Environmental Monitoring &
Technology
Certificate 4 - Trainee Learner Resource
Environmental Fieldwork
Study Module 6 – Quality control
cffet.net/env
Environmental Fieldwork
Study Module 6
Assessment details
Purpose
This subject covers the ability to site and set up basic ‘ground level’ meteorological
equipment and collect and record reliable data. It also includes the ability to assess data
quality, interpret significant data features and use the data to ensure the validity of air and
noise monitoring measurements.
Instructions
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Read the theory section to understand the topic.
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Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
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Attempt to answer the questions and perform any associated tasks.
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Email, phone, book appointment or otherwise ask your teacher for help if required.
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When completed, submit task by email using rules found on last page.
Student declaration
I have read, agree to comply with and declare that;
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I know how to get assistance from my assessor if needed…
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I have read and understood the SAG for this subject/unit…
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I know the due date for this assessment task…
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I understand how to complete this assessment task…
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I understand how this assessment task is weighted…
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I declare that this work, when submitted, is my own…
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Details
Student name
Type your name here
Assessor
Marker’s use only
Class code
EF
Assessment name
SM6
Due Date
Total Marks Available
50 (by assignment)
Marks Gained
Marker’s use only
Final Mark (%)
Marker’s use only
Marker’s Initials
Marker’s use only
Date Marked
Click here to enter a date.
Weighting
This assessment contributes 5% to the overall mark for this subject
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Introduction
Let’s review what we are up to so far. You have;
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Got a basic understanding of the overall survey and reasons for the sampling,
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You understand the concept of Data Quality Objectives
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You know the field protocols and sample regime
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You know how to take samples that are representative
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You know how to test water in the field
Now you need to make sure you are doing it properly
Consider this;
You are out in the field sampling and testing for water. You stick a DO probe in and the DO
meter states the result as 7.68 mg/L.
Is it? Is that the actual concentration? How confident are you?
Imagine that at a later date, for whatever reason, the data is called upon in the Land and
Environment Court. You are told by your manager that the sampler, you, is to testify about
the samples collected and the testing that is done in the field (the lab analysis is covered by
the lab staff).
Could you stand up in court and prove that the results are accurate? Let’s find out!
Just because the meter reads that on the display in no way means that it is correct. You
need to validate the results of every sample and every field and laboratory test that you
undertake, otherwise you are just guessing, and that is simply unacceptable.
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Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)
You will learn about these concepts in other units of study and subjects throughout your
course, so this is just a simple explanation.
Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance (QA) is a way of preventing mistakes or defects and avoiding problems
when delivering processes. Quality Assurance refers to administrative and procedural
activities implemented in a quality system so that requirements and goals for a product,
service or activity will be fulfilled.
QA is designed to avoid defective results
It is the systematic measurement, comparison with a standard, monitoring of processes and
an associated feedback loop that confers error prevention. This can be contrasted with
quality control, which is focused on process output.
Two principles included in Quality Assurance are Fit for purpose, i.e. what you are doing
should be suitable for the intended purpose and right first time, i.e. mistakes should be
eliminated. QA includes management of the quality of raw materials, assemblies, products
and components, services related to production, and management, production and
inspection processes.
QA in fieldwork
With reference to the example involving being taken to court above, if samples are to be the
basis for later legal proceedings, the following areas are likely to be under challenge:
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Exactly where was the sample taken from?
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Was the person taking the sample competent to do so?
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How was the sample labelled to ensure that no possibility of mix-up or substitution
occurred?
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Was there any possibility of contamination of the sample during collection?
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Did the sample deteriorate after collection?
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Was sample storage adequate to avoid losses?
Once sampling sites have been determined, their locations must be specified accurately,
preferably using a geographic positioning system. Where transects are sampled, the location
range should be specified if this is within the precision of the positioning instrument. The
exact location of sampling sites and any sub-sites must be recorded in the sampling
protocol. Field notebooks must contain an accurate description of where samples were
collected to allow cross-checking with those specified in the sampling protocol. Taking note
of the time when samples were taken (standard or daylight savings time) is an obvious but
frequently overlooked requirement of rigorous sample definition.
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Where automatic sampling devices are used, their timing mechanism must be calibrated to
ensure that samples are acquired at the specified intervals. This is especially critical where
hydrologic or other conditions result in significant short-term concentration variations.
Transfer of results to a database should be automated where possible, with checking of the
printout against the field and analysis register. Validation of entries can be achieved by
electronic screening against expected range, other analytes for the same site, and sampling
date and field measurements.
Chain-of-custody documentation is the formal means of recording the people who have
been in contact with a sample from collection to analysis. This is mandatory in legal cases,
and is discussed in the next module.
A field-sampling sheet is mandatory if parameters are to be measured in the field. All field
data are recorded on this sheet, as well as instrument calibration data. All field records must
be completed before a sampling site is left. Any observations or information on the
conditions at the time of sampling that may assist in interpretation of data should be
entered on the field-sampling sheet or in a field notebook. This information may explain
unusual data, which may have been attributed to problems in sampling or analysis.
All equipment and field instruments should be kept clean and in good working order, with
records kept of calibrations and preventative maintenance. Records should be kept of all
repairs to equipment and instruments and of any incidents that may affect the reliability of
equipment
Quality control
Quality control (QC) is a process by which allows the review of the quality of all factors
involved in whatever it is you are doing (in our case, fieldwork). This approach relies on
controls, well managed integrity criteria, and identification of records as well as competence
checks of the technicians.
Quality control is designed to discover defective results
QC in fieldwork
The objective of a field quality control program is to control sampling errors to acceptable
levels. Thus procedures are designed to prevent, detect, and correct problems in the
sampling process and to statistically characterize errors through quality control samples.
Major errors to be avoided are faulty sampling device operation, incorrect sample collection
and labelling, and sample changes before measurement (e.g., contamination or
chemical/biological changes).
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Calibration
Calibration and standardization of analytical systems are necessary to ensure that the
produced data are accurate.
Calibration Stock Solutions
Calibration stock solutions are either commercially available or “house prepared” by the
laboratory. Records should be maintained for both types of stock solutions.
Calibration stock solutions used for metals analysis are stored at room temperature. In the
case of purchased stock, the applicable holding time is indicated by the given expiration
date. House-prepared stock should be renewed when instrument response is not
satisfactory.
Calibration standard solutions are prepared from calibration stock solutions by appropriate
dilution.
Figure 6.1 – Example of a calibration process from Horiba U50 Series manual.
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Field QA/QC program
The field QA/QC program consists of the following areas and corresponding documentation:
1. Sample collection plan or procedure
2. Field QC requirements
3. Procedures to record and process data
4. Procedures to review and reduce data based on QC results
5. Processes to validate field measurement data for reporting purposes
6. Procedures to calibrate and maintain field instruments and equipment
7. Qualification and training of sampling personnel to attain proficiency in the following
areas:
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Determination of the best representative sample site
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Use of proper sampling techniques
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Use of appropriate data recording techniques and reporting form
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Calibration and maintenance of field instruments and equipment
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Use of QC samples such as duplicate, split, and spiked samples
After the training program, the fresh-sample collector must be involved in sampling
activities under the direction of a more experienced person.
Field sample QC
The quality of data resulting from sampling activities depends on the following major
activities:
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Collecting representative samples
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Use of appropriate equipment
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Proper sample handling and preservation
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Proper chain-of-custody and sample identification procedure
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Proper QA and QC in the field
Testing for sample and preservation contamination
In simple terms, whenever we measure something, we need to have a reference point or
line from which to measure (ignoring scale at this stage). Quite often this will be zero (such
as measuring distance), but with analytical chemistry, zero is impossible (because nothing is
pure), so we need to define what zero really is.
The amount of contamination will be small, most times effectively approaching zero, but it
won’t be zero, so we need to work out what the level of contamination is and then
‘subtract’ it from the analytical result.
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A reminder about decontamination
Decontamination is particularly important when collecting samples for microbiological,
organic, metals or low concentration analysis. It is also of key importance when the data
from the samples is being used for legal reasons.
Decontamination agents come in a variety of forms including;
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Chelating agents (similar to EDTA)
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Detergents
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Caustic substances
Blanks, duplicates and spikes
A blank is a ‘sample’ of laboratory water, specifically, the same water (or from the same
source) that will be used in any subsequent analysis. If the water is not from the same
source, it needs to have documented evidence about its purity.
The blank is then ‘treated’ in different ways and the results indicate the inclusion of analytes
that are not part of the sample. They are an essential aspect of any QC field procedure and
if not carried out, their absence allows for many questions about the sample integrity to
occur.
Figure 6.2 – Preparing field blanks.
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Container blanks
“Is the sample container contaminated?”
Prior to sampling, containers of each type to be used for sampling (about 1 in 10) are
selected at random and filled with high-purity deionized water or seawater and preserved in
the same manner as field samples. Analysis of these blanks is used to detect contamination
during container preparation
Equipment blanks
“Does the sampling equipment allow for contamination?”
Equipment blanks are used to detect contamination from sampling equipment. At least one
equipment blank should be collected for every 20 samples per parameter group.. Each type
of equipment used in sampling must be accompanied by an equipment blank.
This blank is prepared in the field before sampling begins by using the pre-cleaned
equipment and filling the appropriate container with laboratory water. Preservation and
documentation should be the same as for the collected samples. If equipment is cleaned on
site, then additional equipment blanks should be collected for each equipment group.
Trip blank
“Was the sample contaminated during the field sampling trip?”
The purpose of trip blanks is to verify contamination that may occur during sample
collection and transportation, as a result of improperly cleaned sampling containers,
contaminated reagents, airborne contamination during transportation, and so on. Trip
blanks are blanks of analyte-free water prepared by the laboratory and transported to the
field that remain unopened during the sampling and are then transported back to the
laboratory with the collected samples. These blanks should be properly labelled and
documented. Trip blanks are usually collected with volatile organic compound (VOC)
samples.
Field filter blanks
“Does filtering a sample introduce contamination?”
Blanks should be prepared by passing a sample of high-purity water through a pre-cleaned
filter. A preservative may have to be added to the water sample in the field. This allows
estimation of contamination by filtration in the field.
Field blank
“Does the sampling allow atmospheric ingress of contaminants?”
The purpose of collecting field blanks is to evaluate the potential that exists for
environmental samples to be contaminated by airborne (and other) contaminants during
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the sample collection process. Once the field blank sample bottles are full, they are capped
and then sent to the laboratory to be analysed for the same parameters that environmental
samples are to be tested for at the site.
Example
A field blank may determine that airborne organic vapours in the vicinity of a sampling site
may potentially be contaminating the environmental groundwater samples being collected.
Field blanks are collected at the end of the sampling event. Fill an appropriate sample
container with analyte-free water and preserve (if required) and document in the same
manner as the collected samples. The exact nature of the use of field blanks can vary slightly
from project to project, but will generally follow this principle.
Testing for reproducibility and accuracy
Duplicate samples
Duplicates are samples collected at the same time from the same source (called field
duplicates) or aliquots of the same sample that are prepared and analysed at the same time
(laboratory duplicates). Duplicate samples are analysed to calculate measurement precision.
During each independent sampling event, at least one sample or 10% of the samples,
whichever is greater, must be collected for duplicate analysis. This requirement applies to
each parameter group and each matrix sampled.
Field spikes
Field-spiked samples are environmental samples that contain specific added concentrations
of various parameters of interest. Spiked samples are used to measure the performance of
the complete analytical system, including interference from the sample matrix. Field
preparation and transportation to the laboratory of a spiked sample should be similar to
other samples, and the spiked sample can either be marked (as FSp or similar) or left blind
for the laboratory.
Replicates (split samples)
Split samples are replicas of the same sample. Split samples are usually given to two
independent laboratories for analysis, but can be sent ‘blind’ to one laboratory. The reason
they are used is to make relative judgements about the precision of the laboratories
analytical accuracy, but they also tell us about the quality of the sampling technique itself
(although further investigation is required).
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Field instrument QC
The QC techniques used in determining if the sample is collected correctly and without
contamination are carried through to the field testing, sometimes literally in the sense that
the same water can be used for QC testing of probe responses.
Quality control solutions
The solutions we use in calibration can be used on the meters and probes to test their ability
to measure accurately. This is done by using the ‘measure mode’ and not putting the
instrument into calibration mode. Common QC solutions and techniques for field test
equipment are stated below;
Temperature
Use a calibrated glass thermometer in the field to check the temperature of the measured
water. If the meter registers the same temperature for the meter, then the temperature has
passed your QC test.
pH
QC for pH is very simple, you just measure the buffers used in the calibration procedure.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen QC can be as simple as an ‘air’ test or as complex as a reproduction of the
calibration, i.e. using two solutions where one is the zero (sodium sulphite) and the other is
saturated with atmospheric oxygen, or anything in-between. Our method is to measure air
and zero. This ensures that the probe span is still at large.
Turbidity
A known sample of turbidity measured in NTU, FTU, JTU FAU or any other unit (it does not
matter because they are all the same!) is used to measure the probe response. The
concentration of the QC should fall inside the range of expected for the samples being
measured.
Conductivity
Use the same solutions as for calibration which is typically 0.5, 0.005 and 0.005 molar.
ORP
Is really tricky. Solutions need to be fresh as they change with time quite rapidly. Also, the
results are arguable as to their accuracy due to the nature of the ORP science itself when
applied to natural systems. Two common techniques are to;
Calibrate ORP before and after sampling, or,
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Use the calibration solution to run QC, but be aware that accuracy will be an issue.
Recording and reporting results
All results need to be recorded on the appropriate record sheets, which will vary from place
to place. This is covered by us in the next module.
When QC fails
So you have employed an extensive QA and QC system. You have all the procedures,
training, equipment and solutions you need. As far as you are aware, you have done
everything properly.
And then it fails.
So what do you do?
Quality control charts for testing equipment
Quality control needs to be assured, and graphing the results of your QC tests is the easiest
way of determining whether there is a problem with the instruments. An example of the run
charts used by our section can be seen in the badly designed graph below (the aim is 2
mg/L).
Figure 6.3 – example of a run chart used in QC.
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Laboratory Analysis
Once samples are collected, preserved and transported, they are generally ‘logged’ at the
laboratory for analysis.
Sample receipt
Every laboratory will have its own procedures for the receipt of samples. This process is
controlled by several factors, including;
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The type of laboratory (i.e. commercial versus ‘in-house’)
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The number of samples received,
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The type of sample received
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The use of receipt software (such as LIMS)
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Barcoding systems and requirements
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The dissemination of samples once the samples are processed.
And many other factors.
The key point to remember is that if a sample is not received in accordance with workplace
protocols, the sample may not make it ‘through the system’ and could result in customer
complaints!
Sample preparation
Once the sample is received and registered for analysis, it will generally be prepared for
testing or analysis. Again, the list of preparation techniques is somewhat endless, but could
include;
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Sample size reduction;
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Sub sampling
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Filtering
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Preserving
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Addition of reagents
The degree of sample preparation is governed by the analysis and the specific technique
that will be used on the sample.
Sample analysis
So, once more we end up with a list that never ends. The specific analysis that can be
performed depends on the customers’ requirements, but generally speaking the following
lists the common tests performed.
Suspended Solids
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Suspended solids are a physical measure of particulate matter in water. The sample is
filtered through a glass fibre filter paper (pore size 1.2um), the residue is weighed and the
suspended solids calculated.
The main thing to remember is that the volume required by the Laboratory is dependent on
the expected final result. For very clean waters it may be necessary to filter up to one litre of
sample to be able to report an accurate low result. In cases of water filter systems, we have
had to filter up to 2.5 Liters of sample to give the required detection limit.
Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids are a measure of the solids that pass through a glass fibre filter paper
(pore size 1.2um). This includes the dissolved salts and fine colloidal particles, which are less
than 1.2um. A related measure called Total dissolved salts is a measure of the dissolved salts
in a sample, which is calculated from the conductivity.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen used in the
biochemical oxidation of organic matter, over a given time at a given temperature. It is
determined entirely by the availability of the material as a biological food source and by the
amount of oxygen used by microorganisms during the oxidation process. The standard test
is conducted over 5 days at 20°C.
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen used in the chemical
oxidation of carbonaceous organic matter in wastewater using dichromate or permanganate
salts as oxidants. The organic material is oxidised at high temperature and the COD is
determined by the loss of colour of the oxidising salt solution.
Nutrients
Nutrients' testing usually refers to nitrogen and phosphorus. These can exist in a number of
different forms, and therefore may be measured in these different forms. Nitrogen may be
measure as ammonia, total oxidised nitrogen (nitrate and nitrite), total nitrogen, organic
nitrogen (total nitrogen - total oxidised nitrogen and ammonia) and Kjeldahl nitrogen (total
nitrogen - total oxidised nitrogen).
Phosphorus may be measured as ortho or reactive phosphorus and total phosphorus.
Nutrient levels may be a useful indicator for the prediction of algal growths and potential
pollution sources. Sewage is usually rich in nutrients, but it must be remembered that
vegetation is also rich in nutrients, and these will be released upon decay.
MBAS
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Methylene blue active substances (MBAS) are usually anionic surfactants. Anionic
surfactants are found in common detergents that are used in household and general
cleaning products. MBAS therefore gives an indication of the amount of detergents in a
sample.
Coliforms
Thermotolerant - Faecal
Faecal Coliforms are used as a potential indicator of faecal related contamination, usually
sewage or warm-blooded animal in origin. This is commonly measured in STP effluent
related samples.
E coli
These are a sub group of faecal Coliforms believed to be a more robust indicator of "Faecal"
contamination. This is used commonly for drinking water guidelines.
Total Coliforms
Coliforms are used as an indication of bacterial activity and total Coliforms are measured in
drinking water, as a measure of the effectiveness of the sterilisation process:
Algae and Chlorophyll a
Algal growth is seasonal and generally occurs in spring and summer. There is a wide range of
algal groups, which can be difficult to identify with the naked eye. Of particular interest is
blue-green algal group, some of which have the potential to release toxins into the water
body. There are a number of Algae groups which contribute to taste and odour problems.
Chlorophyll a is used as an indicator of biomass in water samples. The analysis involves
extracting the green pigment from algae. Samplers need to be aware that macrophytes and
other vegetation also contain chlorophyll.
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Assessment Task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;
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Marks are allocated to each question.
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Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.
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Make sure you have access to the references (last page)
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If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
Answer the following questions
1. You will be given an assignment task for this study module based on a case study.
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Assessment Submission
Answers
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Attempt all questions and tasks
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Type your answer into the text fields provided.
Submission
Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using the
file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
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email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located on
the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
References
Note that some of these resources might be available from your teacher or library
Bates, G. (2010). Environmental Law in Australia. Australia: LexisNexis-Butterworths.
Bratram, J. E. (1996). Water Quality Monitoring - A Practical Guide to the Design and
Implementation of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes. New
York?: UNEP/WHO.
Burden, F. E. (2002). Environmental Monitoring Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional.
CFFET. (2012). Practical Laboratory Skills - supplementary results sheet. Newcastle: Hunter
TAFE.
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EPA, N. (1996). Environmental Guidelines: Solid Waste Lanfills. Chatswood: Environmental
Protection Authority.
EPA, S. (2007). EPA Guidelines: Regulatory monitoring and testing - water and wastewater
sampling. Adelaide: Environment Protection Authority (South Australia).
ESDSC. (1992). National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development. Canberra:
Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Populations and Communities.
Ferrier, R. C. (2010). Handbook of Catchment Management. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Hauer, F. R. (2007). Methods in Stream Ecology, 2nd Ed. Burlington: Academic Press.
Jorgensen, S. E. (2005). Handbook of Ecological Indicators for Assessment of Ecosystem
Health. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Manahan, S. (2000). Environmental Chemistry. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers.
Newton, A. (2007). Forest Ecology and Conservation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
StandardsAustralia. (2004). AS/NZS ISO 14001:2004 Environmental Management Systems:
Requirements with guidance for use. Australia: Standards Australia.
U.S.GeologicalSurvey. (Variously dated). National field manual for the collection of water
quality data: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water Resources Investigation,
book 9, chaps. A1-A9. available online at http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A.
vanLoon, G. W. (2011). Environmental Chemistry: a global perspective. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Vogel, A. (1987). Vogel's textbook of quantitative inorganic analysis, 4th Ed. London:
Longman Group Limited.
Workplace Health and Safety Act 2011. (n.d.).
Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 2011. (n.d.).
Other resources
If they exist, the items listed below are for general information only. If you know of a good
resource that other students might find useful let your teacher know and we shall add it to
the list.
http://www.epa.gov/QUALITY/dqos.html
Where to get help
Contact your teacher if you run into any trouble this unit. You would be surprised how
flexible we are at accommodating your needs, but communication is the key. If you don’t let
us know you are having trouble, we may have trouble trying to help you.
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