Volume X, Issue X, pp xx-xx; July 2012.
ISSN 2277-0860
Online Journal of Education Research
©2012 Online Research Journals
Full Length Research
Available Online at http://www.onlineresearchjournals.org/IJER
Different Perception of Gender on Workplace
Spirituality: Case on School Environment
Setyabudi Indartono*, Yajid Nafiuddin1, Lingga Sakti K2, Ega Praja R3
Department of Management, Yogyakarta State University, Karangmalang Depok SlemanYogyakarta, Indonesia. Emails:
1
2
3
*setyabudi_indartono@uny.ac.id, yajidnafiuddin@yahoo.com, linggasakti@ymail.com, hnoize@gmail.com
Downloaded 12 June, 2012
Accepted 10 July, 2012
Workplace Spirituality becomes a growing endorsement on organizational building. However, only few
scholars have investigated model of workplace spirituality perception on work. Different perception and
acceptance of spirituality concern includes deeper knowledge of religion, value and belief. Personal
difference such as educational background, family environment, gender, and environment endorsement
are suggested to have different effect on perception of workplace spirituality. This study investigates the
importance of gender on the perception of workplace spirituality within an educational environment.
Data were collected from high school teachers at Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Using an equivalent analysis of
workplace spirituality construct, the result shows that male and female employees have equal intention
on the perception of workplace spirituality. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future
research are discussed.
Keywords: Workplace spirituality, gender, school environment, equivalent analysis, religion, Yogyakarta.
INTRODUCTION
Different view of gender on the perception of spirituality
on work may affect the interaction among members of an
organization, which may in-turn have influences on work
outcomes [1]. For example, work environment that
includes a lot of Muslimah (women in Islam) using veil
can commonly be perceived as workplace spirituality.
However, female using veil is sometimes perceived by
the society as a way of limiting interaction between
muslimah and others. This may happen even for female
themselves. However, few scholars investigate the
different perception between male and female employee
on the workplace spirituality. Hence, it is important to
investigate for example, the different perception on using
veil and other religious accessories and activities that
expresses their value and belief among stakeholder
within an organization and their work environment. Veil or
closing their aurat (intimate parts) is one of the muslimah
requirements in Islam. It is written in the Holy Quran
chapter 33 Al Ahzab. Allah said that:
O Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, and the
believing women, that they should cast their outer
garments over their persons (when abroad): that is most
convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not
molested. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful”.
However not all of the muslimah understand this request
of Islam. It may be because of their lack of basic
knowledge of Islam, ability and will. Closing muslimah
aurot is required to whom that become baligh. In Islamic
legal terminology, Baligh or Bulugh (Arabic: ‫ بالغ‬or ‫بُلوغ‬‎)
refers to a person who has reached maturity or puberty,
and has full responsibility under Islamic law. For a girl,
Baligh is attained when she either menstruates, becomes
pregnant, have wet dreams, or attain the age of 15 lunar
years. Hence a female in Muslim that has reached a
baligh will be an average on the level of junior high
school. Hence students at senior high school who are
usually between 16 to 18 years old understand this
requirement and are able to practice the use of veil.
Veil revolution in Indonesia begun in the 1990s. Most
student beginning high school and university revolted that
the government should allow the use of veils at schools
and workplace. Although, the Indonesian Government
has an employment act No. 13/2003 and government act
No. 21/1951 regulating the freedom of worship by
permitting muslimahs to be using veils at schools,
workplaces and public areas in Indonesia. These acts
were enacted after 1990’s. This is strengthened by the
government act 13/2003 and the ratification of the civil
rights. However, few gender movements that mostly have
western perspective try to challenge the using of veil
within workplace environment. Use of veil in the workplace is seen as a limitation for effective performance.
Their movement intensity seems to have a back up from
various media. It influences the perception of some the of
muslimah on the need to close their body. Hence some of
them prefer not to be using veil at woks and their social
gathering. Deeper-skin perception of using veil as an
application of syariah propose low rate of understanding
of the objective of syariah application (maqosyid syariah).
Hence to increase the work performance based on value
and belief of transcendental relationship seems uncommon.
However scholars such as Ashmos and Duchon [2],
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz [3], and Rego et al. [4] propose
the importance of workplace spirituality to create an
artificial distinction between mind or spirit and body or
material and immaterial, and help organizations to
acknowledge the importance of community as a basis on
which success, even survival, can be achieved. Hence,
workplace spirituality seems to have found effect on
various outcomes [1,3,5-12].
This study is aimed to provide workplace spirituality
model and investigate different response of gender on
workplace spirituality. It would be expected to provide
contribution on the productive cultural building at
workplace.
Literature Review
Workplace spirituality or spirituality in the workplace in
western context is a movement that began in the early
1920s [4]. It emerged as a grassroot movement with
individuals seeking to live their faith and/or spiritual
values in the workplace. Spirituality is shown in a
workplace when the following activities such as
bereavement programs, wellness information are
displayed and distributed. However, the program of
employee assistance and the integration of work and
family is able to encourage the spirituality at work.
Further management systems that encourage personal
and spiritual transformation and servant leadership
promote effective spirituality at work. Accordingly,
diversity programs that create inclusive cultures,
integration program of core values and core business
decisions and practices encourage convenience of
spirituality in the workplace. Leadership practice programs
that support the growth and development of all
employees, and leading from within seem to mediate the
spirituality on work. Workplace spirituality is defined by
Ashmos and Duchon [2] as the; recognition that
employees have inner life which nourishes and is
nourished by meaningful work taking place in the context
of a community. Further, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz [3]
argued that; workplace spirituality as a frame work of
organizational values is evidenced in the culture that
promote employees’ experience of transcendence through
the work process, and facilitating their sense of being
connected to others in a way that provides feelings of
2
completeness and joy. Rego et al. [4] assume that;
spirituality at work is not about religion or about getting
people converted to a specific belief, but rather based on
personal values and philosophy.
Spirituality is being argued to create an artificial
distinction between mind or spirit and body or material
and immaterial, and help organizations to acknowledge
the importance of community as a basis on which
success, and even survival, can be achieved. Empirically,
leaders who are more developed in terms of their
spirituality are reported to be more effective [1,6,7,12].
Within workplace spirituality, trust are recapture between
employer and employee. Jurkiewicz and Giacalone [9]
found that workplace spirituality lost the dehumanized
practices at a process of downsizing, abuses of workers,
and other actions that may breach psychological
contracts. Hence, spirituality behavior contributes to
organizational performance significantly [3,5,8-11].
Conceptually, workplace spirituality in a western
context as developed by Ashmos and Duchon [2], and
Milliman et al. [13] included seven dimensions for the
individual level, two dimensions for the work-team level
and two dimensions for the organization level. Individual
level dimension includes conditions for community,
meaning at work, inner life, blocks to spirituality, personal
responsibility, positive connections with other individuals,
contemplation. Work-team level dimension includes workunit community; positive work-unit values. Organization
level dimension includes organizational values; individual
and the organization. Milliman et al. [13] examine how
workplace spirituality influences organizational commitment,
intentions to leave, intrinsic work satisfaction, job
involvement, and organizational-based self-esteem.
Even the Qur'an as a science postulate in Islam [14]
states that both men and women are equal empirically.
The perception building of different gender may promote
different action on gender development. Equality of
gender at Quran has been recited such as at Al Hujurat
13:
O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male
and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that
ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each
other). Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah
is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has
full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things); Al
Fath 6: And that He may punish the Hypocrites, men and
women, and the Polytheists men and women, who
imagine an evil opinion of Allah. On them is a round of
Evil: the Wrath of Allah is on them: He has cursed them
and got Hell ready for them: and evil is it for a destination.
Hence, it indicates that different genders are required to
develop equal perception, activities, and life orientations
on each of their position. However Acker [15] pointed out
that organizations consist of relations between people
and can never be gender neutral. Organizations cannot
therefore be adequately understood unless gender is
acknowledged as a fundamental element of structure,
culture and practice [16]. Empirically, gender has been
used in social studies in a western context to provide
possibility explanations for different effects on outcomes.
They found gender to have different effects on several
contexts ranging from interpersonal relationships to
household decision-making [17-19]. Researchers such as
Lysonski and Gaidis [20], Meredith [21], and Meyers-Levy
and Maheswaran [22] found that male and female
employees have different sensitivity, expressive
behaviors, and motivational response on their job.
Ndubisi [23] study supported gender differences in
decision-making processes, such as financial decisionmaking, retirement decisions, preference for work
schedule, absenteeism, what is perceived or processed
as being ‘ethical’, attributes is important in determining
self-esteem, emotional expression, and communication
or conversational style. Although the effects of gender on
human interaction have been studied in the social
psychology literature, gender salience research related to
workplace spirituality as a western perspective has been
limited. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that gender
may have different perception of work spirituality.
original to local language. It was controlled by a process
of backward translation to ensure the original meaning
does not change. Workplace spirituality as dependent
variable (Y) was measured using 13 items as described
in Milliman et al., [13]. The sample question asked to the
participants is “Does my organization respect my inner
life”. A Five-point likert-type scale was used, and the
individual items were averaged. Responses from
participant were separated by two gender’s categories;
male and female as a control variable.
The returned questionnaires were checked for missing
data. After discarding incomplete surveys, fully completed
questionnaires were entered into an electronic version for
data collection. The data were coded and entered into
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
software program. The next step was to clean the data
and check for errors by looking at the individual
responses and using the frequencies function to identify
data entry errors, for example, entries that were above or
below the scale choices of 1 through 5. The data were
then recoded for the reverse scored items using the
recode function.
RESULTS
METHODS
Research technique and Samples
Through a survey research, a research method involving
the use of questionnaires and/or statistical surveys to
gather data about people and their thoughts and
behaviors, is selected. In a survey method, one of the
most common designs in social science research, is
selected as the most accurate and expedient method to
collect data from the sample population. The participants
decide to have the surveys completed through the paperbased survey. The distribution of the surveys took place
in the third week of October, and the survey done over a
three-week period. The survey ended after all the data
was collected at the mid of November 2011. One of the
primary considerations of the administration phase of the
study is to ensure the ease of access and response to
the survey in order to get the largest response possible.
This study collects the sample of data from high school
teachers in Yogyakarta Indonesia. The result of data
collection shows that 210 respondents out of 300
completed the survey, representing an overall 62%
response rate. These represent male (146 respondents)
and female (64 respondents) teachers.
Measurement development
Items are obtained from previous research. Responses
are made on a 5-point Likert-type scale with scale
anchors ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). Items measurement was translated from the
The result shows that correlation, second ordered
analysis, and equivalent analysis of the data set are
accepted to this study analysis. The dataset include the
educational background profile of the participants. The
sample includes 0.5% postgraduate, 52% graduates,
23.3% diploma certificate holders, and 23.8% high school
certificate hoders. Male participants are 69.5%, females
are 30.5% and married are 90.5%. 1% of the participants
has more than 25 years work experience, 8% has
between 20-205 years work experience, 20% has 15-20
years, 13% has 10-15 years, 29% has 5-10 years, and
29% has less than 5 years.
Analysis of t-test is used to initiate the different gender
response. However, workplace spirituality includes team
sense of community, alignment value, and meaningful
work. Accordingly, Cheung [24] claims that higher
ordered construct, such as workplace spirituality is
analyzed by factorial of different object. Table 1 shows
means, standard deviation, correlation and cronbach
alpha of all constructs. It shows that gender is
significantly correlated with meaningful work. However,
gender is not significantly related to others.
The model of workplace spirituality is indicated by the
2
value of chi-square/DF=  / DF= 90.98/24, Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.12, Normed
Fit Index (NFI) = 0.76, Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) =
0.73, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.82, Root Mean
Square Residual (RMR) = 0.033, Standardized RMR =
0.10, Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.92, and Adjusted
Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) = 0.85. Hence, construct of
Team Sense of Community, Alignment Value, and
3
Table 1. Result of Correlation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Gender
Tenure
Status
Team Sense of Community
Alignment Value
Meaningful work
Mean
1.30
4.30
1.09
4.47
4.14
4.08
SD
.461
.858
.288
.384
.545
.461
1
2
3
**
.304
**
-.029 -.303
**
.121 .210 -.115
**
-.114 -.304 .132
*
**
*
-.154 -.254 .137
N
146
64
146
64
146
64
146
64
Mean
4.44
4.54
4.18
4.05
4.13
3.97
4.25
4.19
4
5
6
.672
.047
**
-.184
.305
*
.170
.607
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Cronbach alpha shows in parentheses.
Table 2. Results of t-test.
Team Sense of Community
Alignment Value
Meaningful work
Workplace Spirituality
Gender
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Meaningful work is represented by single score of
workplace spirituality.
Initial hypothesis testing
In order to test the different perception of workplace
spirituality, t test analysis was used for an initial test
(table 2). It indicates that only meaningful works are
related to gender. The result showed that the result of ttest is significant for Meaningful work. Hence, perception
of team sense of community, Alignment of value and
single score of workplace spirituality seem equal for male
and female.
Measurement Equivalent analysis
Measurement equivalence [24] is now more than ever a
general concern in organizational studies. It is not only
examined in cross-cultural research [25-27], but also in
comparisons of different sexes [28] and in comparisons
between self- and supervised-ratings of performance
[29]. Measurement equivalence was tested by comparing
the fit of the unconstrained model with the fit of the model
with equivalent constraints. Specifically, the Likelihood
2
Ratio Test was employed; that is, the chi-square ( ) of
the unconstrained model was compared with the chi2
square ( ) of the constrained model.
Table 3 shows the equivalence analysis of workplace
spirituality construct. This equivalence test is also known
SD
.395
.351
.538
.554
.452
.469
.292
.240
T-test
-1.840
Sign
.068
1.635
.105
2.214*
.029
1.624
.107
as weak factorial invariance [30]. It exists when the
number of constructs and the particular observed variables
that are associated with each construct are the same
across groups [31]. When equivalence of model does not
exist, cross-group comparisons on construct means and
structural relations become problematical because the
constructs are substantially different across the groups.
All the models; Configuration, Metric Partial metric,
Uniqueness equivalent, Equivalent in construct variance,
Equivalent in construct covariance, and scalar show not
significant. Hence the equivalent model of male and
female on the workplace spirituality was accepted.
Accordingly, the results show that both male and female
have equal response on workplace spirituality. Thus, the
western context of gender on workplace spirituality is not
supported.
DISCUSSION
Extending approach of workplace spirituality model and
method successfully represent the Milliman et al. [13]
model. Table 1 provides the inter-correlation among the
dimension of construct. The inter-correlation indicates
that gender does not have correlation to all dimensions of
workplace spirituality. It strength is at the initial analysis
of t test result as shown in table 2 that different genders
are significantly different on the meaningful work of
workplace spirituality. The final test of equivalent analysis
Table 3. First order measurement equivalent of Workplace spirituality response.
Model Test
M1. Model group 1
M2. Model group 2
M3. Configuration equivalent
M4. Metric equivalent
M5. Partial metric equivalent
M6. Uniqueness equivalent
M7. Equivalent in construct
variance
M8. Equivalent in construct
covariance
M9. Scalar equivalent
Un constrained
vs.
Constrained
model

2
Df

2
df
RMSEA
NNFI
CFI
SRMR
0.960
0.013
0.890
0.410
0.590
0.470
0.410
0.97
0.34
0.93
0.44
0.61
0.61
0.44
0.059
0.140
0.056
0.140
0.054
0.054
0.055
M4 vs. M3
M5 vs. M3
M6 vs. M3
M7 vs. M3
29.15
49.03
39.95
165.33
147.30
147.94
165.33
24
24
24
69
69
69
69
125.38
107.35
107.99
125.38
45
45
45
45
0.38
0.13
0.056
0.12
0.10
0.10
0.12
M8 vs. M3
165.33
69
125.38
45
0.12
0.410
0.44
0.140
M9 vs. M3
160.79
66
120.84
42
0.12
0.360
0.41
0.120
shows that male and female have equal response on
workplace spirituality.
The effect of gender does not provide reliable evidence
that organizations consist of relations between people
and can never be gender neutral [15], even previous
study found that male and female employees have
different sensitivity, expressive behaviors, motivational
response on the job, and decision-making processes.
Male and female teachers have same response at team
sense of community and meaningful work. However,
male teachers have higher response on alignment value.
Both male and female have similar belief and this
portrays what Allah said:
O mankind! reverence your Guardian-Lord, who created
you from a single person, created, of like nature, His
mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds)
countless men and women;- reverence Allah, through
whom ye demand your mutual (rights), and (reverence)
the wombs (That bore you): for Allah ever watches over
you. (Holy Quran chapter 4 verses 1).
They seem to agree that relationship between male and
female teachers at work helps to build a productive
working cooperation such as family relationship,
community spirit, support and care for each other, and
help to build a goal that corresponds to better work
performance.
Teaching is believed to make life better for others.
Hence, teachers believe that they are able to improve the
quality of life of others. This corresponds to what Allah
said:
It is not (possible) that a man, to whom is given the Book,
and Wisdom, and the prophetic office, should say to
people: "Be ye my worshippers rather than Allah's"; on
the contrary (He would say) "Be ye worshippers of Him
Who is truly the Cherisher of all: For ye have taught the
Book and ye have studied it earnestly." (Holy Quran
chapter 3 verses 79).
Both male and female teachers believe that their job is
kindness to others. Then shall anyone who has done an
atom's weight of good, see it! (Holy Quran chapter 99
verses 7). Workplace spirituality enable teachers to
improve on their work based on the highest objective of
life, reprisal from God as written:
"I have no power over any good or harm to myself except
as Allah willets. If I had knowledge of the unseen, I
should have multiplied all well, and no evil should have
touched me: I am but a warner, and a bringer of glad
tidings to those who have faith." (Holy Quran chapter 7
verses 188).
Different responses from male and female teachers
regarding their work may indicate that they have different
responsibility on family status as written:
“Men are the protectors and maintainers of women,
because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the
other, and because they support them from their means.
Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient,
and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would
have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye
fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first),
(Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them
(lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against
them Means (of annoyance): For Allah is Most High,
great (above you all).” (Holy Quran chapter 4 verses 34).
Hence the male teachers may have higher work meaning
than female ones. They have higher responsibility as a
husband as well as protectors and maintainers of their
families.
Limitation and future research direction
Notwithstanding these contributions, this study has its
limitations. For example, the data collected are limited to
the school environment in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Although the city of Yogyakarta is known as a city of
student, there are over a hundred school in Yogyakarta.
Accordingly, investigate more representative both private
and public schools in Yogyakarta are needed. This study
allows us to rule out gender on workplace spirituality,
however, different perspective of gender concept are
missing in this study. Furthermore, it is an open question
as to whether these results can be applied on different
occupation with regard to the understanding of religion.
Additional, longitudinal study on workplace spirituality
change is needed to compare this finding. This study
examines gender to moderate the response of workplace
spirituality; however, research may be carried out on
different response on workplace spirituality for the
participants with different levels of academic
achievement, different industries, in experimental versus
control groups, and in comparisons between self-and
supervised-ratings of religiosity. Workplace spirituality on
general profit versus non-profit organizations, private
versus public sectors, and home versus host country of
strategic perspectives, different occupation and task,
different country and culture, Hofstadter’s dimensions, or
workers’ demographic backgrounds, different values and
characteristics of workers should become future attractive
investigations. It might be also expected to relate to
gender differently.
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NOTE: UNDER THE HEADING;
DISCUSSION
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT ALL
EXPRESSIONS WITH YELLOW
HIGHLIGHT COLOUR SHOULD BE
CHECK AND REPHRASE FOR CLEAR
UNDERSTANDING.
7