is one of seven formative assessments that make up 20% of
the overall mark for this unit
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Physical Meteorology
Introduction
We all have some skills and knowledge when it comes to understanding the weather.
Usually though, this knowledge has limited depth and scope, such as only knowing the
weather for the area where you live. Furthermore, although you might know the weather in
your area, you would not be expected to know how it developed, such as knowing where it
came from.
This first chapter takes a look at what you will probably know about weather, and may
touch on some topics that you didn’t know.
Exercise 1.1
Complete the important terms list found in the Assessment section of these notes prior to
commencing this chapter.
Meteorology & Climatology
Quite simply, meteorology is the study of weather, so, here is a question for you; what is the
meant by the term weather? Furthermore, what is climate? These terms evoke similar
responses from people, yet they are very different things! It turns out that one major
difference is time.
Meteorology
Meteorology, or weather, deals with the day-to-day aspects of the atmosphere and other
short term phenomena, whereas climate deals with the ‘average’ meteorological conditions
for an area over long time frames. For example, if you asked the question…
“What is the weather of the Hunter Valley?”
…you would be told that it is 35C, humid, calm, and partly cloudy with a chance of afternoon
shower. The reference is to the now.
Of course, there is much more to it than this simple statement, and even more questions
arise from such statements; how do we measure the wind speed, temperature, humidity
and rainfall for example. For the moment though, meteorology is the study of weather.
Climatology
When we look at meteorological measurements over longer time frames (with the timeframes of months, quarters (called ‘seasons’ to you and I), years and decades being the
most common), and take the averages of those measurements, then we are looking at the
climate of an area If we asked someone…
“What is the climate like in the Hunter Valley?”
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…you would be told that the Hunter has a temperate climate with an average rainfall of
1000 mm (40 in) per annum, a mean summer temperature of 30°C, and mean winter
temperature of 15°C. Furthermore, wind roses suggest the dominant wind is from the WNW
at an average speed of >20 km/h for >40% of the time.
The concept of scales
Now that we have defined what meteorology and climatology are, the scale of the issue
needs to be mentioned.
The term ‘scale’ refers to the ‘size’ (as a ratio) of something – in this case, the weather. The
concept of scale is enormous throughout any Earth science. Generally, there are three
scales in meteorology;
◗ Global – encompassing the whole globe
◗ Synoptic – a large geographically defined area (such as Australia/Asia)
◗ Local – such as Newcastle
Obviously, there are many more scales that we could discuss, as seen in the figure below. An
obvious omission of scale is the Hunter Valley. Why wasn’t this called ‘local’? It boils down
to the context that we are talking about; it may be better to describe the Hunter valley as a
‘regional’ rather than a ‘local’ scale, especially if we are describing the climate and not the
weather! Use the figure below to guide you through the concept of scales
Figure 1.1- Distance and time scales of common atmospheric and meteorological phenomena.
Sturman and tapper
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The main point to consider at this time is that we would discuss the weather on a small or
local scale, and we would discuss the climate over a regional scale or larger. Why? Because
the climate involves averages, and large areas will have similar ‘average’ values over time
(especially longer times).
Meteorology and the Australian Society
When you think about it, we use meteorology all the time in our society - and we always
have. Admittedly though, you probably don’t think of it as such. But where did the human
study of meteorology begin, and how did we get to where we are today?
The history of meteorology
From the ancient times until recently, there were only periodic (yet significant) advances in
the area of meteorology and weather, and it wasn’t until the 19th century that real
advances started to take place with the science. As with all aspects of technology though,
the 20th century saw the most significant degree of change, which has led to the modern
day meteorology that we know today. Outlined below is a brief history of meteorology.
◗ Meteorology was first discussed by the Greeks, namely Aristotle, who in 340 B.C. wrote
a book entitled Meteorologica, which summarised all the meteorological theories to
date, and is the source of the famous ‘4 elements’ theory.
◗ 17th-18th centuries - meteorology came into being with the advent of standardised
meteorological instrumentation such as thermometers, barometers, anemometers and
the like. Germany sets up first international in 1780’s.
◗ By the 19th century weather observations were being made routinely and were
transmitted through the telegraph.
◗ The Second World War saw the use of the balloon based radiosonde, which started the
upper atmosphere monitoring system.
◗ After WWII, computers aided collection and interpretation of atmospheric data, and in
1950, the World meteorological Organisation was started.
◗ 1950's - computers ran first models of the atmosphere.
◗ 1960's - first meteorological satellites were launched.
◗ Presently, meteorological agencies have access to unprecedented computers and
remote sensing technology via satellites. Improvements in mathematics, computational
systems, and communication between agencies have created a truly international
system run by volunteers and professional meteorologists.
Meteorology and the Australian Society
We have all watched the news on TV and seen footage of the following events. Have any of
these events affected you or your family?
◗ storms / hail damage
◗ floods
◗ cyclones, tornadoes, hurricanes
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◗ surf
◗ snow
◗ drought
We are always hearing about some weather event that has either brought joy or misery into
people’s lives – joy being events such as good surf or rain to farmers; misery being stifling
heat with bushfires, or storms that cause significant damage to property. What about other
countries weather?
Exercise 1.2
Link the weather description / name to the country or region of origin.
Weather phenomena
Country, Landmass or Region
Monsoon
Choose an item.
Doldrums
Choose an item.
Roaring forties
Choose an item.
Southerly buster
Choose an item.
Cyclones
Choose an item.
Tornadoes
Choose an item.
Trade winds
Choose an item.
Typhoons
Choose an item.
Hurricanes
Choose an item.
We do need to be careful, though, when discussing weather events in the news, because
not all ‘weather like’ events in the news are meteorological; some are climatic, which of
course can dramatically affect the weather around us. El Nino is one such climatic event.
The social importance of meteorology
It really isn’t difficult to see why meteorology is socially important. If you are a surfer for
example, then you will know what weather brings good surf, and bad. The same applies if
you are a farmer, or even an office worker, but for different reasons.
Government based meteorological, hydrological and related information and services make
important contributions for achieving an increased social awareness of the importance of
meteorology.
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Meteorological and hydrological information and forecasts are critically important for the
improvement of the assessment and management of water resources, which in this country,
at this time, is beyond critically important.
Weather and climate information and forecasts contribute to the development of well
managed and less vulnerable agriculture, combating droughts (and subsequent drought
proofing), desertification, better air quality, reduced health problems and better quality of
everyday life, all of which are just a few examples of the benefits that make understanding
the weather socially important. It should be reinforced at this time that our focus is on air
quality meteorology.
Exercise 1.3
We all look at the weather for different reasons. Complete the table below by providing
reasons why certain occupations observe the weather.
Occupation
Reason for observation
Farmer
Click here to enter text.
Surfer
Click here to enter text.
Salesperson
Click here to enter text.
Sewer worker
Click here to enter text.
Environmental technician
Click here to enter text.
Meteorologist
Click here to enter text.
Politician
Click here to enter text.
Pilot
Click here to enter text.
Ecologist
Click here to enter text.
Meteorology and you – the environmental technician
But why do you need to know about meteorology? Basically because the law says we do.
With the age of environmental awareness comes the age of environmental legislation and
regulation (i.e. laws). This means that we need to monitor air pollution, and to monitor air
pollution properly, we need to know about where that pollution came from, and where that
pollution is going (amongst many other things), and to do that, we need to know about
meteorology.
As an environmental field technician, you will undertake a wide variety of field based
meteorological (and air pollution) measurements and tests, with one of the most common
tasks being the set up and operation of a field based weather station.
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Meteorology and climatology in Australia
So who runs meteorology and climatology in Australia? It is the Bureau of Meteorology
(BoM, or ‘the Bureau’) that provides government and the public alike with weather and
climate information. Although legislated in 1906, the Bureau started operation in 1908, and
has grown in conjunction with other national meteorological institutions overseas into a
world leader in meteorological services.
The BoM is a member of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). The WMO started
operations in 1950, with the BoM being a foundation member. The WMO has allowed for
otherwise seemingly impossible work to be done, the cornerstone of which was the Global
Weather Experiment in 1979, which to this day stands as the largest single scientific
experiment ever undertaken.
The BoM, and the WMO are only two of a plethora of international organisations that work
with weather and weather related information (such as geographers and oceanographers)
to provide the world with meteorological information and data.
The Australian Climate
It is impossible to ‘average’ Australia’s climate, as there are many different climate ‘zones’,
and each has its own average climate. Over the years there have been numerous attempts
to define different climate zones, globally, and in Australia. The BoM currently (2005) use
the Koppen (Koeppen) system of classification, of which there are six climate zones;
◗ Equatorial
◗ Tropical
◗ Subtropical
◗ Desert
◗ Grassland
◗ Temperate
The north of Australia lies close to the equator, and it also lies in the equatorial monsoonal
region (monsoon is rain that accompanies biannual wind changes in the South-East Asia
region), so this area exhibits hot dry winters with hot wet summers.
Australia's southern coastline is what makes the southern Australian climate. The other
southern hemisphere continents do not have long coastlines parallel to Antarctica. The
southern African coastline is more rounded, and is further north. While the tip of South
America comes to within 1000km of the Palmer Peninsula on Antarctica, the long spine of
the Andes means that there is no contrasting hot interior.
To the south of the Australian coast, the Southern Ocean extends 3000km to the Antarctic
continent. From there, outbreaks of very cold polar air move northwards, warming
somewhat as they pass over the ocean which results in the ‘cold fronts’ you see on the TV
weather segments.
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Inland from the southern coast, a large proportion of the country is arid or semi-arid, with
low rainfall and very hot summers. This is due to a process called mid latitude
desertification, and air that travels from the hot interior to the coast meets the cold air from
Antarctica, giving southern Australia highly variable weather.
Exercise 1.4
Go to http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/environ/other/kpn_group.shtml and print of the
map (unless your teacher provides it for you! On the same map, or separately, describe
what you think might be the causes for the various climate zones.
Physical meteorology
What is precipitation? What effects does airborne pollution have on precipitation
formation? How do these factors affect visibility? How do we measure visibility? This section
is all about the various aspects of the weather that you would know (at least) something
about.
Meteorology & our senses
Physically, we feel the weather. We use all of our senses to gauge what the day will bring,
and what we should do about it. Our senses are (and were) the first meteorological
instruments that we had, as we could see and hear a storm coming, and we could taste and
smell the rain or dust, and we could feel wet or dry, or simply uncomfortable. Emotionally
the weather makes us happy or sad; anything else is up to you.
Of all the senses, it is sight that has given us the science. We have been observing the
weather for thousands of years, and over that time, we have found ways of taking visual
information and using that information to provide us with clues as to what the weather will
be like tomorrow, i.e. the weather forecast – the holy grail of meteorology! And the
information we collect, we put onto a visual device called a map. If we look at maps over
time, we start to see trends in the weather, which gives us confidence to say what definitely
will, and definitely will not happen tomorrow (the probable scenario). We have a weather
map!
The weather map
The weather map would probably be the most looked upon, and the most misunderstood
map in the world. A weather map has a enormous amount of information on it, with most of
this information being symbolic in nature, which of course, needs to be explained (in full,
later in these notes).
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Exercise 1.5
Look at the weather map below, and describe as many of the features on the map as
possible. This is designed to test what you already know - you may be surprised how much
you do know already!
Figure 1.2 Weather map of Australia.
Hopefully, by the end of this course, you will have the skills to not only read a weather map,
but you will be able to predict from the information on the map what is going to happen
over the next few days.
The physical components of the weather
Generally speaking, when we examine the components of weather that we can easily see,
we enter the subject of ‘physical meteorology’. In the past, and even today, the ability to
see where you are going is of great importance. So it should come as no surprise that one
major application of meteorology is to ascertain exactly what causes a decrease in visibility.
Things like clouds, haze, fog, smoke, rain, hail, snow, sleet, smog and dust all affect how we
used to (and still do) navigate from A to B. Surly you have heard that various airports around
the world have been closed due to fog or blizzards? If you watch most news channels
weather, they commonly show a panoramic view of the city so that we can see what the
weather (or other specific condition) was like.
Dusts, Particulates and Pollution
What is your opinion of all the dust in the air? Do you think it is a nuisance, or do you think it
is critical to the functioning of our weather? If you think it is important then you are correct.
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Without solid material, (termed particulate), precipitation would not form as the water (or
ice) needs something to ‘stick’ onto (termed a nucleus).
With regards to pollution, you would have heard of the term smog, which traditionally
referred to a mixture of smoke and fog, hence the name. In Australia though, we generally
lack the fog, so we have either smoke pollution (from bushfires), or we have photochemical
smog. Photochemical smog results from chemical reactions between various pollutants
present in high concentrations that come from cars and other non-motorised sources.
Two terms to be aware of before we talk specifically about some of the substances in our
atmosphere are aerosol and pollutant. Aerosol refers only to those liquid and solid particles
(with the exception of water vapour and ice) that are suspended in the air such as pollen,
dust, and smoke particles. The term pollutant, however, refers to any substance (solid,
liquid, or gas) that contaminates the atmosphere and has the potential to produce adverse
health effects on humans and other animals, damage plant life, or cause damage to physical
structures. Some examples of pollutants include nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide.
Clouds
Clouds are classified according to their height in the sky (as low (from the earth's surface to
2.5 km), middle (2.5 to 6 km), or high (above 6 km). and according to their shape, colour and
the weather they bring. In Australia (and generally worldwide), there are ten major cloud
types.
There are four Latin names used to describe cloud characteristics; cirrus (which means
‘hair’), cumulus (which means ‘heap’), stratus (meaning ‘layer’) and nimbus (meaning ‘rainbearing’), which are rearranged to form the ten cloud types (with the inclusion of the term
alto, which means ‘high’). The ten major cloud types are;
◗ Cirrus
◗ Cirrocumulus
◗ Cirrostratus
◗ Altocumulus
◗ Altostratus
◗ Nimbostratus
◗ Stratocumulus
◗ Stratus
◗ Cumulus
◗ Cumulonimbus
These ten cloud types are broken down into a further twenty-seven sub-types, based on the
same criteria used for the initial classification. It is interesting to note that the BoM attain
there cloud information from over 500 volunteer observation sites.
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Exercise 1.6
Although you are not expected to remember an entire list of cloud names, it would be
somehow wrong to graduate from this course and not have some knowledge (or at least a
reference) of cloud types and their descriptions.
Visit http://www.bom.gov.au/info/clouds/ and familiarise yourself with the basics of clouds.
Fog
What exactly is fog? Most people are unsure as to whether fog is weird sort of rain, or
cloud, or some even more bizarre. The presence of fog at different locations and times
under different conditions tends to…cloud the issue. Fog is a sort of ground based ‘stratus’
cloud and can obviously affect visibility by varying degrees.
As was the case with clouds, the actual mechanism of fog formation will be discussed later,
so we will keep to the straight and simple facts here. There are two main types of fog (and
therefore three main ways that fog can form) – radiation fog, and advection fog. Under
these two banners, there are some other special, rare or misconstrued forms of fog, but
they always result from one of these two main types.
◗ Radiation fog – when the air just above the ground cools more rapidly than the air aloft,
it creates a differential cooling of the atmosphere near the ground surface. If the air
near the ground is moist, a fog will form. This is why we commonly see fog in the early
morning. As the sun rises and starts to heat the ground, the heat rises and evaporates
the fog.
◗ Steam fog – as the name implies, involves cold air over warm bodies of water. It is a very
thin sort of fog. This is a special form of radiation.
◗ Maritime (sea) fog – is a special fog because it can form in low humidity (~70%) as a
result of the airborne salt.
◗ Advection fog – occurs when warm, highly humid air moves over an area that is cool
(advection means horizontal movement). As a result, condensation occurs, and a fog
forms.
◗ Hill fog – is a misconstrued cloud. Under the definition that a fog is a ground based
cloud, when low lying clouds sit on top of high hills or low mountains, it forms a ‘fog’.
A final fog note. Fog can produce rain in the form of drizzle when the humidity of fog
reaches 100% or greater and the minute fog droplets grow into larger drops.
Haze
Remember the concept of aerosols we mentioned earlier? Well some aerosols, such as salt
and certain dust particles, have an attraction to water (termed hydrophilic). For this reason,
the relative humidity does not have to reach 100% before water vapour condenses onto
them. At a relative humidity of about 70%, these aerosols start to attract water vapour and
dissolve, forming a tiny solution droplet much smaller than a cloud droplet. High
concentrations of these solution particles in the air form what we call haze. Haze does not
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qualify physically as either a cloud or fog, yet it can greatly reduce visibility in the air both
near the ground and aloft.
Decreasing visual air quality as a result of haze is an indicator of the increasing
concentrations of pollutants in our air and the need to control the various emission sources
which produce them. In years gone past, the measurement of haze indices was how we
gauged pollution levels.
Precipitation
Rather than insult you, we shall just remind you that the term precipitation covers rain, hail,
snow, sleet and depending upon who you talk to there are strange little in-between forms
of precipitation (bonus question: what is the name given to rain or snow that falls, but
doesn’t hit the ground?) Lastly, it is this (and temperature) that we look out for most in the
weather segment on the news.
Wind
Wind, although not traditionally included in physical meteorology as it doesn’t directly
reduce visibility, will be mentioned here due to its obvious importance and effects. Firstly, it
is one mechanism by which all of the other physical components of the atmosphere are
transported (such as clouds, fog and dusts), but also to plant the seed for you that wind
measurements are crucial for environmental technicians due to its direct influence on noise
and air pollution analysis.
What you need to be able to do…
◗ Describe the difference between meteorology and climatology.
◗ Understand the concept of scales.
◗ Appreciate the social importance of the weather and meteorology.
◗ Be able to describe the six major climate zones of Australia
◗ Be able to name some of the major weather systems in Australia
◗ Describe some of the physical components or characteristics of the weather
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Assessment task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;

Marks are allocated to each question.

Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.

Make sure you have access to the references (last page)

If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
a) What is the difference between meteorology and climatology? 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
b) List three main scales used in meteorology. 3 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
c) Name two common sources of weather information. 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
d) By what system does Australia classify its weather? 1 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
e) List the six climate zones of Australia. 6 mk
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Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
f) What is meant by the term aerosol? 1 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
g) What is meant by the term pollutant? 1 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
h) By what two methods do we classify clouds? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
i) List five types of cloud. 5 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
j) List the two major types of fog and describe how they are formed.1 mk
Type your answer here
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Leave blank for assessor feedback
k) What is meant by the term haze? 7 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
l) Why is haze an important physical component of our atmosphere? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessment feedback
m) List five forms of precipitation. 5 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
n) Why is wind an important physical component of our atmosphere? 3 mk
Type your answer here
Leave black for assessor feedback
o) Why do you need to study meteorology in this course? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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p) Glossary of terms. Provide definitions to the terms posed. You can use any reasonable
reference. 21 mk
Occupation
Reason for observation
Weather
Click here to enter text.
Climate
Click here to enter text.
Meteorology
Click here to enter text.
Climatology
Click here to enter text.
Scale
Click here to enter text.
El Nino
Click here to enter text.
Global warming
Click here to enter text.
BoM
Click here to enter text.
WMO
Click here to enter text.
Equatorial region
Click here to enter text.
Tropical
Click here to enter text.
Sub tropical
Click here to enter text.
Latitude
Click here to enter text.
Longitude
Click here to enter text.
Temperate
Click here to enter text.
Monsoon
Click here to enter text.
Arid
Click here to enter text.
Precipitation
Click here to enter text.
Humidity
Click here to enter text.
Haze
Click here to enter text.
Evaporation
Click here to enter text.
q) Bonus question from the notes. Write your answer below. 0 mk
Click here to enter text.
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Assessment & submission rules
Answers
◗ Attempt all questions and tasks
◗ Write answers in the text-fields provided
Submission
◗ Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using
the file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
◗ email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
◗ If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located
on the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
◗ Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
◗ You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
Resources & references
References
Turco, R.P., (1997). Earth under Siege: from Air Pollution to Global Change. Oxford University press.
New York. USA.
Webster, E.W. Meteorology by Aristotle. University of Adelaide.
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.mb.txt (accessed 2002)
Sturman, A.P, Tapper, N.J., (2000). The weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand. Oxford
University Press. Melbourne. Australia.
Bureau of Meteorology, (2000). The World Meteorological Organization: A model of international
cooperation. Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne. Australia.
Bureau of Meteorology, (2001). Volunteers for Weather, Climate and Water. Printed by the Bureau
of Meteorology. Melbourne. Australia
Hunter TAFE - Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Course Notes for delivery of MSS11 Sustainability Training Package
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Collect & evaluate meteorological data
Study Module 1
Bureau of Meteorology, (2000). op.cit 6.
Further reading and online aids
www.bom.gov.au
International Commission of History of Meteorology. ICHM. (accessed 10/12/06)
http://www.meteohistory.org/
Hunter Valley Weather. Newcastle. (accessed 17/11/06)
http://www.hunterweather.com/pages.php?pageID=climate
Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne. Department of Environment & Heritage (accessed 12/01/07)
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/wind/selection_map.shtml
Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne. Department of Environment and Heritage. (accessed
12/12/06)http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.htm
Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne. Department of Environment and Heritage. (accessed 12/12/06)
http://www.bom.gov.au/info/weathmap/patterns.htm
Hunter TAFE - Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Course Notes for delivery of MSS11 Sustainability Training Package
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