FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
PRIMARY BATTERIES
The primary battery is a convenient source of power for portable electric and electronic devices,
lighting, photographic equipment, PDA’s (Personal Digital Assistant), communication
equipment, hearing aids, watches, toys, memory backup, and a wide variety of other
applications, providing freedom from utility power. Major advantages of the primary battery are
that it is convenient, simple, and easy to use, requires little, if any, maintenance, and can be sized
and shaped to fit the application. Other general advantages are good shelf life, reasonable energy
and power density, reliability, and acceptable cost.
Primary batteries have existed for over 100 years, but up to 1940, the zinc-carbon battery was the
only one in wide use. During World War II and the postwar period, significant advances were
made, not only with the zinc-carbon system, but with new and superior types of batteries.
Capacity was improved from less than 50 Wh/kg with the early zinc-carbon batteries to more
than 400 Wh/kg now obtained with lithium batteries. The shelf life of batteries at the time of
World War II was limited to about 1 year when stored at moderate temperatures; the shelf life of
present-day conventional batteries is from 2 to 5 years. The shelf life of the newer lithium
batteries is as high as 10 years, with a capability of storage at temperatures as high as 70oC. Lowtemperature operation has been extended from 0 to 40oC, and the power density has been
improved many fold. Special low-drain batteries using a solid electrolyte have shelf lives in
excess of 20 years.
Some of the advances in primary battery performance are shown graphically in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Advances in development of primary batteries. Continuous discharge at 20oC; 40–60-h
rate; AA or similar size battery.
Page 1 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Many of the significant advances were made during the 1970–90 period and were stimulated
by the concurrent development of electronic technology, the new demands for portable power
sources and the support for the space, military and the environment improvement programs.
During this period, the zinc / alkaline manganese dioxide battery began to replace the zinccarbon or Leclanche battery as the leading primary battery, capturing the major share of the
US market. Environmental concerns led to the elimination of mercury in most batteries without
any impairment of performance, but also led to the phasing out of those batteries, zinc /mercuric
oxide and cadmium/mercuric oxide, that used mercury as the cathodic active material.
Fortunately, zinc / air and lithium batteries were developed that could successfully replace these
‘‘mercury’’ batteries in many applications. A major accomplishment during this period was the
development and marketing of a number of lithium batteries, using metallic lithium as the anode
active material. The high specific energy of these lithium batteries, at least twice that of most
conventional aqueous primary batteries, and their superior shelf life opened up a wide range of
applications—from small coin and cylindrical batteries for memory backup and cameras to very
large batteries which were used for back-up power for missile silos.
Increases in the energy density of primary batteries has tapered off during the past decade as the
existing battery systems have matured and the development of new higher energy batteries is
limited by the lack of new and/or untried battery materials and chemistries. Nevertheless,
advances have been made in other important performance characteristics, such as power density,
shelf life and safety. Examples of these recent developments are the high power zinc / alkaline
/manganese dioxide batteries for portable consumer electronics, the improvement of the zinc / air
battery and the introduction of new lithium batteries.
These improved characteristics have opened up many new opportunities for the use of primary
batteries. The higher energy density has resulted in a substantial reduction in battery size and
weight. This reduction, taken with the advances in electronics technology, has made many
portable radio, communication, and electronic devices practical. The higher power density has
made it possible to use these batteries in PDA’s, transceivers, communication and surveillance
equipment, and other high-power applications, that heretofore had to be powered by secondary
batteries or utility power, which do not have the convenience and freedom from maintenance and
recharging as do primary batteries. The long shelf life that is now characteristic of many primary
batteries has similarly resulted in new uses in medical electronics, memory backup, and other
long-term applications as well as in an improvement in the lifetime and reliability of battery
operated equipment.
The worldwide primary battery market has now reached more than $20 billion annually, with a
growth rate exceeding 10% annually. The vast majority of these primary batteries are the
familiar cylindrical and flat or button types with capacities below 20 Ah. A small number of
larger primary batteries, ranging in size up to several thousand ampere-hours, are used in
signaling applications, for standby power and in other military and special applications where
independence from utility power is mandatory.
Page 2 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY BATTERIES
Although a number of anode-cathode combinations can be used as primary battery systems, only
a relatively few have achieved practical success. Zinc has been by far the most popular anode
material for primary batteries because of its good electrochemical behavior, high electrochemical
equivalence, compatibility with aqueous electrolytes, reasonably good shelf life, low cost, and
availability. Aluminum is attractive because of its high electrochemical potential and
electrochemical equivalence and availability, but due to passivation and generally limited
electrochemical performance, it has not been developed successfully into a practical active
primary battery system. It is now being considered in mechanically rechargeable or refuelable
aluminum/ air batteries and in reserve battery systems. Magnesium also has attractive electrical
properties and low cost and has been used successfully in an active primary battery, particularly
for military applications, because of its high energy density and good shelf life. Commercial
interest has been limited. Magnesium also is popular as the anode in reserve batteries. Now there
is an increasing focus on lithium, which has the highest gravimetric energy density and standard
potential of all the metals. The lithium anode battery systems, using a number of different
nonaqueous electrolytes in which lithium is stable and different cathode materials, offer the
opportunity for higher energy density and other advances in the performance characteristics of
primary systems.
Characteristics of Primary Batteries
Typical characteristics and applications of the different types of primary batteries are
summarized in Table 1.
Zinc-Carbon Battery. The Leclanche´ or zinc-carbon dry cell battery has existed for over
100 years and had been the most widely used of all the dry cell batteries because of its low
cost, relatively good performance, and ready availability. Cells and batteries of many sizes
and characteristics have been manufactured to meet the requirements of a wide variety of
applications. Significant improvements in capacity and shelf life were made with this battery
system in the period between 1945 and 1965 through the use of new materials (such as
beneficiated manganese dioxide and zinc chloride electrolyte) and cell designs (such as the
paper-lined cell). The low cost of the Leclanche´ battery is a major attraction, but it has lost
considerable market share, except in the developing countries, because of the newer primary
batteries with superior performance characteristics.
Zinc/Alkaline/Manganese Dioxide Battery. In the past decade, an increasing portion of the
primary battery market has shifted to the Zn/ alkaline /MnO2 battery. This system has become
the battery of choice because of its superior performance at the higher current drains and low
temperatures and its better shelf life. While more expensive than the Leclanche´ battery on a unit
basis, it is more cost-effective for those applications requiring the high rate or low temperature
capability, where the alkaline battery can outperform the Leclanche´ battery by a factor of 2 to
10. In addition, because of the advantageous shelf life of the alkaline cell, it is often selected for
applications in which the battery is used intermittently and exposed to uncontrolled storage
conditions (such as consumer flashlights and smoke alarms), but must perform dependably when
required. Most recent advances have been the design of batteries providing improved high rate
Page 3 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
performance for use in cameras and other consumer electronics requiring this high power
capability.
Table 1: Major Characteristics and Applications of Primary Batteries
Zinc/Mercuric Oxide Battery. The zinc /mercuric oxide battery was another important zinc
anode primary system. This battery was developed during World War II for military
communication applications because of its good shelf life and high volumetric energy density.
In the postwar period, it was used in small button, flat, or cylindrical configurations as the power
source in electronic watches, calculators, hearing aids, photographic equipment, and similar
applications requiring a reliable long-life miniature power source. In the past decade, the use of
the mercuric oxide battery has about ended due mainly to environmental problems associated
with mercury and with its replacement by other battery systems, such as the zinc/air and lithium
batteries, which have superior performance for many applications.
Page 4 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Cadmium/Mercuric Oxide Battery. The substitution of cadmium for the zinc anode (the
cadmium/mercuric oxide cell) results in a lower-voltage but very stable system, with a shelf
life of up to 10 years as well as performance at high and low temperatures. Because of the
lower voltage, the watt-hour capacity of this battery is about 60% of the zinc /mercuric oxide
battery capacity. Again, because of the hazardous characteristics of mercury and cadmium,
the use of this battery is limited.
Zinc/ Silver Oxide Battery. The primary zinc / silver oxide battery is similar in design to the
small zinc /mercuric oxide button cell, but it has a higher energy density (on a weight basis) and
performs better at low temperatures. These characteristics make this battery system desirable for
use in hearing aids, photographic applications, and electronic watches. However, because of its
high cost and the development of other battery systems, the use of this battery system, as a
primary battery, has been limited mainly to small button battery applications where the higher
cost is justified.
Zinc/Air Battery. The zinc / air battery system is noted for its high energy density, but it had
been used only in large low-power batteries for signaling and navigational-aid applications.
With the development of improved air electrodes, the high-rate capability of the system was
improved and small button-type batteries are now used widely in hearing aids, electronics,
and similar applications. These batteries have a very high energy density as no active cathode
material is needed. Wider use of this system and the development of larger batteries have been
slow because of some of their performance limitations (sensitivity to extreme temperatures,
humidity and other environmental factors, as well as poor activated shelf life and low power
density). Nevertheless, because of their attractive energy density, zinc / air and other metal/ air
batteries are now being seriously considered for a number of applications from portable
consumer electronics and eventually for larger devices such as electric vehicles, possibly in a
reserve or mechanically rechargeable configuration.
Magnesium Batteries. While magnesium has attractive electrochemical properties, there has
been relatively little commercial interest in magnesium primary batteries because of the
generation of hydrogen gas during discharge and the relatively poor storage ability of a partially
discharged cell. Magnesium dry cell batteries have been used successfully in military
communications equipment, taking advantage of the long shelf life of a battery in an
undischarged condition, even at high temperatures and its higher energy density. Magnesium is
still employed as an anode material for reserve type and metal/ air batteries.
Aluminum Batteries. Aluminum is another attractive anode material with a high theoretical
energy density, but problems such as polarization and parasitic corrosion have inhibited the
development of a commercial product. It, too, is being considered for a number of applications,
with the best promise as a reserve or mechanically rechargeable battery.
Lithium Batteries. The lithium anode batteries are a relatively recent development (since
1970). They have the advantage of the highest energy density, as well as operation over a
very wide temperature range and long shelf life, and are gradually replacing the conventional
Page 5 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
battery systems. However, except for camera, watch, memory backup, military and other niche
applications, they have not yet captured the major general purpose markets as was anticipated
because of their high cost and concerns with safety. As with the zinc systems, there are a number
of lithium batteries under development, ranging in capacity from less than 5 mAh to 10,000 Ah,
using various designs and chemistries, but having, in common, the use of lithium metal as the
anode. The lithium primary batteries can be classified into three categories. The smallest are the
low-power solid-state batteries with excellent shelf life, and are used in applications such as
cardiac pacemakers and battery backup for volatile computer memory, where reliability and long
shelf life are paramount requirements. In the second category are the solid-cathode batteries,
which are designed in coin or small cylindrical configurations. These batteries have replaced the
conventional primary batteries in watches, calculators, memory circuits, photographic
equipment, communication devices, and other such applications where its high energy density
and long shelf life are critical. The soluble cathode batteries (using gases or liquid cathode
materials) constitute the third category. These batteries are typically constructed in a cylindrical
configuration, as flat disks, or in prismatic containers using flat plates. These batteries, up to
about 35 Ah in size, are used in military and industrial applications, lighting products, and other
devices where small size, low weight, and operation over a wide temperature range are
important. The larger batteries are being developed for special military applications or as standby
emergency power sources.
Solid Electrolyte Batteries. The solid-electrolyte batteries are different from other battery
systems in that they depend on the ionic conductivity, in the solid state, of an electronically
nonconductive compound rather than the ionic conductivity of a liquid electrolyte. Batteries
using these solid electrolytes are low-power (microwatt) devices, but have extremely long shelf
lives and the capability of operating over a wide temperature range, particularly at high
temperatures. These batteries are used in medical electronics, for memory circuits, and for other
such applications requiring a long-life, low-power battery. The first solid-electrolyte batteries
used a silver anode and silver iodide for the electrolyte, but lithium is now used as the anode for
most of these batteries, offering a higher voltage and energy density.
GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRIMARY BATTERY SYSTEMS
A qualitative comparison of the various primary battery systems is given in Table 2. This listing
illustrates the performance advantages of the lithium anode batteries. Nevertheless, the
conventional primary batteries, because of their low cost, availability, and generally acceptable
performance in many consumer applications, still maintain a major share of the market.
The characteristics of the major primary batteries are summarized in Table 3. This table is
supplemented by Table 5 in lecture 6, which lists the theoretical and practical electrical
characteristics of these primary battery systems. A graphic comparison of the theoretical and
practical performance of various battery systems given in Figure 2 shows that only about 25% of
the theoretical capacity is attained under practical conditions as a result of design and discharge
requirements.
It should be noted, that most of these types of data and comparisons are based on the
performance characteristics of single-cell batteries and are necessarily approximations, with each
Page 6 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
system presented under favorable discharge conditions. The specific performance of a battery
system is very dependent on the cell and battery design and all of the specific conditions of use
and discharge of the battery.
Table 2: Comparison of Primary Batteries*
Figure 2: Theoretical and actual specific energy of battery systems.
Page 7 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 3: Characteristics of Primary Batteries
Page 8 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Page 9 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
COMPARISON OF THE VOLTAGE AND DISCHARGE PROFILE
A comparison of the discharge curves of the major primary batteries is presented in Figure 3.
The zinc anode batteries generally have a discharge voltage of between about 1.5 and 0.9 V.
The lithium anode batteries, depending on the cathode, usually have higher voltages, many on
the order of 3 V, with an end or cutoff voltage of about 2.0 V. The cadmium/mercuric oxide
battery operates at the lower voltage level of 0.9-0.6 V. The discharge profiles of these batteries
also show different characteristics. The conventional zinc-carbon and zinc / alkaline/manganese
dioxide batteries have sloping profiles; the magnesium/manganese dioxide and lithium
/manganese dioxide batteries have less of a slope (although at lower discharge rates the lithium
/manganese dioxide battery shows a flatter profile). Most of the other battery types have a
relatively flat discharge profile.
Figure 3: Discharge profiles of primary battery systems 30–100 h rate.
COMPARISON OF THE SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC POWER
Figure 4 presents a comparison of the specific energy (also called gravimetric energy density) of
the different primary battery systems at various discharge rates at 20oC. This figure shows the
hours of service each battery type (normalized to 1-kg battery weight) will deliver at various
power (discharge current x midpoint voltage) levels to an end voltage usually specified for that
battery type. The energy density can then be determined by
Page 10 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 4: Comparison of typical performance of primary battery systems specific power
(power density) vs. hours of service.
The conventional zinc-carbon battery has the lowest energy density of the primary batteries
shown, with the exception, at low discharge rates, of the cadmium/mercuric oxide battery due to
the low voltage of the latter electrochemical couple. The zinc-carbon battery performs best at
light discharge loads. Intermittent discharges, providing a rest or recovery period at intervals
during the discharge, improve the service life significantly compared with a continuous
discharge, particularly at high discharge rates.
The ability of each battery system to perform at high current or power levels is shown
graphically in Figure 4 by the drop in slope at the higher discharge rates. The 1000 Wh/kg line
indicates the slope at which the capacity or energy density of the battery remains constant at all
discharge rates. The capacity of most battery systems decreases with increasing discharge rate,
and the slope of the linear portion of each of the other lines is less than that of the theoretical
1000-Wh/kg line. Furthermore, as the discharge rate increases, the slope drops off more sharply.
This occurs at higher discharge rates for the battery types that have the higher power capabilities.
Page 11 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
The performance of the zinc-carbon battery falls off sharply with increasing discharge rate,
although the heavy-duty zinc chloride version of the zinc-carbon battery gives better
performance under the more stringent discharge conditions. The zinc / alkaline /manganese
dioxide battery, the zinc /mercuric oxide battery, the zinc / silver oxide battery, and the
magnesium/manganese dioxide battery all have about the same specific energy and
performance at 20oC. The zinc / air system has a higher specific energy at the low discharge
rates, but falls off sharply at moderately high loads, indicating its low specific power. The
lithium batteries are characterized by their high specific energy, due in part to the higher cell
voltage. The lithium / sulfur dioxide battery and some of the other lithium batteries are
distinguished by their ability to deliver this higher capacity at the higher discharge rates.
Volumetric energy density is, at times, a more useful parameter than gravimetric specific energy,
particularly for button and small batteries, where the weight is insignificant. The denser batteries,
such as the zinc /mercuric oxide battery, improve their relative position when compared on a
volumetric basis, as shown in Table 4 and Figure 10.
Table 4: Comparison of Primary Batteries (Button Configuration)*
COMPARISON OF PERFORMANCE OF REPRESENTATIVE PRIMARY BATTERIES
Table 4 compares the performance of a number of primary battery systems in a typical button
configuration, 1EC size 44, size 44 IEC standard. The data are based on the rated capacity at
20oC at about the C/500 rate. The performance of the different systems can be compared, but one
should recognize that battery manufacturers may design and fabricate batteries, in the same size
and with the same electrochemical system, with differing capacities and other characteristics,
depending on the application requirements and the particular market segment the manufacturer is
addressing. The discharge curves for these batteries are given in Figure 5.
Table 5 summarizes the typical performance obtained with the different primary battery systems
for several cylindrical type batteries. The discharge curves for the AA size batteries are shown in
Figure 6, those for the ANSI 1604 9 V batteries in Figure 7.
Page 12 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 5: Typical discharge curves for primary battery systems, 11.6 mm diameter, 5.4 mm high,
20oC. (Li /MnO2 battery is 1/3N size).
Table 5: Comparison of Cylindrical-type Primary Batteries‡
Page 13 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 6: Typical discharge curves for primary battery systems. AA size cells, approx. 20 mA
discharge rate.* 2/3A size battery.
Figure 7: Typical discharge curves ANSI 1604 battery, 9V, 500 ohm discharge load 20oC.
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF DISCHARGE LOAD AND DUTY CYCLE
The effect of the discharge load on the battery’s capacity was shown in Figure 4 and is again
illustrated for several primary battery systems in Figure 8. The Leclanche´ zinc-carbon battery
performs best under light discharge loads, but its performance falls off sharply with increasing
discharge rates. The zinc/ alkaline /manganese dioxide system has a higher energy density at
light loads which does not drop off as rapidly with increasing discharge loads. The lithium
battery has the highest energy density with reasonable retention of this performance at the higher
discharge rates. For low-power applications the service ratio of lithium:zinc (alkaline):zinccarbon is on the order of 4:3:1. At the heavier loads, however, such as those required for toys,
motor-driven applications, and pulse discharges, the ratio can widen to 24:8:1 or greater. At
these heavy loads selection of premium batteries is desirable on both a performance and a cost
basis.
Page 14 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 8: Comparison of primary battery systems under various continuous discharge loads at
20oC.
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The performance of the various primary batteries over a wide temperature range is illustrated in
Figure 9 on a gravimetric basis and in Figure 10 on a volumetric basis. The lithium /soluble
cathode systems (Li /SOCl2 and Li/SO2) show the best performance throughout the entire
temperature range, with the higher-rate Li/SO2 system having the best capacity retention at the
very low temperatures. The zinc / air system has a high energy density at normal temperatures,
but only at light discharge loads. The lithium / solid-cathode systems, represented by the
Li/MnO2 system, show high performance over a wide temperature range, superior to the
conventional zinc anode systems. Figure 10 shows an improvement in relative position of the
denser, heavier battery systems when compared on a volumetric basis.
Figure 9: Specific energy of primary battery systems.
Page 15 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 10: Volumetric energy density of primary battery systems.
COMPARISON OF THE SHELF LIFE OF PRIMARY BATTERIES
The shelf-life characteristics of the major primary battery systems are plotted in Figure 11 and
show the rate of loss (in terms of percentage capacity loss per year) from 20 to 70oC. The
relationship is approximately linear when log capacity loss is plotted against log 1/T
(temperature, Kelvin). The data assume that the rate of capacity loss remains constant throughout
the storage period, which is not necessarily the case with most battery systems. For example, for
several lithium batteries, the rate of loss tapers off as the storage period is extended. The data are
also a generalization of the capability of each battery system under manufacturer-rated
conditions because of the many variations in battery design and formulation. The discharge
conditions and size also have an influence on charge retention. The capacity loss is usually
highest under the more stringent discharge conditions.
The ability to store batteries improves as the storage temperature is lowered. Cold storage
of batteries is used to extend their shelf life. Moderately cold temperatures, such as 0oC, was
usually used as freezing could be harmful for some battery systems or designs. As the shelf life
of most batteries has been improved, manufacturers are no longer recommending cold storage
but suggest room temperature storage is adequate provided that excursions to high temperature is
avoided.
Page 16 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 11: Shelf-life characteristics of primary battery systems.
COMPARISON OF THE COST
In the selection of the most cost-effective battery for a given application, other factors should
also be considered in addition to the initial cost of the battery. These include the battery’s
performance under the specific conditions of use, operation under other temperature and
environmental conditions (if applicable), shelf life, and other parameters that could affect the
battery’s capabilities. The impact of the discharge rate and duty cycle on the cost of battery
operation (cost per hour of service) is shown in Table 6, which compares the service life and cost
per hour of service of the general-purpose and premium (zinc-chloride) zinc-carbon batteries
with the zinc /alkaline-manganese dioxide battery under various regimes.
Based on the unit battery cost shown in the table, the general-purpose zinc-carbon battery has the
most competitive hourly service cost only on the low-drain intermittent radio application, the
conditions most to its liking. However, even with its higher unit cost, the alkaline battery is, by
far, the more economical battery to use under stringent high-drain applications such as in toys
and electronic games. The use of the zinc-carbon battery is not recommended in the high drawn
photoflash or digital camera applications. A similar analysis should be made when evaluating the
performance of any candidate battery against the application requirement to determine which
battery is the most cost-effective.
Page 17 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 6: Comparison of Battery Performance and Cost: Zinc-Carbon vs. Alkaline Manganese
Dioxide AA size Batteries
RECHARGING PRIMARY BATTERIES
Recharging primary batteries is a practice that should be avoided because the cells are not
designed for that type of use. In most instances it is impractical, and it could be dangerous
with cells that are tightly sealed and not provided with an adequate mechanism to permit
the release of gases that form during charging. Such gassing could cause a cell to leak, rupture,
or explode, resulting in personal injury, damage to equipment, and other hazards. Most primary
batteries are labeled with a cautionary notice advising that they should not be recharged.
Technically some primary cells can be recharged for several cycles under carefully controlled
charging conditions and usually at low charge rates. However, even if successful, they may not
deliver full capacity and may have poor charge retention after recharge. Primary batteries are not
designed to be recharged, and charging should not be attempted with any primary battery, unless
one is fully aware of the charging conditions, equipment, and risks.
Several of the typical primary battery systems, such as the zinc / alkaline /manganese dioxide
system, have been designed in a rechargeable configuration.
Page 18 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Battery (Ancient) History
1800 Voltaic pile: silver zinc
1836 Daniell cell: copper zinc
1859 Planté: rechargeable lead-acid cell
1868 Leclanché: carbon zinc wet cell
1888 Gassner: carbon zinc dry cell
1898 Commercial flashlight, D cell
1899 Junger: nickel cadmium cell
1946 Neumann: sealed NiCd
1960s Alkaline, rechargeable NiCd
1970s Lithium, sealed lead acid
1990 Nickel metal hydride (NiMH)
1991 Lithium ion
1992 Rechargeable alkaline
1999 Lithium ion polymer
Page 19 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
ZINC-CARBON BATTERIES (Leclanche´ and Zinc Chloride Cell Systems)
Dry Cells
Invented by George Leclanche, a French Chemist in the 1860’s, The common dry cell or
LeClanche cell, has become a familiar household item. An active zinc anode in the form of a can
house a mixture of MnO2 and an acidic electrolytic paste, consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2, H2O and
starch powdered graphite improves conductivity. The inactive cathode is a graphite rod.
Anode (oxidation):
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Cathode (reduction):
The cathodic half-reaction is complex and even today, is still being studied. MnO2(s) is reduced
to Mn2O3(s) through a series of steps that may involve the presence of Mn2+ and an acid-base
reaction between NH4+ and OH- :
2MnO2 (s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2e- → Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O (l)
The ammonia, some of which may be gaseous, forms a complex ion with Zn2+, which crystallize
in contact Cl- ion:
Zn2+(aq) + 2NH3 (aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)
Overall Cell reaction:
2MnO2 (s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) + Zn(s) → Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s) + H2O (l) + Mn2O3(s)
Ecell = 1.5 V
Uses: common household items, such as portable radios, toys, flashlights,
Advantage; Inexpensive, safe, available in many sizes
Disadvantages: At high current drain, NH3(g) builds up causing drop in voltage, short shelf life
because zinc anode reacts with the acidic NH4+ ions.
Features:
•
•
•
•
Inexpensive, widely available
Inefficient at high current drain
Poor discharge curve (sloping)
Poor performance at low temperatures
The major advantages and disadvantages of Leclanche´ and Zinc-Chloride batteries are listed in
Table 7 below.
Page 20 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 7: Major Advantages and Disadvantages of Leclanche´ and Zinc-Chloride Batteries
TYPES OF CELLS AND BATTERIES
During the last 125 years the development of the zinc-carbon battery has been marked by gradual
change in the approach to improve its performance. It now appears that zinc-carbon batteries are
entering a transitional phase. While miniaturization in the electrical and electronic industries has
reduced power demands, it has been offset by the addition of new features requiring high power,
such as motors to drive compact disc players or cassette recorders, halogen bulbs in lighting
devices, etc. This has increased the need for a battery that can meet heavy discharge
requirements. For this reason, as well as competition from the alkaline battery system for heavy
drain applications, many manufacturers are no longer investing capital to improve the Leclanche´
or zinc-carbon technology. The traditional Leclanche ´ cell construction, which utilizes a starch
paste separator, is being gradually phased out and replaced by zinc chloride batteries utilizing
paper separators. This results in increased volume available for active materials and increased
capacity. In spite of these conversion efforts by manufacturers, a number of third world countries
still continue the demand for pasted Leclanche´ product because of its low cost. The size of that
market has prevented a complete conversion. It appears that this situation will continue for the
near future. During this transitional phase, the zinc-carbon batteries can be classified into two
types, Leclanche´ and zinc chloride. These can, in turn, be subdivided into separate general
purpose and premium battery grades, in both pasted and paper-lined constructions:
Page 21 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
1. Leclanche´ Batteries
General Purpose. Application: Intermittent low-rate discharges, low cost. The traditional,
regular battery, which is not too different from the one introduced in the late nineteenth century,
uses zinc as the anode, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) as the main electrolyte com ponent along
with zinc chloride, a starch paste separator, and natural manganese dioxide (MnO2) ore as the
cathode. Batteries of this formulation and design are the least expensive and are recommended
for general-purpose use and when cost is more important than superior service or performance.
Industrial Heavy Duty. Application: Intermittent medium- to heavy-rate discharges, low to
moderate cost. The industrial ‘‘heavy-duty’’ zinc-carbon battery generally has been converted
to the zinc chloride system. However, some types continue to include ammonium chloride and
zinc chloride (ZnCl2) as the electrolyte and synthetic electrolytic or chemical manganese dioxide
(EMD or CMD) alone or in combination with natural ore as the cathode. Its separator may be of
starch paste but it is typically a paste-coated paper liner type. This grade is suitable for heavy
intermittent service, industrial applications, or medium-rate continuous discharge.
2. Zinc Chloride Batteries
General Purpose. Application: Low-rate discharges both intermittent and continuous, low cost.
This battery has replaced the Leclanche´ general-purpose battery in all Western countries. It is a
true ‘‘zinc-chloride’’ battery and possesses some of the ‘‘heavy-duty’’ characteristics of the
premium type. The electrolyte is zinc chloride; however, some manufacturers may add small
amounts of ammonium chloride. Natural manganese dioxide ore is used as the cathode. Batteries
of this formulation and design are competitive in cost to the Leclanche´ general-purpose
batteries. They are recommended for general-purpose use on both continuous and intermittent
discharges and when cost is an important consideration. This battery exhibits a low leakage
characteristic.
Industrial Heavy Duty. Application: Low to intermediate-continuous and intermittent heavy-rate
discharges; low to moderate cost. This battery has generally replaced the industrial Leclanche´
heavy-duty battery. It is a true ‘‘zinc-chloride’’ cell and possesses the heavy-duty characteristics
of the premium zinc chloride type. The cell electrolyte is zinc chloride; however, some
manufacturers may add small amounts of ammonium chloride. Natural manganese dioxide ore is
used along with electrolytic manganese dioxide as the cathode. These cells use paper separators
coated with cross-linked or modified starches, which enhance their stability in the electrolyte.
Batteries of this formulation and design are competitive in cost to the Leclanche´ heavy-duty
industrial batteries. They are recommended for heavy-duty applications where cost is an
important consideration. This battery also exhibits a low leakage characteristic.
Extra/Super Heavy Duty. Application: Medium and heavy continuous, and heavy intermittent
discharges; higher cost than other zinc-chloride types. The extra /super heavy-duty type of
battery is the premium grade of the zinc-chloride line. This cell is composed mainly of an
electrolyte of zinc chloride with perhaps a small amount of ammonium chloride, usually not
exceeding 1% of the cathode weight. The ore used for the cathode is exclusively electrolytic
Page 22 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
manganese dioxide (EMD). These cells use paper separators coated with cross-linked or
modified starches, which enhance their stability in the electrolyte. Many manufacturers use
proprietary separators in almost all their zinc-carbon type batteries. This battery type is
recommended when good performance is desired but at higher cost. It also has improved lowtemperature characteristics and reduced electrolyte leakage. In general, the higher the grade or
class of zinc-carbon batteries the lower the cost per minute of service. The price difference
between classes is about 10 to 25%, but the performance difference can be from 30 to 100% in
favor of the higher grades depending upon the application drain.
CONSTRUCTION
The zinc-carbon battery is made in many sizes and a number of designs but in two basic
constructions: cylindrical and flat. Similar chemical ingredients are used in both constructions.
1. Cylindrical Configuration
In the common Leclanche´ cylindrical battery (Figures 13 and 14), the zinc can serves as the cell
container and anode. The manganese dioxide is mixed with acetylene black, wet with electrolyte,
and compressed under pressure to form a bobbin. A carbon rod is inserted into the bobbin. The
rod serves as the current collector for the positive electrode. It also provides structural strength
and is porous enough to permit the escape of gases, which accumulate in the cell, without
allowing leakage of electrolyte. The separator, which physically separates the two electrodes and
provides the means for ion transfer through the electrolyte, can be a cereal paste wet with
electrolyte (Figure 13) or a starch or polymer coated absorbent Kraft paper in the ‘‘paper-lined’’
cell (Figure 14). This provides thinner separator spacing, lower internal resistance and increased
active materials volume. Single cells are covered with metal, cardboard, plastic or paper jackets
for aesthetic purposes and to minimize the effect of electrolyte leakage through containment.
Construction of the zinc chloride cylindrical battery (Figure 15) differs from that of the
Leclanche´ battery in that it usually possesses a resealable, venting seal. The carbon rod serving
as the current collector is sealed with wax to plug any vent paths (necessary for Leclanche´
types). Venting is then restricted to only the seal path. This prevents the cell from drying out and
limits oxygen ingress into the cell during shelf storage. Hydrogen gas evolved from corrosion of
the zinc is safely vented as well. In general, the assembly and finishing processes resemble that
of the earlier cylindrical batteries.
2. Inside Out Cylindrical Construction
Another cylindrical cell is the ‘‘inside-out’’ construction shown in Figure16. This construction
does not use the zinc anode as the container. This version resulted in more efficient zinc
utilization and improved leakage, but has not been manufactured since the late 1960s. In this cell,
an impact-molded impervious inert carbon wall serves as the container of the cell and as the
cathode current collector. The zinc anode, in the shape of vanes, is located inside the cell and is
surrounded by the cathode mix.
Page 23 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 13: Typical cutaway view of cylindrical Leclanche´ battery (‘‘Eveready’’) paste
separator, asphalt seals.
Figure 14: Typical cutaway view of cylindrical Leclanche´ battery (‘‘Eveready’’) paper
liner separator, asphalt seal.
Page 24 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 15: Typical cutaway view of cylindrical zinc chloride battery (‘‘Eveready’’)
paste separator, plastic seal.
Figure 16: Typical cutaway view of cylindrical Leclanche ´ battery (‘‘Eveready’’) inside-out
construction.
3. Flat Cell and Battery
The flat cell is illustrated in Figure 17. In this construction, a duplex electrode is formed by
coating a zinc plate with either a carbon-filled conductive paint or laminating it to a carbon filled
conductive plastic film. Either coating provides electrical contact to the zinc anode, isolates the
zinc from the cathode of the next cell, and performs the function of cathode collector. The
collector function is the same as that performed by the carbon rod in cylindrical cells. When the
Page 25 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
conductive paint method is used, an adhesive must be placed onto the painted side of the zinc
prior to assembly to effectively seal the painted surface directly to the vinyl band to encapsulate
the cell. No expansion chamber or carbon rod is used as in the cylindrical cell. The use of
conductive polyisobutylene film laminated to the zinc instead of the conductive paint and
adhesive usually results in improved sealing to the vinyl; however, the film typically occupies
more volume than the paint and adhesive design. These methods of construction readily lend
themselves to the assembly of multi-cell batteries.
Flat cell designs increase the available space for the cathode mix because the package and
electrical contacts are minimized, thereby increasing the energy density. In addition, a
rectangular construction reduces wasted space in multi-cell assemblies, (which is, in fact, the
only application for the flat cell). The volumetric energy density of an assembled battery using
flat cells is nearly twice that of cylindrical cell assemblies.
Metal contact strips are used to attach the ends of the assembled battery to the battery terminals;
(e.g., 9-V transistor battery). The orientation of the stack subassembly (cathode up or anode up)
is only important for each manufacturer’s method of assembly. The use of contact strips allows
either design mode. The entire assembly is usually encapsulated in wax or plastic. Some
manufacturers also sleeve the assembly in shrink film after waxing. This aids the assembly
process cleanliness and provides additional insurance against leakage. Cost, ease of assembly,
and process efficiencies usually dictate the orientation during the assembly process.
Figure 17 : Typical cutaway view of Leclance´ flat cell and battery. (e.g. ‘‘Eveready’’ #216).
4. Special Designs (Flat-Pack Zinc/Manganese Dioxide P-80 Battery)
Designs for special applications are currently in use. These designs demonstrate the levels of
innovation that can be applied to unusual application and design problems. In the early 1970s,
Polaroid introduced a new instant camera-film system, the SX-70. A major innovation in that
system was the inclusion of a battery in the film pack rather than in the camera. The film pack
contained a battery designed to provide enough energy for the pictures in the pack. The concept
Page 26 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
was that the photographer would not have to be concerned about the freshness of the battery as it
was changed with each change of film.
CELL COMPONENTS
Zinc
Battery grade zinc is 99.99% pure. Classical zinc can alloys contained 0.3% cadmium and 0.6%
lead. Modern lubrication and forming techniques have reduced these amounts. Currently, zinc
can alloys with cadmium contain 0.03% to 0.06% cadmium and 0.2% to 0.4% of lead. The
content of these metals varies according to the method used in the forming process. Lead, while
insoluble in the zinc alloy, contributes to the forming qualities of the can, although too much lead
softens the zinc. Lead also acts as a corrosion inhibitor by increasing the hydrogen overvoltage
of the zinc in much the same manner as does mercury.
Cadmium aids the corrosion-resistance of zinc to ordinary dry cell electrolytes and adds
stiffening strength to the alloy. For cans made by the drawing process, less than 0.1% of
cadmium is used because more would make the zinc difficult to draw. Zinc cans are commonly
made by three different processes:
1. Zinc is rolled into a sheet, formed into a cylinder, and, with the use of a punched-out zinc disk
for the bottom, soldered together. This method is obsolete except for the most primitive of
assemblies. Last use of this method in the U.S. was during the 1980s in 6 inch cells.
2. Zinc is deep-drawn into a can shape. Rolled zinc sheet is shaped into a can by forming
through a number of steps. This method was used primarily in cell manufacturing in the U.S.
prior to the relocation and consolidation of U.S. zinc-carbon manufacturing overseas.
3. Zinc is impact extruded from a thick, flat calot. This is now the method of choice. Used
globally, this method reshapes the zinc by forcing it to flow under pressure, from the calot shape
into the can shape. Calots are either cast from molten zinc alloy or punched from a zinc sheet of
the desired alloy.
Metallic impurities such as copper, nickel, iron, and cobalt cause corrosive reactions with the
zinc in battery electrolyte and must be avoided particularly in ‘‘zero’’ mercury constructions.
In addition, iron in the alloy makes zinc harder and less workable. Tin, arsenic, antimony,
magnesium, etc., make the zinc brittle.
U.S. federal environmental legislation prohibits the land disposal of items containing cadmium
and mercury when these components exceed specified leachable levels. Some states and
municipalities have banned land disposal of batteries, require collection programs, and prohibit
sale of batteries containing added cadmium or mercury. Some European have similarly
prohibited the sale and disposal of batteries containing these materials. For these reasons, levels
of both of these heavy metals have been reduced to near zero. This impacts directly upon global
zinc can manufacture due to importation of battery products to the U.S. and Europe. Manganese
is a satisfactory substitute for cadmium, and has been included in the alloy at levels similar to
that of cadmium to provide stiffening. The handling properties of zinc, alloyed with manganese
or cadmium are equivalent; however, no corrosion resistance is imparted to the alloy with
manganese as is the case with cadmium.
Page 27 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Bobbin
The bobbin is the positive electrode and is also called the black mix, depolarizer, or cathode. It is
a wet powder mixture of MnO2, powdered carbon black, and electrolyte (NH4Cl and/or ZnCl2,
and water). The powdered carbon serves the dual purpose of adding electrical conductivity to the
MnO2, which itself has high electrical resistance. It also acts as a means of holding the
electrolyte. The cathode mixing and forming processes are also important since they determine
the homogeneity of the cathode mix and the compaction characteristics associated with the
different methods of manufacture. This becomes more critical in the case of the zinc-chloride
cell, where the cathode contains proportions of liquid that range between 60% and 75% by
volume. Of the various forming methods available, mix extrusion and compaction-then-insertion
are the two used most widely. On the other hand, there is a wide variety of techniques for
mixing. The most popular methods are ‘‘Cement’’-style mixers and rotary mullor mixers. Both
techniques offer the ability to manufacture large quantities of mix in relatively short times and
minimize the shearing effect upon the carbon black, which reduces its ability to hold solution.
The bobbin usually contains ratios of manganese dioxide to powdered carbon from 3:1 to as
much as 11:1 by weight. Also, 1:1 ratios have been used in batteries for photoflash applications
where high pulses of current are more important than capacity.
Manganese Dioxide (MnO2)
The types of manganese dioxide used in dry cells are generally categorized as natural manganese
dioxide (NMD), activated manganese dioxide (AMD), chemically synthesized manganese
dioxide (CMD), and electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD). EMD is a more expensive material,
which has a gamma-phase crystal structure. CMD has a delta-phase structure and NMDs the
alpha and beta phases of MnO2. EMD, while more expensive, results in a higher cell capacity
with improved rate capability and is used in heavy or industrial applications. The polarization is
significantly reduced using electrolytic material compared to the chemical or natural ores.
Naturally occurring ores (in Gabon Africa, Greece, and Mexico), high in battery-grade material
(70% to 85% MnO2), and synthetic forms (90% to 95% MnO2) generally provide electrode
potentials and capacities proportional to their manganese dioxide content. Manganese dioxide
potentials are also affected by the pH of the electrolyte. Performance characteristics depend upon
the crystalline state, the state of hydration, and the activity of the MnO2. The efficiency of
operation under load depends heavily upon the electrolyte, the separator characteristics, the
internal resistance and the overall construction of the cell.
Carbon Black
Because manganese dioxide is a poor electrical conductor, chemically inert carbon or carbon
black is added to the cathode mix to improve its conductivity. This is achieved by coating the
manganese dioxide particles with carbon during the mixing process. It provides electrical
conductivity to the particle surface and also serves the important functions of holding the
electrolyte and providing compressibility and elasticity to the cathode mix during processing.
Graphite was once used as the principal conductive media and is still used to some extent.
Acetylene black, by virtue of its properties, has displaced graphite in this role for both
Leclanche´ and zinc chloride cells. One great advantage of acetylene black is its ability to hold
more electrolyte in the cathode mix. Caution must be used during the mixing process so as to
Page 28 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
prevent intense shearing of the black particles as this reduces its ability to hold electrolyte. This
is critical for zinc-chloride cells, which contain much higher electrolyte levels than the
Leclanche´ cell. Cells containing acetylene black usually give superior intermittent service,
which is the way most zinc-carbon batteries are used. Graphite, on the other hand, serves well for
high flash currents or for continuous drains.
Electrolyte
The ordinary Leclanche´ cell uses a mixture of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride, with the
former predominating. Zinc-chloride cells typically use only ZnCl2, but can contain a small
amount of NH4Cl to ensure high rate performance. Examples of typical electrolyte formulation
for the zinc-carbon battery systems are listed in Table 8.
Table 8: Electrolyte Formulations
Corrosion Inhibitor
The classical zinc-corrosion inhibitor has been mercuric or mercurous chloride, which forms an
amalgam with the zinc. Cadmium and lead, which reside in the zinc alloy, also provide zinc
anode corrosion protection. Other materials like potassium chromate or dichromate, used
successfully in the past, form oxide films on the zinc and protect via passivation. Surface-active
organic compounds, which coat the zinc, usually from solution, improve the wetting
characteristic of the surface unifying the potential. Inhibitors are usually introduced into the cell
via the electrolyte or as part of the coating on the paper separator. Zinc cans could be pretreated;
however, this is ordinarily not practical. Environmental concerns have generally eliminated the
use of mercury and cadmium in these batteries. These restrictions are posing problems for
battery manufacturers in the areas of sealing, shelf storage reliability, and leakage. This is critical
for zinc-chloride cells in that the lower pH electrolyte results in the formation of excessive
hydrogen gas due to zinc dissolution. Certain classes of materials considered for use to supplant
mercury include gallium, indium, lead, tin and bismuth either alloyed into the zinc or added to
the electrolyte from their soluble salts. Other organic materials, like glycols and silicates, offer
protection alternatives. Additional restrictions on lead use, which are already stringent, may also
be imposed in the future.
Page 29 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Carbon Rod
The carbon rod used in round cells is inserted into the bobbin and performs the functions of
current collector. It also performs as a seal vent in systems without a positive venting seal. It is
typically made of compressed carbon, graphite and binder, formed by extrusion, and cured by
baking. It has, by design, a very low electrical resistance. In Leclanche´ and zinc-chloride cells
with asphalt seals, it provides a vent path for hydrogen and carbon dioxide gases, which might
build up in and above the cathode during heavy discharge or elevated temperature storage. Raw
carbon rods are initially porous, but are treated with enough oils or waxes to prevent water loss
(very harmful to cell shelf-life) and electrolyte leakage. A specific level of porosity is maintained
to allow passage of the evolved gases. Ideally, the treated carbon should pass internally evolved
gases, but not pass oxygen into the cell, which could add to zinc corrosion during storage.
Typically this method of venting gases is variable and less reliable then the use of venting seals.
Zinc-chloride cells using plastic, resealable, venting seals utilize plugged, non-porous electrodes.
Their use restricts the venting of internal gas to only the designed seal path. This prevents the
cell from drying out and limits oxygen ingress into the cell during shelf-storage. Hydrogen gas
evolved from wasteful corrosion of the zinc is safely vented as well.
Separator
The separator physically separates and electrically insulates the zinc (negative) from the bobbin
(positive), but permits electrolytic or ionic conduction to occur via the electrolyte. The two major
separator types in use are either the gelled paste or paper coated with cereal or other gelling
agents such as methycellulose. In the paste type, the paste is dispensed into the zinc can. The
preformed bobbin (with the carbon rod) is inserted, pushing the paste up the can walls between
the zinc and the bobbin by displacement. After a short time, the paste sets or gels. Some paste
formulations need to be stored at low temperatures in two parts. The parts are then mixed; they
must be used immediately as they can gel at room temperature. Other paste formulations need
elevated temperatures (60oC to 96oC) to gel. The gelatinization time and temperature depend
upon the concentration of the electrolyte constituents. A typical paste electrolyte uses zinc
chloride, ammonium chloride, water, and starch and/or flour as the gelling agent. The coatedpaper type uses a special paper coated with cereal or other gelling agent on one or both sides.
The paper, cut to the proper length and width, is shaped into a cylinder and, with the addition of
a bottom paper, is inserted into the cell against the zinc wall. The cathode mix is then metered
into the can forming the bobbin, or, if the bobbin is preformed in a die, it is pushed into the can.
At this time, the carbon rod is inserted into the center of the bobbin and the bobbin is tamped or
compressed, pushing against the paper liner and carbon rod. The compression releases some
electrolyte from the cathode mix, wetting the paper liner to complete the operation. By virtue of
the fact that a paste separator is relatively thick compared with the paper liner, about 10% or
more manganese dioxide can be accommodated in a paper-lined cell, resulting in a proportional
increase in capacity.
Seal
The seal used to enclose the active ingredients can be asphalt pitch, wax and resin, or plastic
(polyethylene or polypropylene). The seal is important to prevent the evaporation of moisture
Page 30 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
and the phenomenon of ‘‘air line’’ corrosion from oxygen ingress. Leclanche´ cells typically
utilize thermoplastic materials for sealing. These methods are inexpensive and easily
implemented. A washer is usually inserted into the zinc can and placed above the cathode
bobbin. This provides an air space between the seal and the top of the bobbin to allow for
expansion. Melted asphalt pitch is then dispensed onto the washer and is heated until it flows and
bonds to the zinc can. One drawback to this method of sealing is that it occupies space that could
be used for active materials. A second fault is that this type of seal is easily ruptured by
excessive generation of evolved gases and is not suitable for elevated temperature applications.
Premium Leclanche´ and almost all zinc-chloride cells use injection molded plastic seals. This
type of seal lends itself to the design of a positive venting seal and is more reliable. Molded seals
are mechanically placed onto a swaged zinc can. Many manufacturers have designed locking
mechanisms into the seal, void spaces for various sealants and resealable vents. Several wrap the
seal and can in shrink wrap or tape to prevent leakage through zinc can perforations. It is very
important to prevent moisture loss in the zinc-chloride system, and to vent the evolved gases
generated during discharge and storage. The formation of these gases disrupts the separator
surface layer significantly and affects cell performance after storage. Use of molded seals in the
zinc-chloride cell construction has resulted in the good shelf storage characteristics evidenced by
this design.
Jacket
The battery jacket can be made of various components: metal, paper, plastic, polymer films,
plain or asphalt-lined cardboard, or foil in combination or alone. The jacket provides strength,
protection, leakage prevention, electrical isolation, decoration, and a site for the manufacturer’s
label. In many manufacturers’ designs, the jacket is an integral part of the sealing system. It
locks some seals in place, provides a vent path for the escape of gases, or acts as a supporting
member to allow seals to flex under internal gas pressures. In the inside-out construction, the
jacket was the container in which a carbon-wax collector was impact molded (Figure 4).
Electrical Contacts
The top and bottom of most batteries are capped with shiny, tin-plated steel (or brass) terminals
to aid conductivity, prevent exposure of any zinc and in many designs enhance the appearance of
the cell. Some of the bottom covers are swaged onto the zinc can, others are locked into paper
jackets or captured under the jacket crimp. Top covers are almost always fitted onto the carbon
electrode with interference. All of the designs try to minimize the electrical contact resistance.
TYPES AND SIZES OF AVAILABLE CELLS AND BATTERIES
Zinc-carbon batteries are made in a number of different sizes with different formulations to meet
a variety of applications. The single-cell and multicell batteries are classified by electrochemical
system, either Leclanche´ or zinc chloride, and by grade; general purpose, heavy duty, extra
heavy duty, photoflash, and so on. These grades are assigned according to their output
performance under specific discharge conditions. Table 9 lists the more popular battery sizes
with typical performance at various loads under a two-hour per day intermittent discharge,
except for the continuous toy battery test. The performance of these batteries, under several
intermittent discharge conditions, is given in Table 10. The AA-size battery is becoming the
Page 31 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
predominant one and is used in penlights, photoflash and electronic applications. The smaller
AAA-size is used in remote control devices and other small electronic applications. The C and
D-size batteries are used mainly in flashlight applications and the F-size is usually assembled
into multicell batteries for lanterns and other applications requiring these large batteries. Flat cell
are used in battery assemblies, in particular, the 9-volt battery used in smoke detectors and
electronic applications. Table 11 lists some of the major multicell zinc-carbon batteries that are
available commercially. The performance of these batteries can be estimated by using the IEC
designation to determine the cell compliment (e.g. NEDA 6, IEC 4R25 battery consists of four Fsize cells connected in series).
Table 9: Characteristics of Zinc-Carbon Batteries
Page 32 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 10: ANSI Standards for Zinc-Carbon and Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Batteries
Page 33 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 11: ANSI/NEDA Dimensions of Zinc-Carbon Batteries
Page 34 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
ALKALINE-MANGANESE DIOXIDE BATTERIES
The alkaline battery (see Figure 18 below) is an improved dry cell. The half-reactions are
similar, but the electrolyte is a basic KOH paste, which eliminates the buildup of gases and
maintains the Zn electrode. Its applications are the same as for dry cell.
Figure 18: Alkaline batteries.
Since its introduction in the early 1960s, the alkaline-manganese dioxide (zinc /KOH/MnO2)
battery has become the dominant battery system in the portable battery market. This came about
because the alkaline system is recognized as having several advantages over its acidic electrolyte
counterpart, the Leclanche´ or zinc-carbon battery, the former market leader with which it
competes. Table 12 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of alkaline manganese dioxide
batteries compared to zinc-carbon batteries.
The alkaline-manganese dioxide battery is available in two design configurations, (1) as
relatively large-size cylindrical batteries and (2) as miniature button batteries. There are also
multiple-cell batteries made from various sizes of unit cells. While the alkaline cell is still
undergoing change, some developments in the evolution of the present cylindrical cell
technology are particularly notable. After the initial concepts of a gelled /amalgamated zinc
powder anode in a central compartment and use of vented plastic seals had been established, the
first major advance was the butt-seam metal finish which allowed the cell to have greater internal
volume. Next came the discovery that organic inhibitors could reduce the rate of gassing caused
by contaminants in the zinc anode, resulting in a product with diminished bulge and leakage.
Another major development was the introduction of the plastic label finish and lower profile
seal, which permitted a further large increase in the internal volume available for active material
and a substantial increase in the capacity of the battery. Perhaps the most significant change to
Page 35 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
the alkaline cell began in the early 1980s with the gradual reduction of the amount of mercury in
the anode and the development of cells containing no added mercury. This trend, which was
aided by a substantial improvement in the reliability of cell materials resulting from reduced
impurity levels, was driven by worldwide concern over the environmental impact of the
materials used in batteries after their disposal.
Developments such as these have enabled the alkaline-MnO2 battery to gain as much as a 60%
increase in specific energy output since its introduction to keep pace with the needs of the
consumer. Its leadership position should support further technological improvements, which will
ensure continued market dominance.
Table 12: Major Advantages and Disadvantages of Cylindrical Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide
Batteries (Compared to Carbon-Zinc Batteries).
The more familiar types of primary alkaline systems are the zinc /manganese dioxide, zinc/
mercuric oxide, and zinc / silver oxide batteries. These, typically, use potassium or sodium
hydroxides, in concentrations from 25 to 40% by weight, as the electrolyte, which functions
primarily as an ionic conductor and is not consumed in the discharge process. In simple form, the
overall discharge reaction for these metal oxide cells can be stated as:
MO + Zn → M + ZnO
During the discharge, the metal oxide (MO) is reduced, either to the metal as shown or to a lower
form of an oxide. Zinc is oxidized and, in the alkaline electrolyte, usually reacts to form ZnO.
Thus it can be seen that, at 100% efficiency, electrochemically equivalent amounts of metal
oxide and zinc must be present. Therefore, an increase in capacity of any cell must be
accompanied by an equivalent increase in both cathodic and anodic materials. The alkalinemanganese dioxide battery has the chemistry of:
Anode (oxidation):
Zn(s) + 2OH- (aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O (l) + 2eCathode (reduction):
2MnO2 (s) + 2H2O (l) + 2e- → Mn(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq)
Overall Cell reaction:
2MnO2 (s) + H2O (l) + Zn(s) → ZnO(s) + Mn(OH)2(s)
Ecell = 1.5 V
Page 36 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
CELL COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS
Cathode Components
The composition of a typical alkaline cathode and the purpose of each component are listed in
Table 13. The cathode is made from a mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon. Other materials
may also be added, such as binders (to help hold the cathode together) and water or electrolyte
solution (to aid in forming the cathode).
Table 13: Composition of Typical Cathode.
Manganese Dioxide. Manganese dioxide is the oxidizing component in the cell. To produce an
alkaline cell of satisfactory power and long shelf life, the manganese dioxide must be highly
active and very pure. The only type of manganese dioxide that is used in commercial alkaline
cells is electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD).
The process for making EMD involves dissolving a manganous compound in acid to produce a
solution of manganous ions. If the starting material is a manganese dioxide ore, the ore is first
reduced to manganous oxide, then dissolved in sulfuric acid to produce manganous sulfate
solution. The solution is treated to remove various harmful impurities, then introduced into a
plating cell and electrolyzed. EMD is plated onto an anode, typically made of graphite or
titanium, according to the reaction:
Mn2+ + 2H2O ↔ MnO2 + 4H+ + 2eAt the same time hydrogen is generated at the cathode, which may be made of copper, graphite,
or lead,
2e- + 2H+ ↔ H2
The overall reaction in the EMD plating battery is then,
Mn2++ 2H O ↔ MnO2 + 2H+ + H2
A typical analysis of EMD is shown in Table 14. The extremely low level of heavy-metal
impurities helps minimize hydrogen gassing at the zinc anode, which might otherwise occur if
such impurities were present and were able to migrate to the anode. Other impurities will
combine with the manganese sulfate solution during electrolysis, forming undesirable manganese
oxide compounds (e.g., cryptomelane) that will reduce the overall effectiveness of the MnO
during discharge in the alkaline cell.
Page 37 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 14: Typical Analysis of Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide (EMD).
* Based on analysis of 10 samples of alkaline grade cell-grade EMD from five manufacturers.
Carbon. Since manganese dioxide itself is a poor conductor, carbon is used in the cathode to
provide electronic conductivity. The carbon is usually in the form of graphite, although some
acetylene black may also be used. The carbon must have low levels of those impurities which
might lead to corrosion in the cell. Some natural graphites have been used in alkaline cells.
However, with the trend toward making cells with ultralow levels of mercury, there has been
increasing use of very pure synthetic graphites. In some recent improvements, thermal and/or
chemical treatments of graphite have improved the conductivity of both synthetic and natural
graphites leading to higher conductivity of the cathode mixture. This improvement is the result
of reducing the number of carbon planes within the individual carbon particles. Conductivity of
carbon is lower across carbon planes (C direction) as compared to within carbon planes (A and B
directions). The treatments will ‘‘peel’’ away the carbon preferentially along the C direction,
thereby decreasing the resistance drop across the carbon particles. Traditional approaches have
often improved service by increasing the internal volume of the battery available for active
ingredients; however, the treatment of the graphite to improve conductivity has allowed battery
manufacturers to make service improvements to the cell within the same cell dimensions. With
the increase in graphite conductivity, a decrease in the graphite content can be made which
enables an increase in the active manganese dioxide content while maintaining the conductivity
of the cathode.
Other Ingredients. The use of other materials (binders, additives, electrolyte) will depend on the
particular manufacturing process used by the battery maker. The ultimate goal is to produce a
dense, stable cathode, which has good electronic and ionic conductivity, and discharges
efficiently even at high discharge rates.
Anode Components
The composition of a typical alkaline anode and the purpose of each component are listed in
Table 15. The final three ingredients in the table are optional. Gelling agents are used in nearly
all types of alkaline cells, although there have been attempts to utilize pressed powder or binders
to form the anode mass as well. Amalgamation levels relative to zinc range from 0 to nearly 6%,
but the majority of the cells produced in the ‘‘industrialized’’ countries have no added mercury.
Page 38 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 15: Composition of Typical Alkaline Anode.
Zinc Powder. Pure zinc is obtained commercially by either a thermal distillation process or
electroplating from an aqueous solution. This zinc is converted to battery-grade powder by
atomizing a thin stream of the molten metal with jets of compressed air. Particles range in shape
from ‘‘potatoes’’ to ‘‘dog-bones,’’ and in size from 20 to 820 µm in a log-normal distribution.
The median particle diameter ranges from 155 to 255 µm, while the average surface area is about
0.02 m2 /g. Except for intentionally added alloyed metals, the purity of battery-grade zinc is very
high. Essentially all battery-grade zinc contains about 500 ppm lead. Other metallic additives
which have been alloyed for gassing inhibition or improving mercury distribution are indium,
bismuth, and aluminum. Preamalgamated zinc is also available.
Anode Gel. Starch or cellulosic derivatives, polyacrylates, or ethylene maleic anhydride
copolymers are used as gelling agents. The anode cavity is filled with either the complete wellblended anode mixture, or the dry ingredients (using preamalgamated zinc if mercury is needed)
to which the electrolyte is added later. As mercury levels are reduced throughout the industry,
electrolyte (and water) purity becomes of greater importance. Care must be taken to minimize
carbonate, chloride, and iron contamination in particular. Volume fractions of zinc range from 18
to 33%. The lower limit of this range is required to maintain electronic conductivity of the anode,
while the upper limit is to avoid the condition where the accumulation of reaction product can
block ionic pathways. Densities of anode mixtures are typically in the 2.5 to 3.2g /cm3 range,
while volume capacities vary from 1.2 to 1.8 Ah/cm3. The maximum discharge efficiency which
can be realized from the zinc ranges from 84 to 94%, depending on cell size and type of
operating duty. To avoid hydrogen gassing from the cathode, which would occur if its capacity
were exhausted first, cell service is normally designed to be anode limited. As a result of all
these factors, anode input capacity is usually established at 96 to 105% of the cathode
undergoing a 1.33 electron change.
Elimination of Heavy Metals. Until recent times, the addition of mercury metal to the anode has
been widely used to perform several functions in the mix as well as on the collector. These are
listed in Table 4. However, the industry has reduced or eliminated heavy metals from the battery.
The absence of mercury from the anode can lead to reduced service, increased sensitivity to
mechanical shock, and increased gassing on initial storage and after partial discharge. It has been
necessary to find substitutes for each of the functions of mercury. In general, however, the
Page 39 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
successful elimination of mercury has been aided by the reduction of impurities, particularly
iron, in battery-grade materials. [Iron from the can is not normally a problem because it is
rendered passive and insoluble by contact with the highly oxidizing cathode EMD (electrolytic
manganese dioxide).] In addition, gassing is further controlled by using alloys of zinc containing
small amounts of indium, bismuth, aluminum, or calcium. Other measures include modifications
to the particle-size distribution and anode mix formulations to reduce anode resistivity and
improve zinc discharge reaction kinetics. Even further, some zinc powder and battery
manufacturers are developing lead-free alloys as well in order to provide an alternative to the
practice of using another heavy-metal additive, lead, for gassing inhibition.
Anode Collectors
The anode collector material in cylindrical alkaline cells is usually cartridge brass in the form of
pins or strip. In miniature cells the anode collector is usually a stainless-steel cup whose convex
surface is an exterior terminal of the cell. The outer surface of the cup is clad with nickel for
good electrical contact while its interior, which encloses the anode, is clad with copper metal.
After assembly of either type of cell, the collector surface becomes coated with zinc as a result of
the anode plating action described above. Both the electronic conductivity of the anode-tocollector interface and the suppression of gassing in the anode compartment are dependent on
this process. In addition to facilitating the zinc-plating action, mercury, if present, would also
fulfill this function. Other measures, such as special cleaning methods and/or activator-coating
the surface, are taken to promote the natural zinc coating of the collector in mercury-free cells.
Separators
Special properties are required of materials used as separators in alkaline-MnO2 cells. The
material must be ionically conductive but electronically insulating; chemically stable in
concentrated alkali under both oxidizing and reducing conditions; strong, flexible, and uniform;
impurity-free; and rapidly absorptive. Materials fulfilling these requirements can be cast, woven,
or bonded, but most frequently are nonwoven or felted in structure. Accordingly, the most
commonly used materials are fibrous forms of regenerated cellulose, vinyl polymers, polyolefins,
or combinations thereof. Other types such as gelled, inorganic, and radiation grafted separators
have been tried but have not gained much practical use. Cellulose film such as cellophane is also
used, particularly where there is a potential for dendrite growth from the anode.
Containers, Seals, and Finishes
Cylindrical Cell. The cylindrical alkaline-manganese dioxide cell differs from the Leclanche´
cell in that the cell container is not an active material in the cell discharge. It is merely an inert
container which allows electrical contact to the energy-producing materials inside.
The container is generally a can made of a mild steel. It is thick enough to provide adequate
strength, without taking up excessive room. It is produced by deep drawing from steel strip
stock, and must be of high quality (absence of inclusions or other imperfections). The inside
surface of the steel container makes contact to the cathode. For the cell to discharge well, this
must be a very good contact. Depending on the cell construction, the contact to plain steel may
or may not be adequate. Sometimes the can inner surface needs to be treated to improve the
contact. In some cases the steel is nickel-plated. Alternatively, conductive coatings containing
Page 40 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
carbon may be placed on the surface. Nickel plating may also be present on the outside surface
of the container, either for contact purposes or for appearance.
The seal is typically a plastic material, such as nylon or polypropylene, combined with some
metal parts, including the anode collector, to make a seat assembly. It closes off the open end of
the cylindrical can, preventing leakage of electrolyte from the cell, and providing electrical
insulation between the cathode collector (can) and the anode collector contact.
The cylindrical alkaline cell has some additional parts, collectively referred to as finish. There
usually are metal pieces at each end for positive and negative contact. These may be nickel- or
tin-plated for appearance and corrosion resistance. There may be a metal jacket around the cell,
with a printed label on it. In many recent designs the finish is just a thin plastic jacket or printed
label. In the latter type of cell, the use of the thin plastic allows the cell container to be made
slightly larger in diameter, which results in a significant increase in cell capacity.
Miniature Cell. The container, seal, and finish materials for the miniature alkaline manganese
dioxide button cell are essentially the same as those for other miniature cells.
The can (container and cathode collector) is made of mild steel plated on both sides with nickel.
The seat is a thin plastic gasket. The anode cup makes up the rest of the exterior of the cell. The
outer surfaces of the can and anode cup are highly finished, with manufacturer identification and
cell number inscribed on the can. No additional finish is needed.
CONSTRUCTION
Cylindrical Configuration
Figure 19 shows the construction of typical cylindrical alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries
from two manufacturers. Figure 20 illustrates the process for assembling the battery. A
cylindrical steel can is the container for the cell. It also serves as the cathode current collector.
The cathode, a compressed mixture of manganese dioxide, carbon, and possibly other additives,
is positioned inside the can in the form of a hollow cylinder in close contact with the can inner
surface. The cathode can be formed by directly molding it in the can. Alternatively, rings of
cathode material can be formed outside the cell and then pushed into the can. Inside the hollow
center of the cathode are placed layers of separator material. Inside of that is the anode, with a
metal collector contacting it, and making connection through a plastic seal to the negative
terminal of the cell. The cell has top and bottom covers and a metal or plastic jacket applied. The
covers serve a dual purpose. Besides providing a decorative and corrosion-resistant finish, they
also provide for the proper polarity of the battery. This is necessary because the cylindrical
alkaline manganese battery is used as a direct replacement for Leclanche´ batteries. Leclanche´
batteries have a flat contact on the negative (zinc can) end, and a button contact on the positive
end to accommodate the carbon rod used as current collector. The cylindrical alkalinemanganese dioxide cell is built ‘‘insideout’’ in relation to the Leclanche´ cell, with the cell
container as the positive current collector and the end of the negative collector protruding from
the center of the seal. Therefore to
give it an external form similar to the Leclanche´ battery, the cylindrical alkaline battery must
use a flat cover to contact the terminus of the negative collector, and a bottom cover containing
Page 41 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
the Leclanche´ positive protrusion in contact with the bottom of the can. (Some manufacturers
mold the protrusion into the can itself, and thus do not need the bottom cover.)
Button Configuration
The construction of the miniature alkaline-manganese dioxide cell is shown in Figure 21. It is
essentially the same as the construction of other miniature alkaline cells. There are a bottom cup
with a cathode pellet in it, an anode cup containing the anode mix, one or more round disks of
separator material between them, and a plastic seal that is compressed between the bottom cup
and the anode cup to prevent leakage.
Figure 19: Cross section of cylindrical alkaline manganese dioxide batteries. [(a) From Eveready
Battery EngineeringData (b) From Duracell Technical Bulletin].
Page 42 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 20: Assembly process for AA-size cylindrical alkaline-manganese dioxide battery.
(Courtesy of Eveready Battery Company.)
Figure 21: Cross section of miniature alkaline-manganese dioxide battery. (From Eveready
Battery Engineering Data).
BATTERY TYPES AND SIZES
Alkaline-manganese dioxide primary cells and batteries are available in a variety of sizes, in both
cylindrical and miniature (button-cell) configurations, as listed in Table 16. Some of the unit cell
sizes listed are not available as single cells, but are used as components in multiple-cell batteries.
Figure 22 shows the nominal capacity of various-size batteries as a function of weight and cell
volume. The cylindrical batteries are generally known by the nomenclature of D, C, AA, and so
on. In addition, battery manufacturers often have their own identification codes for these
batteries. For miniature batteries, manufacturers tend to have their own codes. For both types of
batteries there are also nomenclature codes that have been established by different standards
agencies, such as the IEC and ANSI. Multiple-cell batteries (Table 17) are made using either
miniature or cylindrical cells. In addition, some special multicell batteries are made using flat
cells of a type not used in single cell batteries.
Page 43 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 16: Characteristics of 1.5-V Standard Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Batteries.
† Capacity values based on typical output on rating drain; higher capacity batteries are marketed
by some manufacturers.
‡ Proposed IEC Nomenclature: LR8D425.
Page 44 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 22: Capacity vs. weight and volume for variety of sizes of alkaline-manganese dioxide
batteries. (Data from courtesy of Eveready Battery Company.)
Table 17: Characteristics of Multiple-Cell Standard Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Batteries
Page 45 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
PREMIUM ZINC/ALKALINE/MANGANESE DIOXIDE HIGHRATE BATTERIES
Recently introduced in 1999, these specially designed alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries are
capable of better performance at higher discharge rates than the standard batteries. They are
marketed to meet the more stringent high power requirements of portable electronic devices (i.e.,
digital cameras, cell phones, PDAs, etc.) The performance characteristics of the premium AAsize batteries are summarized in Figures 23(a) to (e) and 24(a) to (c).
Figure 23: Performance characteristics of premium zinc / alkaline /manganese dioxide primary
batteries AA-size at 20oC. (a) Discharge characteristics at various power drains. (b) Discharge
characteristics at various current drains. (c) Service hours vs. power drain to specified end
voltage. (d ) Ampere-hours vs. power drain to specified end voltage. (e) Energy (Wh) vs. power
drain to specified end voltage. (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
Page 46 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Figure 24: Performance characteristics of premium zinc / alkaline / manganese dioxide primary
batteries AA-size (a) Discharge characteristics at various current drains to specified end
voltages. (b) Discharge characteristics at various resistance drains to specified end voltages. (c)
Constant resistance discharge performance at various temperatures at 0.8 volts. (Courtesy of
Eveready Battery Company.)
Page 47 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
ZINC/AIR BATTERIES - BUTTON CONFIGURATION
Zinc/ air batteries use oxygen from ambient atmosphere to produce electrochemical energy.
Upon opening the battery to air, oxygen diffuses into the cell and is used as the cathode reactant.
The air passes through the cathode to the interior cathode active surface in contact with the cell’s
electrolyte. At the active surface, the air cathode catalytically promotes the reduction of oxygen
in the presence of an aqueous alkaline electrolyte. The catalytic air electrode is not consumed or
changed in the process. Since one active material lies outside of the cell, the majority of the
cell’s volume contains the other active component (zinc), thus on a unit volume basis, zinc / air
batteries have a very high energy density. For many applications zinc / air technology offers the
highest available energy density of any primary battery system. Other advantages include a flat
discharge voltage, long shelf life, safety and ecological benefits, and low energy cost. Since the
batteries are open to the ambient atmosphere, a factor limiting universal applications of zinc / air
technology is the tradeoff between long service life (high environmental tolerance) and
maximum power capability (lower environmental tolerance). The major advantages and
disadvantages of this battery type are summarized in Table 18.
The effect of atmospheric oxygen as a depolarizing agent in electrochemical systems was first
noted early in the nineteenth century. However, it was not until 1878 that a battery was designed
in which the manganese dioxide of the famous Leclanche´ battery was replaced by a porous
platinized carbon/ air electrode. Limitations in technology prevented the commercialization of
zinc / air batteries until the 1930s. In 1932, Heise and Schumacher constructed alkaline
electrolyte zinc / air batteries which had porous carbon air cathodes impregnated with wax to
prevent flooding. This design is still used almost unchanged for the manufacture of large
industrial zinc / air batteries. These batteries are noted for their very high energy densities but
low power output capability. They are used as power sources for remote railway signaling and
navigation aid systems. Broader application is precluded by low current capability and bulk.
Table 18: Major Advantages and Disadvantages of Zinc / Air (Button) Batteries.
Early efforts to apply zinc / air battery technology were focused on portable military
applications. After further development, the technology was commercialized for consumer
applications, and this resulted in the development of small form factor batteries that are primarily
used today. The most successful applications for zinc / air batteries have been in medical and
telecommunication applications. Zinc/ air batteries are now the leading power source for
miniature hearing aids. In hospitals, 9-volt zinc / air batteries power cardiac telemetry monitors
Page 48 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
used for continuous patient monitoring. Other multi-cell zinc / air batteries are used to power
bone growth stimulators for mending broken bones. In the telecommunication area zinc-air
batteries are used for communication receivers such as pagers, e-mail devices, and wireless
messaging devices. Recently, zinc / air coin-type batteries were employed in wireless telecon
headsets that use the Bluetooth, low power digital wireless protocol. Larger size batteries
(rechargeable) are being developed for cellular phones and laptop computers.
In the zinc /oxygen couple, which also uses an alkaline electrolyte, it is necessary to increase
only the amount of zinc present to increase cell capacity. The oxygen is supplied from the
outside air which diffuses into the cell as it is needed. The air cathode acts only as a reaction site
and is not consumed. Theoretically, the air cathode has infinite useful life and its physical size
and electrochemical properties remain unchanged during the discharge. The reactions of the air
cathode are complex but can be simplified to show the cell reactions as follows:
The reaction chemistry has a rate-limiting step which affects reaction kinetics and hence the
performance. This step relates to the oxygen reduction process, wherein peroxide-free radical
(O2H-) formation occurs:
The decomposition of the peroxide to hydroxide and oxygen is a key rate-limiting step in the
reaction sequence. To accelerate the reduction of the peroxide species and the overall reaction
rate, the air cathode is formulated using catalytic compounds which promote the reaction in step
2. These catalysts are typically metal compounds or complexes such as elemental silver, cobalt
oxide, noble metals and their compounds, mixed metal compounds including rare earth metals,
and transition metal macrocyclics, spinels, manganese dioxide, phtalocyanines or perovskites.
CONSTRUCTION
Small form factor zinc / air batteries exist today in a number of types ranging from button to coin
sizes. Although small batteries predominate, higher capacity zinc / air batteries for portable
applications are currently being developed with shapes ranging from cylindrical round cells (AA
and AAA) up to small prismatic batteries. These larger batteries are likely to have internal
capacities in the range of 4–6 Ah (rechargeable). The construction features of zinc / air button
cells (with capacities less than 1.2 Ah ) are quite similar to those of other commercially available
zinc anode button cells. The zinc anode material is generally a loose, granulated powder mixed
with electrolyte and, in some cases, a gelling agent to immobilize the composite and ensure
adequate electrolyte contact with zinc granules. The shape or morphology of the zinc granules
plays a role in achieving better inter-particle contact and hence creating a lower internal
electrical resistance in the anode pack. High surface area zinc granules are preferred for better
performance. The metal can halves housing the cathode and anode active materials also act as the
Page 49 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
terminals, insulation between the two containers being provided by a plastic (gasket). A cutaway view of a typical zinc / air button battery is shown in Figure 25.
A schematic representation of a typical zinc / air button battery is given in Figure 26. A zinc
/metal oxide battery is shown for comparison. The reason for increased energy density in the zinc
/ air battery is illustrated graphically by comparing the anode compartment volumes. The very
thin cathode of the zinc / air battery (about 0.5 mm) permits the use of twice as much zinc in the
anode compartment as can be used in the metal oxide equivalent. Since the air cathode
theoretically has infinite life, the electrical capacity of the battery is determined only by the
anode capacity, resulting in at least a doubling of energy density.
Figure 25: Typical zinc / air button battery (components not to scale) (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
Figure 26: Cross section of metal oxide and zinc / air button batteries (Courtesy of Duracell,
Inc.)
A portion of the total volume available internally for the anode must be reserved to
accommodate the expansion that occurs when zinc is converted to zinc oxide during the
discharge. This space also provides additional tolerance to sustained water gain during operating
conditions. Referred to as the anode free volume, it is typically 15 to 25% of the total anode
compartment volume.
Figure 27 shows a magnified cross-sectional view of the cathode region of the zinc / air battery.
The cathode structure includes the separators, catalyst layer, metallic mesh, hydrophobic
membrane, diffusion membrane, and air-distribution layer. The catalyst layer contains carbon
blended with oxides of manganese to form a conducting medium. It is made hydrophobic by the
addition of finely dispersed Teflon particles. The metallic mesh provides structural support and
acts as the current collector. The hydrophobic membrane maintains the gas-permeable
waterproof boundary between the air and the cell’s electrolyte. The diffusion membrane
Page 50 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
regulates gas diffusion rates (not used when an air hole controls gas diffusion). Finally the air
distribution layer distributes oxygen evenly over the cathode surface. Through advances in the
technology, air cathode construction has improved with the introduction of a dual layer
approach. The dual layer cathode consists of coating the screen current collector with a blend of
low surface-area carbon black and Teflon particles to produce a hydrophobic cathode layer with
good electrical contact to the screen. The second layer, which is coated onto the first layer and
which contacts the electrolyte in the cell, is produced from a blend of high surface-area, carbon
black, Teflon powder and a catalyst. The resulting high surface area of the second layer promotes
better access to the electrolyte and facilitates better oxygen catalysis. The first layer promotes
good electrical contact to the screen and provides a better hydrophobic barrier to prevent
electrolyte penetration and to slow water evaporation loss. Prior to cathode coating, some
manufacturers roughen the screen current collector to increase surface area and achieve better
screen to cathode mix contact.
Figure 27: Key constructional features of zinc / air button batteries. (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
An air-excess hole on the positive terminal of a zinc / air battery provides a path for oxygen to
enter the cell and diffuse to the cathode catalyst sites. The rate at which oxygen and other gases
transfer into or out of the cell is regulated either by the hole area or by the porosity of the
diffusion membrane at the surface of the cathode layer. Regulating oxygen diffusion sets a limit
to a zinc / air battery’s maximum continuous-current capability, because the operating current is
directly proportional to oxygen consumption (5.81 x 10-5 cm3 of oxygen per milliamperesecond) used in button cell cathodes. Limiting current, while being dependent on the air
availability and the active electrode surface area, is also a function of the catalytic activity of the
cathode. The cathode discussed uses a metal oxide catalyst, MnO2, a common transition metal
oxide used in button cell cathodes. Studies of catalytic activity have shown that some valence
states of the oxides of manganese promote faster peroxide decomposition, leading to faster
reaction kinetics and better cell performance. Once achieving maximum catalytic activity, the
next step is to optimize cathode porosity to achieve good oxygen transport. Cathode porosity
must be balanced between oxygen penetration and the retardation of water vapor loss from the
electrolyte. The design of the cathode must also take into consideration the end application for
the battery. This will help determine how the cathode should be designed to insure maximum
energy output under normal operating conditions.
Page 51 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
If only oxygen transfer rates mattered, gas diffusion in zinc / air cells would not be regulated,
resulting in higher operating current capability. Regulation is necessary because other gases,
most importantly water vapor, can enter or leave the cell. If not properly controlled, undesirable
gas transfer can cause a degradation in cell power capability and service life.
Water vapor transfer is generally the dominant form of gas transfer performance degradation.
This transfer occurs between the cell’s electrolyte and the ambient (Figure 28). The aqueous
electrolyte of a zinc / air cell has a characteristic water vapor pressure. A typical electrolyte
consisting of 30% potassium hydroxide by weight is in equilibrium with the ambient at room
temperature when the relative humidity is approximately 60%. A cell will lose water from its
electrolyte on drier days and gain water on more humid days. In the extreme, either water gain or
water loss can cause a zinc / air battery to fail before delivering full capacity. A smaller hole or
lower diffusion membrane porosity yields greater environmental tolerance because water transfer
rates are reduced, resulting in a longer practical service life.
The maximum continuous-current capability of a zinc / air battery, as determined by gas
diffusion regulation, is typically specified as the limiting current, denoted by IL. The relationship
between gas transfer regulation, limiting current, and service life is illustrated in Figure 29.
Figure 28: In zinc / air button cell, water vapor transfer is the dominant form of gas transfer
degradation. (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
Figure 29: In zinc / air button cell, gas transfer regulation determines limiting current and useful
service life. (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
Page 52 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
It should be noted that under conditions of continuous discharge, the limiting current would not
be sustained indefinitely. It will gradually begin to decline as the voltage falls and internal
impedance increases. The limiting current will thus vary depending on the state of charge of the
battery. The limiting currents shown in Table 19 represent the maximum current that is
achievable within the first 3 minutes of fresh cell discharge, and hence is representative of only
the early stage of cell discharge.
Table 19: Characteristics of Zinc / Air Button and Coin Batteries
CELL SIZES
Zinc/ air button and coin batteries are available in a variety of sizes. Capacities range from about
40 to 1100 mAh. Table 19 lists the physical and electrical characteristics of some available
batteries. The smaller sizes are commonly used as hearing-aid batteries, the medium to larger
ones for continuous-drain applications such as pager or telemetry devices. Zinc/ air batteries for
hearing aid applications continue to be improved to meet the more stringent needs of new
devices and user requirements. High rate zinc / air batteries have been developed for example,
the Rayovac Proline High Power batteries, designed for better air access thus improving power
output, the potential trade-off being shorter operating life on low rate drain due to higher water
vapor loss or gain from the cell.
Page 53 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Batteries have also been designed for greater service life by maximizing the amount of zinc in
the cell. The zinc content in these batteries is maximized by creating the largest allowable
internal cell volume while not exceeding standard external cell dimensions. Table 19-b lists some
characteristics of these batteries. The zinc content is maximized without compromising the
internal free volume needed for anode expansion as zinc metal becomes converted to zinc oxide,
as this would lead to premature end of life. Designers of zinc / air button cells will experience
challenges in the future as digital hearing aids emerge which will require greater power and
energy to operate compared to existing models.
The first commercially successful zinc / air coin cell was introduced in 1989. The 2330 coin cell
has become the predominant power source for credit-card-style pagers. The 675 zinc / air battery
is the most common BTE hearing aid power source, and also serves as battery for the Timex
wristwatch Beep pager. Portable Holter telemetry heart monitors the ‘‘9-volt’’ zinc / air batteries
to transmit patient data via portable radio transmitters to base station monitors. Data on two zinc
/ air multicell batteries are listed in Table 20.
Table 20: Zinc / Air Multicell Batteries
Page 54 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
LITHIUM BATTERIES
Lithium metal is attractive as a battery anode material because of its light weight, high voltage,
high electrochemical equivalence, and good conductivity. Because of these outstanding
features, the use of lithium has dominated the development of high-performance primary and
secondary batteries during the last two decades. Serious development of high-energy-density
battery systems was started in the 1960s and concentrated on nonaqueous primary batteries using
lithium as the anode. The lithium batteries were first used in the early 1970s in selected military
applications, but their use was limited as suitable cell structures, formulations, and safety
considerations had to be resolved. Lithium primary cells and batteries have since been designed,
using a number of different chemistries, in a variety of sizes and configurations. Sizes range
from less than 5 mAh to 10,000 Ah; configurations range from small coin and cylindrical cells
for memory backup and portable applications to large prismatic cells for standby power in
missile silos. Lithium primary batteries, with their outstanding performance and characteristics,
are being used in increasing quantities in a variety of applications, including cameras, memory
backup circuits, security devices, calculators, watches, etc. Nevertheless, lithium primary
batteries have not attained a major share of the market as was anticipated, because of their high
initial cost, concerns with safety, the advances made with competitive systems and the costeffectiveness of the alkaline /manganese battery. World-wide sales of lithium primary batteries
for 1999 have been estimated at $1.1 billion.
Advantages of Lithium Cells
Primary cells using lithium anodes have many advantages over conventional batteries. The
advantageous features include the following:
1. High voltage: Lithium batteries have voltages up to about 4 V, depending on the cathode
material, compared with 1.5 V for most other primary battery systems. The higher voltage
reduces the number of cells in a battery pack by a factor of at least 2.
2. High specific energy and energy density: The energy output of a lithium battery (over 200
Wh/kg and 400 Wh/L) is 2 to 4 or more times better than that of conventional zinc anode
batteries.
3. Operation over a wide temperature range: Many of the lithium batteries will perform over a
temperature range from about 70 to -40oC, with some capable of performance to 150oC or as low
as -80oC.
4. Good power density: Some of the lithium batteries are designed with the capability to
deliver their energy at high current and power levels.
5. Flat discharge characteristics: A flat discharge curve (constant voltage and resistance through
most of the discharge) is typical for many lithium batteries.
6. Superior shelf life: Lithium batteries can be stored for long periods, even at elevated
temperatures. Storage of up to 10 years at room temperature has been achieved and storage of 1
year at 70oC has also been demonstrated. Shelf lives over 20 years have been projected from
reliability studies.
Only the zinc / air, zinc /mercuric oxide, and zinc / silver oxide cells, which are noted for their
high energy density, approach the capability of the lithium systems at 20oC. The zinc / air cell,
Page 55 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
however, is very sensitive to atmospheric conditions; the others do not compare as favorably on a
specific energy basis nor at lower temperatures.
Classification of Lithium Primary Cells
Lithium batteries use nonaqueous solvents for the electrolyte because of the reactivity of lithium
in aqueous solutions. Organic solvents such as acetonitrile, propylene carbonate, and
dimethoxyethane and inorganic solvents such as thionyl chloride are typically employed. A
compatible solute is added to provide the necessary electrolyte conductivity. Solid-state and
molten-salt electrolytes are also used in some other primary and reserve lithium cells; Many
different materials were considered for the active cathode material; sulfur dioxide, manganese
dioxide, iron disulfide, and carbon monofluoride are now in common use. The term ‘‘lithium
battery,’’ therefore, applies to many different types of chemistries, each using lithium as the
anode but differing in cathode material, electrolyte, and chemistry as well as in design and other
physical and mechanical features. Lithium primary batteries can be classified into several
categories, based on the type of electrolyte (or solvent) and cathode material used. These
classifications, examples of materials that were considered or used, and the major characteristics
of each are listed in Table 21.
Soluble-Cathode Cells. These use liquid or gaseous cathode materials, such as sulfur dioxide
(SO2) or thionyl chloride (SOCl2), that dissolve in the electrolyte or are the electrolyte solvent.
Their operation depends on the formation of a passive layer on the lithium anode resulting from a
reaction between the lithium and the cathode material. This prevents further chemical reaction
(self-discharge) between anode and cathode or reduces it to a very low rate. These cells are
manufactured in many different configurations and designs (such as high and low rate) and with
a very wide range of capacities. They are generally fabricated in cylindrical configuration in the
smaller sizes, up to about 35 Ah, using a bobbin construction for the low-rate cells and a spirally
wound ( jelly-roll) structure for the high-rate designs. Prismatic containers, having flat parallel
plates, are generally used for the larger cells up to 10,000 Ah in size. Flat or ‘‘pancake-shaped’’
configurations have also been designed. These soluble cathode lithium cells are used for low to
high discharge rates. The high-rate designs, using large electrode surface areas, are noted for
their high power density and are capable of delivering the highest current densities of any active
primary cell.
Solid-Cathode Cells. The second type of lithium anode primary cells uses solid rather than
soluble gaseous or liquid materials for the cathode. With these solid cathode materials, the cells
have the advantage of not being pressurized or necessarily requiring a hermetic-type seal, but
they do not have the high-rate capability of the soluble-cathode systems. They are designed,
generally, for low- to medium-rate applications such as memory backup, security devices,
portable electronic equipment, photographic equipment, watches and calculators, and small
lights. Button, flat, and cylindrical-shaped cells are available in low-rate and the moderate-rate
jelly-roll configurations. A number of different solid cathodes are being used in lithium primary
cells, as listed in Table 21. The discharge of the solid-cathode cells is not as flat as that of the
soluble-cathode cells, but at the lower discharge rates and ambient temperature their capacity
(energy density) may be higher than that of the lithium / sulfur dioxide cell.
Page 56 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 21: Classification of Lithium Primary Batteries
Solid-Electrolyte Cells. These cells are noted for their extremely long storage life, in excess of
20 years, but are capable of only low-rate discharge in the microampere range. They are used in
applications such as memory backup, cardiac pacemakers, and similar equipment where current
requirements are low but long life is critical. In Figure 30 the size or capacity of these three types
of lithium cells (up to the 30-Ah size) is plotted against the current levels at which they are
typically discharged. The approximate weight of lithium in each of these cells is also shown.
Figure 30: Classification of lithium primary cell types.
Page 57 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Lithium
The main requirements for electrode materials used for high-performance (high specific energy
and energy density) batteries are a high electrochemical equivalence (high coulombic output for
a given weight of material) and a high electrode potential. It is apparent from Table 22, which
lists the characteristics of metals used as battery anodes, that lithium is an outstanding candidate.
Its standard potential and electrochemical equivalence are the highest of the metals; it excels in
theoretical gravimetric energy density; and, with its high potential, it is inferior only to aluminum
and magnesium on a volumetric energy basis (Watthours per liter). Aluminum, however, has not
been used successfully as an anode except in reserve systems, and magnesium has a low practical
operating voltage. Furthermore, lithium is preferred to the other alkali metals because of its
better mechanical characteristics and lower reactivity. Calcium has been investigated as an
anode, in place of lithium, because its higher melting point (838oC compared with 180.5oC for
lithium) may result in safer operation, reducing the possibility of thermal runaway should high
internal cell temperatures occur. To date, practical cells using calcium have not been produced.
Lithium is one of the alkali metals and it is the lightest of all the metallic elements, with a density
about half that of water. When first made or freshly cut, lithium has the luster and color of bright
silver, but it tarnishes rapidly in moist air. It is soft and malleable, can be readily extruded into
thin foils, and is a good conductor of electricity. Table 23 lists some of the physical properties of
lithium.
Table 22: Characteristics of Anode Materials
Table 23: Physical Properties of Lithium
Page 58 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Lithium reacts vigorously with water, releasing hydrogen and forming lithium hydroxide,
2Li + 2H2O → 2LiOH + H2
This reaction is not as vigorous as that of sodium and water, probably due to the fairly low
solubility and the adherence of LiOH to the metal surface under some conditions, however, the
heat generated by this reactors may ignite the hydrogen which is formed and the lithium will then
also burn. Because of this reactivity, however, lithium must be handled in a dry atmosphere and,
in a battery, be used with nonaqueous electrolytes.
Cathode Materials
A number of inorganic and organic materials have been examined for use as the cathode in
primary lithium batteries. The critical requirements for this material to achieve high performance
are high battery voltage, high energy density, and compatibility with the electrolyte (that is,
being essentially nonreactive or insoluble in the electrolyte). Preferably the cathode material
should be conductive, although there are few such materials available and solid cathode materials
are usually mixed with a conducting material, such as carbon, and applied to a conductive grid to
provide the needed conductivity. If the cathode reaction products are a metal and a soluble salt
(of the anode metal), this feature can improve cathode conductivity as the discharge proceeds.
Other desirable properties are the cathode material are low cost, availability (noncritical
material), and favorable physical properties, such as nontoxicity and nonflammability. Table 24
lists some of the cathode materials that have been studied for primary lithium batteries and gives
their cell reaction mechanisms and the theoretical cell voltages and capacities.
Table 24: Cathode Materials Used in Lithium Primary Batteries
* Multiple-step discharge (Experimental values to 1.5 V cut-off).
Page 59 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Electrolytes
The reactivity of lithium in aqueous solutions requires the use of nonaqueous electrolytes for
lithium anode batteries. Polar organic liquids are the most common electrolyte solvents for the
active primary cells, except for the thionyl chloride (SOCl2) and sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2) cells,
where these inorganic compounds serve as both the solvent and the active cathode material. The
important properties of the electrolyte are:
1. It must be aprotic, that is, have no reactive protons or hydrogen atoms, although hydrogen
atoms may be in the molecule.
2. It must have low reactivity with lithium (or form a protective coating on the lithium surface to
prevent further reaction) and the cathode.
3. It must be capable of forming an electrolyte of good ionic conductivity.
4. It should be liquid over a broad temperature range.
5. It should have favorable physical characteristics, such as low vapor pressure, stability,
nontoxicity, and nonflammability.
A listing of the organic solvents commonly used in lithium batteries is given in Table 25.
These solvents are typically employed in binary or ternary combination. These organic
electrolytes, as well as thionyl chloride (mp -105oC, bp 78.8oC) and sulfuryl chloride (mp -54oC,
bp 69.1oC), are liquid over a wide temperature range with low freezing points. This characteristic
provides the potential for operation over a wide temperature range, particularly low
temperatures. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Pasadena, CA) has evaluated several types of
lithium primary batteries to determine their ability to operate planetary probes at temperatures of
-80oC and below. Individual cells were evaluated by discharge tests and Electrochemical
Impedance Spectroscopy. Of the five types considered (Li /SOCl2, Li/SO2, Li /MnO2, Li-BCX
and Li-CFn), lithium-thionyl chloride and lithium-sulfur dioxide were found to provide the best
performance at -80oC. Lowering the electrolyte salt to ca. 0.5 molar was found to improve
performance with these systems at very low temperatures. In the case of D-size Li/SOCl2
batteries, lowering the LiAlCl4 concentration from 1.5 to 0.5 molar led to a 60% increase in
capacity on a baseline load of 118 ohms with periodic one-minute pulses at 5.1 ohms at -85 C.
Lithium salts, such as LiClO4, LiBr, LiCF3SO3, and LiAlCl4, are the electrolyte solutes most
commonly used to provide ionic conductivity. The solute must be able to form a stable
electrolyte which does not react with the active electrode materials. It must be soluble in the
organic solvent and dissociate to form a conductive electrolyte solution. Maximum conductivity
with organic solvents is normally obtained with a 1-Molar solute concentration, but generally the
conductivity of these electrolytes is about one-tenth that of aqueous systems. To accommodate
this lower conductivity, close electrode spacing and cells designed to minimize impedance and
provide good power density are used.
Page 60 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 25: Properties of Organic Electrolyte Solvents for Lithium Primary Batteries
Cells Couples and Reaction Mechanisms
The overall discharge reaction mechanism for various lithium primary batteries is shown in
Table 4, which also lists the theoretical cell voltage. The mechanism for the discharge of the
lithium anode is the oxidation of lithium to form lithium ions (Li+) with the release of an
electron,
Li → Li+ + eThe electron moves through the external circuit to the cathode, where it reacts with the cathode
material, which is reduced. At the same time, the Li+ ion, which is small (0.06 nm in radius) and
mobile in both liquid and solid-state electrolytes, moves through the electrolyte to the cathode,
where it reacts to form a lithium compound.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LITHIUM PRIMARY BATTERIES
A listing of the major lithium primary batteries now in production or advanced development and
a summary of their constructional features, key electrical characteristics, and available sizes are
presented in Table 26. The types of batteries, their sizes, and some characteristics are subject to
Page 61 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
change depending on design, standardization, and market development. Manufacturers’ data
should be obtained for specific characteristics. The performance characteristics of these systems,
under theoretical conditions, are given in Table 24.
Table 26: Characteristics of Lithium Primary Batteries
*Working voltages are typical for discharges at favorable loads.
†Energy densities are for 20oC, under favorable discharge conditions.
Page 62 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Soluble-Cathode Lithium Primary Batteries
Two types of soluble-cathode lithium primary batteries are currently available (Table 21). One
uses SO2 as the active cathode dissolved in an organic electrolyte solvent. The second type uses
an inorganic solvent, such as the oxychlorides SOCl2 and SO2Cl2, which serves as both the active
cathode and the electrolyte solvent. These materials form a passivating layer or protective film of
reaction products on the lithium surface, which inhibits further reaction. Even though the active
cathode material is in contact with the lithium anode, self-discharge is inhibited by the protective
film which proceeds at very low rates and the shelf life of these batteries is excellent. This film,
however, may cause a voltage delay to occur: i.e. a time delay to break down the film and for the
cell voltage to reach the operating level when the discharge load is applied. These lithium
batteries have a high specific energy and, with proper design, such as the use of high-surfacearea electrodes, are capable of delivering high specific energy at high specific power.
These cells generally require a hermetic-type seal. Sulfur dioxide is a gas at 20oC (bp -10oC), and
the undischarged cell has an internal pressure of 3 to 4 x105 Pa at 20oC. The oxychlorides are
liquid at 20oC, but with boiling points of 78.8oC for SOCl2 and 69.1oC for SO2Cl2, a moderate
pressure can develop at high operating temperatures. In addition, as SO2 is a discharge product in
the oxychloride cells, the internal cell pressure increases as the cell is discharged. The lithium /
sulfur dioxide (Li /SO2) battery is the most advanced of these lithium primary batteries. These
batteries are typically manufactured in cylindrical configurations in capacities up to about 35 Ah.
They are noted for their high specific power (about the highest of the lithium primary batteries,
high energy density, and good low-temperature performance. They are used in military and
specialized industrial, space and commercial applications where these performance
characteristics are required. The lithium / thionyl chloride (Li /SOCl2) battery has one of the
highest specific energies of all the practical battery systems.
Solid-Cathode Lithium Primary Cells
The solid-cathode lithium batteries are generally used in low- to moderate-drain applications
and are manufactured mainly in small flat or cylindrical sizes ranging in capacity from 30 mAh
to about 5 Ah, depending on the particular electrochemical system. Larger batteries have been
produced in cylindrical and prismatic configurations. The solid-cathode batteries have the
advantage, compared with the soluble-cathode lithium primary batteries, of being nonpressurized
and thus not requiring a hermetic-type seal. A mechanically crimped seal with a polymeric
gasket is satisfactory for most applications. On light discharge loads, the energy density of some
of the solid-cathode systems is comparable to that of the soluble-cathode systems, and in smaller
battery sizes may be greater. Their disadvantages, again compared with the soluble-cathode
batteries, are a lower rate capability, poorer low-temperature performance, and a more sloping
discharge profile. To maximize their high-rate performance and compensate for the lower
conductivity of the organic electrolytes, designs are used for these lithium cells to increase
electrode area, such as a larger-diameter coin cell instead of button cells, multiple parallel
electrodes, or the spirally wound jelly-roll construction for the cylindrical cells.
A number of different cathode materials have been used in the solid-cathode lithium cells.
These are listed in Tables 24 and 26, which present some of the theoretical and practical
performance data of these cells. The major features of the solid-cathode lithium cells are
Page 63 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
compared in Table 27. Many of the characteristics are similar, such as high specific energy and
energy density and good shelf life. An important property is the 3-V cell voltage obtained with
several of these cathodes. Some cathode materials have been used mainly in the coin or button
cell designs while others, such as the manganese dioxide cathode, have been used in coin,
cylindrical, and prismatic cells as well as in both high (spirally wound) and low (bobbin) rate
designs. Although a number of different solid-cathode lithium batteries have been developed and
even manufactured, more recently the trend is toward reducing the number of different
chemistries that are manufactured. The lithium /manganese dioxide (Li /MnO2) battery was one
of the first to be used commercially and is still the most popular system. It is relatively
inexpensive, has excellent shelf life, good high-rate and low-temperature performance, and is
available in coin and cylindrical cells. The lithium /carbon monofluoride (Li{CF}n) battery is
another of the early solid-cathode batteries and is attractive because of its high theoretical
capacity and flat discharge characteristics. It is also manufactured in coin, cylindrical and
prismatic configurations. The higher cost of polycarbon monofluoride has affected the
commercial potential for this system but it is finding use in biomedical, military and space
applications where cost is not a factor. The lithium /copper oxyphosphate (Li /Cu4O(PO4)2)
battery was designed for high temperatures and special applications. It has a high specific
energy and long shelf life under adverse environmental conditions but is not currently being
manufactured. The lithium / silver chromate (Li /Ag2CrO4) battery is noted for its high
volumetric energy density for low-rate long-term applications. Its high cost has limited its use to
special applications. The lithium /vanadium pentoxide (Li /V2O5) battery has a high volumetric
energy density, but with a two-step discharge profile. Its main application has been in reserve
batteries. The lithium / silver vanadium oxide (Li /AgV2O5) battery is used in medical
applications which have pulse load requirements as this battery is capable of relatively high-rate
discharge. The other solid-cathode lithium batteries operate in the range of 1.5 V and were
developed to replace conventional 1.5-V button or cylindrical cells. The lithium/ copper oxide
(Li /CuO) cell is noted for its high coulombic energy density and has the advantage of higher
capacity or lighter weight when compared with conventional cylindrical cells. It is capable of
performance at high temperatures and, similar to the copper oxyphosphate cell, has a long shelf
life under adverse conditions. The iron disulfide (Li /FeS2) cell has similar advantages over the
conventional cells, plus the advantage of high-rate performance. Once available in a button cell
configuration, it is now being marketed commercially in a high-rate cylindrical AA-size battery
as a replacement for zinc-carbon and alkalinemanganese dioxide batteries. The remaining solidcathode systems listed in Tables 21 and 24 are not currently commercially available.
Page 64 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 27: Characteristics of Typical Lithium / Solid-Cathode Batteries
Factors Affecting Safety and Handling
Attention must be given to the design and use of lithium cells and batteries to ensure safe and
reliable operation. As with most battery systems, precautions must be taken to avoid physical and
electrical abuse because some batteries can be hazardous if not used properly. This is important
in the case of lithium cells since some of the components are toxic or inflammable and the
relatively low melting point of lithium (180.5oC) indicates that cells must be prevented from
reaching high internal temperatures. Because of the variety of lithium cell chemistries, designs,
sizes, and so on, the procedures for their use and handling are not the same for all cells and
batteries and depend on a number of factors such as the following:
1. Electrochemical system: The characteristics of the specific chemicals and cell components
influence operational safety.
2. Size and capacity of cell and battery: Safety is directly related to the size of the cell and
Page 65 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
the number of cells in a battery. Small cells and batteries, containing less material and,
therefore, less total energy, are ‘‘safer’’ than larger cells of the same design and chemistry.
3. Amount of lithium used: The less lithium that is used, implying less energetic cells, the safer
they should be.
4. Cell design: High-rate designs, capable of high discharge rates, versus low-power designs
where discharge rate is limited, use of ‘‘balanced’’ cell chemistry, adequate intra and intercell
electrical connections, and other features affect cell performance and operating characteristics.
5. Safety features: The safety features incorporated in the cell and battery will obviously
influence handling procedures. These features include cell-venting mechanisms to prevent
excessive internal cell pressure, thermal cutoff devices to prevent excessive temperatures,
electrical fuses, PTC devices and diode protection. Cells are hermetically or mechanically
crimped-sealed, depending on the electrochemical system, to effectively contain cell contents
if cell integrity is to be maintained.
6. Cell and battery containers: These should be designed so that cells and batteries will meet the
mechanical and environmental conditions to which they will be exposed. High shock, vibration,
extremes of temperature, or other adverse conditions may be encountered in use and handling,
and the cell and battery integrity must be maintained. Container materials should also be chosen
with regard to their flammability and the toxicity of combustion products in the event of fire.
Container designs should also be optimized to dissipate the heat generated during discharge and
to release pressure in the event of cell venting.
Safety Considerations
The electrical and physical abuses that may arise during the use of lithium cells are listed in
Table 28 together with some generalized comments on corrective action. The manufacturer’s
data should be consulted for more details on the performance of individual cells.
Table 28: Considerations for Use and Handling of Lithium Primary Batteries
Page 66 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
High-Rate Discharges or Short-Circuiting. Low-capacity batteries, or those designed as lowrate batteries, may be self-limiting and not capable of high-rate discharge. The temperature rise
will thus be minimal and there will be no safety problems. Larger or high-rate cells can develop
high internal temperatures if short-circuited or operated at excessively high rates. These cells are
generally equipped with safety vent mechanisms to avoid more serious hazards. Such cells or
batteries should be fuse-protected (to limit the discharge current). Thermal fuses or thermal
switches should also be used to limit the maximum temperature rise. Positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) devices are used in cells and batteries to provide this protection.
Forced Discharge or Voltage Reversal. Voltage reversal can occur in a multicell series
connected battery when the better performing cells can drive the poorer cell below 0 V, into
reversal, as the battery is discharged toward 0 V. In some types of lithium cells this forced
discharge can result in cell venting or, in more extreme cases, cell rupture. Precautionary
measures include the use of voltage cutoff circuits to prevent a battery from reaching a low
voltage, the use of low-voltage batteries (since this phenomenon is unlikely to occur with a
battery containing only a few cells in series), and limiting the current drain since the effect
of forced discharge is more pronounced on high-rate discharges. Special designs, such as the
‘‘balanced’’ Li /SO2 cell, also have been developed that are capable of withstanding this
discharge condition. The use of a current collector in the anode maintains lithium integrity and
may provide an internal shorting mechanism to limit the voltage in reversal.
Charging. Lithium batteries, as well as the other primary batteries, are not designed to be
recharged. If they are, they may vent or explode. Batteries which are connected in parallel or
which may be exposed to a charging source (as in battery-backup CMOS memory circuits)
should be diode-protected to prevent charging.
Overheating. As discussed, overheating should be avoided. This can be accomplished by
limiting the current drain, using safety devices such as fusing and thermal cutoffs, and
designing the battery to provide necessary heat dissipation.
Incineration. Lithium cells are either hermetically or mechanically sealed. They should not be
incinerated without proper protection because they may rupture or explode at high temperatures.
LITHIUM/SULFUR DIOXIDE (Li/SO2) BATTERIES
One of the more advanced lithium primary batteries, used mainly in military and in some
industrial and space applications, is the lithium / sulfur dioxide (Li /SO2) system. The battery
has specific energy and energy density of up to 260 Wh/kg and 415 Wh/L respectively. The
Li/SO2 battery is particularly noted for its capability to handle high current and high power
requirements, for its excellent low-temperature performance and for its long shelf life.
Chemistry
The Li/SO2 cell uses lithium as the anode and a porous carbon cathode electrode with sulfur
dioxide as the active cathode material. The cell reaction mechanism is:
2Li + 2SO2 → Li2S2O4↓ (lithium dithionite)
Page 67 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
As lithium reacts readily with water, a nonaqueous electrolyte, consisting of sulfur dioxide and
an organic solvent, typically acetonitrile, with dissolved lithium bromide, is used. The specific
conductivity of this electrolyte is relatively high and decreases only moderately with decreasing
temperature, thus providing a basis for good high-rate and lowtemperature performance. About
70% of the weight of the electrolyte / depolarizer is SO2. The internal cell pressure, in an
undischarged cell, due to the vapor pressure of the liquid SO2, is 3–4 x 105 Pa at 20oC. The
mechanical features of the cell are designed to contain this pressure safely without leaking and to
vent the electrolyte if excessively high temperatures and the resulting high internal pressures are
encountered. During discharge the SO2 is used up and the cell pressure reduced somewhat. The
discharge is generally terminated by the full use of available lithium, in designs where the
lithium is the limiting electrode, or by blocking of the cathode by precipitation of the discharge
product (cathode limited). Current designs are typically limited by the cathode so that some
lithium remains at the end of discharge. The good shelf life of the Li/SO2 cell results from the
protective lithium dithionite film on the anode formed by the initial reaction of lithium and SO2.
It prevents further reaction and loss of capacity during storage.
Most Li/SO2 cells are now fabricated in a balanced construction where the lithium: sulfur dioxide
stoichiometric ratio is in the range of Li:SO2 = 0.9 - 1.05:1. With the earlier designs, where the
ratio was on the order of Li:SO2 = 1.5:1, high temperatures, cell venting, or rupture and fires due
to an exothermic reaction between residual lithium and acetonitrile, in the absence of SO2, could
occur on deep or forced discharge. Cyanides and methane can also be generated through this
reaction. In the balanced cell the anode is protected by residual SO2 and remains passivated. The
conditions for the hazardous reaction are minimized since some protective SO2 remains in the
electrolyte. A higher negative cell voltage, in reversal, of the balanced cell is also beneficial for
diode protection, which is used in some designs to bypass the current through the cell and
minimize the adverse effects of reversal. The use of a current collector, typically an inlayed
stripe of copper metal, also helps to maintain the integrity of the anode and leads to formation of
a short-circuit mechanism since copper dissolution on cell reversal causes plated copper on the
cathode to form an internal ohmic bridge.
Construction
The Li/SO2 cell is typically fabricated in a cylindrical structure, as shown in Figure 31. A jellyroll construction is used, made by spirally winding rectangular strips of lithium foil, a
microporous polypropylene separator, the cathode electrode (a Teflon-acetylene black mix
pressed on an expanded aluminum screen), and a second separator layer. This design provides
the high surface area and low cell resistance to obtain high-current and low-temperature
performance. The roll is inserted in a nickel-plated steel can, with the positive cathode tab
welded to the pin of a glass-to-metal seal and the anode tab welded to the cell case, the top is
welded in place, and the electrolyte / depolarizer is added. The safety vent releases when the
internal cell pressure reaches excessive levels, typically 2.41 MPa (350 psi) caused by
inadvertent abusive use such as overheating or short-circuiting; and prevents cell rupture or
explosion. The vent activates at approximately 95oC, well above the upper temperature limit for
operation and storage, safely relieving the excess pressure and preventing possible cell rupture.
Additional construction details have been previously described. It is important to employ a
corrosion-resistant glass or to coat
Page 68 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
the glass with a protective coating to prevent lithiation of the glass due to the potential difference
between the cell case and the pin of the glass-to-metal seal.
Figure 31: Lithium / sulfur dioxide batteries.
Cell and Battery Types and Sizes
The Li/SO2 batteries are manufactured in a number of cylindrical cell sizes, ranging in capacity
to 35 Ah. Some of the cells are manufactured in standard ANSI cell sizes in dimensions of
popular conventional zinc primary batteries. While these single batteries may be physically
interchangeable, they are not electrically interchangeable because of the higher cell voltage of
the lithium cell (3.0 V for lithium, 1.5 V for the conventional zinc cells). Table 29 lists some of
the sizes and rated capacities of Li/SO2 batteries that are currently manufactured.
Page 69 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 29: Typical Lithium / Sulfur Dioxide Cylindrical Cells (SAFT American, Inc.).*
Use and Handling of Li /SO2 Cells and Batteries—Safety Considerations
The Li/SO2 battery is designed as a high-performance system and is capable of delivering a high
capacity at high discharge rates. The cell should not be physically or electrically abused, safety
features should not be bypassed, and manufacturers’ instructions should be followed. Abusive
conditions could adversely affect the performance of the Li/SO2 battery and result in cell
venting, rupture, explosion, or fire. The Li/SO2 battery is pressurized and contains materials that
are toxic or flammable. Properly designed batteries are hermetically sealed so that there will be
no leakage or outgassing, and they are equipped with safety vents which release if the batteries
reach excessively high temperatures and pressures, thus preventing an explosive condition.
The Li/SO2 batteries can deliver very high currents. Because high internal temperatures can
develop from continuous high current drain and short circuit, batteries must be protected by
electrical fusing and thermal cutoffs. Charging of Li/SO2 batteries may result in venting, rupture,
or even explosion and should never be attempted. Cells or groups of cells connected in parallel
should be diode-protected to prevent one group from charging another. The balanced Li/SO2 cell
is designed to handle forced discharges or cell reversal and will perform safely within the
specified bounds, but design limits should not be exceeded in any application. Proper battery
design, using the Li/SO2 cell, should follow these guidelines:
1. Use electrical fusing and/or current-limiting devices to prevent high currents or shortcircuits.
2. Protect with diodes if cells are paralleled or connected to a possible charging source.
3. Minimize heat buildup by adequate heat dissipation and protect with thermal cutoff devices.
4. Do not inhibit cell vents in battery construction.
5. Do not use flammable materials in the construction of batteries.
Page 70 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
6. Allow for release of vented gases.
7. Incorporate resistor and switch to activate it to ensure complete depletion of active materials
after normal discharge.
8. In certain cases, a diode is placed in parallel with the cell to limit the voltage excursion
in reversal.
Applications
The desirable characteristics of the Li/SO2 battery and its ability to deliver a high energy output
and operate over a wide range of temperatures, discharge loads, and storage conditions have
opened up applications for this primary battery that, heretofore, were beyond the capability of
primary battery systems. Major applications for the Li/SO2 battery are in military equipment,
such as radio transceivers and portable surveillance devices, taking advantage of its light weight
and wide temperature operation. Table 30 lists the most common types of military Li/SO2
batteries, their characteristics and applications. Other military applications, such as sonobuoys
and munitions, have long shelf-life requirements, and the active Li/SO2 primary battery can
replace reserve batteries used earlier. Some industrial applications have developed, particularly
to replace secondary batteries and eliminate the need for recharging. Consumer applications have
been limited to date because of restrictions in shipment and transportation and concern with its
hazardous components.
Table 30: U.S. Millitary Lithium / Sulfur Dioxide Batteries (Per MIL-B-49430)
Page 71 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
LITHIUM/THIONYL CHLORIDE (Li/SOCl2) BATTERIES
The lithium / thionyl chloride (Li /SOCl2) battery has one of the highest cell voltages (nominal
voltage 3.6 V) and energy densities of the practical battery systems. Specific energy and energy
densities range up to about 590 Wh/kg and 1100 Wh/L, the highest values being achieved with
the low-rate batteries.
Chemistry
The Li/SOCl2 cell consists of a lithium anode, a porous carbon cathode, and a nonaqueous
SOCl2:LiAlCl4 electrolyte. Other electrolyte salts, such as LiGaCl4 have been employed for
specialized applications. Thionyl chloride is both the electrolyte solvent and the active cathode
material. There are considerable differences in electrolyte formulations and electrode
characteristics. The proportions of anode, cathode, and thionyl chloride will vary depending on
the manufacturer and the desired performance characteristics. Significant controversy exists as to
the relative safety of anode-limited vs. cathode-limited designs. Some cells have one or more
electrolyte additives. Catalysts, metallic powders, or other substances have been used in the
carbon cathode or in the electrolyte to enhance performance. The generally accepted overall
reaction mechanism
4Li + 2SOCl2 → 4LiCl ↓ + S + SO2
The sulfur and sulfur dioxide are initially soluble in the excess thionyl chloride electrolyte, and
there is a moderate buildup of pressure due to the generation of sulfur dioxide during the
discharge. The lithium chloride, however, is not soluble and precipitates within the porous
carbon black cathode as it is formed. Sulfur may precipitate in the cathode at the end of
discharge. In most cell designs and discharge conditions, this blocking of the cathode is the
factor that limits the cell’s service or capacity. Formation of sulfur as a discharge product can
also present a problem because of a possible reaction with lithium which may result in a thermal
runaway condition. The lithium anode is protected by reacting with the thionyl chloride
electrolyte during stand forming a protective LiCl film on the anode as soon as it contacts the
electrolyte. This passivating film, while contributing to the excellent shelf life of the cell, can
cause a voltage delay at the start of a discharge, particularly on low-temperature discharges after
long stands at elevated temperatures. The presence of trace qualities of moisture leads to the
formation of HCl which increases passivation, as does the presence of ppm levels of iron. Some
products have special anode treatments or electrolyte additives to overcome or lower this voltage
delay. The low freezing point of thionylchloride (below -110oC) and its relatively high boiling
point (78.8oC) enable the cell to operate over a wide range of temperature. The electrical
conductivity of the electrolyte decreases only slightly with decreasing temperature. Some of
the components of the Li/SOCl2 systems are toxic and flammable; thus exposure to open or
vented cells or cell components should be avoided.
Bobbin-Type Cylindrical Batteries
Li/SOCl2 bobbin batteries are manufactured in a cylindrical configuration, some in sizes
conforming to ANSI standards. These batteries are designed for low- to moderate-rate discharge
and are not typically subjected to continuous discharge at rates higher than the C/100 rate. They
Page 72 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
have a high energy density. For example, the D-size cell delivers 19.0-Ah at 3.5 V, compared
with 15 Ah at 1.5 V for the conventional zinc-alkaline cells (see Table 31).
Table 31: Characteristics of Typical High-Capacity and Wafer-Type Cylindrical Bobbin-Type Li
/SOCl2 Batteries
Construction. Figure 32 shows the constructional features of the cylindrical Li/SOCl2 cell, which
is built as a bobbin-type construction. The anode is made of lithium foil which is swaged against
the inner wall of a stainless or nickel-plated steel can; the separator is made of nonwoven glass
fibers. The cylindrical, highly porous cathode, which takes up most of the cell volume, is made
of Teflon-bonded acetylene black. The cathode also incorporates a current collector which is a
metal cylinder in the case of the larger cells and a pin in the case of smaller cells which do not
have an annular cavity.
Figure 32: Cross section of bobbin-type Li /SOCl2 battery.
Page 73 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Spirally Wound Cylindrical Batteries
Medium to moderately high-power Li/SOCl2 batteries which are designed within spirally wound
electrode structure are also available. These batteries were developed primarily to meet military
specifications where high drains and low-temperature operation were required. They are now
also used in selected industrial applications where these features are also needed. A typical
construction is shown in Figure 33. The cell container is made of stainless steel, a corrosionresistant glass-to-metal feed-through is used for the positive terminal, and the cell cover is laser
sealed or welded to provide an hermetic closure. Safety devices, such as a vent and a fuse or a
PTC device, are incorporated in the cell to protect against buildup of internal pressure or external
short circuits. Table 32 lists the characteristics of typical cylindrical spirally wound Li/SOCl2
batteries.
Figure 33: Cutaway view of lithium / thionyl chloride spirally wound electrode battery.
(Courtesy of SAFT America, Inc.)
Page 74 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 32: Characteristics of Typical Cylindrical Spirally Wound Li /SOCl2 Batteries
Flat or Disk-Type Li /SOCl2 Cells
The Li/SOCl2 system was also designed in a flat or disk-shaped cell configuration with a
moderate to high discharge rate capability. These batteries are hermetically sealed and
incorporate a number of features to safely handle abusive conditions, such as short circuit,
reversal, and overheating, within design limits. The battery shown in Figure 34 consists of a
single or multiple assembly of disk-shaped lithium anodes, separators, and carbon cathodes
sealed in a stainless-steel case containing a ceramic feed-through for the anode and insulation
between the positive and negative terminals of the cell.
Figure 34: Disk-type Li /SOCl2 cell.
The batteries have been manufactured in small and large diameter sizes. Originally developed
by Altus Corp., they are currently being produced in large sizes only for U.S. Navy applications
by HED Battery Corp., Santa Clara, CA. The characteristics of these batteries are summarized in
Table 33.
Page 75 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 33: Characteristics of Disk-Type Li /SOCl2 Batteries
The cell design includes the following features:
1. Short-circuit protection: Structure of interconnects fuses at high currents, providing an
open circuit.
2. Reverse-voltage chemical switch: Upon cell reversal, it allows cell to endure 100% capacity
reversal, up to 10-h rate, without venting or pressure increase.
3. Antipassivation (precoat lithium anode): Reduces voltage delay by retarding growth of
LiCl film; large cells stored for 2 years reach operating voltage within 20 s.
4. Self-venting: Ceramic seal is designed to vent cell at predetermined pressures.
These cells are used as multicell batteries in naval applications.
Large Prismatic Li /SOCl2 Cells
The large high-capacity Li/SOCl2 batteries were developed mainly as a standby power source
for those military applications requiring a power source that is independent of commercial power
and the need for recharging. They generally were built in a prismatic configuration, as shown
schematically in Figure 35. The lithium anodes and Teflon-bonded carbon electrodes are made as
rectangular plates with a supporting grid structure, separated by nonwoven glass separators, and
housed in an hermetically sealed stainless-steel container. The terminals are brought to the
outside by glass-to-metal feed-through or by a single feed through isolated from the positive steel
case. The cells are filled through an electrolyte filling tube.
Figure 35: Cutaway view of 10,000-Ah Li /SOCl2 battery.
Page 76 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
The characteristics of several prismatic batteries are summarized in Table 34. These cells have a
very high energy density. They are generally discharged continuously at relatively low rates
(200–300-h rate), but are capable of heavier discharge loads.
Table 34: Characteristics of Large Prismatic Li /SOCl2 Batteries
Applications
The applications of the Li/SOCl2 system take advantage of the high energy density and long
shelf life of this battery system. The low-drain cylindrical batteries are used as a power source
for CMOS memories, utility meters, and RFID tags such as the EZ Pass Toll collection system,
programmable logic controllers and wireless security alarm system. Wide application in
consumer-oriented applications is limited because of the relatively high cost and concern with
the safety and handling of these types of lithium batteries.
The higher-rate cylindrical and the larger prismatic Li/SOCl2 batteries are used mainly in
military applications where high specific energy is needed to fulfill important mission
requirements. A significant application for the large 10,000-Ah batteries was as standby
power source as nine-cell batteries for the Missile Extended System Power in the event of
loss of commercial or other power. These batteries are now being decommissioned.
A lithium / thionyl chloride battery was developed for use on the Mars Microprobe Mission,
a secondary payload on the Mars 98 Lander Mission, which disappeared on entry into the
Martian atmosphere in December, 1999. The Microprobe power source is a four-cell
lithium / thionyl chloride battery with a second redundant battery in parallel. The eight 2 Ah
cells are arranged in a single-layer configuration in the aft-body of the microprobe. The
lithium primary cells (and battery configuration) have been designed to survive the maximum
landing impact that may reach 80,000 G and then be operational on the Martian surface to
-80oC. Primary lithium-thionyl chloride batteries were selected for the Microprobes based on
high specific energy and promising low temperature performance. A parallel plate design was
selected as the best electrode configuration for surviving the impact without shorting during
impact. A cross-section of the final 2 Ah Mars cell design showing the parallel plate electrode
arrangement is shown in Figure 36. For this cell, the cathodes are blanked from sheets of a
Teflon-bonded carbon composition attached to nickel-disc current collectors and connected in
parallel. The ten full disc-anodes are also connected in parallel and are electrically isolated from
the case and cover. The assembly fixture helps with component alignment and handling during
stack assembly and during connection of the cathode and anode substrate tabs to the cover and
the glass-to-metal (GTM) seal anode terminal pin, respectably. The D-size diameter case is 2.22
cm height. The cover was redesigned after initial tests to minimize the chance of a GTM seal
fracture during impact. The Tefzel spacer, located between the cover and stack, helps in
Page 77 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
handling the stack during substrate tab connections and provides for the proper degree of cathode
and separator compression once the cover is TIG welded to the case. The Mars cells are required
to deliver 0.55 Ah of capacity at -80oC. A low temperature thionyl chloride electrolyte consisting
of a 0.5 M LiGaCl4 inSOCl2 was developed during the initial phase of the program. As the result
of this effort, the battery was able to operate at -80oC on a 1 Amp discharge.
Figure 36: Vertical Cross-Section of the Final 2 Ah Cell Design. (Courtesy of Yardney Technical
Products, Inc.)
LITHIUM/OXYCHLORIDE BATTERIES
The lithium / sulfuryl chloride (Li /SO2Cl2) battery is in addition to the lithium / thionyl chloride
battery, the other oxychloride that has been used for primary lithium batteries. The Li/SO2Cl2
battery has two potential advantages over the Li/SOCl2 battery:
1. A higher energy density as a result of a higher operating voltage (3.9-V open-circuit voltage)
and less solid product formation (which may block the cathode) during the discharge.
2. Inherently greater safety because sulfur, which is a possible cause of thermal runaway in
the Li/SOCl2 battery, is not formed during the discharge of the Li/SO2Cl2 battery.
3. A higher rate capability than the thionyl chloride battery as, during the discharge, more
SO2 is formed per mole of lithium, leading to a higher conductivity.
Nevertheless, the Li/SO2Cl2 system is not as widely used as the Li/SOCl2 system because of
several drawbacks:
(1) Cell voltage is sensitive to temperature variations; (2) higher self-discharge rate; (3)
lower rate capability at low temperatures.
Another type of lithium /oxychloride battery involves the use of halogen additives to both the
SOCl2 and SO2Cl2 electrolytes. These additives given an increase in the cell voltage (3.9 V for
the Li/BrCl in the SOCl2 system; 3.95 V for the Li/Cl2 in the SO2Cl2 system), energy density and
specific energy up to 1040 Wh/L and 480 Wh/ kg, and safer operation under abusive conditions.
Page 78 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Lithium/Sulfuryl Chloride (Li /SO2Cl2) Batteries
The Li/SO2Cl2 battery is similar to the thionyl chloride battery using a lithium anode, a carbon
cathode and the electrolyte / depolarizer of LiAlCl4 in SO2Cl2. The discharge mechanism is:
The open-circuit voltage is 3.909 V.
Cylindrical, spirally wound Li/SO2Cl2 cells were developed experimentally but were never
commercialized because of limitations with performance and storage. Bobbin-type cylindrical
cells, using a sulfuryl chloride /LiAlCl4 electrolyte and constructed similar to the design
illustrated in Figure 3 above, also showed a variation of voltage with temperature and a
decrease of the voltage during storage. This may be attributed to reaction of chlorine which
is present in the electrolyte and formed by the dissociation of sulfuryl chloride into Cl2 and
SO2. This condition can be ameliorated by including additives in the electrolyte. Bobbin cells,
made with the improved electrolyte, gave significantly higher capacities at moderate discharge
currents, compared to the thionyl chloride cells. This system has been employed for reserve
lithium / sulfuryl chloride batteries, as well.
Halogen-Additive Lithium/Oxychloride Cells
Another variation of the lithium /oxyhalide cell involves the use of halogen additives in both
the SOCl2 and the SO2Cl2 electrolytes to enhance the battery performance. These additives
result in: (1) an increase in the cell voltage (3.9 V for BrCl in the SOCl2 system (BCX),
3.95 V for Cl2 in the SO2Cl2 system (CSC), and (2) an increase in energy density and specific
energy to about 1040 Wh/L and 480 Wh/kg for the CSC system.
The lithium /oxyhalide cells with halogen additives offer among the highest energy density
of primary battery systems. They can operate over a wide temperature range, including high
temperatures, and have excellent shelf lives. They are used in a number of special applications
oceanographic and space applications, memory backup, and other communication and
electronic equipment. These lithium /oxychloride batteries are available in hermetically sealed,
spirally wound electrode cylindrical configurations, ranging from AA to DD size in capacities up
to 30 Ah. These batteries are also available in the AA size containing 0.5 g of Li and in flat diskshaped cells. Figure 8 shows a cross section of a typical cell. Table 35 lists the different lithiumoxychloride batteries manufactured and their key characteristics. Two types of halogen-additive
lithium /oxychloride batteries have been developed, as follows:
Li/SOCl2 System with BrCl Additive (BCX). This battery has an open-circuit voltage of 3.9 V
and an energy density of up to 1070 Wh/L at 20oC. The BrCl additive is used to enhance the
performance. The cells are fabricated by winding the lithium anode, the carbon cathode, and two
layers of a separator of nonwoven glass into a cylindrical roll and packaging them in an
hermetically sealed can with a glass-to-metal feed-through. The batteries are capable of
performance over the temperature range of -55 to 72oC. The shelf-life characteristics of this
battery are shown in Table 36. Capacity loss on storage is higher than with lithium systems using
Page 79 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
thionyl chloride only. The addition of BrCl to the depolarizer may also prevent the formation of
sulfur as a discharge product, at least in the early stage of the discharge, and minimize the
hazards of the Li/SOCl2 battery attributable to sulfur or discharge intermediates. The cells show
abuse resistance when subjected to the typical tests, such as short circuit, forced discharge, and
exposure to high temperatures.
Li/SO2Cl2 with Cl2 Additive (CSC). This battery has an open-circuit voltage of 3.95 V and an
energy density of up to 1040 Wh/L. The additive is used to decrease the voltage-delay
characteristic of the lithium /oxyhalide cells. The typical operating temperature of these cells is 30 to 90oC. The cylindrical cells are designed in the same structure as those shown in Figure 37.
Figure 37: Cross section of lithium / oxychloride cell. (Courtesy of Electrochem Industries.)
Page 80 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 35: Typical Halogen Additive Oxychloride Batteries
Table 36: Storage Capacity Losses of Li/SOCl2 with BrCl Additive Cells, D Size
LITHIUM/MANGANESE DIOXIDE (Li/MnO2) BATTERIES
The lithium /manganese dioxide (Li /MnO2) battery was one of the first lithium / solid-cathode
systems to be used commercially and is now the most widely used primary lithium battery. It is
available in many configurations (including coin, bobbin, spirally wound cylindrical, and
prismatic configurations in multicell batteries, and in designs for low, moderate, and moderately
high drain applications. The capacity of batteries available commercially ranges up to 2.5 Ah.
Larger sized batteries are available for special applications and have been introduced
commercially. Its attractive properties include a high cell voltage (nominal voltage 3 V), specific
energy above 230 Wh/kg and an energy density above 535 Wh/L, depending on design and
application, good performance over a wide temperature range, long shelf life, storability even at
elevated temperatures, and low cost. The Li/MnO2 battery is used in a wide variety of
applications such as long-term memory backup, safety and security devices, cameras, many
consumer devices and in military electronics. It has gained an excellent safety record during the
period since it was introduced. The performance of a Li /MnO2 battery is compared with
Page 81 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
comparable mercury, silver oxide, and zinc batteries illustrating the higher energy output of the
Li/MnO2 battery.
Chemistry
The Li/MnO2 cell uses lithium for the anode, and electrolyte containing lithium salts in a mixed
organic solvent such as propylene carbonate and 1,2-dimethoxyethane, and a specially prepared
heat-treated form of MnO2 for the active cathode material. The cell reactions for this system are:
Manganese dioxide, an intercalation compound, is reduced from the tetravalent to the trivalent
state producing LixMnO2 as the Li+ ion enters into the MnO2 crystal lattice. The theoretical
voltage of the total cell reaction is about 3.5 V, but an open circuit voltage of a new cell is
typically 3.3 V. Cells are typically predischarged to lower the open circuit voltage to reduce
corrosion.
Construction
The Li/MnO2 electrochemical system is manufactured in several different designs and
configurations to meet the range of requirements for small, lightweight, portable power sources.
Coin Cells. Figure 38 shows a cutaway illustration of a typical coin cell. The manganese dioxide
pellet faces the lithium anode disk and is separated by a nonwoven polypropylene separator
impregnated with the electrolyte. The cell is crimped-sealed, with the can serving as the positive
terminal and the cap as the negative terminal.
Figure 38: Cross-sectional view of Li /MnO2 coin-type battery. (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
Bobbin-Type Cylindrical Cells. The bobbin-type cell is one of the two Li /MnO2 cylindrical
cells. The bobbin design maximizes the energy density due to the use of thick electrodes and the
maximum amount of active materials, but at the expense of electrode surface area. This limits the
rate capability of the cell and restricts its use to low-drain applications. A cross section of a
typical cell is shown in Figure 39. The cells contain a central lithium anode core surrounded by
the manganese dioxide cathode, separated by a polypropylene separator impregnated with the
electrolyte. The cell top contains a safety vent to relieve pressure in the event of mechanical or
electrical abuse. Welded-sealed cells are manufactured in addition to the crimped-seal design.
Page 82 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
These cells, which have a 10-year life, are used for memory backup and other low-rate
applications.
Figure 39: Cross-sectional view of Li /MnO2 bobbin battery. (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
Spirally Wound Cylindrical Cells. The spirally wound cell, illustrated in Figure 40, is designed
for high-current pulse applications as well as continuous high-rate operation. The lithium anode
and the cathode (a thin, pasted electrode on a supporting grid structure) are wound together with
a microporous polypropylene separator interspaced between the two thin electrodes to form the
jelly-roll construction. With this design a high electrode surface area is achieved and the rate
capability increased. High-rate spirally wound cells contain a safety vent to relieve internal
pressure in the event the cell is abused. Many of these cells also contain a resettable positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) device which limits the current and prevents the cell from
overheating if short-circuited accidentally.
Figure 40: Cross-sectional view of Li /MnO2 spirally wound electrode battery. (Courtesy of
Duracell, Inc.)
Page 83 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Multicell 9-V Battery. The Li/MnO2 system has also been designed in a 9-V battery with
1200 mAh capacity in the ANSI 1604 configuration as a replacement for the conventional zinc
battery. The battery contains three prismatic cells, using an electrode design that utilizes the
entire interior volume, as shown in Figure 41. An ultrasonically sealed plastic housing is used for
the battery case.
Figure 41: Cross-sectional view of three-cell 9-V Li /MnO2 battery. (Courtesy of Ultralife
Batteries, Inc.)
Foil Cell Designs. Other cell design concepts are being used to reduce the weight and cost
of batteries by using lightweight cell packaging. One of these approaches is the use of heatsealable thin foil laminates, in a prismatic cell configuration in place of metal containers. The
design of a cell with a capacity of about 16 Ah is illustrated in Figure 42. The cell contains 10
anode and 11 cathode plates in a parallel plate array.
Figure 42: Foil cell design.
Page 84 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Cell and Battery Sizes
The Li/MnO2 cells are manufactured and commercially available in a number of flat and
cylindrical batteries ranging in capacity from about 30 to 1400 mAh. Larger-size batteries have
been developed in cylindrical and rectangular configurations. The physical and electrical
characteristics of some of these are summarized in Tables 37, 38 and 39. In some instances
interchangeability with other battery systems is provided by doubling the size of the battery to
accommodate the 3-V output of the Li/MnO2 cell compared with 1.5 V of the conventional
primary batteries, for example battery type CR-V3.
Table 37: Typical Li /MnO2 Batteries
Page 85 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 38: Characteristics of Larger Li /MnO2 Batteries. Standard Type: C/20 Rate at Room
Temperature to 2.0 V Cut-off. High-Rate Type: C/10 Rate at Room Temperature to a 2.0 V Cutoff.
Table 39: Specifications for Commercially Available Foil Cells and Batteries
Applications and Handling
The main applications of the Li/MnO2 system currently range up to several Ampere-hours in
capacity, taking advantage of its higher energy density, better high-rate capability, and longer
shelf life compared with the conventional primary batteries. The Li/MnO2 batteries are used in
memory applications, watches, calculators, cameras, and radio frequency identification (RFID)
tags. At the higher drain rates, motor drives, automatic cameras, toys, personal digital assistants
Page 86 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
(PDAs), digital cameras and utility meters are excellent applications. The low-capacity Li/MnO2
batteries can generally be handled without hazard, but, as with the conventional primary battery
systems, charging and incineration should be avoided as these conditions could cause a cell to
explode. The higher-capacity cylindrical batteries are generally equipped with a venting
mechanism to prevent explosion, but the batteries, nevertheless, should be protected to avoid
short circuits and cell reversal, as well as charging and incineration. Most of the high-rate
batteries are also equipped with an internal resettable current and thermal protective system
called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) device. When a cell is short-circuited or
discharged above design limits and the cell temperature increases, the resistance of the PTC
device quickly increases significantly. This limits the amount of current which can be drawn
from the cell and keeps the internal temperature of the cell within safe limits.
Larger spiral-wound cells and the foil-type shown in Figure 13 are finding use in military
electronics, including the U.S. Army’s Twenty-First Century Land Warrier System, radios and
the thermal weapons sight. Battery packs are also being employed for Emergency Positioning
Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) and pipeline test vehicles. Smaller batteries are also
available commercially in foil laminate packages for use in specialized applications such as toll
collection transponders and RFID tags for shipping and inventory control. The specific
conditions for the use and handling of Li/MnO2 batteries are dependent on the size as well as the
specific design features. Manufacturers’ recommendations should be consulted.
LITHIUM/CARBON MONOFLUORIDE {Li/(CF)n} BATTERIES
The lithium /carbon monofluoride {Li/(CF)n} battery was one of the first lithium / solidcathode
systems to be used commercially. It is attractive as its theoretical specific energy (about 2180
Wh/kg) is among the highest of the solid-cathode systems. Its open-circuit voltage is 3.2 V, with
an operating voltage of about 2.5–2.7 V. Its practical specific energy and energy density ranges
up to 250 Wh/kg and 635 Wh/L in smaller sizes and 590 Wh/kg and 1050 Wh/L in larger sizes.
The system is used primarily at low to medium discharge rates.
Chemistry
The active components of the cell are lithium for the anode and polycarbon monofluoride
(CF)n for the cathode. The value of n is typically 0.9 to 1.2. Carbon monofluoride is an
interstitial compound, formed by the reaction between carbon powder and fluorine gas. While
electrochemically active, the material is chemically stable in the organic electrolyte and does not
thermally decompose up to 400oC, resulting in a long storage life. Different electrolytes have
been used; typical electrolytes are lithium hexafluorarsenate (LiAsF6) in _-butyrolactone (GBL)
or lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) in propylene carbonate (PC) and dimethoxyethane (DME).
The simplified discharge reactions of the cell are:
The polycarbon monofluoride changes into amorphous carbon which is more conductive as the
discharge progresses, thereby increasing the cell’s conductivity, improving the regulation of the
Page 87 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
discharge voltage, and increasing the discharge efficiency. The crystalline LiF precipitates in the
cathode structure.
Construction
The Li/(CF)n system is adaptable to a variety of sizes and configurations. Batteries are available
in flat coin or button, cylindrical, and rectangular shapes, ranging in capacity from 0.020 to 25
Ah; larger-sized batteries have been developed for specialized applications. Figure 43 shows the
construction of a coin-type battery. The Li/(CF)n cells are typically constructed with an anode of
lithium foil rolled onto a collector and a cathode of Teflon-bonded polycarbon monofluoride and
acetylene black on a nickel collector. Nickel-plated steel or stainless steel is used for the case
material. The coin cells are crimped-sealed using a polypropylene gasket.
Figure 43: Cross-sectional view of Li / (CF)n coin-type battery. (Courtesy of Panasonic, Division
of Matsushita Electric Corp. of America.)
The pin-type batteries use an inside-out design with a cylindrical cathode and a central anode in
an aluminum case, as shown in Figure 44.
Figure 44: Cross-sectional view of Li / (CF)n pin-type battery. (Courtesy of Panasonic, Division
of Matsushita Electric Corp. of America.)
Page 88 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
The cylindrical batteries use a spirally wound ( jelly-roll) electrode construction, and the
batteries are either crimped or hermetically sealed. Their construction is similar to the cylindrical
spiral-wound electrode design of the Li/MnO2 battery shown in Figure 40 above. The larger cells
are provided with low-pressure safety vents.
Cell and Battery Types
The Li/(CF)n batteries are manufactured in a number of coin, cylindrical, and pin configurations.
The major electrical and physical characteristics of some of these batteries are listed in Table 40a and b. Manufacturers’ specifications should be consulted for the most recent listings of
commercially available cells. Larger sizes of cells and batteries have also been developed for
military, governmental and space applications, as given in Table 40-b. Spiral-wound and
prismatic cells are used to build the multi-cell batteries given in this table. The smaller
cylindrical cells employ a 0.030 cm thick steel case but larger units, such as the 1200 Ah cell, are
reinforced with an epoxy-fiberglass cylinder to provide additional strength, with an increase in
weight about half that of increasing the steel wall thickness. All these cells employ a Zeigler-type
compression seal, a unique cutter vent mechanism and two layers of separator. The first is a
microporous layer to prevent particulate migration, and the second is a non-woven
polyphenylene sulfide material to provide high-strength, high-temperature stability and good
electrolyte wicking action. These low-rate designs provide a specific energy of 600 Wh/kg and
an energy density of 1000 Wh/L in the DD size and higher values for larger units.
Table 40(a): Characteristics of Lithium /Carbon Monofluoride Li /(CF)n Batteries
Page 89 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Page 90 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 40(b): Characteristics of Large Lithium /Carbon Monofluoride Li /(CF)n Batteries
Page 91 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Applications and Handling
The applications of the Li/(CF)n battery are similar to those of the other lithium / solidcathode
batteries, again taking advantage of the high specific energy and energy density and long shelf
life of these batteries. The Li/(CF)n coin batteries are used as a power source for watches,
portable calculators, memory applications, and so on. The low-capacity miniature pin-type
batteries have been used as an energy source for LEDs and for fishing lights and microphones.
The larger cylindrical batteries can also be used in memory applications, but their higher drain
capability also covers use in radio sets, for telemetry, and for photographic and similar generalpurpose applications. Handling considerations for the Li/(CF)n systems, too, are similar to those
for the other lithium / solid-cathode systems. The limited current capability of the coin and lowcapacity batteries restricts temperature rise during short circuit and reversal. These batteries can
generally withstand this abusive use even though they are not provided with a safety vent
mechanism. The larger batteries are provided with a venting device, but short circuit, high
discharge rates, and reversal should be avoided as these conditions could cause the cell to vent.
Charging and incineration likewise should be avoided for all batteries. The manufacturer’s
recommendations should be obtained for handling specific battery types.
LITHIUM/IRON DISULFIDE (Li/FeS2) BATTERIES
Iron sulfide, in both the monosulfide (FeS) and the disulfide (FeS2) forms, has been considered
for use in solid-cathode lithium batteries. Only the disulfide battery has been commercialized
because of its performance advantage due to its higher sulfur content and higher voltage. The
monosulfide electrode has the advantage of reduced corrosion, longer life, and a single voltage
plateau compared to the disulfide electrode, which discharges in two steps. These batteries have
a nominal voltage of 1.5 V and can therefore be used as replacements for aqueous batteries
having a similar voltage. Button-type Li/FeS2 batteries were manufactured as a replacement for
zinc / silver oxide batteries but are no longer marketed. They had a higher impedance and a
slightly lower power capability but were lower in cost and had better low-temperature
performance and storability. Li/FeS2 batteries are now manufactured in a cylindrical
configuration. These batteries have better high-drain and low-temperature performance than the
zinc /alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries. The performance of these two systems on constantcurrent discharge at various discharge rates, in the AA size.
Chemistry
The Li/FeS2 battery uses lithium for the anode, iron disulfide for the cathode, and lithium
iodide in an organic solvent blend as the electrolyte. The cell reactions are:
Intermediate species are formed during the discharge, but they have not been fully characterized.
They are dependent on many variables, including discharge rate and temperature.
The overall cell reaction for the monosulfide electrode is
2Li + FeS → Fe + Li2S
Page 92 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Construction
Li/FeS2 batteries may be manufactured in a variety of designs, including the button and both
bobbin and spiral-wound-electrode cylindrical cells. A bobbin construction is most suitable
for light-drain applications. The spiral-wound-electrode construction is needed for the heavierdrain applications, and it is this design that has been commercialized. The construction of the
spiral-wound cylindrical battery is shown in Figure 45. These batteries typically have several
safety devices incorporated in their design to provide protection against such abusive conditions
as short circuit, charging, forced discharge, and over heating. Two safety devices are shown in
the figure a pressure relief vent and a resettable thermal switch, called a positive thermal
coefficient (PTC) device. The safety relief vent is designed to release excessive internal pressure
to prevent violent rupture if the battery is heated or abused electrically.
Figure 45: Cross section and top assembly of Li /FeS2 AA-size battery. (Courtesy of Eveready
Battery Co., Inc.)
The primary purpose of the PTC is to protect against external short circuits, though it also offers
protection under certain other electrical abuse conditions. It does so by limiting the current flow
when the cell temperature reaches the PTC’s designed activation temperature. When the PTC
activates, its resistance increases sharply, with a corresponding reduction in the flow of current
and, consequently, internal heat generation. When the battery (and the PTC) cools, the PTC
resistance drops, allowing the battery to discharge again. The PTC will continue to operate in
this manner for many cycles if an abusive condition continues or recurs. The PTC will not
‘‘reset’’ indefinitely, but when it ceases to do so, it will be in the high-resistance condition. The
characteristics of PTCs (or any other current-limiting devices in the battery) may place some
limitations on performance.
Page 93 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Cell Types and Applications
Table 41 lists the characteristics of the cylindrical Li/FeS2 AA-size battery that is currently
available commercially. This battery has better high-drain and low-temperature performance
than the conventional zinc cells and is intended to be used in applications that have a high
current drain requirement, such as cameras, computers, and cellular phones. The lithium battery
outperforms the alkaline battery by delivering more flashes with a more rapid recycle time.
Button-type Li/FeS2 batteries are no longer manufactured. Batteries using the Li/FeS system have
not been manufactured for commercial use.
Table 41: Characteristics of Li /FeS2 AA-Size Battery
LITHIUM/COPPER OXIDE (Li/CuO) AND LITHIUM/COPPER OXYPHOSPHATE
[Li/Cu4O(PO4)2] CELLS
The lithium /copper oxide (Li /CuO) system is characterized by a high specific energy and
energy density (about 280 Wh/kg and 650 Wh/L) as copper oxide has one of the highest
volumetric capacities of the practical cathode materials (4.16 Ah/cm3). The battery has an
open-circuit voltage of 2.25 V and an operating voltage of 1.2 to 1.5 V, which makes it
interchangeable with some conventional batteries. The battery system also features long
storability with a low self-discharge rate and operation over a wide temperature range.
Li/CuO batteries have been designed in button and cylindrical configurations up to about 3.5 Ah
in size, mainly for use in low- and medium-drain, long-term applications for electronic devices
and memory backup. Higher-rate designs as well as hermetically sealed batteries with glass-tometal seals have also been manufactured.
Chemistry
The discharge reaction of the Li/CuO cell is:
2Li + CuO → Li2O + Cu2
Page 94 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
The discharge proceeds stepwide, CuO → Cu2O → Cu, but the detailed mechanism has not been
clarified. A double-plateau discharge has been observed at high-temperature (70oC) discharges at
low rates, which blends into a single plateau under more normal discharge conditions.
Construction
The construction of the Li/CuO button-type battery shown in Figure 46-a is similar to other
conventional and lithium / solid-cathode cells. Copper oxide forms the positive electrode and
lithium the negative. The electrolyte consists of lithium perchlorate in an organic solvent
(dioxolane). The cylindrical batteries (Figure 46-b) use an inside-out bobbin construction. A
cylinder of pure porous nonwoven glass is used as the separator, nickel-plated steel for the case,
and a polypropylene gasket for the cell seal. The can is connected to the cylindrical copper oxide
cathode and the top to the lithium anode.
Cell Types and Applications
The Li/CuO batteries that have been available in the button and small cylindrical (bobbin)
configurations are listed in Table 42. Under the low-drain conditions these batteries have a
significant capacity advantage over the conventional aqueous batteries. Combined with their
excellent storability and operation over a wide temperature range, these batteries provide
reliable power sources for applications such as memory backup, clocks, electric meters, and
telemetry and, with high-temperature cells, in high-temperature environments. Specially
designed units were also manufactured to meet higher drain applications. These batteries are
no longer available commercially.
Figure 46: Lithium / copper oxide batteries (a) Button configuration. (Courtesy of Panasonic,
Division of Matsushita Electric Corp. of America.) (b) Cylindrical battery, bobbin construction.
(Courtesy of SAFT America, Inc.)
Page 95 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Table 42: Characteristics of Lithium /Copper Oxide Batteries
LITHIUM/SILVER VANADIUM OXIDE BATTERIES
The lithium / silver vanadium oxide system has been developed for use in biomedical
applications, such as cardiac defibrillators, neurostimulators and drug delivery devices.
Electrochemical reduction of silver vanadium oxide (SVO) is a complex process and occurs in
multiple steps from 3.2 to 2.0 V. This system is capable of high power, high energy density and
high specific energy as is required for cardiac defibrillators, its principle application. SVO with
the stoichiometry of AgV2O5 is capable of providing 310 mAh/ kg. Practical cells can achieve up
to 780 Wh/L and 270 Wh/kg and are capable of 1 to 2 Amp pulses as required by cardiac
defibrillators.
Chemistry
SVO is produced by the thermal reaction of AgNO3 and V2O5. This material belongs to the class
of vanadium bronzes and possesses semi-conducting properties. It is reduced chemically and
electrochemically in a multi-step process in which V5+ is first reduced to V4+ in a two-step
reaction, followed by reduction of Ag1+ to Ag0 and then by partial reduction of V4+ to V3+. These
processes tend to overlap and plateaus are observed in the discharge curves at 3.2, 2.8, 2.2 and
1.8 V. When discharged to 1.5 V, equivalents of lithium per mole of SVO are utilized based on
the empirical formula AgV2O5.5. The following reactions have been proposed to account for this
stoichiometry:
Page 96 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Electrolytes which have been employed with this system are 1 molar LiBF4 in propylene
carbonate (PC) and 1 Molar LiAsF6 in 1:1 by volume PC-DME. The latter appears to be
the electrolyte of choice at present. The addition of CO2 or substances such as dibenzyl
carbonate (DBC) or benzyl succinimidyl carbonate have been reported to reduce anode
passivation which causes voltage delay and increased DC resistance between 40 and 70% depth
of discharge. These materials are believed to operate by lowering the impedance of the solid
electrolyte interface (SEI) layer on the surface of the lithium anode.
Construction
Typical construction of a prismatic implantable Li/SVO cell designed for use in a cardiac
defibrillator where high power capability is required is shown in Figure 47.The case and lid are
made of 304L stainless steel and are the negative cell terminal. A glass-to-metal (GTM) seal
employs TA-23 glass and a molybdenum pin. Although this GTM seal is intrinsically
corrosion resistant in lithium primary cells, an elastomeric material and an insulating cap are
added to the underside of the seal to provide an additional mechanical barrier and enhanced
protection for the GTM. Two layers of insulating straps, one a fluropolymer and the other of
mica are added to the underside of the lid to prevent contact of the cathode lead to the lid. The
anode is constructed of two layers of lithium foil pressed on a nickel screen and heat sealed in a
microporous polypropylene separator. The cathode consists of SVO with added carbon, graphite
and PTFE binder. A typical composition is 94% SVO, 1% carbon, 2% graphite and 3% PTFE,
pressed on a finely meshed titanium screen under high pressure and then heat sealed in a
microporous polypropylene separator. One anode assembly is wound around the individual
cathode plates as shown in Figure 47 and the anode tab welded to the case. Six to eight cathode
plates are welded to a cathode lead bridge and an insulated tab connects the bridge to the Mo pin
of the GTM seal. Following welding of the lid to the case, the cell is filled with electrolyte
through the fill hole and a stainless steel ball inserted in the fill port, and an additional plug is
then laser welded over the fill hole, providing an hermetic cell.
Figure 47: Construction of a Li /SVO cell designed for use in a cardiac defibrillator. (Courtesy
Wilson Greatbatch, Ltd.)
Page 97 of 98
FUEL CELLS AND BATTERIES
LECTURE NO. 7
Cell and Battery Types
Single-cell batteries are produced in either prismatic or with a D-shaped cross-section similar
to the design of lithium / iodine pacemaker batteries. High-rate models are produced in a
prismatic design of 2.2 Ah capacity, weighing 27.9 g and occupying 10.3 cc. This unit provides
410 Wh/L and 150 Wh/ kg. A similar unit in a D-shaped cross-section provides 1.18 Amp-hours
capacity, a specific energy of 140 Wh/kg and an energy density of 400 Wh/L. These parameters
were obtained under an accelerated pulse test regime to a 1.5 V cut-off. Moderate rate units are
also available. A rounded prismatic unit provides 2.5 Ah capacity, 270 Wh/kg and 780 Wh/L. A
D-shaped moderate-rate battery product provides 1.6 Ah capacity with a specific energy of 250
Wh/kg and an energy density of 750 Wh/L. This data was obtained under a continuous 499 ohm
discharge to a 2.0 V cut-off.
Applications
High-rate designs are employed in cardiac defibrillators, while moderate rate units find
applications in implantable neurosimulators and drug infusion devices. Lithium/SVO batteries
are employed for biomedical applications and as such must be produced under the Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for medical devices of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Stability of the components and the electrochemical system provide self-discharge of 2% /
year. Batteries are tested under both standard and abusive conditions. Standard tests are carried
out on fresh, half-depleted and fully depleted units. Each battery is examined visually,
dimensionally and radiographically before and after each test. Qualification tests for implantable
defibrillator batteries are: 1) high and low pressure exposure followed by mechanical shock and
vibration and then followed by high temperature exposure; 2) thermal shock (70 to -40oC); 3)
four-week temperature storage (55 and -40oC); 4) low-temperature storage; 5) forced
overdischarge (single cell at C/10 rate and a two-cell battery); and 6) short circuit at 37oC. Cells
bulge but do not vent on short circuit and pass other tests without failure. Abusive tests are
conducted to determine the ability of the batteries to withstand severe conditions, but do not have
survival requirements. These consist of crush, recharge, slow dent/puncture and high-rate forced
discharge tests. Traceability of materials and components to individual units is required and each
is serialized. A comprehensive quality assurance program is also implemented. One to two
percent of cells built are tested under conditions similar to those seen under actual use conditions
as part of a quality assurance program.
Page 98 of 98