LATIN FOR RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES
SEMINAR 15
CUM AND DUM
(1) Cum
The conjunction cum introduces subordinate clauses and can be used in four ways:*
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to express ‘when’
to express ‘since’, ‘although’, or ‘whereas’
to express ‘whenever’
to express ‘when’ in an inverted time clause
A clause introduced by cum will include a verb the mood and tense of which will reflect the
meaning which the conjunction expresses.
(a) Cum = when
As will already be familiar, cum is most commonly used to mean ‘when’. The mood of the
verb following cum – when used in this manner – will reflect the sequence in which it is
written. The tense of the verb following cum will similarly depend on the sequence of tenses
in the sentence as a whole (i.e. if the main verb is in the primary sequence, the verb in the cum
clause will also be in the primary sequence; and so for the historic sequence).
When the sentence is dealing with the present or the future, the verb following cum is in the
indicative. When the main verb is in the present, the verb after cum will normally be in the
present also; but when the main verb is in the future tense, the verb after cum can be either in
the future or the future perfect.
Cum sororem tuam videro, epistulam ei referam.
When I see your sister, I will deliver the letter to her.
When writing about the past, however, Latin writers seldom used the indicative, and instead
preferred to use the subjunctive after cum. The reason for this is likely to have been logical:
in speaking of the past, if one event occurred when another event happened, it is normally
reasonable to assume some sort of connection between them, and this potentially causal
relationship is indicated (subtly) with the subjunctive. Remember that when the main verb is
perfect, the verb following cum will either be imperfect or pluperfect, but never perfect.
Eo cum venissemus, cenavimus.
When we arrived there, we dined.
Very rarely, a Latin author will use the indicative when speaking of the past, but only when
there is no possibility of a causal relationship between the events described. The sense of a
purely temporal coincidence is normally indicated by tum.
Cum ego adhuc puer eram, tum tu iam senior eras.
When I was still a boy, you were already an oldish man.
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Note that cum can also be used adverbially: the adverbial use of cum is not discussed here.
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(b) Cum = since, although, whereas
Used concessively to mean ‘since’, ‘although’, or ‘whereas’, cum is always followed by the
subjunctive.*
Cum in ripa fluminis habitaret, tamen navigare nesciebat.
Although he lived on the bank of a river, he still didn’t know how to sail.
It is worth making a note of the commonly used expression ‘Quae cum ita sint…’ – ‘Since
this is the case’, ‘In these circumstances’.
(c) Cum = whenever
When cum is used to mean whenever, the verb is indicative. The tense of the verb in the
subordinate clause will reflect the order in which the actions occur and follows a general
pattern. When the main verb is in the present, the subordinate verb is in the perfect; when the
main verb is imperfect, the subordinate verb is pluperfect; when the main verb is future, the
subordinate verb is future perfect; and so on. The logic behind this is clear from the following
examples:
Cum me vocaverit, ibo.
Cum me vocavit, eo.
Cum me vocaverat, ibam.
Whenever he calls me, I shall go.
Whenever he calls me, I go.
Whenever he called me, I went.
(d) Cum = when (in an inverted time clause)
In all of the examples we have considered to this point, the main clause has described the key
event, while the subordinate clause (the cum part) has indicated the time at which the action
occurs. On occasions, however, this structure can be turned on its head. Sometime, the main
clause (grammatically speaking) can show when something happens, while the subordinate
clause can describe the event itself. Such subordinate clauses – introduced by cum – are called
inverted time clauses. Since inverted time clauses describe a real event, the verb is indicative.
The main verb will usually be in the imperfect or the pluperfect, and the subordinate verb will
be in either the perfect or (commonly) the historic present.
Hostes subibant muros, cum repente erumpunt Romani.
The enemy were nearing the walls, when suddenly the Romans rushed out.
(e) Exercises
(1)
Cum finem fecero, tu respondebis.
(2)
Galli, cum castra oppugnaverant, repellebantur.
(3)
Centurio, cum fenestram fractam conspexisset, vehementer saeviebat.
(4)
Dies nondum decem intercesserant, cum alter filius necatur.
(5)
Medicus, cum dentes meos extraxisset, duos denarios postulavit.
(6)
Agricola cum ad villam regrederetur, lupum ingentem conspexit.
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More will be said about concessive clauses next week.
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(2) Dum
The conjunction dum has two distinct meanings: while and until.
(a) Dum = while
Dum can be used to mean ‘while’ in a literal and a metaphorical sense; the sense in which it is
used affects the verb in the subordinate clause which it introduces.
(i) The literal sense
Dum can be used literally to indicate time. Since the subordinate clause describes facts, the
verb is indicative. The tense of the subordinate verb depends on the relationship between the
time described by the subordinate (dum) clause and the action described in the main clause.
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When the main clause describes a single event, and the subordinate (dum)
clause sets it in a broader temporal context, the subordinate verb is always in
the present tense, regardless of the tense of the verb in the main clause.
Dum absum, pater mortuus est.
While I was absent, my father died.
In this example, absum is in the present tense, despite the fact that mortuus
est is perfect.
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When the main clause describes an action or actions that lasted for the same
length of time as that described by the subordinate clause, the tense of the
subordinate verb reflects whatever would be most appropriate. Dum could, in
such cases, also be translated as ‘as long as’, or ‘the whole time that’.
Dum Romae eram, cottidie in Foro spatiabar.
While I was in Rome, I used to go for a walk in the form every day.
In this example, both eram and spatiabar are imperfect, reflecting the fact
that they describe actions which happened for the same length of time.
(ii) The metaphorical sense
Dum can be used metaphorically to express a form of conditional statement. When used in
this way, it can be translated as ‘so long as’, ‘provided that’, ‘on condition that’ etc. Since
dum functions as a ‘covert’ conditional, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the
subjunctive.
Oderint, dum metuant.
Let them hate, so long as they fear.
The negative is ne, rather than non.
Licet tibi mecum venire, dum ne quid dicas.
You may come with me, provided that you don’t say anything.
(b) Dum = until
When it expresses ‘until’, dum can similarly have two uses: one literal, and the other with an
additional sense of purpose.
(i) The literal use
Unsurprisingly, when dum is used literally, and simply indicates time, the verb in the
subordinate clause is indicative. The subordinate verb can take any tense.
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Acriter pugnatum est dum nox advenit.
The battle raged fiercely until night came.
(ii) With purpose
Frequently, dum can be used in such a way as to attach an additional sense of purpose to the
meaning ‘until’. In other words, a dum clause indicates both the time for which the event
described in the main clause occurs, and the end towards which the main event is directed. As
one might expect, the subordinate verb is subjunctive and is either present or imperfect.
Eum in vincula coniecerunt dum pecuniam solveret.
They put him in prison until he paid the money.
Here, they put him in prison (a) for as long as it took for him to pay the money; (b) in order
that he should pay the money.
This sort of dum-clause is especially common after the verb expecto: when used in this way, it
can be translated as ‘to wait for something to happen’:
Rusticus expectat dum defluat amnis.
The peasant waits for the river to flow past.
(c) Exercises
(1)
Mihi usque curae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero.
(2)
Dum vivam, te amabo.
(3)
Dum pastor dormit, lupi duos agnos rapuerunt.
(4)
Expectabant dum sacerdos signum daret.
(5)
Dum bellum in Britannia geritur, res dira Romae accidit.
(6)
Scipionem esse natum haec civitas, dum erit, latabitur.
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