Environmental Monitoring
& Technology Series
Noise monitoring &
evaluation
For Technicians
Study module 3
Evaluating noise
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Noise monitoring & evaluation
Study Module 3
Assessment details
Purpose
This unit of competency covers the ability to monitor noise using handheld sound level
meters and fixed sound monitoring stations with either data logging or telemetry. It includes
the ability to perform noise surveys, process data and report results in accordance with
enterprise standards.
Instructions
◗ Read the theory section to understand the topic.
◗ Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
◗ Attempt to answer the questions and perform any associated tasks.
◗ Email, phone, book appointment or otherwise ask your teacher for help if required.
◗ When completed, submit task by email using rules found on last page.
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Details
Student name
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Class code
NME
Assessment name
SM3
Due Date
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Total Marks Available
38
Marks Gained
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Final Mark (%)
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Date Marked
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Weighting
This is one of six formative assessments and contributes 10% of
the overall mark for this unit
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Sound propagation
This section explains the operational side of acoustic theory. It is here that we introduce the
relationship between the absolute and relative measures of sound and the legal and
operational aspects of noise measurements and evaluation.
The ‘source-path-receiver’ model
Consider the following image which shows the creation of sound, the travelling of the
sound, the interactions of the sound, and finally the receiving of the sound. We need to
understand the basics of all of these steps, from source, to path to receiver.
Figure 3.1 – The basic ‘source-path-receiver’ concept. [source]
In the example above, the source of the sounds is created by the train. You learnt earlier
how sound pressure waves are produced, and that the exact source of the sound is due to
the application of energy to physical media which results in the vibrations that produce a
pressure wave which we perceive as sound or noise.
These pressure waves travel outwards from the source in all directions (unless blocked by
some object). We don’t measure the sounds everywhere though, we only measure where a
receiver is located, such as where people work or live.
The key point here is that there are three basic ‘stages’ in the source-path-receiver model,
and each stage has unique properties associated with them.
The source
It takes energy to make physical objects vibrate. The subsequent emission of sounds (which
may be perceived as noise by the listener), is referred to as sound power, which is
measured in the unit of Watts or Decibel-Watts.
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The path
The travelling of the sound is called sound immission and is measured as Pascals or
Decibels.
Any interactions with the environment the sounds undergo change the characteristics of the
sound before it is received, is measured as sound intensity (again in the unit of decibels),
and we need to know about how sound changes (such as adding and subtracting sounds and
distance related calculations).
The receiver
Finally the sound is received, and as you receive sound in much the same way you receive
medicine, it is measured as a exposure (or dose).
Patterns of sound propagation
There are basically two models of sound propagation termed point source and line source.
Point source
A point source is as simple as it sounds, the noise is coming from one single identifiable
source. These sources could be anything, a siren, a television or machinery on a factory
floor. They can also be very large, an entire mine site for example, and therefore, the point
source is a relative scale when it comes to size and purpose of assessment. Noise emanating
from a point source can travel in spherical fields as seen in the figure below;
Figure 3.2 – Image depicting spherical noise field [source]
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Line source
The line source is used to describe sources which are not point based and are usually
associated with traffic on roads or train lines and the like. Roadway noise is the most
common example of a linear noise source, since it comprises the majority of the
environmental noise exposure worldwide.
Figure 3.3 – Example of a line source.
Understanding the source fields is very important in understanding the behaviour or effect
that the noise should have.
What we won’t study
Note that in most noise theory textbooks, a great deal of consideration is given to the
controlling of noise, and as such we would need to cover the concept of reflecting surfaces.
We don’t cover that here (at all) because noise control is not part of this unit.
Absolute measures of sound
Source sound power
All noise come from a source which is created through some (usually) mechanical action
which involves energy being used and dissipated. An example of this is the ‘whine’ of a
bearing in a motor which is getting old and creating noise from friction between two metal
surfaces.
The unit of energy is the Joule (J) and expresses an amount of work.
Noise (that bothers us) cannot be a single event, and must therefore be created over a
timeframe of some sort, typically from one second to continuous. When we express energy
over time, we invent a new unit, power.
Power is the amount of energy per unit time (typically one second).
Formally, it is expressed with the derived unit of J.s-1, but is also expressed in the named
unit of Watts (W).
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1 J.s-1 = 1W
At the source, we are not interested in the sound pressure as it has not been ‘created’ yet,
and as such we must, and can only be interested in the energy that is used to create any
future sound pressure. This is contradicted later when we calculate sound power from
sound pressure, but remains conceptually accurate for our reasons.
Although sound pressure level is the quantity most directly related to the response of
people to airborne sound, and SPL is the quantity that is most often to be controlled.
However, sound pressure level is not always the most convenient descriptor for a noise
source, since it will depend upon distance from the source and the environment in which
the sound and measurement position are located.
This is why a better descriptor is usually the sound power level of the source, as sound
always has a source, which could be anything. What concerns us here the amount of sound
energy they produce. Sound waves, like other waves, transport energy, which means that
the amplitude (in pressure) is proportional to the sound power.
Noise emission
Once the sound has been generated (with an amplitude determined by the sound power) it
will form a wave through the process of emission with the characteristic frequency and
wavelength as governed by the material from which it is emitted.
Sound pressure
Once the energy has been ‘spent’ on the vibration that creates the noise, a sound pressure
wave is produced (see earlier chapters). The sound pressure is measured differently to the
sound power.
Pressure is measured in the unit of Pascal (Pa).
The amount of Pascal’s involved in noise that we can hear ranges from 2E-5 Pascal’s at the
threshold of hearing to 200 Pascal’s at a plane taking off at an airport. To put that into
perspective, atmospheric pressure ranges from 87 000 to 108 500 Pascal’s, so noise does
not produce that much pressure relative to the Earth’s atmosphere.
Be careful of units…
Due to the large (and small) numbers involved, we need to employ metric prefixes in the
units, so we use the unit of micro Pascal (mPa) for noise pressure.
Sound intensity
Finally, once the energy from the source has produced a vibration, and that vibration has
produced a sound pressure wave, we need to acknowledge that the pressure wave travels
the atmosphere in a radiating fashion (see figure 3.2 & 3 above).
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This means that the sound pressure at any distance from a source passes through a field
surface that exhibits an area. When sound pressure passes through an area, the
measurement is called sound intensity.
The unit for sound intensity is I, and is reported as W.m-2
Figure 3.4 – Example of sound intensity [source]
The intensity is a measure of flow really as it is a time averaged directional quantity (from
the source) that measures the rate of energy that flows through the area in question. Sound
intensity measures are somewhat irrelevant for environmental and workplace noise
technicians and are usually specialised measures performed by directional intensity probes,
as seen in the figure below;
Figure 3.5 – Sound intensity probe [source]
To understand intensity we need to visualise a source and two receiver points at two
separate distances from the source. In the figure below, we can see that the source is
emitting a sound, which means that it is emitting energy, but how does this energy
dissipate?
What is emitted is a fixed amount of energy (the sound power), so if the volume of space is
increasing as we move away from the source, then the sound power needs to fill this space,
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Figure 3.6 – A source with two receiving points. Consider this as an aerial view (i.e. from above) and
that the sound is propagating across the plane of the ground.
which means that sound power must therefore decrease in a proportional amount per unit
area as a function of distance.
The specific proportionality that occurs is a special one, the inverse square law, which
states that the sound intensity is approximately proportional to the reciprocal of the radius
squared, or;
𝐼=
1
𝑟2
Where;
I
=
Sound intensity (W/m2)
r
=
radius (i.e. distance from source in m)
Remember that the Inverse Square Law only describes the change in sound intensity from
one point to another, to calculate an actual example we need to employ a slightly different
equation;
𝑟12
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 ×
𝑟22
Where;
I1
=
Sound intensity at 1st distance (W/m2)
I2
=
Sound intensity at second distance (W/m2)
r1
=
distance from source to first point (m)
r2
=
Distance from source to second point (m)
More on this will be covered in later chapters when we explore distance calculations in
more detail, but for now, hopefully you can see that the energy from the source dissipates
as the volume the sound has to fill increases over distance away from the source, and does
so following the Inverse Square Law.
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Relative measures of sound
You need to be reminded of what the term ‘relative’ actually means. One formal definition
of relative is;
“considered in relation or in proportion to something else”
In terms of measurements, and especially when applied to sound ‘levels’, the term relative
means that all measurements of an absolute value (whether that be power, pressure or
intensity) are related to a ‘base’ value.
The reason for this is simple, absolute values are not useful when we are trying to relate the
noise to human hearing. As such, we need to ‘scale’ or relate the absolute pressure to the
scale of human hearing. This is especially important when the scale you are relating to has a
minima and maxima in the ‘middle’ of an absolute range. You learnt from earlier chapters
that the range of human hearing is approximately from 5 to 140 decibels, and from 20 Hz to
20000 Hz, and our hearing does not start at zero decibels, nor at zero Hertz, we must make
the scales ‘relative’ to the scales of our hearing.
The concept of ‘Levels’
The relevance to ‘levels’ is that the absolute value that noise ‘levels’ are related to is the
equivalent to the minimum value to human hearing.
Every absolute noise value is relative to the minimum equivalent value at the threshold of
human hearing.
Therefore, the reference values that absolute measures are made relative to for noise
studies are;
◗ Sound power
=
pico Watt (1E-12 W)
◗ Sound pressure
=
micro Pascal (1E-5 Pa)
◗ Sound intensity
=
pico Watt (1E-12 W)
But how are these values used? Well, in logarithmic calculations. The logarithm of a number
is the exponent to which another fixed value, the base, must be raised to produce that
number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 10 to the power 3 is
1000 (i.e. 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103).
If x = by, then y is the logarithm of x to base b, and is written y = log b(x), or y = logb(by), so
log10(1000) = log10(103) = 3.
The decibel
To understand the following concepts we need to understand the main unit used in noise
assessments – the decibel. The decibel is based on the unit of Bel, whose symbol is B, and
the decibel is the decadic version of the Bel.
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Many measurement scales in science involves numbers whose range is that of many orders
of magnitude, like the pH scale which covers 15 orders of hydrogen concentration (1M to
10-14M, the logarithmic transformation of which covers pH 0 to pH 14 – much easier!).
The unit of decibel was created was to avoid the use of large cumbersome numbers. The
good news is that you won’t be assessed on the logarithmic calculations, but just so you
know, all logarithmic calculations for determining relative levels (i.e. decibels) work on the
same types of calculations;
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (
)
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Sound Power Level (LW)
The acoustic energy emitted by a sound source can be measured in either relative or
absolute terms. As mentioned, the absolute measure of emission sound power is performed
in units of watts (or milliwatts, microwatts or similar), and the relative measure, as emission
Sound Power Level, LW is measured in units of decibels which are made relative to a
reference quantity of 1 picowatt (1E-12W), as per the equation below;
𝑊
𝐿𝑊 = 10 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑊0
Where;
LW
=
Sound Power Level (LW in dB)
W0
=
reference power (1 x 10-12 in Watts)
W
=
Sound power (in Watts)
Emission sound power level is used to indicate the noise emitted by items of industrial
equipment. It is common for manufacturers to include noise emission details of their
products in product specifications. You may have seen this legal requirement on
lawnmowers or grass cutters or other noisy items you have purchased.
Example 3.1
Calculate the sound power level (in decibels) of a lawnmower whose engine sound power
was determined to be 9.50E-5 Watts. To do this we substitute the data into the equation
above;
dB
=
10 x log10(9.50E-5 / 1E-12)
=
10 x log10(9.50E7)
=
10 x 7.98
=
79.8 dB
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Sound intensity Level (LI)
The emitted sound wave travels through air (or other medium), and this travelling is
referred to as immission, which is a rarely used term that describes the correlate of
emission, that is to send in, put in, insert, inject or otherwise infuse one thing into another,
in this case, sound waves into the atmosphere. We mention it here because it is mentioned
in the relevant Australian Standards.
Immission is measured in decibels and measured with a Sound Level Meter (SLM). When
you hear of people performing noise measurements, or when you yourself undertake this
task, you will in fact be measuring the noise immission.
Immission could be described as the effect of the emission of sound power
Sound immission is what is measured ‘per square meter’ when we measure the sound
intensity. The sound intensity is measured in Watts, the Sound Intensity Level (LI) is
calculated using the same reference values as found with sound power and is calculated
using the following equation;
𝐼
𝐿𝐼 = 10 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼0
Where;
LI
=
Sound Power Level (LI in dB)
I0
=
reference power (1 x 10-12 in Watts)
I
=
Sound power (in Watts)
Example 3.2
At one point 25 m away from a sound source, the intensity was measured at 0.0000065W.
What was the intensity at a second point of 47 m, and calculate the dB levels for both
points.
Employing the technique above (including Inverse Square Laws) we substitute the data into
the equations below;
I2
dB
=
0.0000065 * (25^2/47^2)
=
0.0000065 * (625 / 2209)
=
0.0000065 * 0.2829
=
1.84E-6 W
=
10*log10(1.84E-6 / 1.2E-12)
=
10 * log10(1533333)
=
10* 6.19
=
61.9 dB
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Sound Pressure Level (SPL, LP)
The decibel for SPL is created using the same process, except that we are converting sound
pressure values (in Pascals) to the decadic form, which produces the Sound Pressure Level
(LP). The equations used are slightly different (for reasons discussed later), and we can use
one of two equations, from the old standard;
𝑃
𝐿𝑃 = 20 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑃0
Where;
LP
=
Sound Pressure Level (SPLdB)
P
=
Sound Pressure (Pa)
P0
=
Reference sound pressure (Pa = 0.00002)
And from the AS1269-2005 (current at the time of writing) which prefers internationally
recognised form of the equation;
𝑃 2
𝐿𝑃 = 10 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑃0
Example 3.3
Following the use of the AS1269-2005 method from above, calculate the SPL(dB) when the
sound pressure is 0.3557 Pa.
To answer this we simply substitute the given data into the formula;
0.3557 2
𝐿𝑃 = 10 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (
)
0.00002
LP = 10 x log10(17785)2
LP = 10 x log10(316306225)
LP = 10 x 8.5
LP = 85 dB
It should be noted that the above equations can be re-arranged to find the pressure from a
given sound pressure level using either of the following equations;
𝐿𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑃0 × 10(20)
or;
𝐿𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑃0 × √10(10)
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Example 3.4
Using the current method from AS1269-2005, calculate the sound pressure in Pascal’s from
a sound pressure level of 106dB.
Again we simply substitute the data into the equation;
106
𝑃 = 0.00002 × √10( 10 )
𝑃 = 0.00002 × √10(10.6)
𝑃 = 𝑃0 × √39810717055
P = P0 x 199526
P = 4 Pa
The relationship between Sound Pressure (P) & Sound Pressure Level (LP)
As stated, the relationship is logarithmic which means that small changes if the dB (SPL) will
yield large changes in the values of the sound pressure (P). This relationship is best
displayed graphically as seen below.
Figure 3.7 – Relationship between Sound Pressure (Pa) and the Sound Pressure Level - SPL(dB).
From the Noise-spreadsheet.
The concept of ‘levels’ is of fundamental importance to the study and practice of noise
measurements. Being able to relate the absolute values of noise to the relative values based
on the range of human hearing means that you understand the logarithmic nature of the
calculations and this can be invaluable in understanding other related concepts introduced
throughout the study.
Consider the following diagram which relates the absolute pressures of noise to the relative
decibel scale of sound pressure levels.
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Figure 3.8 – The relative decibel scale [source].
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The differences between sound pressure, sound power and sound intensity in terms of both
their absolute and relative quantities are summarised in the tables below;
Quantity
Pressure
Power
Intensity
Unit
pascal
watt
Watt per square meter
Abbreviation
Pa
W
W.m-2
Decibel level
Sound pressure level
Sound power level
Sound intensity level
Symbol
LP
LW
LI
Alternate symbols
SPL
SWL, PWL
SIL
Measurements
Sound level meter
Special chamber
Special probe
Significance
The basis of noise
exposure
measurements
Used to compare noise
sources
Direction of sound
important
Table 3.1 – Comparison of sound pressure, power & intensity.
The exposure to sound & its dose
Referring to Figure 3.1 above, we are now at the point of the receiver and can start to relate
the information discussed in earlier chapters. For environmental and workplace purposes,
the interest in the receiver is associated with the following;
◗ How much energy is reaching the hair cells (and is there damage occurring)
◗ By how much has the background noise changed
◗ How annoying is the change that has occurred
In this section we shall only discuss dose and exposure, and we shall leave the rest for later
chapters. You would have heard of the term ‘dose’ in discussions of medicine where the
dose refers to how much of the medicine in taken over time, which would have units of
mg/day for example. Noise dose follows a similar path where we are interested in the
energy per unit time that the hair cells are exposed to.
This leads to the concept of noise exposure, which is simply the dose of noise the receiver
was exposed to. In Australia (and pretty much worldwide), noise dose is referred to as noise
exposure and has the units of Pa2/h.
Noise exposure is given the symbol of E
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‘Legal’ noise units and measures
So now you know the difference between the physical aspects of noise; power, pressure and
intensity, we can focus on what the important legal factors of emission, immission and
exposure.
Table 3.2 – Key characteristics of sound measures. Taken from AS/NZS 1269.1:2005.
Summary
Hopefully by now, you can see the different ‘stages of noise from;
◗ the moment that energy is spent to create the noise at the sources,
◗ to the path the noise takes as a pressure wave,
◗ to the measurement of intensity per square meter within that path
◗ to the exposure to the noise pressure of the receiving ear or Sound level meter.
These concepts are explored in more detail in the following chapters, so don’t forget them
just yet. The figure below revisits Figure 1.1 with some new terms added to it.
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Emission
Study Module 3
Immission
Exposure
Figure 3.9 – SPR model re-visited.
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Assessment task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;

Marks are allocated to each question.

Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.

Make sure you have access to the references (last page)

If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
Answer the following questions
1. What is meant by the Source-Path-Receiver’ (SPR) model? In your answer, make sure
you define each individual term. 6 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
2. Differentiate between the terms ‘point’ and ‘line’ source? 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
3. Provide a definition and the unit for ‘sound power’. 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
4. Provide a definition and the unit for ‘sound pressure’. 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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5. Provide a definition and the unit for ‘sound intensity’. 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
6. In your own words, explain the Inverse Square Law and the effect it has on the
diminishing strength of sound as it moves away from a source. 5 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
7. With reference to sound, what I meant by the term ‘level’. How does a ‘level’ differ from
an absolute measure of sound? 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
8. What are the two reference values used in noise levels? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
9. Why do we use logarithms in noise calculations? Provide an example (just numbers, not
calculations) of an absolute value and its logarithmic equivalent (hint, Figure 3.3). 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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10. What is meant by the term ‘exposure’ in relation to noise measurements? Be sure to
include the term ‘dose’ in your answer. 3 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
11. Explain the difference between the term ‘emission’ and ‘immission’. 4 mk
Type your answer here
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Assessment & submission rules
Answers
◗ Attempt all questions and tasks
◗ Write answers in the text-fields provided
Submission
◗ Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using
the file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
◗ email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
◗ If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located
on the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
◗ Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
◗ You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
Resources & references
References
(NSW), E. P. (2000). NSW Industrial Noise Policy. Sydney: Environmental Protection Authority (NSW).
(NSW), R. &. (2001). Environmental Noise Management Manual. Sydney: Roads & Traffic Authority
(NSW).
Australia, S. (1997). AS 1055.1-3. Homebush: Standards Australia.
Australia, S. (2005). OCcupational Noise Management, Part 1: Measurement and Assessment of
Noise Immission and Exposure. Homebush: Standards Australia.
Australia, S. (2011). Methods for the sampling & analysis of ambient air: Part 14: Meteorological
monitoring for ambient air quality monitoring applications. Homebush: Standards Australia.
Bies, D. &. (2003). Engineering Noise Control, 3rd Ed. London: Spon Press.
Hunter TAFE - Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net/env]
Course Notes for delivery of MSS11 Sustainability Training Package
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Noise monitoring & evaluation
Study Module 3
Kester, W. (2004). Analogue-Digital Conversion. United States: Analogue Devices.
Maltby. (2005). Occupational Audiometry: Monitoring & protecting hearing at work. London:
Elselvier.
NOHSC. (2000). National Standard for Occupational Noise [NOHSC: 1007(2000), 2nd Ed. Canberra:
Australian Government.
Organisation, W. H. (1995). Occupational Exposure to noise: Evaluation, prevention & control.
Geneva: WHO Publishing.
Rossing, T. (2007). Handbook of Acoustics. New York: Springer.
South, T. (2004). Managin Noise & Vibration at Work. London: Elselvier.
Workcover, N. (2004). Code of Practice: Noise Management & Protection of Hearing at Work.
Sydney: Workcover NSW.
Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 2011. (n.d.).
Further reading and online aids
Nil
Hunter TAFE - Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net/env]
Course Notes for delivery of MSS11 Sustainability Training Package
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