Journal of the Kentucky-Tennessee American Studies Association
No. 4 1983 Published by Middle Tennessee Smte University
-
Kentucky-Tennessee
American S t u d i e s Association
CONTENTS
THE FRENCH I N CENTRAL KENTUCKY:
AND R E A L I T Y O F A S S I M I L A T I O N
Lindsey Apple
"WESTWARD THE JUG O F E M P I R E w :
I N AMERICAN HISTORY
R o b e r t L. H u n g a r l a n d
THE MYTH
WHISKEY A D V E R T I S I N G
SLOW B I R T H I N WHITE AND BLACK:
TENNESSEE'S
S T A T E COLLEGES I N THE FORMATIVE YEARS
S a m u e l H. S h a n n o n
GEOGRAPHIC IRONY AND THE NEW ENGLAND LITERARY IMAGINATION
Michael D u n n e
THE KENTUCKY H I L L WOMAN:
I N A TIME OF TRANSITION
Sharon Whitehead
EARTH MOTHER
WILLIAM FAULKNER AND CAROLINE GORDON:
O F THE AMERICAN ADAM
Sara D u n n e
TWO VIEWS
HERITAGE AND DERACINATION I N FOUR KENTUCKY WRITERS
Gwen C u r r y
c 1983 b y M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
EDITORS'
NOTES
The p a p e r s i n t h i s i s s u e o f B o r d e r S t a t e s w e r e made
a v a i l a b l e t c t h e e d i t o r s by some o f t h e p a n e l i s t s a t t h e
l a s t two m e e t i n g s o f t h e Kentucky-Tennessee American
Studies Association.
These meetings were held a t Barren
R i v e r S t a t e P a r k , A p r i l 3-4, 1 9 8 1 and a t F a l l Creek F a l l s
S t a t e P a r k , March 26-27, 1 9 8 2 .
The p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s i s s u e o f B o r d e r S t a t e s was
made p o s s i b l e by a g r a n t from t h e O r a l H i s t o r y C e n t e r
a t E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y .
The e d i t o r s w i s h t o
exDress t h e i r g r a t i t u d e f o r t h i s support.
The e d i t o r s
w i s h a l s o t o t h a n k Mrs. C i n d y D u k e a n d h e r a s s i s t a n t s ,
M s . L o r r a i n e P a i n t e r a n d Mrs. B e t t y N o k e s f o r t h e i r
dedication i n the preparation o f t h e manuscript.
It
was p r i n t e d a t M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y u n d e r
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f J a m e s B. B o o t h .
M i c h a e l Dunne
S a r a h Howell
THE FRENCH I N CENTRAL KENTUCKY:
THE MYTH A N D REALITY OF ASSIMILATION
Lindsey Apple
Georgetown C o l l e g e
I n 1941, A r c h i b a l d McLeish w r o t e , " I f America h a s something
t o o f f e r t h e F r e n c h p o e t s , a r t i s t s a n d m u s i c i a n s e x i l e d by t h e
i t i s t h e a b i l i t y t o f i n d i n A m e r i c a t h e i r own s t r e n g t h
Nazis
and purpose without having t o s a c r i f i c e t h e i r French c h a r a c t e r o r
their a r t i s t i c integrity."
I n t h i s s t a t e m e n t McLeish i m p l i e s a
s p e c i a l Franco-American r e l a t i o n s h i p which h a s e x i s t e d s i n c e t h e
R e v o l u t i o n a r y War.
H o w e v e r , h e m a k e s a n e r r o r common t o i n t e r p r e t e r s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e dominant American s o c i a l
c l a s s e s and t h e v a r i o u s m i n o r i t i e s which have s e t t l e d h e r e .
He
ignores t h e experience o f the minority, i n t h i s case the French,
and e x t o l s t h e ideology o f t h e majority.
The s t u d y o f t h e e a r l y
French immigrants t o c e n t r a l Kentucky i l l u s t r a t e s McLeishfs e r r o r .
Although coming i n t o a s o c i e t y f a v o r a b l y pre-disposed toward them,
t h e French n e v e r t h e l e s s were r e q u i r e d " t o s a c r i f i c e something
of t h e i r French character."
. ..
P o l i t i c a l l y , Kentucky was p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t p r o - F r e n c h a r e a
i n t h e young n a t i o n .
S e t t l e d by v e t e r a n s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y
War t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , K e n t u c k y p l a c e n a m e s r e v e a l t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f France.
County names o f Bourbon a n d F a y e t t e a n d c i t i e s
named L o u i s v i l l e , P a r i s , V e r s a i l l e s a n d L a G r a n g e r e f l e c t a n a t t a c h ment t o m o n a r c h i c a l France.
T h e new F r a n c e , t h e F r a n c e o f r e v o l u t i o n , saw pro-French s e n t i m e n t s i n c r e a s e .
T h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e a r e a w a s i n t h e h a n d s o f men c o m m i t t e d
a s much b y s o c i a l t i e s i n V i r g i n i a a s b y p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e t o
Thomas J e f f e r s o n a n d t h e R e p u b l i c a n f a c t i o n , t h e g r o u p w h i c h l o o k e d
t o t h e F r e n c h a s t h e n a t u r a l a l l y o f t h e new U n i t e d S t a t e s .
These
r e p u b l i c a n s c o n t r o l l e d l o c a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , most o f t h e
wealth, t h e p r e s s , and Transylvania Seminary, l a t e r University,
a l t h o u g h l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e l a t t e r was f r e q u e n t l y c h a l l e n g e d by t h e
Presbyterians.
To c e n t r a l K e n t u c k i a n s , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t F r a n c e w a s r e p e a t i n g
t h e American e x p e r i e n c e .
L o u i s X V I , t h e o n c e admired a l l y , was
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a b a s e t y r a n t s u r p a s s e d o n l y b y G e o r g e 111. F r a n c e ,
l i k e America, was t r y i n g t o r e p l a c e t y r a n n y w i t h l i b e r t y .
The
f r o n t i e r p r e s s b o t h e n c o u r a g e d and g a v e o u t l e t t o p r o - F r e n c h s e n t i ment.
John B r a d f o r d , t h e r e p u b l i c a n e d i t o r o f t h e Kentucky G a z e t t e ,
stated i n an early issue:
Every c i t i z e n o f t h e world, every f r i e n d o f t h o
r i g h t s o f man a n d m o r e e s p e c i a l l y e v e r y c i t i z e n o f
t h e United S t a t e s must f e e l i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
Kingdom o f F r a n c e .
The f o l l o w i n g a u t h e n t i c and
.. .
judicious journal of events, a s they transpired
a t t h e c r i s i s o f t h e g l o r i o u s R e v o l u t i o n we t r u s t
w i l l be a c c e p t a b l e t o o u r r e a d e r s . l
From t h e o u t b r e a k o f r e v o l u t i o n t o B o n a p a r t e ' s r i s e t o p o w e r
a l l o t h e r i s s u e s combined d i d n o t r e c e i v e t h e c o v e r a g e r e s e r v e d f o r
events i n France.
The f a l l o f t h e B a s t i l l e , t h e D e c l a r a t i o n o f
t h e R i g h t s o f Man, a n d t h e F r e n c h c o n s t i t u t i o n s were r e c o u n t e d i n
detail.
The b r e a d r i o t s and o t h e r p o t e n t i a l l y n e g a t i v e e v e n t s
were understated.
For example, Bradford wrote on 19 January 1793,
with a between-the-lines s i g h o f r e l i e f , t h a t t h e f i r s t accounts
o f t h e September M a s s a c r e s o f 1792 had been e x a g g e r a t e d .
The
e x e c u t i o n s w e r e I t t h o s e o f t h e S w i s s p r i s o n e r s a n d some o f , t h e f e m a l e
The n u m b e r was n o t m o r e t h a n t w o
a t t e n d a n t o f t h e Queen.
hundred."'
The F r e n c h w e r e p r a i s e d f o r d e s t r o y i n g ' t h e m o s t s t u p e n d o u s f a b r i c s e v e r e r e c t e d by t h e demon o f d e s p o i s m , " a n d
e r e c t i n g o n i t s r u i n s a n o t h e r " t e m p l e o f f r e e d o m . II
...
3
When w a r b r o k e o u t i n 1 1 9 2 , K e n t u c k i a n s t o o k r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t
"As the events of
i n t h e beleaguered French.
Bradford wrote:
t h e French r e v o l u t i o n must be i n t e r e s t i n g t o every l o v e r o f l i b e r t y ,
s o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e p a t r i o t i c arms must be p r o p o r t i o n a l l y p l e a ~ i n g . "
Long a c c o u n t s o f m i l i t d r y news and rumors o f v i c t o r i e s a n d d e f e a t s
were relayed t o t h e r e a d e r s i n each i s s u e .
The f a c t t h a t t h e news
was c o n s i s t e n t l y f o u r months l a t e seems o n l y t o h a v e i n c r e a s e d
reader anticipation.
D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r m o n t h s when t h e n e w s w a s
d e l a y e d by i c e on t h e Ohio R i v e r , B r a d f o r d a p o l o g i z e d t o h i s
r e a d e r s a n d a s s u r e d them t h a t a l l news from Europe would b e c a r r i e d
The d e f e c t i o n o f L a f a y e t t e d i d n o t a l t e r t h e p r o when i t a r r i v e d .
French sentiment.
I n t h e same i s s u e s , P r e s i d e n t W a s h i n g t o n was encouraged t o s e e k L a f a y e t t e ' s r e l e a s e from t h e A u s t r i a n s , and t h e
R e v o l u t i o n from which he had d e f e c t e d was e x t o l l e d .
A s t h e rest o f t h e c o u n t r y began t o q u e s t i o n t h e v i o l e n c e o f
t h e R e v o l u t i o n , t h e Kentucky p r e s s became more o p e n l y p r o - F r e n c h .
B r a d f o r d i n c r e a s e d h i s own e d i t o r i a l comment a n d o p e n e d h i s c o l u m n s t o c e n t r a l Kentuckians wishing t o e x p r e s s t h e i r views.
On t h e
e x e c u t i o n o f L o u i s X V I , B r a d f o r d c h a s t i z e d t h o s e who w e r e b e c o m i n g
squeamish about t h e bloodshed:
Instead of regaling the French'republicans a s
monsters, t h e f r i e n d s o f royalty i n t h i s country
should r a t h e r admire t h e i r patience i n s o long
d e f e r r i n g t h e f a t e o f t h e i r p e r j u r e d monarch, whose
blood is probably considered a n atonement f o r t h e
s a f e t y o f many g u i l t y t h o u s a n d s t h a t a r e s i l l
s u f f e r e d t o r e m a i n i n t h e bosom o f F r a n c e .
5.
A r t i c l e s s u b m i t t e d by c e n t r a l K e n t u c k i a n s e x p r e s s e d t h e s a m e
sentiments.
T h e i r s t y l e ranged from a t t e m p t s a t s a t i r e t o r i g h t e o u s l y
indignant diatribes.
The f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t w a s t h e n a t u r ~ la l l i a n c e
o f t h e 3 n i t e d S t a t e s - a n d France, and i n c r e a s i n g l y , t h e a t t e n p t s
by E n g l a n d a n d t h e i r F e d e r a l i s t p a r t n e r s t o d e s t r o y t h a t r e l a t i o n ship.
I n f a c t , e x t r a e d i t i o n s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o p r i n t w a r news
f r o m E u r o p e a n d t h e p a i d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s d i s p l a c e d by t h e s e a r t i c l e s .
T h e s e w r i t e r s w e r e n o t r e s t r i c t e d by t h e s a m e j o u r n a l i s t i c
e t h i c s t h a t c u r b e d , a t l e a s t t o a minimal d e g r e e , t h e pens o f t h e
editors.
However, i n 1 7 9 3 , t h e G a z e t t e added a n even b e t t e r means
t o e x t o l t h e French cause.
The f i r s t column d e d i c a t e d t o t h e
A m e r i c a n Muse a p p e a r e d on 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1 7 9 3 .
"Poetic licensev is
a most a p p r o p r i a t e term t o d e s c r i b e c e n t r a l Kentuckians' a t t e m p t s
a t verse.
T h e f i r s t poem was e n t i t l e d The L i b e r t y T r e e a n d i t
began a s t e a d y g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f l i b e r t y , freedom, and o t h e r t h i n g s
Franco-American.
T y r a n t s w e r e d e t h r o n e d by a n g e l s d e d i c a t e d t o
t h e c a u s e o f l i b e r t y , a n d c o n t e m p t was h e a p e d u p o n t h e c o l l e c t i v e
h e a d s o f P r u s s i a n s , A u s t r i a n s and e s p e c i a l l y t h e d a s t a r d l y E n g l i s h .
One p o e t w r o t e :
By h e l l i n s p i r e d w i t h b r u t a l r a g e A u s t r i a and P r u s s i a both engage To c r u s h f a i r F r e e d o m ' s f l a m e ; But t h e i n t r e p i d s o n s of F r a n c e , Have l e d t h e m s u c h a g l o r i o u s d a n c e , They've t u r n ' d t h e i r b a c k s f o r shame. May H e a v e n c o n t i n u e s t i l l t o b l e s s , The a r m s o f F r e e d o m w i t h s u c c e s s , T i l l T y r a n t s a r e no more: And s t i l l , a s G a l l i a ' s s o n s h a l l f l y , We'll s h o u t i n g c r y Encore!% Some m o n t h s l a t e r t h e v e r s e s a d d e d a new e l e m e n t .
In addition
t o p r a i s i n g t h e French r e v o l u t i o n a r y e f f o r t s t h e b a r d s began t o
c r i t i c i z e P r e s i d e n t Washington.
A l e n g t h y poem e n t i t l e d "On t h e
Anniversary of t h e Storming o f t h e B a s t i l l e " contains t h e following
lines:
Ah!
While I w r i t e d e a r F r a n c e a l l y ' d
My a r d e n t w i s h I s c a r c e r e f r a i n ;
To t h r o w t h e s e s y b i l l e a v e s a s i d e
And f l y t o j o i n y o u on t h e m a i n :
P r a y Heaven y o u r g u n s may n e v e r f a i l
No G e o r g e r e w a r d me w i t h a j a i l . 7
T h e A m e r i c a n Muse s l o w l y e v o l v e d f r o m i t s o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e t o i n c l u d e o t h e r , and occasionally b e t t e r poetry, b u t f o r approximately
t h r e e y e a r s t h e p o e t ' s e f f o r t s were c l e a r l y l i n k e d t o t h e French.
S i n c e t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r was a c c e p t a b l e , n o o n e q u e s t i o n e d t h e p o e t i c
s k i l l s of the writer.
By 1 7 9 3 , t h e p r o - F r e n c h s e n t i m e n t was o v e r w h e l m i n g .
Independe n c e Day c e l e b r a t i o n s , h e l d i n e v e r y c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y c o u n t y , i n e v i t a b l y t o a s t e d t h e n o b l g F r e n c h a n d t h e i r " d e m o c r a t i c " effort^.^
M e s s r s . B r e n t a n d Love o f L e x i n g t o n g a v e a v i c t o r y p a r t y t o c e l e b r a t e French m i l i t a r y success.
The h o s t s p r o v i d e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y
c o c k a d e s which were l a t e r t o s s e d i n t h e a i r a f t e r t o a s t s t o
F r a n c e , v i c t o r y , and Republican i n t e r e s t s .
The G a z e t t e r e p o r t e d
t h e u s u a l p a t r i o t i c s p e e c h e s , t h e Franco-American d e c o r a t i o n s ,
a n d t h e g e n e r a l e n t h u s i a s m f o r F r a n c e e x p r e s s e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . '
I n August 1793 L e x i n g t o n , Georgetown, and P a r i s c r e a t e d
democratic s o c i e t i e s p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e Jacobin Clubs of France.
While t h e m a j o r i s s u e s o f t h e s e c l u b s were t h e f r e e n a v i g a t i o n o f
t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r and t h e d e f e n s e o f R e p u b l i c a n p r i n c i p l e s ,
t h e r h e t o r i c was o f t e n p r o - F r e n c h .
Members c a l l e d u p o n W a s h i n g t o n
t o b e m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c t o F r a n c e a n d w r o t e some o f t h e a r t i c l e s
mentioned e a r l i e r t o keep t h e i s s u e before t h e public.
County
assemblies a s well gave f u r t h e r expression throughout t h e period
o f a growing d i s d a i n f o r government p o l i c i e s toward ~ r a n c e . l O
The c e n t r a l t i d e o f o p i n i o n t h r o u g h t h e ~ e n c A
t ffair, the
J a y T r e a t y , t h e X Y Z A f f a i r , a n d t h e Q u a s i - W a r was t h a t t h e p r o E n g l i s h , p r o - a r i s t o c r a t i c p a r t y was t r y i n g t o d e s t r o y d e m o c r a c y ,
p l a c e Americans under E n g l i s h economic d o m i n a t i o n , and f i n a l l y ,
i n t h e p r o c e s s , b r e a k A m e r i c a ' s word t o t h e F r e n c h a n d j o i n t h a t
n a t i o n ' s enemies.
P a r t s o f t h i s theme were e x p r e s s e d o v e r and
o v e r a g a i n i n e v e r y medium, b u t o n e w r i t e r b r o u g h t v i r t u a l l y e v e r y
element t o g e t h e r i n a l o n g a r t i c l e running through t h e June 1798
issues.
A m b a s s a d o r ~ e n z th a d b e e n i n t e n t i o n a l l y d i s c r e d i t e d b y t h e
Federalists;
t h e J a y T r e a t y was a n o b v i o u s e f f o r t by t h e F e d e r a l i s t s
a n d t h e E n g l i s h t o s o u r F r a n c o - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s ; Adams p u r p o s e l y
chose e m i s s a r i e s t o France unacceptable t o its government, t h u s
p r e c i p i t a t i n g t h e XYZ s c a n d a l ; and f i n a l l y , g i v e n t h i s h i s t o r y o f
r e l a t i o n s , t h e l E e d e r a l i s t s , n o t t h e French, were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
t h e Quasi-War.
By 1 7 9 8 t h e n , p r o - F r e n c h p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n was
firmly entrenched.
The d e c i d e d l y p r o - F r e n c h p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f c e n t r a l
Kentuckians accentuated an acceptance o f French c u l t u r e .
T h e Kentucky J e f f e r s o n i a n Republicans were, a f t e r a l l , an economic, s o c i a l
and c u l t u r a l e l i t e a s w e l l a s a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e .
Lexington and its
s a t e l l i t e c o m m u n i t i e s showed a c o n c e r n f o r c i v i c p r i d e a n d c u l t u r a l
g r o w t h much e a r l i e r t h a n m o s t f r o n t i e r a r e a s .
The l e a d e r s h i p concerned i t s e l f with c i t y s e r v i c e s such a s f i r e protection, t r a f f i c
f l o w , t h e r e m o v a l o f u n s i g h t l y r u b b i s h h e a p s and o t h e r communitywide p r o j e c t s .
T h e names o f t h e c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y R e p u b l i c a n e l i t e
c o n s i s t e n t l y a p p e a r e d on c i t y b o a r d s , and o t h e r c i v i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s such a s t h e l i b r a r y board and s o c i e t i e s f o r t h e promotion o f a g r i c u l t u r e , c u l t u r a l e v e n t s , and immigration .I2
L e x i n g t o n w a s p r o u d t h a t i t was l a r g e r t h a n L o u i s v i l l e o r
C i n c i n n a t i and emphasized i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l and c u l t u r a l accomplishments a s w e l l a s i t s commercial l e a d e r s h i p .
A f t e r t h e War o f 1 8 1 2
and i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s t e a m b o a t on t h e Ohio R i v e r , c e n t r a l
K e n t u c k y commerce d e c l i n e d a n d e v e n g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s w a s p u t on
t h e c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Lexington, t h e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d Athens
o f t h e West.
L e x i n g t o n h a d a t h e a t r e a n d a m u s i c a l s o c i e t y by
1 8 1 0 . 1 3 The l e t t e ? s i n t h e Hunt-Morgan, S h e l b y , a n d E v a n s c o l l e c t i o n s
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky c o n t a i n a w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n on
t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f t h e c e n t r a l Kentucky e l i t e .
P a r t i e s and b a l l s
came o n e a f t e r a n o t h e r .
There was g r e a t c o n c e r n t h a t t h e r i g h t
y o u n g p e o p l e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o meet a n d s h o w t h e i r s o c i a l
g r a c e s , and r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e danger o f marrying beneath oneself
were r e l a t i v e l y frequent.14
T h e area d e v e l o p e d a d i s t i n c t i v e
u p p e r c l a s s which s e p a r a t e d i t s e l f i n t e n t i o n a l l y from t h e more
common f o l k . l 5
D a v i d M e a d e ' s e s t a t e , ~ h a u m i h r ed e s P r a i r i e s , l o c a t e d j u s t
o u t s i d e L e x i n g t o n , was t h e g a t h e r i n g p l a c e f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
and b u s i n e s s e l i t e s .
V i s i t o r s t o L e x i n g t o n i n v a r i a b l y came t o t h e
It should be noted
afternoon levees at t h i s cultural oasis.16
t h a t i n t h i s period t h e French were still a r b i t e r s o f c u l t u r e .
The a d v e r t i s e m e n t s o f books f o r s a l e a n d t h e c a t a l o g u e s o f l i b r a r i e s
g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f French a u t h o r s and books
on French t o p i c s .
The l a r g e number o f c e n t r a l K e n t u c k i a n s o f t h a t
e r a who c o u l d y q e t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e e f f e c t i v e l y i s b o t h a s t o n i s h i n g
and revealing.
A t Transylvania, t h e p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l Francophile feeling
came t o g e t h e r .
I n 1794, t h e school incorporated t h e study o f t h e
French language i n t o t h e curriculum.l8
The T r u s t e e s r e v e a l e d more
o f t h e i r Republican p o l i t i c a l motivation than t h e i r concern f o r
education i n their o f f i c i a l justification:
Considered i n a s o c i a l view, as c o n n e c t i n g u s more
c l o s e l y w i t h t h e o n l y f r e e n a t i o n on t h e e a r t h b u t
o u r s e l v e s , i t [the French language3 is h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t ; and considered as u n f o l d i n g t o o u r youth
t h e w r i t i n g s a n d l e a r n i n g o f a n a t i o n , now h o l d i n g
preeminently t h e f i r s t rank i n t h e world f o r virtue,lg
f o r patriotism and f o r science, it is indispensable.
Two o f T r a n s y l v a n i a ' s p r e s i d e n t s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , H a r r y
Toulmin and Horace H o l l e y , were d e c i d e d l y pro-French from an
Consequently,
i n t e l l e c t u a l as w e l l a s a p o l i t i c a l p o i n t o f view.
T r a n s y l v a n i a was t o p r o v i d e a F r e n c h f l a v o r t o L e x i n g t o n s o c i e t y
through t h e f i r s t decades o f t h e 19th century.
French t e a c h e r s
came t o T r a n s y l v a n i a u s u a l l y t o s t a y o n l y a few y e a r s , b u t t h e r e
w a s r a r e l y a y e a r when a t l e a s t o n e F r e n c h m a n w a s n o t e m p l o y e d a t
the institution.
The s c h o o l a l s o r e c r u i t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t number
o f s t u d e s f r o m t h e F r e n c h c o m m u n i t i e s i n P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d New
Orleans.
98
I t was i n t o t h i s a t m o s p h e r e t h a t t h e Frenchmen came.
if larg e r n u m b e r s h a d come t o c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y , a d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e
may h a v e r e s u l t e d , b u t a s m a l l g r o u p , w i t h t h e c o r r e c t a c c o u t e r ments o f c u l t u r e , gave t h e e l i t e a chance t o put its p o l i t i c a l preferences i n t o actions and t o increase its c u l t u r a l distinctiveness
a t t h e same t i m e .
Th'e s c h o o l s o f F r e n c h l a n g u a g e , d a n c e a n d d e p o r t m e n t f o r young l a d i e s o r g e n t l e m e n e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e F r e n c h
provided t h a t special c u l t u r a l touch f o r t h e i r children.
The French
b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , a s w i l l be shown, c a t e r e d t o t h e f e e l i n g s
of d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s , and t h e French themselves added t h e trappings of
c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m t o t h e f r o n t i e r community.
On t h e s u r f a c e a t l e a s t , t h e b e n e f i t s w e r e r e c i p r o c a l .
The
F r e n c h came t o c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y a l m o s t t o a man f o r e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s .
A l e x a n d e r F o u r n i e r e x p l a i n e d i t i n a l m o s t m e t a p h y s i c a l t e r m s when
h e s a i d i n a l e t t e r t o M a r t i n P i c q u e t t h a t " P r o v i d e n c e was m o s t
w i s e i n g i v i n g man t h e t h i r s t t o a c q u i r e . " 2 1
Madame C h a r l o t t e
Mentelle, i n a r e v e a l i n g l e t t e r t o h e r husband's p a r e n t s , suggested
a s i m i l a r motivation.
Given a g u a r a n t e e d income o f f o u r hundred
d o l l a r s p e r y e a r , t h e M e n t e l l e s would r e t u r n t o F r a n c e .
Unfortunately,
F r a n c e was o v e r p o p u l a t e d a n d t o o many t a l e n t e d p e o p l e w e r e u n a b l e
t o exercise their abilities.
I n d e e d , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t Madame
h a d many u n k i n d t h i n g s t o s a y a b o u t K e n t u c k y a n d K e n t u c k i a n s , s h e
s t a t e d t h a t t h r e e t o f o u r m i l l i o n h o n e s t French f a r m e r s and a r t i s a n s
s h o u l d s e e k t h e p r o s p e c t s o f a b e t t e r l i f e i n ~ m e r i c a . * * Her husband was i n v o l v e d i n n u m e r o u s b u s i n e s s e s , t e a c h i n g , m a n u f a c t u r i n g ,
a n d l a n d s p e c u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1797 t o 1 8 2 0 .
Most o f t h e F r e n c h w e r e f r o m u r b a n a r e a s o r i g i n a l l y a n d s e t t l e d
i n f r o n t i e r communities.
Many t a u g h t when t h e y f i r s t a r r i v e d a n d
t h e n e s t a b l i s h e d commercial v e n t u r e s .
Almost e v e r y one o f them
s p e c u l a t e d i n l a n d , h a v i n g b r o u g h t w i t h them t h e F r e n c h a t t i t u d e t h a t
l a n d a c q u i s i t i o n was t h e a n s w e r t o a l l e c o n o m i c n e e d s .
However,
o n l y when t h e y r e a c h e d a n e c o n o m i c l e v e l s u f f i c i e n t t o q u a l i f y them
a s g e n t l e m e n f a r m e r s were t h e y happy on t h e l a n d .
T h o s e who t r i e d
t o c l e a r t h e l a g g l e f t a t a much f a s t e r r a t e t h a n t h o s e s e t t l i n g
i n urban a r e a s .
The c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y e l i t e l e n t b o t h m o r a l a n d f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t
t o t h e French business ventures.
J o h n S a v a r y o f M i l l e r s b u r g was
f o r c e d on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s t o a s k R o b e r t A l e x a n d e r o f Woodford C o u n t y
t o l e n d him rno3&y t o p a y t h e t a x e s on t h e l a r g e b l o c k s o f l a n d h e
had purchased.
Alexander, a t Savary's suggestion, a l s o invested
i n o n e o f Waldemar M e n t e l l e ' s p r o j e c t s .
I n 1808 M e n t e l l e b u i l t a
k i l n t o produce Kentucky's f i r s t stoneware.
A l e x a n d e r i n v e s t e d two
hundred d o l l a r s i n t h e venture.
When t h e f i r s t k i l n b l e w u p , M e n t e l l e
a s k e d A l e x a n d e r t o make a n a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t o f s i x t y d o l l a r s .
When t h a t k i l n m a l f u n c t i o n e d , Madame M e n t e l l e w r o t e A l e x a n d e r a s k i n g
H i s p a t i e n c e a n d s u p p o r t w e r e m o r e t h a n Kadame
for thirty dollars.
expected, she wrote.
S h e w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d i f h e w i s h e d t o make n o
f u r t h e r i n v e s t m e n t , b u t s h e p l e a d e d w i $ Q him n o t t o i n v o l v e h e r
did not sue,
f a m i l y i n t h e " h o r r o r s " o f a law s u i t .
and Mentelle f i n a l l y produced t h e stoneware.
Al5.ander
The a d v e r t i s e m e n t s o f t h e F r e n c h s c h o o l s i n t h e n e w s p a p e r s
c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d Republican s p o n s o r s h i p o f French economic e f f o r t s .
I n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y i n s t a n c e , t h e name o f a p r o m i n e n t R e p u b l i c a n
a p p e a r e d i n some c a p a c i t y a l o n g w i t h t h e t y p e o f s c h o o l a n d t h e i n structor.
T h e n o t i c e Cor P e t 5 7 V a l e n t i n e ' s l a n g u a g e s c h o o l was
" a n n o u n c e d " by H a r r y T o u l m i n .
C h a r l e s Lorimer opened a dancing
s c h o o l a n d a n e v e n i n g s c h o o l f o r y o u n g g e n t l e m e n i n t h e home o f
Martin ggwkins.28
James T r o t t e r " s p o n s o r e d " C h a r l e s B a r b i e r ' s
school.
The Kentucky V i n e y a r d A s s o c i a t i o n , a n e f f o r t by F r e n c h s p e a k i n g S w i s s i m m i g r a n t s t o p r o d u c e w i n e i n K e n t u c k y , was a
f a v o r i t e , i f u n s u c c e s s f u l , i n v e s t m e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r men s u c h a s
J o h n B r a d f o r d , Henry C l a y , a n d D a v i d Meade.30
T h e M e n t e l l e f a m i l y w a s a d o p t e d b y v i r t u a l l y t h e e n t i r e community.
They came t o L e x i n g t o n i n d i r e f i n a n c i a l s t r a i t s a f t e r
According
t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e French s e t t l e m e n t a t G a l l i p o l i s , Ohio.
t o T h o m a s Hart C l a y , H e n r y C l a y ' s s o n a n d M e n t e l l e ' s f u t u r e s o n i n - l a w , t h e y w e r e g i v e n a "small l i f e - e s t a t e " o n t h e R i c h m o n d
R o a d by t h e W y c l i f f e f a m i l y . 3 1
T h a t "small" e s t a t e w a s a c r o s s R i c h It was l a r g e enough
mond 2 o a d f r o m A s h l a n d , t h e home o f H e n r y C l a y .
t o h o l d t h e t e n members o f t h e M e n t e l l e f a m i l y , a l i b r a r y , a n d a
v e r y s e l e c t b o a r d i n g s c h o o l w h i c h i n c l u d e d Mary T o d d , t h e f u t u r e
w i f e o f L i n c o l n , among i t s s t u d e n t s .
Henry C l a y h i r e d M e n t e l l e t o work on a s u r v e y i n g c r e w a n d t o
M e n t e l l e a n d a Mr. D o w n i n g e s t a b l i s h e d
p a i n t b u i l d i n g s a t Ashland.
a p a i n t i n g b u s i n e s s f o r which Clay purchased t h e p a i n t .
hentelle
was a l s o h i r e d t o t e a c h F r e n c h a t T r a n s y l v a n i a , a n d h e t a u g h t c h i l d r e n o n a p r i v a t e b a s i s a t t h e s a m e time.
Madame M e n t e l l e p r o v i d e d
t a i l o r i n g s e r v i c e s f o r t h e C l a y f a m i l y a n d f r e q u e n t l y s e r v e d as
C l a y ' s ~ e c r e t a r ~ . 3S h~e a l s o w o r k e d w i t h R o b e r t B a r r
d Willaim
Leavy i n p r e p a r i n g a c a t a l o g o f t h e Lexington L i b r a r y .
33'
Robert Alexander and Harry Toulmin c o n s i s t e n t l y h e l p e d b o t h
Kentucky F r e n c h a n d F r e n c h r e s i d e n t s o f o t h e r areas w i t h t h e f r e quent land disputes of the period.
I n addition t o Savary's claims,
Alexander was f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e l a n d d e a l i n g s o f Stephen
G i r a r d , C h a r l e s P a u l e y a n d James Vanuxem o f P h i l a d e l p h i a .
Harry4
T o u l m i n s e t t l e d c l a i m s f o r J o h n B o u r q u e t a n d Dupont d e Nemours.
O t h e r Frenchmen developed b u s i n e s s e s which looked t o t h e
w e a l t h i e r c i t i z e n s o f Lexington f o r t h e c l i e n t e l e .
James R o b e r t
opened a g o l d and s i l v e r s m i t h shop i n 1806, L o f t u s Noel was a t a i l o r ,
a n d J o h n D e l i s l e made s p e c i a l t y i t e m s i n c l u d i n g s u r g e o n s t i n s t r u ments, swords and p a r t s f o r clocks.
Henri Terasse operated a coffee
shop and c l u b i n Lexington.
For s i x d o l l a r s p e r year one could read
from t h e forty-two n a t i o n a l newspapers t o which t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
s u b s c r i b e d o r p l a y b i l l a r d s , c h e s s , a n d backgammon i n t h e game r o o m .
M. T e r a s s e
Gentlemen could o r d e r wine, s p i r i t o u s l i q u o r s , o r brandy.
a l s o o p e n e d a p u b l i c g a r d e n b e h i n d h i s home w h i c h h e c a l l e d V a u x h a l l .
On a summer e v e n i n g s r e s i d e n t s g h e r e d t o d a n c e o n t h e i l l u m i n a t e d
platform b u i l t f o r t h a t purpose.
%
I t w a s a l s o T e r a s s e , i n p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h M . D e v e r i n , who b e g a n
t h e c o n f e c t i o n e r y w h i c h m a d e M a t h u r i n G i r o n t h e b e s t known F r e n c h A g e n i u s i n t h e k i t c h e n by a l l c o n t e m p o r a r y
man i n c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y .
accounts, Giron d i d wonders f o r f r o n t i e r c u l i n a r y arts.
He b a k e d
f o r a l l occasions--weddings,
dinners, parties,
He w a s p e r h a p s m o s t
f a m o u s f o r t h e e l a b o r a t e c a k e made i n h o n o r o f L a f a y e t t e ' s v i s i t
t o c e n t r a l Kentucky i n 1825.
Over t h e c o n f e c t i o n e r y , Giron developed
a ballroom.
H i s c o t i l l i o n s , h e l d under t h e t u t e l a g e o f Adolphe
Xaupi, c a t e r e d t o t h e upper c l a s s e s .
The French b e n e f i t t e d tremendously from t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e
c e n t r a l Kentucky e l i t e .
By 1 8 1 0 t h e F r e n c h w e r e i n a much i m p r o v e d
economic s i t u a t i o n .
J o h n S a v a r y l s lagg s p e c u l a t i o n h a d p r o v e d s u c cessful despite h i s e a r l y misgivings.
He o w n e d l a n d i n f o u r
s t a t e s , ope5yted a s t o r e i n Millersburg, and had t h r e e b o a t s on t h e
Ohio River.
T h e R o b e r t f a m i l y owned o v e r 3 3 , 9 3 0 a c r e s i n Montgomery, Madison, G a r r a r d , and F a y e t t e c o n n t i e s .
L o u i s Vimont became a m a j o r m e r c h a n t a n d l a n d o w n e r i n Bourbon C o u n t y , m a r r i e d h i s
c h i l d r e n i n t o t h e c e n t r a l Kentucky a r i s t o c r a c y , and h e l d a p l a c e
o f r e s p e c t i n t h e community.
The M e n t e l l e s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d themMadame r a n h e r b o a r d i n g
s e l v e s among t h e c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y e l i t e .
s c h o o l , and h e r husband's b u s i n e s s e f f o r t s e v e n t u a l l y proved successful.
D e s p i t e Madame's c o n t e m p t f o r s l a v e r y , t h e f a m i l y owned
two s l a v e s b y 1 8 1 0 , a n d f o u r o f t h e d a u g h t e r s m a r r i e d i n t o s l a v e holding families.
Although cenThe s u c c e s s was n o t , h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t a p r i c e .
t r a l K e n t u c k i a n s a p p r e c i a t e d t h e F r e n c h , t h a t a p p r e c i a t i o n was
a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a m e n t a l image o f what a Frenchman
o u g h t t o be which d i d n o t correspond i n e v e r y i n s t a n c e t o r e a l i t y .
That image v a r i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y , b u t t h e g e n e r a l components can be
seen.
The e a r l y image s t r e s s e d t h e c u l t u r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l
a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e French and t h e i r g e n t i l i t y .
As t h e i m a g e e v o l v e d ,
however, more e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d o n p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e s a n d mannerisms. T h e men w e r e v i e w e d a s s m a l l a n d m o s t f r e q u e n t l y r o t u n d .
They
French d r e s s and a "pleasant" a c c e n t were p e r f e c t l y acceptable.
w e r e o f t e n s e e n a s r o m a n t i c s a n d f r e q u e n t l y known t o e m b e l l i s h t h e
P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e image was s l o w e r
t r u t h f o r t h e s a k e o f a good s t o r y .
t o d e v e l o p f o r r e a s o n s which w i l l b e shown.
Only i n t h e l a t e 1820s,
a f t e r t h e r a b i d pro-French s e n t i m e n t waned, d i d t h e p i c t u r e develop.
Then, t h e French were g e n e r a l l y viewed as R o y a l i s t s , o f t e n w i t h
c l o s e personal connections t o t h e martyred Louis X V I and Marie
Antoinette.
T h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e s e F r e n c h m e n by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a n d b y
t h e f i r s t h i s t o r i c a l w r i t e r s i n d i c a t e t h i s development.
D r . A . E.
S a u g r a i n , one o f t h e earliest Frenchmen t o s e t t l e i n c e n t r a l Kentucky,
He h a d "a s w e e t n e s s
was s h o r t a n d r o t u n d , v i v a c i o u s and a mated.
o f t e m p e r , which n o t h i n g c o u l d s o u r . w94
Even t h e French seemed t o
Mme. M e n t e l L e , wri'ing i n t h e S a t u r d a y E v e n i n q
p e r p e t u a t e t h e image.
Chronicle, s t a t e d t h a t Saugrain "could have amassed a l a r g e f o r t u n e
b u t w i t h a h e a r t and hand a l w a y s open
he never f e l t a d
o f a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d d i e d p o o r , r e g r e t t e d a n d b e l o v e d by a l l .
Dr. S a u g r a i n was a l s o a b i t e c c e n t r i c , a n d t h e r e i s l i t t l e a s v a l u a b l e
t o legend-making as e c c e n t r i c i t y .
He w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t men o n
t h e f r o n t i e r t o have a device f o r producing e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , and
41
s u p p o s e d l y d e l i g h t e d h i s n e i g h b o r s by s h o c k i n g u n s u s p e c t i n g I n d i a n s .
F i n a l l y , S a u g r a i n h a d won f o r h i m s e l f t h e h i g h e s t e e m o f t h e b a c k woodsmen.
He h a d showrf h i m s e l f " n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g h i s s m a l l s t a t u r e
and g r e a t good n a t u r e , a v e r y h e r o i n combat w i t h t h e ~ n d i a n s . " ~ ~
...
l,Zi3ire
M a t h u r i n C i r o n was d e s c r i b e d i n s i m i l a r t e r m s .
Rotund and
r o s y , c o r d i a l and m
, Ciron ,'never a l i e n a t e d a f r i e n d , n e v e r
i r r i t a t e d a n enemy.2SrYHe was t h e F r e n c h g e n t l e m a n who s h o w e d h i s
d e l i g h t when M a r y T o d d v i s i t e d h i s s t o r e a n d s p o k e F r e n c h t o h i m . 4 4
He made " t a l l p y r a m i d s o f m e r i n g u e s a n d m a c a r o o n s f o r w e d d i n g s u p p e r s ,
a n d s p u n a r o u n d them a c l o u d o f c a n d i e d webbing as w h i t e and m i s t y
as t h e v e i l o f t h e b r i d e . ~ ~ 5
T h e M e n t e l l e s , t h o u g h n e v e r d e s c r i b e d a s r o t u n d o r r o s y , were
i n t e l l i g e n t , i n d u s t r i o u s and c u l t u r e d French people.
Monsieur
L e D u c , a T q g n s y l v a n i a p r o f e s s o r , w a s "a p o l i s h e d a n d e d u c a t e d
Frenchman."
C o n s t a n t i n e Ragjnesque was a l e a r n e d and e n t h u s i a s t i c
man b u t a " v i s i o n a r y " f e l l o w .
The more p e r c e p t i v e members o f t h e F r e n c h community r e c o g n i z e d
t h e i r p e c u l i a r position vis-a-vis t h e i r wealthy benefactors.
They
had been i n i t i a l l y a c c e p t e d a t a l e v e l o f s o c i e t y from which t h e i r
economic p o s i t i o n , had t h e y n o t been F r e n c h , would h a v e e x c l u d e d them.
T h e y were v e r y c a r e f u l t o p r e s e r v e t h a t s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p e v e n i f
i t m e a n t s a c r i f i c i n g some o f t h e i r " F r e n c h c h a r a c t e r . "
The b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s o f T e r a s s e a n d C i r o n w e r e s o c u l t u r e d i n a s t u d i e d way a s t o b e o b v i o u s l y a p p e a l i n g t o t h e e l i t a ' s
concepts of Frenchness.
T e r a s s e ' s r e a d i n g room h a d F r e n c h c h a r m
e v i d e n c e d b y t o u c h e s s u c h a s e l e g a n t backgammon t a b l e s a n d t h e
N a p o l e o n b r a n d y h e i m p o r t e d a l l t h e way f r o m L o u i s v i l l e .
M. Ciron
decorated h i s ballroom w i t h murals d e p i c t i n g a i r y landscapes broken
by o r a n g e t r e e s a n d p l a c e d h u n d r e d s o f b r i g h t l y c o l o r e d c a n d l e s i n
s c o n c e s a r o u n d t h e room.
He b u i l t a t e r r a c e a r o u n d t h e b a l l r o o m
w h e r e g u e s t s c o u l d t a l k a t summer d a n c e s o r c o m e , by i n v i t a t i o n ,
t o w a t c h p a r a d e s f r o m a v a n t a g e p o i n t a b o v e t h e common s t r e e t c r o w d .
C i r o n ' s p e r s o n a l b e a r i n g r e f l e c t e d t h e same i n t e n t .
He d r e s s e d
" F r e n c h y , " s p o k e w i t h a p l e a s a n t F r e n c h a c c e n t , a n d made s p e c i a l
t r e a t s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n o f L e x i n g t o n , a t l e a s t f o r Mary Todd a n d
her f r i e n d ~ . 4 ~
French caution is p a r t i c u l a r l y apparent i n t h e a r e a o f p o l i t i c a l
expression.
Although t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n viewed t h e
F r e n c h a s Royalists fleeinn t h e R e v o l u t i o n , i n f a c t , t h e F r e n c h popul a t i o n o f c e n t r a l Kentucky was r e a s o n a b l y mixed p o l i t i c a l l y .
The
Catholic priests--Flaget,
D a d i n , C h a b r a t , D a v i d , a n d o t h e r s who e s L a b l i s h e d C a t h o l i c c h u r c h e s i n s e t t l e m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e state-t h e M e n t e l l e s , A. E. S a u g r a i n , a n d Xaupi w e r e c e r t a i n l y R o y a l i s t s .
S a v a r y , B a r b i e r , Vimont, and Tardiveau were, on t h e o t h e r hand,
favorable t o t h e Revolution.
The i n k e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f t h e i r p o l i t i c s i s n o t where t h e y
s t o o d b u t t h e d e a f e n i n g s i l e n c e o f b o t h groups on t h e p o l i t i c a l
s i t u a t i o n i n France.
With t h e i s s u e s o p r o m i n e n t i n t h e p r e s s ,
t h e r e is n o t one a r t i c l e which can be t r a c e d d i r e c t l y t o a Frenchman.
W h i l e ~ e n t u c k i a d sw e r e w r i t i n g a r t i c l e s a n d v e r s e i n f a v o r
of Revolution, t h e French were a d v e r t i s i n g goods and s e r v i c e s f o r
sale.
The l e t t e r s w r i t t e n by Frenchmen t o members o f t h e d o m i n a n t
e l e m e n t a l s o r e v e a l f e w p o l i t i c a l comments.
Furthermore, only one
c e n t r a l Kentucky Frenchman, P i e r r e Tardiveau, can be d i r e c t 1
l i n k e d w i t h a n y l o c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f R e v o l u t i o n a r y s e n t i m e n t . x9
T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g when t h e c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y
French a r e compared w i t h pro- and a n t i - R e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r c e s i n
Europe a n d , t o a lesser d e g r e e p e r h a p s , w i t h t h o s e i n o t h e r p a r t s
o f t h e United States.
The e m i g r e s s c u r r i e d a b o u t E u r o p e e n c o u r a g i n g
t h e crowned heads t o invade France and t a l k e d o f t h e e v i l s o f
l i b e r a l i s m a n d r e v o l u t i o n t o a n y o n e who w o u l d l i s t e n .
The Revolut i o n a r i e s , were e q u a l l y e v a n g e l i s t i c i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o e x p o r t
their cause.
One w o u l d e x p e c t t h e C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s t o h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t
h o s t i l e toward t h e Revolution and t h e most vocal i n t h e i r opposition.
T h e i r l i v e s had been d i s r u p t e d , and t h e y had s u f f e r e d s e r i o u s a b u s e
as w e l l as p e r s o n a l d a n g e r w h i l e i n F r a n c e .
They c e r t a i n l v d i d n o t
h e s i t a t e t o speak o u t on o t h e r i s s u e s .
B i s h o p F l a g e condemned
L o u i s v i l l e as "the p l a c e where d i s s i p a t i o n reigns."56
Father Steven
Badin, t h e A p o s t l e o f Kentucky, was p a r c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l o f t h e
F i n a l l y , F z t h e r Nerinckx,
c u i s i n e and t h e hygiene o f Kentuckians.
a Belgian forced t o f l e e because o f t h e French i n v a s i o n , complained
i n 1807 t h a t "the French a r e t h e worst p o r t i o n o f t h e people, and
few c a t e c h i s m s i n t h a t language are bought, few c o n f e s s i o n s h e a r d ,
but plenty o f curses uttered."52
The C a t h o l i c w r i t e r s a n d m e m o i r i s t s
who h a v e w r i t t e n t h e s t o r i e s o f t h e s e e x i l e d p r i e s t s m e n t i o n e d f r e q u e n t l y t h e h a r r o w i n g e s c a p e s f r o m F r a n c e . ~ r i e s t l ye c c e c t r i c i t i e s ,
and anecdotes o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h f r o n t i e r P r o t e s t a n t m i n i s t e r s ,
b u t t h e v r e c a l l e d n o comments on t h e R e v o l u t i o n .
Moreover, d e s p i t e
frequent complaints about irreligious frontiersmen, a situation
which would a p p e a r t o i n v i t e a n a l o g y w i t h R e v o l u t i o n a r v F r a n c e ,
t h e r e were no such r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r i e s t s ' correspondence with
Yet, i n 1 8 1 9 w h e n B a d i n s o u g h t
the diocesan o f f i c e i n Baltimore.
a p u b l i s h e r f o r h i s t r e a t i s e on m i s s i o n a r y work i n K e n t u c k y , h e
went t o "an o l d g ~ i e n d . " t h e e d i t o r o f t h e A m i d e l a R e l i g i o n e t
du R o i i n P a r i s .
The A m i d e l a R e l i g i o n was o n e o f t h e m o s t
reactionary publications i n Restoration France.
The a n t i - R e v o l u t i o n a r y
s e n t i m e n t s o f t h e s e p r i e s t s seem t o have been e x p r e s s e d i n demands
f o r a renewed f a i t h f u l n e s s t o c o n s e r v a t i v e C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y and
a d h e r a n c e t o r i g i d m o r a l c o d e s r a t h e r t h a n i n comments h o s t i l e t o
the Rev0lution.5~
'5
Among t h e s e c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n , t h e s a m e s i l e n c e i s a p p a r e n t .
I n d e e d , p u b l i s h e d comment o n t h e p o l i t i c a l s e n t i m e n t s o f t h e F r e n c h
i s v i r t u a l l v n o n - e x i s t e n t u n t i l much l a t e r .
T h e a c t i o n s o f Madame
Katherine
M e n t e l l e are p e r h a p s even more r e v e a l i n g t h a n s i l e n c e .
Helm, a b i o g r a p h e r o f Mary Todd L i n c o l n , s t a t e d t h a t t h e M e n t e l l e s
were l o y a l t o " t h e i r u n f o r t u n a t e sovereign Louis XVI" and loved
i e Antoinette."
"with deep devotion t h e f r i v o l o u s but g e n t l e and mild
Madame
They c o u l d n e v e r a l l u d e t o t h e s e m a r t y r s w i t h o u t t e a r s M
. )5
Mentelle, w r i t i n g t o h e r husband's parents i n 1803, d i d n o t mention
t h e B o u r b o n s b u t mad< i t q u i t e c l e a r t h a t s h e w a s n o t p r o - R e v o l u t i o n .
E x p l a i n i n g why t h e y c o u l d n o t r e t u r n t o F r a n c e , s h e s t a t e d t h a t
"France could n o t always be under t h e government o f a s t r o n g
man. a n d t h e r * e v o l u t i o n , t h a t f l o w o f b l o o d , w h i c h a t p r e s e n t h a s
s t o p p e d r u n n i n g , w i l l r e s u m e i t s f a t a l c o u r s e a n d lunge e v e r y o n e
i n t o misfortunes g r e a t e r than those they have r e c e n t l y e s c a p e d . ~ 5 ~
I n 1 8 0 0 , Madame M e n t e l l e t r a n s l a t e d a ~ a m p h l e t f o r t h e
f o r d P r e s s , t h e v i e w s o f w h i c h w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o h e r own. !%adThe p a m p h l e t , e n t i t l e d V o y a g e s , A d v e n t u r e s , a n d s i t u a t i o n o f t h e
French E m i g r a n t s from t h e Year '89 t o ' 9 9 , f o l l o w e d a t ~ p i c a l l y
Republican l i n e .
The p a m p h l e t warmed t o i t s s u b . j e c t when t h e o l d
r e g i m e was d i s c u s s e d .
The n o b i l i t y w e r e g a m e s t e r s , c r i m p s , a n d
rogues.
"The w h o l e R o y a l F a m i l y , " a f e w i n d i v i d u a l s e x c e p t e d ,
were !'the most i l l i t e r a t e , t h e most v i c i o u s , and t h e l e a s t a m i a b l e
i n t h e kingdom."
B u t t h e b e s t was r e s e r v e d f o r M a r i e A n t o i n e t t e :
She h a s been r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e , a s a
b e a u t i f u l , i n n o c e n t a n d m i l d woman.
This
l a s t c h a r a c t e r h a s n e v e r been h e r s ;
a n d a s f o r b e a u t y , e v e r y o n e knows t h a t a
woman o f f o r t y , a d d i c t e d t o e x c e s s e s o f
a l l k i n d s , w i t h pimples on h e r f a c e , h a s
b u t few r e m a i n s o f i t .
How Madame m u s t h a v e b l a n c h e d a t t h i s r e f e r e n c e t o h e r g e n t l e M a r i e
Antoinette!
A look a t t h e list of subscribers, those agreeing t o
p u r c h a s e t h e t r a c t b e f o r e i t s p u b l i c a t i o n , may e x p l a i n why s h e t r a n s l a t e d i t . I t r e a d s l i k e a v i r t u a l "Who's Whow o f c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y
R e p u b l i c a n c i r c l e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e Todds, Henry C l a y , T r o t t e r , Bradf o r d , and R i c h a r d Johnson.
q u a l l y noticeable is t h e absence of
F r e n c h n a m e s f r o m t h e l i s t . 5E
Madame r e v e a l e d s o m e t h i n g o f a d o u b l e s t a n d a r d i n o t h e r d e a l i n g s w i t h Kentucky.
To c e n t r a l K e n t u c k i a n s , s h e w a s t h e g e n t l e woman, t h e c u l t u r e d l a d y who o p e n e d h e r home t o t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n
p l a y i n g a n d h e a r i n g good music o r i n m e e t i n g French v i s i t o r s t o
t h e c i t y , t h e g i f t e d h e a d m i s t r e s s o f t h e most f a s h i o n a b l e s c h o o l
f o r young l a d i e s i n t h e a r e a . L e t t e r s s e n t t o h e r by f o r m e r s t u d e n t s , by J u l i e D u r a l d e C l a y , t h e F r e n c h s i s t e r - i n - l a w o f H e n r y C l a y ,
a n d by o t h e r s , r e v e a l t h e h i g h e s t e e m i n which t h e y h e l d h e r .
But
i n l e t t e r s t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s p a r e n t s , a n o t h e r Madame M e n t e l l e i s r e vealed.
T h i s Madame was h i g h l y c r i t i c a l o f K e n t u c k y a n d R e n t u c k i a n s .
T h e r e i s n o t h i n g which n o r m a l l y h o l d s p e o p l e t o a g i v e n r e g i o n , s h e
w r o t e , t h a t c o u l d h o l d t h e M e n t e l l e s i n Kentucky e x c e p t t h e need f o r
money.
The p e o p l e h e r e , w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , c o u l d n e v e r be t h e
f r i e n d s o f Europeans, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f l e s f r a n c a i s sensible.
That
In
t e r m c a n n o t b e t r a n s l a t e d l i t e r a l l y as " t h e s e h s i b l e F r e n c h . "
t h i s c o n t e x t , i t h a s c o n n o t a t i o n s o f c l a s s , c u l t u r e , and manners
w h i c h K e n t u c k i a n s , a c c o r d i n g t o Madame, d i d n o t h a v e .
The comb i n a t i o n o f R e p u b l i c a n p r i n c i p l e s o f p o l i t i c a l demccracy and t h e
e f f o r t s o f t h e same p e o p l e t o c r e a t e a d i s t i n c t i v e s o c i a l c l a s s
completely baffled her.
She spoke o f f l a t t e r e r s and p a r a s i t e s ,
a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t a t e m e n t , g i v e n h e r d e p e n d e n c e on t h e v e r y g r o u p
s h e was c r i t i c i z i n g .
R e n t u c k i a n s p o s s e s s e d many a n d g r e a t v i c e s ,
but no d i s c e r n i b l e v i r t u e s .
H e r s t r o n g e s t w o r d s condemned t h e l a c k
of true society.
" N u l l e societ;.
Rien,''
she wrote.
s t a t e d , best j u s t t o pass over t h e people i n silence.
It was, s h e
She c o u l d n o t , however, remain s i l e n t .
She r e t u r n e d t o t h e subj e c t two p a g e s l a t e r t o d i s c u s s o n e f u r t h e r i n c o n s i s t e n c y .
The
n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s p o k e s o h i g h l y o f l i b e r t y , " b u t t h a t seems
s o r i d i c u l o u s , s o a b s u r d , when c o m p a r e d t o t h e e n s l a v e m e n t o f t h e
negro."
S h e m u s t h a v e r a i s e d t h e s u b j e c t a t some p o i n t w i t h h e r
n e i g h b o r s b e c a u s e s h e s t a t e d t h a t when o n e m e n t i o n e d t h e i s s u e i t
w a s l i k e l i s t e n i n g t o f o o l s who t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e s p e a k i n g r a t i o n a l l y .
Madame t h e n t u r n e d t o t h e s t a t e i t s e l f :
"We f l o a t a l w a y s between good and bad i n t h i s Kentucky, t h i s P a r a d i s e .
The l a n d i s
b e a u t i f u l b u t what i s b e a u t y ? T r e e s , t r e e s , and more t r e e s . "
The
c l i m a t e was d i s a g r e e a b l e , w i n t e r l a s t e d s i x m o n t h s , a n d o n e c o u l d
not get fresh fruit.
I n d e e d , t h e m o r e t h e M e n t e l l e s saw o f K e n t u c k y ,
t h e more t h e y l o v e d F r a n c e .
A d m i t t e d l y , t h e f a c t t h a t Madame w o u l d w i t h i n a m o n t h d e l i v e r
h e r f i f t h c h i l d i n a p e r i o d o f e i g h t y e a r s may h a v e h a d s o m e t h i n g t o
do with h e r a t t i t u d e .
However, i n a l e t t e r d a t e d 26 A p r i l 1 8 0 4 , s h e
Even i f t e m p e r e d by t h e k n o w l e d g e
r e p e a t e d many o f h e r c o m p l a i n t s . 5 9
o f h e r d i s c o m f o r t , t h i s Madame i s n o t t h e o n e s h e p o r t r a y e d t o h e r
c e n t r a l Kentucky n e i g h b o r s .
A L e s s d r a m a t i c e x a m p l e o f t h e s a m e phenomenon c a n b e s e e n i n
t h e correspondence o f John Savary w i t h Robert Alexander.
The exchange o f l e t t e r s began i n 1794 and ended o n l y w i t h S a v a r y ' s d e a t h
two d e c a d e s l a t e r .
E a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is extremely formal and o f t e n o v e r l y f l a t t e r i n g f o r twentieth-century
t a s t e s , b u t S a v a r y ' s l e t t e r s go beyond t h a t .
The e a r l i e s t l e t t e r s
a r e very s i m i l a r i n s t y l e , phrasing and g e n e r a l e f f u s i v e n e s s o f
l a n g u a g e t o l e t t e r s o f F r e n c h f o n c t i o n n a i r e s , b u r e a u c r a t s o f common
o r i g i n s , w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e R e s t o r a t i o n e r a t o noblemen o f h i g h
standing.
T h e r e i s a c o n t r i v e d s u b s e r v i e n c e t o them when c o m p a r e d
t o l e t t e r s among e q u a l s .
R o b e r t A l e x a n d e r was a man o f c o n s i d e r a b l e
w e a l t h a n d s o c i a l p o s i t i o n i n c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y a n d may w e l l h a v e
seemed t o S a v a r y t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a nobleman.
Through t h e y e a r s , t h e r e i s a s u b t l e change i n t h e t o n e o f t h e
letters.
By 1 8 0 8 , t h e y e a r i n w h i c h b o t h S a v a r y ' s e c o n o m i c v e n t u r e s
a n d h i s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g came i n t o c l e a r e r a n d m o r e s t a b l e f o c u s ,
By 1 8 1 0 , S a v a r y s p o k e
t h e r e i s a much g r e a t e r t o n e o f e q u a l i t y .
more f r e q u e n t l y a n d l e s s c a u t i o u s l y o f p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s a n d e v e n
began t o g i v e A l e x a n d e r f i n a n c i a l a d v i c e and moral encouragement.60
T h e e v o l u t i o n o f S a v a r y ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s made m o r e a p p a r e n t by t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e two l e t t e r s o f t h e M e n t e l l e s t o A l e x a n d e r , t h o s e r e The M e n t e l l e s
garding t h e k i l n s , a r e included with Savaryls papers.
did n o t have S a v a r y ' s l o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Alexander, and t h e
l e t t e r s r e v e a l t h e same s y c o p h a n c y a s S a v a r y ' s e a r l i e s t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .
The f a c t t h a t S a v a r y ' s w i l l , w r i t t e n i n 1 8 0 8 a n d p r o b a t e d i n 1 8 1 6 ,
l e f t a l l h i s p o s s e s s i b n s t o R o b e r t A l e x a n d e r makes S a v a r y ' s c a u t i o n
even more i n t e r e s t i n g .
T h e F r e n c h made o t h e r c h a n g e s i n t h e i r l i v e s v e r y e a r l y i n
t h e i r Kentucky v e n t u r e s .
I f K e n t u c k i a n s c o u l d n o t s p e l l t h e rel a t i v e l y s i m p l e S a v a r y t h e s a m e way o n a n y t w o o c c a s i o n s , i t i s l i t t l e
w o n d e r t h a t h e a u i c k l v s t o ~ ~ er edf e r r i n n t o h i m s e l f a s J e a n H e n r i
S a v o r y d e va1co;lon.
- p i e r > ; was c h a n g e d t o P e t e r , J a c q u e s t o James
a n d Jean t o John. W a l d e m a r M e n t e l l e a b b r e v i a t e d h i s f i r s t n a m e ,
l e a d i n g mauv K e n t u c k i a n s t o c a l l him W i l l i a m , a n d h i s w i f e u s e d
c h a r l o t t e i n s t e a d o f t h e more d i f f i c u l t v i c t o i r i e .
Whether i n t e n t i o n a l o r n o t , t h e y a l s o named t h e i r c h i l d r e n M a r i e , L o u i s e , R o s e ,
Henry, and Theresa--names which could b e pronounced
anglais o r
en francais.
-
J o h n S a v a r y was t h e f i r s t t o b r e a k t h e p o l i t i c a l s i l e n c e .
In
1 8 0 8 h e was e l e c t e d as a f i n a n c i a l e x p e r t t o t h e Kentucky l e g i s l a t u r e .
H e a l s o b e g a n t o w r i t e p o l i t i c a l t r a c t s , a l t h o u g h h e r e f u s e d t o publ i s h those o u t s i d e t h e mainstream o f opinion. Writing t o Albert
G a l l a t i n , John B a d o l l e t , a m u t u a l f r i e n d , e x p r e s s e d t h e hope t h a t
S a v a r y w o u l d d e a l w i t h t h e f i n a n c i a l i s s u e s a n d n o t make s p e e c h e s .
H i s a c c e n t was s o h e a v y t h a t i t m i g h t g i v e o f f e n s e t o ~ e n t u c k i a n s . ~ ~
T h e c a u t i o n i n p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s was s t i l l a p p a r e n t .
T h u s , when o n e e x a m i n e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e F r e n c h i n c e n t r a l
Kentucky from t h e French p o i n t o f view, t h e conclusion i s i n e s c a p a b l e
t h a t t h e y s a c r i f i c e d some o f t h e i r own p e r s o n a l i t y t o a d h e r e t o
t h e i r neighbors' image o f "Frenchness.
Since t h e i r culture, unlike
t h a t o f s o many o t h e r A m e r i c a n m i n o r i t i e s , was s o h i g h l y v a l u e d , t h e
e x t e n t o f t h e s a c r i f i c e was m u t e d .
The F r e n c h t r a d e d p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n
o f p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t s a n d c e r t a i n modes o f b e h a v i o r f o r s o c i a l a n d
economic success.
The d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s o f F r e n c h
t h o u g h t a n d b e h a v i o r was c e r t a i n l y a s u b t l e p r o c e s s , a n d i t e l i c i t e d
a g r e a t d e a l o f c o o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e F r e n c h , a t l e a s t t h e o n e s who
s e t t l e d permanently.
The e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s F r e n c h e x p e r i e n c e i n
c e n t r a l Kentucky reminds u s once a g a i n o f t h e p i t f a l l o f a c c e p t i n g
u n c r i t i c a l l y t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f a m i n o r i t y by t h e m a j o r i t y .
NOTES
'Kentucky
G a z e t t e , 2 1 November 1 7 8 9 .
2 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 1 9 J a n u a r y 1 7 9 3 .
3 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 2 2 O c t o b e r 1 7 9 1 .
4 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 1 6 F e b r u a r y 1 7 9 3 .
5 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 11 May 1 7 9 3 .
6 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e :
1 6 March 1 7 9 3 .
7 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 2 November 1 7 9 3 .
14
8 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 9 J u l y 1 7 9 6 ; 1 6 J u l y 1 7 9 6 .
entu tuck^
IU
Gazette, 16 February 1793
K e n t u c k y G a z e t t e , 1 A u g u s t , 1 5 A u g u s t , 29 A u g u s t , 5 S e p t e m b e r
1798.
l l ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , J u n e 6 , 1 3 , 2 0 , 2 7 , 1 7 9 8 .
"see
L e x i n g t o n Board o f T r u s t e e s Minutes Books; Kentucky G a z e t t e ,
6 September 1797.
I3 .
R i c h a r d C. Wade, T h e U r b a n F r o n t i e r ( C h i c a g o :
C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 107-08.
Univ. o f
1 4 ~ h eE l i z a J a n u a r y - M a r y B u l l o c k l e t t e r s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e vealing of Lexington-Louisville s o c i a l l i f e .
See Shelby Papers,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
15wade, pp.
107-08.
1 6 w i l l i a m L e a v y , " M e m o i r e s o f L e x i n g t o n a n d V i c i n i t y , " Rei s t e r o f t h e Kentucky H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t x , 41 ( 1 9 4 3 ) , 250; Henry
P e e t , e d . , C h a u m i d r e P a p e r s ( C h i c a g o : O I D o n o g h u e , 1 8 8 3 1 , p. 5 3 .
f.
1 7 ~ l e x a n d e rP a p e r s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s ,
28 June 1810.
1 8 ~ r a n s y l v a n i awas o n e o f t h e f i r s t i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d
Other
S t a t e s t o t e a c h t h e language as a p a r t o f t h e curriculum.
i n s t i t u t i o n s provided i n s t r u c t i o n on a n a d j u n c t b a s i s .
l g ~ r a n s y l v a n i a S e m i n a r y R e c o r d s , 1 7 9 4 , a s q u o t e d i n Niels H .
S o n n e , L i b e r a l K e n t u c k y , 1 7 8 0 - 1 8 2 8 (New Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 1 , p. 58.
' " ~ a m e s Hopkins, e d . , The P a p e r s o f Henry C l a y ( L e x i n g t o n :
U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 1 1 11, 6 9 0 ; C l a y w r o t e t o H o r a c e
H o l l e y t h a t many New O r l e a n s f a m i l i e s w i s h e d t o s e n d s t u d e n t s t o
Transylvania.
He m e n t i o n e d t h a t a M . A l l a i n w a s t o v i s i t L e x i n g t o n
with prospective students.
See a l s o R e g i s t e r o f t h e Kentucky H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , 3 4 , 488; two F r e n c h s t u d e n t s r e a d s p e e c h e s i n
honor o f L a f a y e t t e i n 1825.
2 1 ~ l e x a n d e rF o u r n i e r t o Martin P i c q u e t
The F i l s o n C l u b , L o u i s v i l l e , Kentucky.
,
n.d.
,
Barbaroux Papers,
" ~ i c t o i r i e C h a r l o t t e Mentelle t o Monsieur et Mme. Mentelle,
2 8 December 1 8 0 3 , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
L3
C h a r l e s Lakanal is a n e x c e l l e n t example.
Carrying l e t t e r s
o f i n t r o d u c t i o n f r o m L a f a y e t t e t o Thomas J e f f e r s o n a n d Henry C l a y ,
Lakanal, a n a t i v e o f Grenoble, attempted t o s e t t l e land i n G a l l a t i n
County and w r i t e a d e f i n i t i v e a c c o u n t o f t h e American l i b e r a l exA man o f some r e p u t a t i o n i n F r a n c e b o t h a s a p o l i t i c i a n
periment.
and s c i e n t i s t , t h e " c o n t e m p l a t i v e " l i f e proved t o o tame.
He w r o t e
a d e t a i l e d plan t o e s t a b l i s h Joseph Bonaparte over Spanish t e r r i t o r y
i n t h e Southwest and l a t e r accepted t h e p o s i t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t o f
t h e C o l l e g e o f New O r l e a n s .
He r e t u r n e d t o F r a n c e a f t e r s e v e r a l
years.
2 4 ~ o h nS a v a r y t o R o b e r t A l e x a n d e r , 1 2 J a n u a r y 1 7 9 8 ; 1 7 O c t o b e r
1800, R o b e r t Alexander P a p e r s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l
Collections.
S a v a r y s e r v e d a s p a r t n e r a n d a g e n t f o r many F r e n c h
p e o p l e s p e c u l a t i n g i n Kentucky l a n d s .
He a n d A l b e r t G a l l a t i n owned
o v e r 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s i n Kentucky, V i r g i n i a , and P e n n s y l v a n i a .
Stephen
G i r a r d , t h e F r e n c h f i n a n c i e r i n P h i l a d e l p h i a , a n d many m e r c h a n t s
o f t h a t c i t y a l s o owned K e n t u c k y l a n d .
25:l. M e n t e l l e t o R o b e r t A l e x a n d e r , 1 8 J u l y 1 8 0 8 ; C h a r l o t t e
M e n t e l l e t o Robert Alexander, 1 6 September 1808. Alexander P a p e r s ,
U n i v e r s i t v o f Kentuckv S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
Co..
26Georae Ranck. H i s t o r y o f L e x i n g t o n ( C i n c i n n a t i :
18721, p. 1 0 2 .
R.
C l a r k and
2 7 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 1 7 J u l y 1 7 9 4 .
2 8 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 6 October 1800.
2 9 ~ e n t u c k yG a z e t t e , 1 A u g u s t 1 7 9 5 .
3 0 ~ h w a i t e s . p.
207.
3 1 ~ e n n e r C o l l e c t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s ,
D e p o s i t i o n o f Thomas H. C l a y , M e n i f e e C i r c u i t C o u r t .
3 2 ~ o p k i n s , The C l a y P a p e r s , I , 1 2 1 , 1 8 7 , 2 9 9 , 7 0 9 ; 11, 3 5 3 .
3 3 ~ i l l i a mH , P e r r i n , S k e t c h o f B o u r b o n , S c o t t , H a r r i s o n a n d
O . L . B a s k i n a n d Co., 1 8 8 2 1 ,
N i c h o l a s C o u n t i e s , Kentuck1 (Chicago:
p. 3 8 5 .
3 4 ~ e eA l e x a n d e r P a p e r s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
3 5 ~ o r t e s c u Cuming, S k e t c h e s o f a T o u r t o t h e W e s t e r n C o u n t r y (Pittsburg:
Cramer, S p e a r and Eichbaum, 1 8 1 0 ) , pp. 166-67. 3 6 ~ e n r yD a t e r , i n a M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w
a r t i c l e , 26 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , 21-38, h a s S a v a r y d i s a p p e a r i n g a f t e r d i v i d i n g
t h e l a n d s h e owned w i t h A l b e r t G a l l a t i n .
S a v a r y moved t o : l i l l e r s b u r g
i n 1797.
D a t e r a l s o contends t h a t G a l l a t i n and Savary d i s s o l v e d
t h e i r partnership t o maintain t h e i r close friendship.
The f r i e n d s h i p and t h e p a r t n e r s h i p were m a i n t a i n e d .
T h e two men d i v i d e d a b o u t
h a l f t h e i r mutual holdings.
The r e m a i n d e r was h e l d i n p a r t n e r s h i p
u n t i l S a v a r y ' s d e a t h i n 1 8 1 6 when i t was w i l l e d t o R o b e r t A l e x a n d e r
o f Woodford County.
G a l l a t i n then sued f o r h i s share.
See Alexander
P a p e r s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
3 7 ~ e eA l e x a n d e r P a p e r s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y S p e c i a l
C o l l e c t i o n s , Savary-Alexander Correspondence.
3 8 ~ e n t u c k y Tax L i s t s , F a y e t t e C o u n t y , 1 8 0 9
3 9 ~ e n r yB r a c k i n r i d g e , R e c o l l e c t i o n s o f P e r s o n s a n d P l a c e s i n
t h e W e s t ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J a m e s Kay, 1 8 3 4 ) , p . 44.
4 0 ~ h a r l o t t eM e n t e l l e , S a t u r d a y E v e n i n g C h r o n i c l e , 1 4 J u l y 1 8 2 7 ,
a s q u o t e d i n E u g e n e B l i e s , D r . S a u g r a i n ' s R e l a t i o n o f h i s Voyage
down t h e O h i o R i v e r f r o m P i t t s b u r g t o t h e F a l l s i n 1 7 8 8 ( W o r c h e s t e r ,
Mass:
C h a r l e s Hamilton, 1 8 9 7 ) , n.p.
B r a c k i n r i d g e made a f a r g r e a t e r h e r o
4 2 ~ r a c k i n r i d g e ,p . 4 4 .
o f S a u g r a i n t h a n h e d e s e r v e d o r c l a i m e d on most o c c a s i o n s .
See
B l i e s , D r . S a u g r a i n ' s R e l a t i o n o f h i s Voyage.
4 3 ~ i l l i a mK .
Charlottesville:
D o t y , The C o n f e c t i o n e r y o f M o n s i e u r G i r o n
The M i c h i e C o . , 1 9 1 5 1 , n . p .
4 4 ~ a t h e r i n eHelm, M a r y , W i f e o f L i n c o l n (New York:
B r o s . , 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 43-44.
Harper and
4 5 ~ a m e sL a n e A l l e n , F l u t e a n d V i o l i n a n d O t h e r K e n t u c k y T a l e s
a n d Eomances (New Y o r k :
The M a c M i l l a n C o . , 1 9 2 3 1 , p . 6 5 .
4 7 ~ e a v y ,p p . 4 1 , 1 2 6 - 7 .
4 8 ~ e l m , pp.
43-44.
4 9 ~ e t e rT a r d i v e a u w a s a n o r i g i n a l member o f t h e P o l i t i c a l C l u b
of Danville, but resigned very e a r l y a f t e r giving offense t o
HoweGer,
He a l s o w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e ~ e n & at f f a i r .
s e v e r a l members.
a f t e r 1795, a p p a r e n t l y h a v i n g l e a r n e d a b i t t e r l e s s o n , h e seems t o
h a v e d e v o t e d m o s t o f h i s t i m e t o commerce.
He l a t e r moved t o B o w l i n g
Green, Kentucky.
S e e Thomas S p e e d , T h e P o l i t i c a l C l u b o f D a n v i l l e ,
K e n t u c k x ( L o u i s v i l l e : J o h n P. M o r t o n & C o . , 1 8 9 4 1 , p . 9 4 .
The C a t h e d r a l o f t h e
5 0 ~ l y d eF. C r e w s , " H a l l o w e d G r o u n d :
Assumption i n L o u i s v i l l e , " F i l s o n Club Q u a r t e r l y , 5 1 , 251.
5 1 ~ a d i n t o C h a b r a t , 7 F e b r u a r y 1 8 2 1 , q u o t e d i n Ben J . Webb,
The C e n t e n a r y o f C a t h o l i c i t y i n K e n t u c k 1 ( L o u i s v i l l e :
Charles A.
R o d g e r s , 1 8 8 4 ) , p p . 449-50.
5 2 ~ u o t e d i n H u n t l e y D u p r e e , "The F r e n c h i n E a r l y K e n t u c k y
F i l s o n Club Q u a r t e r l x , 1 5 , 87.
53~teven
p . 443.
adi in*. t o
,"
Guy C h a b r a t , 4 J u l y 1 8 1 9 , q u o t e d i n Webb,
5 4 ~ e b b , pp.
1 3 8 , 163-4.
5 6 ~ a d a m e C h a r l o t t e M e n t e l l e t o M . e t Mme. M e n t e l l e , 2 8 December 1 8 0 3 , U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
5 7 ~ o y a g e s , Adventures, and S i t u a t i o n o f t h e French Emigrants
from t h e Year '89 t o ' 9 9 ( L e x i n g t o n : J o h n B r a d f o r d , 1 8 0 0 ) . The
a u t h o r ' s name i s n o t p r i n t e d o n t h e p a m p h l e t , b u t Madame M e n t e l l e ' s
name i s p e n n e d o n t h e t i t l e p a g e .
A n o t e s a y s t h e name i s i n t h e
hand o f t h e o r i g i n a l owner.
In another citation, she is referred
to a s the translator.
The l a t t e r a p p e a r s m o r e l i k e l y f o r r e a s o n s
explained i n the text.
5 8 ~ h en a m e s o f Thomas J a n u a r y a n d A b n e r L e G r a n d , b o t h H u g u e n o t s ,
do a p p e a r .
T h i s pamphlet i s i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l
Collections.
5 9 ~ a d a m eC h a r l o t t e M e n t e l l e t o M . e t Mme. M e n t e l l e , 2 8 D e c e m b e r
1803; 26 A p r i l 1804, U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
6 0 ~ e eA l e x a n d e r P a p e r s , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y S p e c i a l
Collections.
The p a p e r s c o n t a i n a b o u t e i g h t y l e t t e r s between
Savary and Alexander o v e r t h e period o f approximately twenty y e a r s .
6 1 ~ a y l e T h o r n b r o u g h , The C o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f J o h n B a d o l l e t and
Albert Gallatin (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1963),
p . 3 8 ; S a v a r y t o A l e x a n d e r , 1 2 March 1 8 0 9 , A l e x a n d e r P a p e r s .
"Westward The J u g o f Empire": Whiskey A d v e r t i s i n g I n
American H i s t o r y
R o b e r t L. H u n g a r l a n d
? a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y
There a p p e a r e d , i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h cent u r y , i n Grantham, England, a s i g n on a t a v e r n , with a p a i n t e d
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a b e e h i v e w i t h a swarm o f b e e s s u r r o u n d i n g i t .
The accompanying rhyme a d v e r t i s e d t h e p r o d u c t f o r s a l e t h e r e :
Within t h i s hive we're a l l a l i v e , Good L i q u o r m a k e s u s f u n n y , I f you a r e d r y , s t e p i n a n d t r y The f l a v o r o f o u r honey. I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i t i s Mark T w a i n who i s c r e d i t e d w i t h
t h e somewhat c y n i c a l p a r a p h r a s e o f George B e r k e l e y ' s c l a s s i c
l i n e , "Westward t h e c o u r s e o f e m p i r e t a k e s i t s way."
After
e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f t h e W e s t , T w a i n w a s moved t o comm e n t t h a t t h e l i n e s h o u l d r e a d , " W e s t w a r d t h e jug o f e m p i r e .
P r n e r i c a n s c a n b e c o m f o r t e d , h o w e v e r , by t h e f a c t t h a t d r i n k i n g
and drunkenness were around l o n g b e f o r e t h e f i r s t Europeans set
f o o t on t h i s c o n t i n e n t .
A s a matter of fact, there is an old
d i t t y from somewhere i n o u r p a s t t h a t s a y s :
. .
He i s n o t d r u n k who f r o m t h e f l o o r
Can r i s e a g a i n , a n d d r i n k o n c e m o r e ,
B u t h e i s d r u n k , who p r o s t r a t e l i e s ,
And c a n n o t d r i n k a n d c a n n o t r i s e .
W h i s k e y d r i n k i n g h a s b e e n a r o u n d f o r much l o n g e r t h a n
whiskey a d v e r t i s i n g .
In t h e beginning, of course, the d i s t i l l e r s
a n d t h e d r i n k e r s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e same p e o p l e .
E v e n when t h e
w h i s k e y was n o t made by t h e d r i n k e r , h o w e v e r , t h e s u p p l i e r d i d
not r e a l l y have t o do a s e l l i n g job.
The n e e d f o r a d v e r t i s i n g
d i d n o t d e v e l o p u n t i l t h e home d i s t i l l e r i e s g a v e way t o p r o f i t s e e k i n g e n t e r p r i s e s , and t h e l i q u o r i n d u s t r y began t o t a k e shape.
The n e e d f o r s u c h a n i n d u s t r y i n America i s e v i d e n c e d by
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e P u r i t a n s coming t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r s e h t l e m e n t s
o n t h e c o a s t o f Bew E n g l a n d , b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m n o t o n l y t h e i r
religion, but a l s o t h e i r strong drink.
Alcoholic beverages were
A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e Mayflower
n o t considered ungodly.
c a r r i d c a s k s o f b e e r a n d a s u p p l y o f Aqua V i t a e ( p r o b a b l y H o l l a n d
Gin)
b o t h o f w h i c h w e r e much p r e f e r r e d t o t h e w a t e r o n b o a r d
which was, q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , "not f i t t o d r i n k . "
,'
One o f t h e f i r s t c r i s e s i n t h e New W o r l d a r o s e a s t h e g r o u p
searched a l o n g t h e c o a s t l i n e f o r t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y s p o t f o r
b u i l d i n g t h e i r new homes.
A f t e r s i x weeks o f f r u s t r a t i n g d i s a greements, t h e d e c i s i o n could be postponed no l o n g e r , t h e i r
" v i c t u a l s b e i n g much s p e n t e e s p e c i a l l y o u r b e e r e , a n d i t n o v
b e i n g t h e 2 0 t h o f December.;12
T h u s t h e c o l o n y was e s t a b l i s h e d
a t P l y m o u t h a n d t h e h a r d s h i p s s u f f e r e d by t h e P i l g r i m s d u r i n g
the early years a r e well d ~ c u m e n t e d . ~
One o f t h e m o s t p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m s f o r t h e s e P l y m o u t h c o l o n y
P u r i t a n s was t h e d e p l e t i o n o f t h e i r s m a l l s u p p l y o f a l c o h o l i c
beverages.
W a t e r c e r t a i n l y was n o t t h e a n s w e r .
I n England and
Europe t h e w a t e r had been, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , u s a b l e o n l y f o r
washing o r cooking.
Even t h o u g h t h e w a t e r o f iiew E n g l a n d was
Yilliam
found t o be more t a s t y , i t s p u r i t y had n o t been p r o v e n .
Bradford wrote o f t h e Puritans i n t h e Netherlands contemplating
m i g r a t i o n t o t h e New World t h a t "The c h a n g e o f a i r , d i e t a n d
d r i n k i n g o f w a t e r would i n f e c t t h e i r b o d i e s w i t h s o r e s i c k n e s s e s
a n d g r i e v o u s d i ~ e a s e s . " ~U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m o s t o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e
Old C o u n t r y was " a n unwholesome b e v e r a g e " coming, a s i t d i a , "from
a contaminated well i n a c i t y o r farmyard.
T h e common t a b l e b e v e r a g e s o f poor f a m i l i e s i n England and Holland were b e e r and ~ i d e r . " ~
The Reverend F r a n c i s H i g g i n s o n a c c e p t e d t h e s h o r t a g e o r l a c k o f
s t r o n g e r d r i n k more g r a c e f u l l y t h a n some, however, a n d w r o t e i n
1 6 2 9 , " W h e r e a s my s t o m a c h c o u l d o n l y d i g e s t a n d d i d r e q u i r e s u c h
d r i n k a s was b o t h s t r o n g a n d s t a l e , I c a n a n d o f t e n t i m e s do d r i n k
H i s testimonial could not c a r r y
New E n g l a n d w a t e r v e r y w e l l . "
t o o much w e i g h t , h o w e v e r , a s h e d i e d a s h o r t t i m e a f t e r g i v i n g
it.6
The M a y f l o w e r ' s c a p t a i n s h a r e d t h e s h i p ' s s u p p l y o f b e e r .
I n A p r i l , however, t h e v e s s e l d e p a r t e d f o r England, and t h e
c o l o n i s t s were l e f t t o s h i f t f o r themselves a s f a r a s food and
d r i n k were c o n c e r n e d .
F u t u r e c o l o n i s t s headed f o r America would
b e b e t t e r p r e p a r e d , s e t t i n g s a i l w i t h much l a r g e r s u p p l i e s o f
I t was q u i t e e v i d e n t , t h o u g h , t h a t h i g h
b e e r , m a l t , and l i q u o r .
p r i o r i t y would have t o be g i v e n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a l i q u o r
industry.
Many o f t h e f a m i l i e s b r o u g h t t h e i r own b r e w i n g u t e n s i l s
a n d t h e i r own s t i l l s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d b e v e r a g e s p r i m a r i l y f o r c o n s u m p t i o n w i t h i n t h e home.
M o s t o f t h e l i q u o r t h a t f o u n d i t s way
i n t o t h e m a r k e t was i n p o r t e d .
T h e a p p e a r a n c e i n 1 6 2 0 o f b e e r a n d l i q u o r i n t h e New W o r l d
was n o t , h o w e v e r . t h e f i r s t known u s e o f a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s on
t h e ~ o r t h~ m e r i c a nc o n t i n e n t .
Thomas Harriet's 4 B r i e f e a n d
T r u e R e p o r t o f t h e New Found Land o f V i r g i n i a , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d
i n 1 5 8 8 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h i l e h e was v i s i t i n g t h e s h o r t - l i v e d
c o l o n y o n ~ o a n o k eI s l a n d a n d s t u d y i n g t h e g r a i n c a l l e d " M a y z e , "
"Wee made o f t h e same i n t h e c o u n t r y some m a u l t , w h e r e o f w a s
b r u e d a s good a l e a s was t o bee d e s i r e d .
S o l i k e w i s e by t h e
h e l p o f h o p s t h e r e o f may b e e made a s g o o d F3eere.'17
A s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i e s i n c r e a s e d and t h e t e r r i t o r y
i n v o l v e d e x p a n d e d , t h e demand f o r l i q u o r i n i t s v a r i o u s f o r e s c o n t i n u e d t o grow.
More a n d m o r e o f i t w a s d i s p e n s e d t h r o u g h o r dinaries, taverns, o r inns.
The c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t s t o o k s t e p s
to
in
to
be
r e g u l a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f such e s t a b l i s h m e n t s and t h e manner
which t h e y s o l d s p i r i t o u s l i q u o r s , even f i x i n g t h e p r i c e s
be c h a r g e d f o r d r i n k s a n d t h e number o f d r i n k s t h a t m i g h t
sold t o certain individuals.
D e s p i t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f b u s i n e s s i n v o l v e d , advert i s i n g was n o t a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r .
The a r t o f p r o m o t i o n was n o t
h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d a t t h e t i m e a n d , a s a r u l e , demand f a r e x c e e d e d
supply.
It would b e n e a r t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e f o r e
l a b e l i n g a n d a d v e r t i s i n g assumed prominent r o l e s i n t h e i n d u s t r y .
The a d v e r t i s i n g t h a t was u s e d i n c o l o n i a l t i m e s a n d i n t h e e a r l y
days o f t h e Republic u s u a l l y simply announced t h e a r r i v a l o r
availability of supplies of liquor.
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e New Y o r k
Mercury, i n December, 1753, c a r r i e d a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t t h a t read:
To b e SOLD b y
Ben j a m i n P a y n e ,
A t h i s House o p p o s i t e t h e Old-Slip-Market, a t t h e
S i g n o f Admiral Warren
C h o i c e M a d e i r a w i n e , rum, b r a n d y ,
Geneva a n d a r r a c k ; bobea tea a n d Muscovado
S u g a r , ~ i t hs u n d r y o t h e r l i q u o r s b y w h o l e s a l e o r
retale.
Near t h e end o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e North-Carolina
G a z e t t e ( New B e r n ) a n n o u n c e d i m p o r t e d g o o d s , j u s t a r r i v e d f r o m
Included i n t h e d e l i c a c i e s and
F r a n c e . to b e s o l d a t a u c t i o n .
r e p r e s e n t i n g a r a t h e r l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e s h i p m e n t was a n a s s o r t ment o f f a n c y b r a n d i e s , l i q u e u r s , and wines.
Among t h e s e w a s a
q u a n t i t y o f r a t i f e a , "a s p i r i t u o u s l i q u o r f l a v o r e d w i t h t h e k e r n e l s
of several kinds o f fruit."g
Not a l l o f t h e l i q u o r f l o w e d i n t o t h e c o u n t r y t h r o u g h n o r m a l
import channels.
P r i z e c a r g o e s p r o v i d e d some o f t h e s t o c k s t o b e
auctioned off.
T h e f r o n t p a g e o f The P e n n s y l v a n i a G a z e t t e o f
J u l y 1 7 , 1 7 7 6 , c a r r i e d a c o p y o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f New J e r s e y
which had been adopted promptly a f t e r t h e formal d e c l a r a t i o n o f
There were numerous
t h e s e p a r a t i o n f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n o n J u l y 4.
a d v e r t i s e m e n t s s h a r i n g t h a t f i r s t p a g e , however, as w e l l as o t h e r
pages, i n c l u d i n g one t h a t announced:
"The R e m a i n d e r o f t h e C a r g o e
o f t h e P r i z e S h i p JUNO, c o n s i s t i n g o f J a m a i c a S p i r i t s , S u g a r a n d
F u s i c k , w i l l b e s o l d t h i s A f t e r n o o n a t B r i g h t a n d P e c h i n q s wharf.""
J a m e s t o w n h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s V i r g i n i a ' s boom t o w n o f t h e
e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e small p l a n t e r
t h e r e " s q u a n d e r e d h i s s ~ y l lc r o p o n t h e l i q u o r a n d l u x u r i e s t h a t
s h o w u p i n boom t o w n s . "
T h e r e c o r d s o f t h e V i r g i n i a Company s h o w
t h a t o n e o f t h e f i r s t a c t s o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y was i n t e n d e d
" F o r i t was d r i n k m o r e t h a n c l o t h e s
t o outlaw excesses i n drinking.
t h a t t h e p l a n t e r s c r a v e d I u s a y s Edmund S . M o r g a n .
"The t h i r s t o f
V i r g i n i a n s became n o t o r i o u s i n E n g l a n d , a n d t h e s h i p s t h a t s a i l e d
up t h e James River were h e a v i l y f r e i g h t e d w i t h s a c k and s t r o n g
w a t e r s , even i f t h e y n e d e c t e d t o b r i n g more s o l i d f a r e . " 1 2
Not a l l t h e i m p o r t s came f r o m o v e r s e a s .
The N o r t h e r n c o l o n i e s
p r o v i d e d much o f t h e t r a d e g o o d s c o m i n g i n t o t h e S o u t h .
Some o f
t h e d i s t i l l e r i e s i n t h e N o r t h s e n t down C o n t i n e n t rum w h i c h w a s s o
b a d , a c c o r d i n g t o W i l l i a m B y r d 111, t h a t t h e p o o r p e o p l e who d r a n k
it c a l l e d i t "Kill-Devil."
A p p a r e n t l y t h i s name n e v e r c a u g h t o n
as a b r a n d n a m f j o r a s a u s e f u l p a r t o f t h e l i m i t e d a d v e r t i s i n g
t h a t was d o n e .
A s t h e pioneers crossed t h e mountains and s e t t l e d i n t h e
M i s s i s s i p p i and Ohio R i v e r v a l l e y s , a s i g n i f i c a n t change took p l a c e
i n the liquor industry.
Most o f t h e p r o d u c t s d i s t i l l e d i n t h e
E a s t had been r y e whiskey, b u t g r a d u a l l y t h e w e s t e r n farmers were
t u r n i n g t o c o r n as t h e i r m a j o r c r o p a n d t h i s g r a i n became t h e raw
m a t e r i a l f o r t h e i r s t i l l s . B e c a u s e i t was much e a s i e r a n d more
e c o n o m i c a l t o move t h e c o r n t o m a r k e t b y t h e g a l l o n r a t h e r t h a n
by t h e b u s h e l , m o r e a n d m o r e o f i t was c o n v e r t e d t o w h i s k e y .
Somewhere a l o n g t h e l i n e , a c h a r r e d b a r r e l was u s e d f o r a g i n g
I t was n a m e d f o r a c o u n t y i n
some w h i s k e y a n d b o u r b o n was b o r n .
Kentucky a n d t h a t s t a t e became t h e c e n t e r o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h i s
new A m e r i c a n p r o d u c t .
The d i s c o v e r y o f t h e bourbon-making p r o c e s s
i s s a i d t o have o c c u r r e d i n t h e y e a r 1789, b u t Kentucky farmers
had been making whiskey s i n c e t h e y s t a r t e d moving i n t o t h e t e r r i t o r y b e f o r e t h e American R e v o l u t i o n .
I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s t h e y made
e n o u g h t o s a t i s f y t h e i r own n e e d s w i t h , p e r h a p s , a l i t t l e l e f t o v e r
for bartering.
L a t e r , however, a s t h e amount produced i n c r e a s e d ,
t h e y b e g a n t o s h i p t h e i r s u r p l u s t o m a r k e t , w i t h much o f i t g o i n g
down t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r o n f l a t b o a t s t o New O r l e a n s a s a n i m portant cash crop.
Obviously t h e i r marketing methods were primit i v e a n d t h e r e was no l a b e l i n g o r a d v e r k i s i n g t o s p e a k o f .
Even
s o , it h a s been estimated t h a t i n t h e y e a r 1800, o v e r 200,000
g a l l o n s w e r e s h i p p e d down t o New O r l e a n s .
I t was n o t u n t i l t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y
t h a t some d i s t i l l e r s began t o l a b e l t h e i r b a r r e l s i n a n e f f o r t t o
d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r p r o d u c t i n a m e a n i n g f u l way.
About t h e same
t i m e , e n a c t m e n t o f t h e E x c i s e A c t o f 1 7 9 1 o p e n e d t h e way f o r t h e
u s e o f l l p r o o f " as a p a r t o f t h e a d v e r t i s i n g o f w h i s k e y a n d b r a n d y .
T h i s l a w e s t a b l i s h e d some s i x d i f f e r e n t p r o o f s a n d p r o v i d e d t h a t
t h e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Treasury be responsible f o r measuring t h e
proof and d e t e r m i n i n g t h e amount o f t a x t o be imposed.
T h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a n d l a b e l s now b e g a n t o r e f e r t o t h e i r
p r o d u c t s as " f u l l p r o o f " a n d "good p r o o f , 1 r w i t h some m a k i n g c l a i m s
c o n c e r n i n g t h e "age" o f t h e i r whiskey.
Around t h e t u r n o f t h e
c e n t u r y , " o l d w h i s k e y " w a s b e i n g a d v e r t i s e d e v e n t h o u g h many d i s t i l l e r s c o n t i n u e d t o s e l l i t f r e s h from t h e s t i l l . A s o n e Ebenezer
S t e d m a n o f t h e G e o r g e t o w n , K e n t u c k y , area r e c o u n t e d , "I w e n t t o t h e
s t i l l h o u s e t h a t s t o o d o p p o s i t e Nebbs h o u s e f o r a g a l l o n o f d n l s k e y
t h a t w a s , a s C o l Cox u s t o s a y , a w e a k o l d l a c k i n g f i v e d a y s . " 1 4
A s t h e s e l l e r s b e g a n Do e m p h a s i z e " a g e " i n t h e i r a d v e r t i s i n g , t h e
n u m e r o u s b r a n d n a m e s t h a t a p p e a r e d i n c l u d e d many w i t h 1401d" a s p a r t
o f t h e t r a d e mark.
T h e r e w a s Old T a y l o r , o f c o u r s e , b u t a l s o Old
Booz's Old Cabin Whiskey, Old F o r e s t e r , Jack D a n i e l ' s
O l d Iio. 7 , a n d s o o n .
Many o f t h e s e " o l d " b r a n d s a r e s t i l l o n
the market today.
Advertising i n Lexington i n 1820 spoke o f "a
few B a r r e l s o f v e r y s u p e r i o r Old Whiske
By t h e B a r r e l o r G a l l o n - A l s o , Good New W h i s k e y , By t h e B a r r e l . 11
Tub, E . G .
15
I n 1 8 7 0 , o n e d i s t i l l e r b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i s w h i s k e y by u s i n g
t h e name o f o n e o f t h e n a t i o n ' s i l l u s t r i o u s F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s .
J e f f e r s o n P u r e Rye Whiskey was s o l d i n b a r r e l s t h a t c a r r i e d a n
advertisement showing a d i s t i l l e r y l o c a t e d i u s t behind t h e former
here w a s , o f c o u r s e , n o s u c h d i s P r e s i d e n t ' s ~ o n t i c e l i oh o m e . 1 7
t i l l e r y a t Monticello and c e r t a i n l y no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t J e f f e r s o n
H i s name a n d h i s
was e v e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any s u c h e n t e r p r i s e .
home w e r e s i m p l y a p p r o p r i a t e d b y t h e d i s t i l l e r t o l e n d p r e s t i g e
and d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e whiskey.
It is a good i n d i c a t i o n , n o t j u s t
o f t h e f r e e - s p i r i t e d marketing o f t h e day, b u t a l s o o f t h e growing
importance o f t h e "brand" i n a d v e r t i s i n g .
The p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f e a r l y a d v e r t i s i n g was d i r e c t e d t o t h e
t r a d e , a n d i f t h e r e was a n y b o t t l i n g a n d l a b e l i n g d o n e , i t was a
function of the proprietor of the inn, tavern, o r general store,
and n o t t h e d i s t i l l e r .
The l i q u o r was d e l i v e r e d t o t h e d i s p e n s e r
i n b a r r e l s and h e e i t h e r s o l d i t d i r e c t l y from t h e b a r r e l o r provided b o t t l e s and sometimes l a b e l s .
Some d i s t i l l e r s d i d s e n d
along t o t h e i r r e t a i l e r s a decanter o r b o t t l e t o be used a t t h e
b a r f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n purposes.
The c u s t o m e r c o u l d n o t b e s u r e
t h a t t h e b o t t l e c o n t a i n e d what i t was s u p p o s e d t o c a r r y , however.
Even i f t h e p r o d u c t i n t h e b a r r e l was t h e g e n u i n e a r t i c l e - - a g e d
whiskey--there was n o t h i n g t o s t o p t h e d e a l e r from d i l u t i n g i t ,
i n a v a r i e t y o f ways, b e f o r e r e s e l l i n g .
The b o t t l e s which t h e d i s t i l l e r sometimes s e n t a l o n g w i t h h i s
b a r r e l s o f w h i s k e y w e r e p r o m o t i o n a l p i e c e s t h a t made l i b e r a l , a n d
u s u a l l y u n a u t h o r i z e d , u s e o f t h e names a n d l i k e n e s s e s o f A m e r i c a ' s
heroes and symbols.
George Washington and t h e American E a g l e were
widely used a s d e c o r a t i o n s f o r t h e s e fancy d e c a n t e r s or b o t t l e s .
Washington was n o t a v e r s e t o d i s t i l l i n g o r i m b i b i n g a l c o h o l , b u t
t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d c o m p a n i e s who l a t e r u s e d h i s g o o d n a m e d i d s o
without regard f o r t h e General's ( o r h i s family's) r i g h t o f privacy.
T h e f r o n t i e r moved w e s t w a r d , w i t h w h i s k e y a n d o t h e r a l c o h o l i c
b e v e r a g e s moving r i g h t a l o n g w i t h i t . L i q u o r was a n i m p o r t a n t
i t e m a m o n g t h e s u p p l i e s f o r a n y p a r t y s t a r t i n g o u t f o r t h e move
w e s t , a n d t h e s a l o o n was u s u a l l y t h e f i r s t , o r o n e o f t h e f i r s t ,
r e t a i l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s t o b e o p e n e d i n t h e new t o w n s .
Other stores,
t o o , dispensed whiskey a l o n g w i t h g r o c e r i e s and d r y goods, firearms
and farming t o o l s .
"Omaha," i t i s s a i d , n w a s n o u r i s h e d t h r o u g h
i t s e a r l i e s t d a y s b y a c r u d e e m p o r i u m t h a t d i s p e a s e d g r o c e es a n d
w h i s k e y f r o m a d a n k d u g o u t w h o s e r o o f w a s a l a y e r o f s o a . I,
W i l l a i m Lamme, a d v e r t i s i n g i n t h e F r a n k l i n M i s s o u r i I n t e l l i g e n c e r ,
l i s t e d a wide v a r i e t p o f a r t i c l e s on hand and o f f e r e d f o r s a l e
e v e r y t h i n g from "Clothes and Cassimeresw t o "Spanish C i g a r s , "
Q
r
"Knives a n d F o r k s , " " G r a s s , c o r n , a n d b r a m b l e S c y t h e s , " "Tea a n d
Coffee," and "Medicines, assorted."
T h e n h e a d d e d , "ALSO ON H A N D ,
55 b b l s . W h i s k e y , b y t h e b a r r e l ; 4 b b l s . J a m a i c a s p i r i t s ; 3 b b l s .
A V a n d a l i a , I l l i n o i s , m e r c h a n t Ifannounced h i s p r i c e s
G i n a n d Wine."
through t h e columns o f t h e I l l i n o i s ~ n t e l l i g e n c e r , " i n t h e l a t e
1820s, "quoting whiskey a t t h i r t y - s e v e n and a h a l f c e n t s a g a l l o n
by t h e b a r r e l , a n d f o r t y - t h r e e a n d t h r e e - f o u r t h s c e n t s i f b o u g h t
by a s i n g l e g a l l o n . " l g
Around t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e p r o m o t i o n a l
a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e i n d u s t r y t o o k o n a new l o o k .
The packaging and
b r a n d i n g o f p r o d u c t s w a s b e c o m i n g m o r e common a n d t h e d i s t i l l e r s
were f o r c e d t o follow t h e trend.
This l e d t o a decrease i n the
n u m b e r o f home d i s t i l l e r i e s .
There was a l s o a mountins t i d e o f
o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e consumption o f a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s , and t h i s cont r i b u t e d t o t h e n e e d f o r new a d v e r t i s i n g t e c h n i q u e s .
In addition
t o t h e more e x t e n s i v e u s e o f b r a n d names, t h e r e w e r e more i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n t h e a d s a l o n g w i t h s p e c i a l o f f e r s a n d premiums t o a t t r a c t
customers, both wholesale and r e t a i l .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e H. J a c k s o n
Company p r o p o s e d ? ' T h e G r e a t e s t W h i s k e y O f f e r f r o m t h e S t a t e o f
Kentucky."
T h i s 1 9 1 4 a d v e r t i s e m e n t p r o m i s e d "2 g a l l o n s i n demij o h n s o f t h e f a m o u s J a c k s o n ' s Monograph W h i s k e y a t t h e Rock B o t t o m
a D e c k o f C a r d s FREE!
With
P r i c e o f $4.98, Express prepaid---and
Each O r d e r . "
A n o t h e r o f f e r f r o m t h a t same company g a v e t h e c u s t o m e r who b o u g h t a g a l l o n o r m o r e a n " e l e g a n t STEM WINDER WATCH"
a n d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t " A S h i p m e n t o f Two G a l l o n s W i l l C o n t a i n B o t h
t h e W a t c h a n d t h e C a r d s , FREE.
W h e r e C u s t o m e r s P r e f e r , ae ; l i l l
g i v e a S a f e t y Razor i n p l a c e o f t h e Watch."
A t t h i s t i z e the
g a l l o n demijohn was p r i c e d a t $3.25.21
Some o f t h e g i f t s w e r e a b i t m o r e u n u s u a l .
I n 1908 t h e premium o f t h e H a y n e r D i s t i l l e r y o f T r o y , O h i o , w a s a " H a n d s o m e
Decanter w i t h Lock-Stopper, Absolutely
Free with a l l orders for
T h r e e q u a r t s o f Hayner P r i v a t e S t o c k bottled-in-bond whiskey and
T h i s was a "handsome deo n e q u a r t o f W. S . S t r a i g h t Whiskey."
of clearest c r y s t a l glass--in a t t r a c t i v e cut c l a s s
canter
design--with f l u t e d neck and base--bears no l a b e l o r o t h e r advertising--and w i l l prove a decided ornament t o any sideboard."
The
m o s t a p p e a l i n g f e a t u r e , h o w e v e r , was t h e " c o m b i n a t i o n l o c k - s t o p p e r , "
It i s
s a i d t o be " t h e most ingenious s t o p p e r every produced,
f i t t e d a t t h e t o p w i t h a d i a l l i k e t h e combination on a safe--the
s t o p p e r l o c k s i n t o t h e neck o f t h e bottle--and cannot be withdrawn
It i s a n a b s o l u t e
b y a n y o n e who d o e s n o t know t h e c o m b i n a t i o n .
safeguard
mainst children, servants o r others tampering with your
w h i s k e y . n230
...
Brown a n d F o r m a n m a d e g o o d u s e o f s e v e r a l w e l l - r e m e m b e r e d a d s .
"One s h o w e d a m u s t a c h i o e d r a n c h e r i n t e n - g a l l o n h a t a n d f a i n t l y
S p a n i s h g a r b , embracing a huge b o t t l e o f Old F o r e s t e r a i t h one
hand w h i l e t h e o t h e r c o n f r o n t e d t h e world w i t h a p i s t o l . "
Accordi n g t o t h e c a p t i o n h e 'is " G u a r d i n g a g o o d t h i n g i n A r i z o n a . "
A n o t h e r , p r o m o t i n g K e n t u c k y D e w w h i c h w a s made by a f i r m l a t e r
b o u g h t by B r o w n - F o r m a n , " p r e s e n t s a buxom l a d y o f G i b s o n G i r l
g e n r e f i s h i n g f r o m a r o c k i n a s m a l l ~ t r e a m . ' ~Y e t a n o t h e r
shows "A g r o u p o f g e n t l e m e n h u n t e r s p a u s i n g f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
Bourbon-and-branch w a t e r , w e l l - e q u i p p e d w i t t h r e e b a r r e l s and
a c a s e o f Brown-Forman's b e s t , c i r c a 1 8 9 0 . ' ~ ~
T h e L o u i s v i l l e C o u r i e r - J o u r n a l o f May 7 , 1 8 9 2 , c a r r i e d a n
a d f o r " C h u r c h i l l Hand-Made S o u r - M a s h W h i s k y , 4 0 p e r e e n t , s m a l l
g r a i n , " w h i l e o n l y a f e w i n c h e s away was a n a n n o u n c e m e n t , i n t h e
Form o f a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t , o f t h e o p k n i n g o n May 2 o f t h e ' l ' ~ o u i s v i l l e I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Cure o f t h e Liquor Habit."
Other such
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r e d t o c u r e n o t only t h e whiskey, but a l s o t h e
opium h a b i t .
Another advertisement, t h i s one i l l u s t r a t e d , appeared i n a
1 9 0 0 i s s u e o f t h e C o u r i e r - J o u r n a l f o r Mammoth C a v e w h i s k y w i t h
the suggestion that:
" N o t h i n g i s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e AS A CHRISTMAS
PRESENT e m a n a t i n g f r o m K e n t u c k y t h a n a c a s e o f f i n e o l d B o u r b o n ,
and n o t h i n g i s more a p ~ r e c i a t e d . " A t t e n t i o n i s i n v i t e d t o t h e i r
" 1 6 - y e a r o l d l o t , ~ o t t i e di n Bond a n d d e l i v e r e d a n y w h e r e i n t h e
United S t a t e s e a s t o f Colorado, i n a blank c a s e , expressage paid,
f o u r b o t t l e s $5.00."
The b l a n k c a s e , t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e " p l a i n
w r a p p e r " s e e m e d t o b e i m p o r t a n t t o s o m e c u s t o m e r s who m i g h t b e
s e n s i t i v e about nosy neighbors.
Many o f t h e m a i l - o r d e r d e a l e r s
specified i n their advertising that the nature of the contents
o f t h e package would b e c o n c e a l e d .
The r o l e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s g o v e r n m e n t became a n i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r i n t h e promotional e f f o r t s o f t h e d i s t i l l e r s and merchants.
Nock & S n y d e r , L o u i s v i l l e , i n t h e C o u r i e r - J o u r n a l o f J a n u a r y 4 ,
1 9 0 0 , s a i d , "SEND US $ 2 . 2 5 ( m o n e y o r d e r o r c a s h - - n o i n d i v i d u a l
c h e c k s ) a n d w e w i l l SEND Y O U i n a b o x , o n e g a l l o n o f o u r SEVEN
YEAR OLD JAY-EYE-SEE KENTUCKY SOUR MASH WHISKY."
The c u s t o m e r
c o u l d h a v e c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e p r o d u c t s i n c e Nock & S n y d e r w e n t o n
t o s a y t h a t t h e y " t a k e t h i s w h i s k y f r o m t h e U.S. b o n d e d w a r e h o u s e
d i r e c t and a r e t h u s e n a b l e d t o g u a r a n t e e i t s ' a b s o l u t e p u r i t y and
One w h o l e s a l e r d e c o r a t e d h i s a d v e r t i s i n g " w i t h s o m e t e n
age."
d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e s o f U n c l e Sam i n v a r i o u s p 3 t a s i n g p o s e s , " w i t h '
t h e b o l d h e a d i n g " U n c l e Sam i s o u r P a r t n e r . "
It is s a f e t o s a y t h a t i n t h e 1890s and e a r l y 1900s d i s t i l l e r s w e r e somewhat l e s s i n h i b i t e d w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r advertising.
Sex, i f used a t a l l today, is presented i n a s u b t l e
a n d , u s u a l l y , i n o f f e n s i v e manner.
Not s o i n t h e e a r l i e r d a y s .
One a d v e r t i s e m e n t , s p o n s o r e d by T h e B e l l e o f N e l s o n D i s t i l l e r y
Company, w a s i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h s e v e r a l n u d e a n d s e m i - n u d e f e m a l e s
A n o t h e r , from t h e Sunny
l o u n g i n g i n a l a v i s h harem s e t t i n g .
3 r o o k D i s t i l l e r y ( c i r c a 1 9 0 0 ) p u t t h e d i s t i l l e r y a n d i t s smoke
s t a c k s i n t h e background b u t gave o v e r t h e foreground o f t h e
i l l u s t r a t i o n t o a group o f young l a d i e s d i s p o r t i n g themselves i n
S e v e r a l a r e i n t h e nude and i n t h e
and around a pool o f water.
w a t e r , w h i l e o t h e r s a r e d i s r o b i n g and p i n n i n g up t h e i r h a i r a s
they prepare t o j o i n t h e fun.
Such a d v e r t i s i n g offended t h e
Women's C h r i s t i a n T e m p e r a n c e U n i o n o f t h a t d a y a n d w o u l d v i o l a t e
t h e i n d u s t r y ' s own c o d e o f g o o d p r a c t i ' c e t o d a y .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s e x i n t h e whiskey adv e r t i s i n g o f t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h i s c e n t u r y , t h e r e was w i d e u s e
o f s p o r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h u n t i n g , a n d some d e m e a n i n g p o r t r a y a l s
o f e t h n i c g r o u p s i n a f a s h i o n t h a t would n o t be a c c e p t a b l e toA s d e s c r i b e d by H a r r y H a r r i s o n K r o l l , o n e s u c h a d v e r t i s e m e n t
day.
p i c t u r e d "a c o l o r e d p r e a c h e r w i t h a bony h o r s e , a n o l d u m b r e l l a ,
and a 5-gallon jug o f Green River, t h e whisky without headache,
t h e parson p a r t i n g h i s whiskers with a b i g g r i n o f a n t i c i p a t i o n ,
h i s b e l l y a b o u t t o b u s t o u t o f h i s f r o c k c o a t , h i p a n t s baggy,
h i s s h o e s r u n down, h i s h a t a b e a t - u p ~ t o v e p i p e . " ' ~ A n o t h e r , i n
somewhat t h e same v e i n , d e p i c t s a p o k e r game b e i n g p l a y e d o n a
t a b l e l a b e l e d O l d F o r e & t e r ' ~ h i s k ~ , ' w i tohn e o f t h e p l a i e r s s e a t e d
on a k e n m a r k e d " S i n c e 1 8 7 0 " a n d a Brown-Forman c a l e n d a r o n t h e
wall.
-
Some a d v e r t i s e r s e l e c t e d t o s h o w t h e d i s t i l l e r y w h e r e t h e i r
p r o d u c t w a s m a d e o r t o s h o w a q u a i n t l i t t l e home s t i l l o p e r a t i o n
t o i n d i c a t e , g e n e r a l l y , t h a t t h e b i g modern d i s t i l l e r y company
s t i l l made t h e i r w h i s k e y t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d way.
American a d v e r t i s e r s i n g e n e r a l w e n t t h r o u g h t h i s s t a g e when t h e y s e e m e d t o f e e l
t h a t t h e b e s t way t o p r o m o t e t h e i r p r o d u c t w a s t o s h o w a p i c t u r e
o f t h e p l a n t w h e r e i t was made o r d i s t r i b u t e d .
P i l l s b u r y showed
t h e i r h u g e f l o u r m i l l , Montgomery-Ward t h e i r h u g e m a i l - o r d e r b u i l d i n g and warehouse i n Chicago, and one p a t e n t medicine manufacturer
f e a t u r e d a drawing showing a photographic s e c t i o n a l i n t e r i o r v i e u
o f t h e i r l a b o r a t o r y , f r o m t h e e n g i n e r o o m a n d rum v a u l t i n t h e
b a s e m e n t t o t h e t a n k room o n t h e s i x t h a n d t o p f l o o r .
In like
m a n n e r , many o f t h e w h i s k e y f i r m s p i c t u r e d t h e i r " m o d e r n " p l a n t s
o r u s e d t h e a p p r o a c h e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e E a r l y Times p l a q u e , which
p o r t r a y e d a n o l d m o u n t a i n s t i l l w i t h t h e ox-drawn wagon l o a d e d
with b a r r e l s o f whiskey.
The a d v e r t i s i n g o f w h i s k e y a n d o t h e r l i q u o r s came t o a v i r t u a l
h a 1 t i n 1 9 2 0 f o l l o w i n g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e E i g h t e e n t h Ai4iendment
and passage o f t h e Volstead Act.
The l o n g d r y s p e l l began, and
t h e need f o r a d v e r t i s i n g and promotion disappeared.
Not u n t i l
1 9 3 3 , i n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f F r a n k l i n D e l a n o R o o s e v e l t ' s New D e a l ,
would t h e u s e o f s u c h a d v e r t i s i n g r e a p p e a r .
Then, t h e Twentyf i r s t Amendment r e p e a l e d t h e E i g h t e e n t h a n 3 o n D e c e m b e r 5 t h o f
t h a t y e a r , P r o h i b i t i o n , t h e " G r e a t E x p e r i m e n t , " came t o a n e n d .
T h e n e w i n d u s t r y a n d t h e new a d v e r t i s i n g t h a t e m e r g e d f r o m
t h e h i a t u s i m p o s e d by P r o h i b i t i o n showed m o r e s e n s i t i v i t y t o publ i c opinion.
The a d v e r t i s i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d p o l i c i e s t h a t have
developed i n t h e y e a r s s i n c e 1933 r e f l e c t t h e concerns o f a n i n d u s t r y t h a t h a s b e e n p u t down h a r d o n c e a n d w i l l t r e a d s o f t l y t o
a v o i d t h e r e c u r r e n c e ,of sucti a c a l a m i t y .
Today, t h e D i s t i l l e d
S p i r i t s C o u n c i l o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e members o f
t h e i n d u s t r y , imposes r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e a d v e r t i s i n g o f d i s t i l l e d
s p i r i t s t h r o u g h i t s " C o d e o f Good P r a c t i c e . "
This s e t of voluntary
c o n t r o l s i s s u p p l e m e n t e d by a n o t h e r i n t h e f o r m o f t h e N a t i o n a l
A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r o a d c a s t e r s ' " C o d e o f Good P r a c t i c e s " f o r 8 a d i o
and Television.
Adherence t o t h e s e v o l u n t a r y c o n t r o l s seems
a s s u r g d a s l o n g a s t h e t h r e a t o f government r e g u l a t i o n o f a more
A return
r e s t r i c t i v e n a t u r e hangs over t h e i n d u s t r y l i k e a cloud.
t o Prohibition is not l i k e l y a t t h i s t i m e , but f o r l i q u o r producers
i t i s a s p e c t r e always l u r k i n g on t h e h o r i z o n .
NOTES
' ~ e a n A l b e r t s o n , " P u r i t a n L i q u o r i n t h e P l a n t i n g o f t h e New
E n g l a n d , " New E n g l a n d Q u a r t e r l y , 2 3 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , 4 7 8 .
2 ~ e o r g e F . W i l l i s o n , S a i n t s a n d S t r a n g e r s (New Y o r k :
1 9 4 5 1 , p. 1 5 9 .
Reynal
& Hitchcock,
3 ~ i l l i a mB r a d f o r d ,
York:
The Modern L i b r a r
P l a n t a t i o n a t P l i m o t h (Ann A r b o r :
~ n i v e r s i t ~ ~ i c r o f i l m
1 9s 6, 6 ) .
6 ~ l i c eY o r s e E a r l e , C u s t o m s a n d F a s h i o n s i n O l d New E n g l a n d
( W i l l i a m s t o w n , Mass.:
C o r n e r H o u s e P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 1 6 3 .
"
' ~ h o m a s H a r r i o t , A B r i e f e a n d T r u e R e p o r t o f t h e New F o u n d
L a n d o f V i r g i n i a (New Y o r k :
Dover, 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 1 3 .
8 ~ a n e sT . Adams, e d . , Album o f A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y , V o l .
T h e C o l o n i a l P e r i o d (New Y o r k :
S c r i b n e r s , 1 9 6 1 1 , p. 325.
I:
'b!eslev
H. W a l l a c e , " P r o p e r t v a n d T r a d e : Main Themes o f
North C a r o l i n a
E a r l y ? ~ o r t hC- a r o l i n a ~ e h s ~ a ~ de i be r t i s e m e n t ,"
s
H i s t o r i c a l Review, 3 2 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 481.
1 ° k r t h u r G . P e t e r s o n , "Commerce o f V i r g i n i a , 1 7 8 9 - 1 7 9 1 ,
W i l l i a n 2r.d I:ary Q u a r t e r l y , S e r i e s 11, 1 0 ( 1 9 3 0 1 , 3 0 4 .
"
11-
~ d m u n d S . M o r g a n , " T h e F i r s t A m e r i c a n Boom:
Virginia,
1 6 1 9 t o 1 6 3 0 , " W i l l i a m a n d Mary Q u a r t e r l x , S e r i e s 111, 2 8 ( 1 9 7 1 1 ,
179.
1 3 c a l v i n 3. C o u l t e r , J r . , " T h e I m p o r t T r a d e o f C o l o n i a l V i r g i n i a , " W i l l i a m and-Mary Q u a r t e r l y , S e r i e s 1 1 1 , 2 ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 304.
1 4 F r a n c e s L . S . Dugan a n d J a c q u e l i n e P. B u l l , e d s . , B l u e g r a s s Craftsman:
B e i n t h e R e m i n i s c e n c e s o f E b e n e z e r Hiram Stedman
Univ. o f Kentucky P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ) .
Papermaker, 1808-1885 ?Lexington:
P. 45.
The E a r l y Y e a r s o f
1 5 ~ e n r yG . C r o w g e y , K e n t u c k y B o u r b o n :
Whiskeymaking ( L e x i n g t o n :
U n i v . o f K e n t u c k y P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 1 , P. 1 1 0 .
16crowgey, p.
111.
1 7 ~ i r g i n i u s Dabney a n d J o n K u k l a , "The M o n t i c e l l o S c a n d a l s :
H i s t o r y a n d F i c t i o n , " V i r g i n i a C a v a l c a d e , 2 9 , N O . 2 (Autumn, 1 9 7 9 1 ,
p. 53.
1 8 ~ e i t hW h e e l e r , T h e O l d W e s t :
L i f e Books, 19751, p. 20.
T h e Townsmen (New Y o r k :
Time-
" ~ e w i s E. A t h e r t o n , " E a r l y W e s t e r n M e r c a n t i l e A d v e r t i s i n g , "
B u l l e t i n o f t h e B u s i n e s s H i s t o r y S o c i e t y , 1 2 , No. 4 ( S e p t . , 1 9 3 8 ) ,
PP. 5 2 - 5 3 .
2 0 ~ o b e r tE . S n y d e r , W h i s k e y P a p e r ( A m a r i l l o :
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , 19801, p. 37.
S n y d e r Whiskey
2 3 ~ o h n Ed P e a r c e , N o t h i n g B e t t e r i n t h e M a r k e t ( L o u i s v i l l e :
Brown-Forman D i s t i l l e r s , 1 9 7 0 1 , p p . 3 0 - 3 1 .
An U n h u r r i e d
2 4 ~ e r a l dC a r s o n , T h e S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f B o u r b o n :
A c c o u n t o f O u r S t a r - S p a n g l e d A m e r i c a n D r i n k (New Y o r k :
Dodd, Mead,
19631, P. 156.
SLOW BIRTH I N WHITE A N D BLACK:
TENNESSEE'S
STATE COLLEGES I N THE FORMATIVE YEARS
Samuel H. S h a n n o n
Tennessee S t a t e University
The b i r t h a n d e a r l y h i s t o r y o f T e n n e s s e e ' s R e g e n t s
u n i v e r s i t i e s must b e understood i n t h e l i g h t o f long-expressed
demands f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l l y t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s t o s e r v e i n t h e
state's slowly emerging p u b l i c schools.
The G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n
Act of 1909 f u n c t i o n e d a s t h e l e g i s l a t i v e mechanism e s s e n t i a l
f o r c r e a t i n g those t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s (normal schools)
whose t r a n s f o r m a t i o n would p r e f a c e development o f Middle
T e n n e s s e e , E a s t T e n n e s s e e , Memphis S t a t e a n d T e n n e s s e e S t a t e
Universities, respectively.
Yet t h e r e had been p u b l i c a p p e a l s
o n b e h a l f o f s t a t e n o r m a l s c h 01s f o r o v e r f i f t y y e a r s p r i o r
to this critical legislation.
?
The l o n g t r a i l o f u n s u c c e s s f u l b i l l s o n b e h a l f o f s t a t e
n o r m a l s c h o o l s may b e t r a c e d t o O c t o b e r 2 7 , 1855, when R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Robert Hopkins Hatton o f Wilson County f i r s t i n i t i a t e d
s u c h l e g i s l a t i o n b e f o r e t h e T e n n e s s e e G e n e r a l Assembly.
Calli n g f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f one normal s c h o o l , t h i s young l e g i s l a t o r h o p e d t o a d v a n c e h i s c o n s i d e r a b l e a m b i t i o n by e n g i n e e r i n g
t h i s proposal i n t o law.
H i s b i l l d e s i g n a t e d t h e c i t y o f Lebanon
a s t h e s i t e f o r t h e new s c h o o l .
H a t t o n p l e a d e d h i s c a s e by
c l a i m i n g t h a t T e n n e s s e e ' s common s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w e r e i n a d e q u a t e l y t r a i n e d and t h a t t h e Volunteer S t a t e lagged behind o t h e r
s t a t e s which had a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t e normal schools.
He
a l s o r a i s e d a n emotion-laden i s s u e as f u r t h e r i n d u c e m e n t , c l a i m i n g t h a t T e n n e s s e e was r e l y i n g h e a v i l y upon t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f
n o r t h e r n t e a c h e r s , who, "coming a m o n g s t u s , w i t h a l l t h e i r p r e j u d i c e s a g a i n s t o u r i n s t i t u t i o n s , were sowing p e r n i c i o u s
Abolitionism i n t h e opening minds o f o u r youth."2
Hatton's
p e r s u a s i v e t a l e n t s were e f f e c t i v e i n t h e s t a t e House, b u t t h e
s t a t e S e n a t e p r o v e d a n o t h e r matter.
The young l e g i s l a t o r had
f e a r e d t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e c o s t f o r such a v e n t u r e would b e
" t h e rock on which I w i l l be s p l i t . "
H a t t o n ' s was a melanc h o l y p r e s c i e n c e , b e c a u s e t h e S e n a t e d e f e a t e d h i s b i l l by a
single vote.
Opponents claimed t h e s t a t e had a l r e a d y d e p l e t e d
i t s f u n d s by m a k i n g a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r p r i o r i t i e s s u c h a s a g r i c u l t u r e and r a i l r o a d s .
S p e n d i n g money upon " s u c h a n a r i s t o c r a t i c p r o p o s i t i o n " a s a normal s c h o o l would i n d e e d " s a c r i f i c e
the credit of the ~ t a t e . " ~
Once d e s c r i b e d as t h e " D e m o s t h e n e s o f t h e g r e a t American
Whig-Know N o t h i n g p a r t y , " ' R o b e r t H o p k i n s H a t t o n d i d n o t a l l o w
t h i s n o r m a l s c h o o l d e f e a t t o dampen e i t h e r h i s a m b i t i o n f o r
p u b l i c o f f i c e o r h i s ' a r d o r f o r c r e a t i n g s c h o o l s which would p r e pare teachers.
He r a n u n s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t D e m o c r a t I s h a m G .
H a r r i s o f Shelby County f o r t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p i n 1857, a r t i c u -
l a t i n g a g a i n t h e c r i t i c a l n e e d f o r n o r m a l s c h o o l s a s h e campaigned.
Y e t t h i s p i o n e e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l , who s u b s e q u e n t l y
s e r v e d a s i n g l e t e r m i n C o n g r e s s , was s o o n l o s t t o t h e c a u s e
o f educational reform.
I n 1862, while s e r v i n g a s a Brigadier
G e n e r a l i n t h e C o n f e d e r a t e Army, H a t t o n w a s k i l l e d i n b a t t l e . 5
T h e r e would be o t h e r s i n t h e T e n n e s s e e G e n e r a l Assembly
who w o u l d f o l l o w H a t t o n , p r e s s i n g t h e n e e d f o r s t a t e n o r m a l
schools.
I n 1 8 6 5 , t h e C i v i l War d i s r u p t e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a
Normal S c h o o l p r o p o s a l t h a t had b o t h c l e a r e d t h e G e n e r a l Assembly
and received t h e governor's approval.
S u c h l e g i s l a t i o n was a g a i n
Governor John
proposed i n 1867 and 1868, o n l y t o be d e f e a t e d . 6
C . Brown i n f o r m e d t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n 1 8 7 3 t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r S t a t e , w i t h d u b i o u s d i s t i n c t i o n , was " t h i r d i n i g n o r a n c e "
among t h e n a t i o n ' s s t a t e s . 7 T h i s s o b e r i n g a c c o u n t o f i l l i t e r a c y
i n Tennessee helped spur t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t o pass a public school
l a w d u r i n g t h e same y e a r .
T h e new s t a t u t e s e t i n m o t i o n a n
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e s c h o o l s r a n g i n g from t h e s t a t e
l e v e l through t h e various county d i s t r i c t s .
B u t when a S t a t e
Normal S c h o o l b i l l was i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 8 7 3 , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e a g a i n
demons r a t e d t h e l i m i t s o f i t s g e n e r o s i t y a n d d e f e a t e d t h e p r o posal.
&
I n 1 8 7 5 , a g o v e r n i n g body f o r t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s was c r e a t e d
with t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s t a t e board o f education.
And w e r e i t
n o t f o r t h e l a r g e s s o f t h e Peabody E d u c a t i o n Fund, t h e r e would
h a v e been no s i m u l t a n e o u s a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o normal s c h o o l education.
W h i l e a c c e p t i n g t h i s handsome a s s i s t a n c e , t h e G e n e r a l
A s s e m b l y w a s n o t s o q u i c k t o make a f i n a n c i a l c o m m i t m e n t i t s e l f .
I n d e e d , when t h e P e a b o d y S t a t e Normal S c h o o l o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y
o f N a s h v i l l e was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 7 5 , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e s t i p u l a t e d
" t h a t n o t h i n g i n t h i s Act s h a l l b e s o c o n s t r u e d a s t o a u t h o r i z e
e x p e n d i t u r e o f money f r o m t h e S t a t e T r e a s u r y o r S c h o o l F u n d s o f
the ~ t a t e . " g
The S t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e may h a v e c o n t i n u e d i n t h i s l e s s - t h a n r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o Peabody Fund s u p p o r t w e r e i t n o t f o r
p r o s p e c t s o f t h e new n o r m a l s c h o o l b e i n g moved t o a m o r e a p p r e : i a t i v e environment.
Peabody P r e s i d e n t Eben S t e a r n s r e p o r t e d , i n d e e d , t h a t e x i s t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o u l d prompt p r o p o s a l s " t o r e move t h e C o l l e g e t o s o m e o t h e r S t a t e e x h i b i t i n g g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t
With t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y looming b e f o r e t h e
i n its welfare."1°
G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , l a w m a k e r s managed t o d i s c o v e r p u b l i c f u n d s .
In
1 8 8 1 , t h e f i r s t s t a t e a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r t h e Peabody Normal was
made.
S t a r t i n g w i t h a n i n i t i a l sum o f $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 , t h e T e n n e s s e e
G e n e r a l A ~ s e m b l y ~ ~ o n t i n ut eo d make y e a r l y a p p r o p r i a t i o n s t o P e a body u n t i l 1 9 0 4 .
Even t h o u g h Peabody Normal S c h o o l r e c e i v e d s t a t e f u n d s ,
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e i n K n o x v i l l e h a d t o e x i s t o v e r a comp a r a b l e p e r i o d on f e d e r a l l a n d g r a n t f u n d s and t u i t i o n payments.
Not u n t i l 1 9 0 3 d i d t h e G e n e r a l Assembly f i n a l l y a w a r d t h e l o n g f r u s t r a t e d s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y with an a p p r o p r i a t i o n . l2
Y e t n o e x o r b i t a n t c l a i m s may b e made f o r t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y
i n i t s Peabody s u p p o r t .
The a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e d i r e c t e d
t o w a r d s c h o o l m a i n t e n a n c e , w e r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l when c o m p a r e d
w i t h t h e p r i v a t e s u p p o r t g r a n t e d t h r o u g h t h e Peabody E d u c a t i o n
Fund.
And t h o u g h t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y h a d p r o v i d e d u n p r e c e d e n t e d
s t a t e a s s i s t a n c e , c o n t r o l o f t h e Normal r e m a i n e i n t h e h a n d s
o f t h e Peabody t r u s t e e s a n d t h e E d u c a t i o n Fund. 3
?
W h i l e t h e p i o n e e r i n g work o f Peabody Normal r e c e i v e d g r o w i n g
r e c o g n i t i o n , i t was o b v i o u s t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n was p r e p a r i n g
only a fraction o f the teachers necessary t o populate the priv a t e and p u b l i c s c h o o l s o f t h e s t a t e .
But t h e decades between
1 8 7 0 a n d 1 9 0 0 w e r e n o t p r o p i t i o u s times f o r r e c t i f y i n g t h e pove r t y of teacher-training opportunities.
The b u r d e n s o m e l e g a c y
o f t h e s t a t e d e b t and depressed a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s c o n t i n u a l l y
undermined a m b i t i o u s f u n d i n g f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .
And t h e r e p e r s i s t e d t h o s e v o c a l e l e m e n t s who s t r o n g l y p r e f e r r e d a s t a t e d o t t e d
with privately-supported academies and colleges.14
Y e t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l economy r e c e i v e d a v i t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
i n 1 9 0 0 . And w i t h m a r k e d i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h i s c r u c i a l i n d u s t r y l 5
came a s i m u l t a n e o u s r i s e i n e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .
A d d i n g a n e s s e n t i a l i m p e t u s t o s u c h g o a l s was t h e S o u t h e r n Educat i o n Board, which campaigned v i g o r o u s l y f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n
throughout t h e South between 1900 and 1910. A s w i t h each o f t h e
s o u t h e r n s t a t e s , t h e T e n n e s s e e e n t e r p r i s e was s e t i n m o t i o n i n d e pendently.16
Within t h e Volunteer S t a t e , t h e Southern Education
B o a r d ' s i n i t i a t i v e s w e r e c a r r i e d f o r w a r d by Seymour A . M y n d e r s ,
C h a r l e s W . D a b n e y a n d P h i l a n d e r P . C l a x t o n , e a c h o f whom w a s s e r v i n g i n a prominent e d u c a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n a t t h e t i m e t h e campaign
was s t a r t e d i n 1 9 0 4 .
Mynders was s e r v i n g a s t h e S t a t e S u p e r i n tendent of Public Instruction.
Dabney h e l d p o s i t i o n s a s b o t h t h e
P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee and a s a paid a g e n t o f
t h e Southern Education Board.
C l a x t o n had been h i r e d t o s e r v e
a s t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e Southern Education Board's Bureau o f Information and Advice on L e g i s l a t i o n and School 0 r g a n i z a t i o n . I 7
C l a x t o n ' s own d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l c a m p a i g n s i l l u s t r a t e s the energy s e t loose:
...
a t f i r s t , we t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f a l l p o s s i b l e
o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o speak and write f o r e d u c a t i o n
We u s e d s c h o o l comand t o g e t o t h e r s t o do s o .
mencements, p i c n i c s , c h u r c h e s , Sunday s c h o o l s ,
f a r m e r s 1 m e e t i n g s , D e c o r a t i o n Day a s s e m b l i e s ,
lodge meetings.
I wrote t o a l l c o l l e g e s and
high schools
t o preachers
editors
'16
women's c l u b s
county superintendents.
...
...
...
...
.
...
The r a n g e o f t h e s e a p p e a l s proved c o n t a g i o u s , and w i t h i n
such an environment o f e l e v a t e d expectations t h e enthusiasm f o r
n o r m a l s c h o o l s w a s r @ v i v e d . By J u l y o f 1 9 0 6 , e d u c a t i o n a l camp a i g n e r s h a d c o m ~ o s e da s e v e n - p o i n t p r o p o s a l f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
c r e a t i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g t h r e e s t a t e normal s c h o o l s f o r w h i t e s .
An a d d e d s t i p u l a t i o n o f t h i s p r o p o s a l c a l l e d f o r o n e n o r m a l
school t o be laced i n each o f t h e t h r e e geographic s e c t i o n s
of Tennes~ee.~g
W h i l e t h i s m e a s u r e was d e f e a t e d , i t s s p o n s o r s d i d n o t r e p e a t t h e withdrawal o f p r i o r normal s c h o o l a d v o c a t e s .
Within
t h e n e x t t h r e e y e a r s t h e c a m p a i g n w a s i n t e n s i f i e d a n d a new b i l l
was p r o p o s e d .
T h i s new l e g i s l a t i o n c a l l e d f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f
t h r e e white normal schools and one a g r i c u l t u r a l and i n d u s t r i a l
s t a t e normal s c h o o l f o r Negroes.20
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b l a c k s t o
t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n r e f l e c t e d , o f c o u r s e , t h e f i n e l y - h o n e d mechanisms
o f c a s t e within t h e Volunteer S t a t e .
T h e v e r y a p ~ e a lf o r a " N e g r o
A s renormal" had been approached w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n .
f o r m e r s , t h e S o u t h e r n E d u c a t i o n Board c a m p a i g n e r s had sounded t h e
theme o f u n i v e r s a l e d u c a t i o n , y e t t h e y d i d n o t w i s h t o j e o p a r d i z e
e i t h e r t h e i r p u b l i c s c h o o l o r t h e i r normal
c h o o l l e g i s l a t i o n by
And s o when u l t i emphasizing t h e needs of black Tennesseans.
m a t e s a n c t i o n was g i v e n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a N e g r o n o r m a l , t h e
s c h o o l was t o b e a n i n s t i t u t i o n d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m i t s
white counterparts.
The words " a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l "
i m p l i e d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n i n r u d i m e n t a r y t r a d e s t h a t h a d l o n g made 2 2
blacks invaluable t o white landowners throughout t h e r u r a l South.
31
T h i s c a s t e d e s i g n a t i o n was n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e new " A . a n d I . " When t h e G e n e r a l Educ a t i o n Act c r e a t i n g t h e t h r e e w h i t e a n d o n e Negro normal was
f i n a l l y p a s s e d i n 1 9 0 9 , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n was a l s o s i n g l e d o u t w i t h i n t h e funding formula.
W h i l e e a c h o f t h e w h i t e s c h o o l s was d e s i g n a t e d two-sevenths o f t h e annual a p p r o p r i a t i o n , t h e black
23
a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l n o r m a l was p r o v i d e d o n l y o n e - s e v e n t h .
Y e t i t was t h e v e r y l a b e l " a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l " w h i c h made
v i s i b l e blacks' claim t o s e p a r a t e land-grant s t a t u s under t h e M o r r i l l
Act o f 1 8 9 0 , t h e second M o r r i l l Act.
T h i s a c t had been c o n s t r u c t e d
t o prevent f u r t h e r funding discrimination against blacks i n t h e
southern and border s t a t e s .
T h e s e same s t a t e s were r e q u i r e d t o
fund s e p a r a t e land-grant s c h o o l s f o r b l a c k s o r f a c e t h e penalty
o f r e c e i v i n g no f e d e r a l l a n d g r a n t funds.24
And s o , i r o n i c a l l y , a n i d e n t i t y e s t a b l i s h e d t o a c c e n t u a t e
c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n s proved u s e f u l f o r g a i n i n g f e d e r a l funds.
T e n n e s s e e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S t a t e Normal S c h o o l f o r
N e g r o e s was t h e r e b y d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e b l a c k l a n d - g r a n t c o u n t e r p a r t
t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee.
Yet i n t r u t h , blacks did n o t a c q u i r e independent a c c e s s t o
t h e s e funds without a protracted struggle.
F o r n e a r l y two dec a d e s t h e S t a t e o f Tennessee had a l l o w e d o n l y a meager f r a c t i o n
o f t h o s e f e d e r a l r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e from t h e second M o r r i l l Act
t o be u s e d on b e h a l f o f b l a c k T e n n e s s e a n s .
Only a f t e r p e r s i s t e n t
p r o t e s t s - - p r o t e s t s which c a r r i e d u l t i m a t e l y t o C o n g r e s s i o n a l
chambers and t h e P r e s i d e p t o f t h e United States--was t h e s t a t e ' s
black population a b l e t o a t t a i n t h e federal land-grant resources
t o which i t had been d i r e c t l y e n t i t l e d . 2 5
Within t h e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned General Education Act
( 1 9 0 9 ) , w h i c h a u t h o r i z e d t h e f o u r s t a t e n o r m a l s c h o o l s , was a
s t i p u l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g who s h o u l d b e a c c o u n t a b l e f o r s i t e s e lection.
T h e S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n was g i v e n t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , charged t o f i n d promising locations i n each s e c t o r o f
the state.
A c c e s s i b i l i t y , a f f o r d a b l e l i v i n g c o s t s , p h y s i c a l environment, and prospects f o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s were a l l considered.
A s e d u c a t i o n a l h i s t o r i a n A l l i s o n Norman H o r t o n h a s n o t e d , " I n
r e a l i t y , t h e l a s t f a c t o r was t h e d e c i d i n g f a c t o r . ! ' 2 6
Land, e q u i p m e n t , b u i l d i n g s , a n d s c h o o l m a i n t e n a n c e w e r e
a l l fundamental r e q u i s i t e s which t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i y q Act had
been c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s - t h a n - m u n i f i c e n t i n p r o v i d i n g .
Theref o r e , t h e S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n was d i s p o s e d , o f n e c e s s i t y ,
t o f i n d t h o s e s i t e s where t h e c i t i z e n r y ' s s e n s e o f g e n e r o s i t y
would p r e v a i l o v e r t h e o m i s s i o n s o f t h e G e n e r a l Assembly.
Bids f o r t h e s t a t e normal s c h o o l s followed immediately and
were s u b m i t t e d i n i m p r e s s i v e numbers.
Bids f o r t h e East
T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal S c h o o l w e r e s u b m i t t e d f r o m A t h e n s a n d
McMinn C o u n t y , D a y t o n a n d Rhea C o u n t y , C l e v e l a n d a n d B r a d l e y
C o u n t y , S w e e t w a t e r a n d Monroe C o u n t y , a n d J o h n s o n C i t y a n d
Washington County.
P r o p o s a l s f o r t h e M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e Normal
came f r o m t h e c i t i e s o f M o n t e r e y a n d C o o k e v i l l e i n Putnam C o u n t y ,
W i n c h e s t e r and F r a n k l i n County, Tullahoma and C o f f e e County,
F a y e t t e v i l l e a n d L i n c o l n C o u n t y , C o l u m b i a a n d Maury C o u n t y ,
C l a r k s v i l l e a n d Montgomery C o u n t y , S h e l b y v i l l e a n d B e d f o r d C o u n t y ,
and M u r f r e e s b o r o and R u t h e r f o r d County.
In t h e western sector
o f t h e s t a t e , a p p e a l s f o r t h e West T e n n e s s e e Normal e m e r g e d f r o m
T r e n t o n , M i l a n , a n d Humboldt i n G i b s o n C o u n t y , H u n t i n g d o n a n d McKenzie i n C a r r o l l County, J a c k s o n a n d Madison County, Covington
a n d T i p t o n C o u n t y a n d Memphis a n d S h e l b y C o u n t y .
O f course,
J o h n s o n C i t y , M u r f r e e s b o r o , a n d Memphis w e r e t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l
bidders f o r t h e t h r e e white normals, but t h e f i n a n c i a l resources
p u t f o r w a r d t o w i n t h e s i t e s a r e r e f l e c t i o n s o f i m p r e s s i v e commitment.
From t h e t w e n t y - o n e l o c a l i t i e s w h i c h com e t e d w i t h b i d s ,
o v e r $ 7 5 0 , 0 0 0 i n b o n d s , l a n d a n d money was r a i ~ e d . ~ 8
F o r t h e f i n a n c i a l l y more d i s t r e s s e d b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n , t h e
o n l y s e r i o u s b i d s came f r o m C h a t t a n o o g a a n d N a s h v i l l e .
Chatta n o o g a n s w e r e l e d by e d u c a t o r W i l l i a m J a s p e r H a l e , who l a t e r
became t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f T e n n e s s e e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S t a t e Normal S c h o o l f o r N e g r o e s .
Y e t t h e s i t e was g i v e n
t o Nashville.
T h i s was d u e l a r g e l y t o t h e e x h a u s t i v e c a m p a i g n i n g o f t h e N a s h v i l l e Globe, a b l a c k newspaper, and a g r a s s r o o t s
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c i t i z e n v o l u n t e e r s known a s t h e - A g r i c u l t u r a l
C h~a t t a n o o g a
a n d I n d u s t r i a l S t a t e Normal S c h o o l ~ s s o c i a t i o n . ~
had been a s t r o n g c o m p e t i t o r , b u t b l a c k N a s h v i l l i a n s ( e s p e c i a l l y
H e n r y A l l e n Boyd o f t h e G l o b e ) c u l t i v a t e d t h e p a t e r n a l i s t s i n
the legislature skillfully.
G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y members w e r e i n f o r m e d ,
indeed, t h a t l e g i s l a t o r s could oversee t h e i r investment b e t t e r i f
t h e s c h o o l was l o c a t e d i n ~ a s h v i l l e . ~ ~
By March o f 1 9 1 1 , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s f o r a l l o f
t h e new s t a t e n o r m a l s c h o o l s was u n d e r way e x c e p t i n
Simultaneously t h e presidents designated t o lead the schools
were s e l e c t e d .
T h e men recommended by t h e S t a t e B o a r d o f Educ a t i o n w e r e e d u c a t o r s w i t h p r o v e n commitments t o t h e p u b l i c
sector.
R . L. J o n e s , t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f Middle Tennessee
N o r m a l , was S t @ e S u ~ e r i n t e n d e n to f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n b e t w e e n
1907 and 1911.
Sidney G. Gilbreath, selected t o lead t h e East
T e n n e s s e e Normal, had p r e v i o u s l y t a u g h t a t V a n d e r b i l t Univers i t y a n d h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d a t a g e 2_6 t o b e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
o f T e n n e s s e e ' s p u b l i c s c h o o l s i n 1 8 9 5 . 3 3 Seymour A . Mynders,
t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f West T e n n e s s e e N o r m a l , h a d a l s o s e r v e d
a s a S t a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n and had been a
p i v o t a l f i g u r e i n t h e S o u t h e n Education B o a r d ' s campaign on
b e h a l f o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i 0 n . 3 ~ And W i l l i a m J a s p e r H a l e . a t t h e
o u t s e t uniauelv selected t o be "principal" rather than presid e n t o f t h e A . a n d I . Normal f o r N e g r o e s , h a d b e e n t h e p r i n c i p a l o f C h a t t a n o o g a ' s E a s t F i f t h S t r e e t School and an a r d e n t
campaigner i n C h a t t a n o o g a ' s b i d f o r t h e b l a c k norma1.35
B u t n o t a l l members o f t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y w e r e awed by
t h e s e a p ~ o i n t m e n t s . John Pink S i p e s , a R e p r e s e n t a t i v e from
M c N a i r y C o u n t y , 36 c h o s e i m m e d i a t e l v t o ~ u t th e new p r e s i d e n t s
on n o t i c e .
U s i n g h i s p o s i t i o n a s a member o f t h e S t a t e F o r m a l
I n v e s t i g a t i n g Committee. S i p e s p r o t e s t e d t h a t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t
o f s u c h men was p r e m a t u r e , s i n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l
b u i l d i n g s had y e t t o b e c o m p l e t e d .
A c o n t e m ~ o r a r yn e w s p a p e r ,
The J o h n s o n C i t y C o m e t , h a s g i v e n t h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e l e g i s l a t o r ' s sense of indignation:
Representative S i p e s intimated t h a t something
would be d o n e a t t h e n e x t l e c i s l a t u r e t o r e move t h e n e w l y a ~ p o i n t e dp r e s i d e n t s t o t h e s e
n o r m a l s o r k e e p them from d r a w i n g a s a l a r y
u n t i l t h e y b e g i n a c t u a l work.
He s a y s t h e
a p p o i n t m e n t o f n o r m a l p r e s i d e n t s was n o t h i n g
b u t a p o l i t i c a l move a n d s h o u l d h a v e b e e n w i t h h e l d u n t i l t h e r e was n e e d o f s u c h a p o s i t i o n . 3 7
X h i l e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e S i p e s ' words caused none o f t h e a p p o i n t e e s
t o be removed, s u c h s e n t i m e n t s ( t o g e t h e r w i t h o p e n l y s t a t e d s u s p i c i o n t h a t normal s c h o o l f u n d s were b e i n g r n i ~ h a n d 1 e d ) ~ ~ w e r e
bothersome d e t e r r e n t s t o a s e n s e o f mutual t r u s t between t h e
G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a n d t h e new n o r m a l s c h o o l p r e s i d e n t s .
E a r l y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e new s t a t e n o r m a l s c h o o l s a r e
r e v e a l i n g b o t h i n terms o f p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s e f f o r t s a n d i n
terms of i n s t i t u t i o n a l aspirations.
S c h o o l b u l l e t i n s from
t h e beginning years introduced prospective students t o aestheti c a l l y p l e a s i n g a n d commodious s e t t i n g s .
Yet t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l
r e p o r t s t o t h e Superintendent o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n painted such
dismal p i c t u r e s t h a t a t t i m e s t h e y s e e m t o h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b i n g
starkly different places.
One e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t i n g s u c h c o n t r a s t s may b e d r a w n f r o m e a r l y d e s c r i ~ t i o n so f t h e M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e
S t a t e Normal.
A s c h o o l b u l l e t i n o f 1911-1912 had t h i s t o s a y
a b o u t t h e campus s e t t i n g :
T h e l o c a t i o n f o r t h e Normal S c h o o l p l a n t i s a l l
t h a t could be desired.
The s i t e embraces o n e
hundred a c r e s o f land.
The b u i l d i n g is l o c a t e d
on a n e l e v a t i o n which d r a i n s n a t u r a l l y i n a l l
directions.
From t h e t h i r d s t o r y i n t h e m a i n
b u i l d i n g one can s e e a range of h i l l s looking
i n any direction.
A more b e a u t i f u l p e r s p e c t i v e
c o u l d n o t be d e s i r e d . 3 9
B u t f r o m t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e M u r f r e e s b o r o s c h o o l came t h i s c o n t r a s t i n g report t o the S t a t e Superintendent o f Public Instruction
f o r t h e same y e a r :
I d e s i r e t o c a l l t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e Board t o
t h e f a c t t h a t w a t e r s t a n d s i n t h e b a s i n between t h e
b u i l d i n g a n d Main S t r e e t f o r s e v e r a l c o n s e c u t i v e
days during the rainy season.
T h i s pond c o v e r s
a b o u t t h r e e a c r e s o f t h e Normal campus a n d s t a n d s
a t a d e p t h o f two f e e t o v e r t h e r o a d .
It is
n e c e s s a r y t h a t some a c t i o n b e t a k e n a t a n e a r l y
d a t e l o o k i n g t o t h e r e l i e f o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n by
It g r e a t l y i n t e r f e r e s , during
proper drainage.
t h e h i g h w a t e r s e a s o n s , w i t h t h e s t u d e n t s boardi n g i n t o w n a n d t h e o c c u p a n t s o f t h e B o y s Dormit o r y , n e c e s s i t a t i n g , as i t d o e s , t h e i r walking
a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e a r o u n d - t h r o u g h muddy
f i e l d s and climbin fences i n order t o reach t h e
Normal b u i l d i n g s . 4
8
A n o t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f s u c h a d i s p a r i t y may b e w i t n e s s e d
i n t h e school b u l l e t i n appeals o f t h e Tennessee A ~ r i c u l t u r a l
a n d I n d u s t r i a l Normal a n d p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t s o f e a r l y s t u d e n t s
and t e a c h e r s , The c a t a l o g u e o f September 1912 spoke o f a n
i n s t i t u t i o n " h a p p i l y l o c a t e d " w i t h "material e q u i p m e n t
t h o r o u g h l y modern and w e l l a p p o i n t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e i t i s
t o serve."
To f u r t h e r s w e e t e n t h e a p p e a l , t h e j o u r n a l a d d e d ,
"The s i t e s e l e c t e d bv t h e B o a r d is o n e o f t h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e
around Nashville.
It is on h i g h ground amid h e a l t h y
s u r r o u n d i n g s a n d commands m a g n i f i c e n t v i e w s . l t 4 1 Yet f r o m
Mrs. H a r r i e t t H a l e , t h e w i f e o f " P r i n c i p a l " H a l e , c a m e t h i s
description:
"The main campus was o n a r o c k y h i l l .
T h e cami n sharp contrast
pus as a whole was n o t b e a u t i f u l
o l d e r , well e s t a b l i s h e d c o l l e g e s and ~ n i v e r s i t i e s . " ~ ~
to
And f r o m a s t u d e n t who a t t e n d e d t h e b l a c k n o r m a l b e t w e e n 1 9 1 2
a n d 1 9 1 4 came t h i s t e r s e comment:
"The campus was j u s t a c r u d e
p l a c e , i t was rocky.
It d i d n ' t have g r a s s .
It wasn't
landscaped a t a11."43
Another former s t u d e n t added a pungent
remark concerning t h e p r o x i m i t y o f l i v e s t o c k t o l i v i n g q u a r t e r s :
...
. . .
...
...
...
Hogs w e r e n ' t c a r e d f o r i n a s a n i t a r y manner.
But t h e p l a c e was j u s t working w i t h hogs.
T h e y h a d c r ~ l d eq u a r t e r s f o r c h i c k e n s .
Presid e n t Hale e v e n h a d h i s own p r i v a t e h e n h o u s e
t h a t was t o o c l o s e t o t h e boys d o r m i t o r y f o r
c o m f o r t . 44
The modern e q u i p m e n t upon t h e A . a n d I. Normal campus was
another catalogue fiction.
The f i r s t o f f i c i a l r e o o r t o f t h e S t a t e
S u o e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l e d t h e need f o r farm
implements and o t h e r z a c h i n e r e s s e n t i a l t o c a r r y o u t t h e "ind u s t r i a l " r o l e o f t h e s c h o 0 1 . ' ~ I t would be n a i v e t o e x p e c t t o t a l
candor i n school advertisements.
But f o r b e l i e v i n g s t u d e n t s
t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n some b e w i l d e r i n g s u r p r i s e s o n c e t h e y a r r i v e d
upon t h e campuses 3 f t h e s t a t e normal s c h o o l s .
Yet s u c h c o n d i t i o n s d i d n o t o r o d u c e a mass exodus.
To t h e
c o n t r a r y , e a c h o f t h e n o r m a l s c h o o l s was q u i c k l y f i l l e d w i t h
Tennessee s t u d e n t s eager t o take advantage o f a t u i t i o n - f r e e
education.
The l z c k o f d o m i t o r y s p a c e was, i n d e e d , a p r o b l e m
s h a r e d among a l l o f t h e s e q u i c k l y - c r o w d e d s c h o o l s , M a l e s t u d e n t s p a r t i c u l a r l y f e l t t h i s dilemma.
The s e c o n d p r e s i d e n t of
West T e n n e s s e e N o r n a l , J . W. B r i s t e r , c a p s u l e d t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s
concern in^ t h i s l a c k o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n s f o r men.
In h i s presid e n t i a l r e p o r t o f 1 9 1 5 , t h e Memphis e d u c a t o r r e n d e r e d a s u c c i n c t
s t a t e m e n t on t h e n e e d t o remedy t h i s problem:
The Normal S c h o o l n e e d s a men's d o r m i t o r y .
We h a v e b e e n r e n t i n g , d u r i n g t h e p a s t y e a r ,
P r e s c o t t F l a t s , j u s t o f f t h e campus, and o n e
o t h e r b u i l d i n g i n t h e immediate neighborhood
o f t h e s c h o o l , and t h e s e b u i l d i n g s have c o s t
u s p r a c t i c a l l y t w i c e a s much a s we h a v e b e e n
It is confidently
a b l e t o r e a l i z e from them.
b e l i e v e d t h a t w i t h p r o p e r p r o v i s i o n f o r young
men, t h e number o f s t u d e n t s c o u l d b e l a r g e l y
increased.
We a r e c o n t i n u a l l y d e p l o r i n g t h e
a b s e n c e o f men f r o m t h e t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n ,
a n d y e t i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f a Normal s c h o o l
we make p r o v i s i o n f o r y o u n g women a n d l e t
t h e men s h i f t f o r t h e m ~ e l v e s . ~ ~
The i m p o v e r i s h e d s t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e ' s e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c ondary schools, o f course, conditioned t h e requirements f o r
a d m i s s i o n t o t h e new s t a t e n o r m a l s c h o o l s .
For example, t h e
B u l l e t i n o f t h e M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal f o r t h e 1911-1912
a c a d e m i c y e a r s t a t e d t h e s c h o o l was "open and f r e e a l i k e t o
w h i t e m a l e s and f e m a l e s r e s i d e n t o f t h e S t a t e o f Tennessee."
P r o s p e c t s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o be a t l e a s t s i x t e e n y e a r s o f a n e
and have completed elementary school.
But t h i s same c a t a l o g u e
c l e a r l y d e t a i l e d a r e c i p r o c a l o b l i g a t i o n which c o n d i t i o n e d
t h e i r admission.
The s t u d e n t was r e q u i r e d t o
--
f i r s t s i g n a pledge t o teach i n t h e public
o r p r i v a t e schools of t h e S t a t e o f Tennessee,
within the next s i x years a f t e r leaving the
school, a t l e a s t a s l t q g a s he o r she has
attended said. school.
Y e t Homer P i t t a r d l s h i s t o r y o f M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e C o l l e g e
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n a p p r a i s i n g many s t u d e n t s 1 c r e d e n t i a l s .
Some s t u d e n t s came f r o m p r i v a t e n o r m a l s c h o o l s t h a t h a d b e e n una b l e t o s u r v i v e f o l l o w i n g t h e General Education Act4gf 1909. Such
s c h o o l s have been d e s c r i b e d a s " L i g h t n i n g n o r m a l s , "
quick t o
ai,pear and quick t o leave.
T h e y o u n g men a n d women who a t t e n d e d
t h e s e ~ r i v a t en o r m a l s w e r e a w a r d e d d e g r e e s w h i c h w e r e , t o s a y
the l e a s t , idiosyncratic i n nature.
Historian Pittard has called
a t t e n t i o n t o one c a s e which h i g h l i g h t s t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r o f
such s t u d e n t s 1 c r e d e n t i a l s .
One Macon C o u n t y woman a ~ p l i e df o r
a d m i s s i o n t o t h e M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal w i t h a B . 0 . d e g r e e
f r o m P l e a s a n t S h a d e Academy.
Momentarily non-plussed, t h e e n t r a n c e
e v a l u a t o r s soon r e c o v e r e d and a s k e d t h e a p p l i c a n t t o e x p l a i n what
t h e l e t t e r s i n t h e degree symbolized.
They w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t
"B. 0 . " m e a n t B a c h e l o r o f ~ r t h o ~ r a ~ h ~ . ~ g
C u r r i c u l a r o f f e r i n g s among t h e w h i t e s t a t e n o r m a l s c h o o l s
c o u l d r a n g e e c l e c t i c a l l y from L a t i n s t u d i e s , modern f o r e i g n l a n ,gd~g=5.?a n d t r i g o n o m e t r y t o l l p r a c t i c a l l l l e s s o n s i n t h e m a n u a l a r t s . 5 '
A t t h e B l a c k A . a n d I . N o r m a l , t h e r e w e r e n o t , o f c o u r s e , a s many
c u r r i c u l a r o p p o r t u n i t i e s p r o p o s e d w i t h i n t h e more t r a d i t i o n a l i n structional areas.
Yet a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a t i o n was
more a c c e p t e d a s a l e g i s l a t o r s 1 c o n c e p t t h a n as a c u r r i c u l a r a l t e r native.
" P r i n c i ~ a l " H a l e managed t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e r i t u a l s c o n s u m m a t e l y , a s campus g u e s t s ( e s p e c i a l l y s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r s ) were
d e s i g n ) b u s i l y assuming a g r i g r e e t e d by s t u d e n t s who w e r e
c u l t u r a l and i n d u s t r i a l r o l e s .
(g~
I n comparison t o t h e wide r a n g e o f c o u r s e s o f f e r e d a t t h e
s t a t e normal s c h o o l s , e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r o p p o r t u n i t i e s were s p a r e .
S t u d e n t a t h l e t i c s , f o r e x a m ~ l e ,w e r e c e r t a i n l y n o t a b l e f o r t h e i r
primitive character.
P i c t u r e s o f t h e f o o t b a l l and b a s k e t b a l l
t e a m s a t t h e M u r f r e e s b o r o n o r m a l a r e t e s t a m e n t t o t h e m o d e s t beginnings.
One p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e f o o t b a l l s q u a d p i c t u r e s t w e l v e
u n i f o r m e d men, w h i l e a n o t h e r s h o w s a b a s k e t b a l l a g g r e g a t e o f
f i v e sober-faced males.52
P l a y i n g w i t h abandon u n d e r s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s m u s t h a v e made f o r f e i t u r e a d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y .
C l e a r l y t h i s was a more i n n o c e n t a g e f o r a t h l e t i c s .
I n r e t r o s p e c t , t h e s e normal s c h o o l d a y s g i v e a n impression o f crude beginnings.
But a f t e r over f i v e decades o f near
d r o u g h t , t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g 1 9 0 9 g a v e momentum t o a v i r t u a l
flood o f changes i n public higher education.
And w i t h s i x Reg e n t s u n i v e r s i t i e s , a sprawling s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y system, and a n
e x p a n d i n g community c o l l e g e n e t w o r k a s v i s i b l e e v i d e n c e o f t h e s e
c h a n g e s , a n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m h a s e m e r g e d w i t h i n t h e Volunteer State.
Whereas t h e l a c k o f p u b l i c c o l l e g e s e a r l i e r
s e r v e d t o i n h i b i t e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y , t h e p l e t h o r a o f publ i c c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e p r e s e n t h a s s t i m u l a t e d a comp e t i t i v e environment r i f e with u n c e r t a i n t i e s .
And e s p e c i a l l y i n
t i m e s o f d e c r e a s i n g e n r o l l m e n t and f i n a n c i a l s t r e s s , t h e p r e s e n c e
o f such a n abundance 0f'Dublic i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r h i g h e r education
could well lessen t h e s e c u r i t y o f a l l ,
NOTES
-
' ~ o u s e Journal o f the F i r s t Sgssion o f the Thirty-First
G e n e r a l Assembl o f t h e S t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e O c t o b e r , 1 8 5 5
(~asm;-$).
p . 1 5 9 : A l l i s o n Norman A o r t o n . " O r i g i n a n d
D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s t a t e c o l l e g e Movement i n ~ e n n e s s e e ; " D i s s .
George Peabody C o l l e g e f o r T e a c h e r s , 1 9 5 3 , pp. 16-18.
2 ~ a m e sV a u l x D r a k e , L i f e o f G e n e r a e e r t M a t t o n ( N a s h v i l l e ,
18671, p. 84.
3 ~ r a k e ,p p .
61-62,
84-85,
87.
4 ~ t a n l e yJ . F o l m s b e e , R o b e r t E. C o r l e w , a n d E n o c h L.
M i t c h e l l , Tennessee:
A S h o r t H i s t o r y ( K n o x v i l l e , 19691, p.
5 ~ r a k e ,p p .
a n d M i t c h e l l , p.
'Folmsbee,
orto ton,
'Acts
145-146;
238.
H o r t o n , pp.
1 6 , 19-20;
Corlew, and M i t c h e l l , p.
p.
238.
Folmsbee, Corlew,
414.
20.
o f T e n n e s s e e , 1 8 7 5 , Ch. 9 0 , P.
126.
' O ~ e n n e s s e e S c h o o l R e p o r t , A n n u a l Re o r t o f t h e S t a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c S c h o o l s f o r t h e S*tic
Year Ending
A u g u s t 31, 1878 ( N a s h v i l l e , 1 8 7 9 ) , 3 r -
1 2 ~ a m e sR i l e y M o n t g o m e r y , T h e V o l u n t e e r S t a t e F o r g e s I t s
Universitv:
The U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e , 1887-1919 m
l
e
,
1 9 6 6 1 , p. 1 1 0 ; R a l p h E d w a r d S a m p l e s , " T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f P u b l i c
E d u c a t i o n i n T e n n e s s e e D u r i n g t h e Bourbon E r a , 1870-1900,"
D i s s . The U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 6 5 , pp. 144-146.
1 3 ~ o r t o n , pp.
21, 2 4 , 27.
14Andrew D. H o l t , The S t r u
Schools i n Tennessee, m * Y o r h ,
1 6 , 19.
1 5 ~ o l t ,p p .
l e f o r a S t a t e - S stem o f Pubis
19381:
pp. 5-11,
9-10.
16c. Vann Woodward, O r i g i n s o f t h e New S o u t h , 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 1 3 ( B a t o n R o u g e , 1 9 6 6 1 , po'. 4 0 3 - 4 0 6 . - " ~ h a r l e s W. Dabney, U n i v e r s a l E d u c a t i o n i n t h e S o u t h
( C h a p e l H i l l , 1 9 3 6 ) , p p . 5-as
c i t e d i n Montgomery, p. 8 5 ;
C h a r l e s Lee Lewis, P h i l a n d e r P r i e s t l y C l a x s n :
Crusader f o r
P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n ( K n o x v i l l e , 1 9 4 8 ) , R . 1 5 0 ; Samuel H. Shannon,
" A g r i c u l t u r a l and I n d u s t r i a l Education a t Tennessee S t a t e Univers i t y D u r i n g t h e Normal S c h o o l P h a s e , 1 9 1 2 - 1 9 2 2 : A C a s e s t u d y , "
Diss.
George Peabody C o l l e g e f o r T e a c h e r s , 1 9 7 4 , p. 8 9 .
1 9 ~ e w i s ,p .
1 5 3 ; H o r t o n , p.
8 6 ; Shannon, p.
90.
2 0 ~ .P. C l a x t o n P = e r s ,
MS-278, Box 1 4 - 1 , S ~ e c i a lC o l l e c t i o n s ,
James D. Hoskins L i b r a r y Y T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e , K n o x v i l l e ;
S t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e , A c t s of-Tennessee, 1 9 0 9 ( C h a p t e r 2641, House
B i l l 2 4 2 , pp. 907-917.
LI
C h a r l e s W . Dabney t o C h a r l e s L. Coon. A u g u s t 2 7 . 1 9 0 3 .
C h a r l e s W . D a b n e y p a p e r s , S o u t h e r n ~ i s t o r i c a lc o l l e c t i o n , - ~ n i W
f N o r t h C a r o l i n a . C h a ~ e lH i l l . a s c i t e d i n L o u i s H a r l a n , ~ G p a r a t ea n d Une u a l i
p u b l i c s c h o o l cam g i n s a n d ~ a c i s m
~ t ae fs , 1 9 0 1 - i ~ ~ d? owr * , 1 9 6 8 ) ,
i n t h e S o u t h e r n Seabo:rd
p. 9 2 ; L o u i s R . H a r l a n . " S o u t h e r n E d u c a t i o n a n d t h e R a c e I s s u e
i n p u b l i c E d u c a t i o n , " T h e J o u r n a l o f S o u t h e r n H i s t o r y , 2 3 (May
1 9 5 7 ) . 1 8 9 - 2 0 2 : S h a n n o n .. .D D. . 9- 0 - 9-~1 .
T h e r e was a l s o c o n c e r n (among P r e s i d e n t D a b n e y 9 s s u p p o r t e r s )
t h a t h i s v e r y r o l e w i t h t h e S o u t h e r n E d u c a t i o n Board was d i s t r e s s i n g c e r t a i n members o f t h e B o a r d o f T r u s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y
o f Tennessee.
I n t h e minds of' c e r t a i n t r u s t e e s , Dabney's a c t i v i t i e s w i t h t h e S o u t h e r n E d u c a t i o n Board i n v i t e d " r a c e p r e j u d i c e w
t h a t would a d v e r s e l y I n f l u e n c e t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e .
See
L e t t e r f r o m W . H . B a l d w i n , J r . , New York C i t y , t o M r . E d w a r d T.
S a n d o r d , K n o x v i l l e , d a t e d J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1902, i n t h e C h a r l e s W.
D abney P a p e r s , Box 5 , F o l d e r 9 0 , S o u t h e r n H i s t o r i c a l C o l l e c t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f North C a r o l i n a , Chapel H i l l .
-
~
-------
-
2 2 ~ o o k e rT. W a s h i n g t o n ' s p e r s i s t e n t a o v o c a c y o f t h i s e d u c a t i o n a l mode was i n s t r u m e n t a l , o f c o u r s e , t o h i s D r e e m i n e n t
p o w e r among b l a c k A m e r i c a n s a t . t h e t u r n o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tury.
S e e B o o k e r T. W a s h i n g t o n , W o r k i n a w i t h t h e H a n d s (New
YorK, 1 y 0 4 ~ ,p . 5 1 ; S h a n n o n , p. 3 8 .
2 3 ~ c t so f T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 0 9 ( C h a p t e r 2 6 4 1 , H o u s e B i l l 2 4 2 ,
PP. 9 0 7 - 9 1 2 .
2 4 ~ h eM o r r i l l A c t , S t a t u t e s a t L a r g e 2 6 , 417 ( 1 8 9 0 ) .
L 5 r t ~ o c a t i o nE
a d~ u c a t i o n . " H e a r i n a s B e r ' o r e t h e C o m m i t t e e
on A g r i c u l t u r e , House of' R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , on H. H. 2 3 5 8 1 , A p r i l
2 3 , 2 4 , 2 5 , a n d 2 6 , 1 9 i 2 ( W a s n i n g t o n : Government P r i n t i n n O f f i c e ,
A copy o f t h e l e g i s l a t i o n h a s been i n c l u d e d i n
l g l 2 ) , p. 7 3 .
Box 1, f o l d e r 2 9 , J a m e s C . N a p i e r C o l l e c t i o n , S p e c i a l C o l l e c t i o n s ,
F i s k U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e ; L e t t e r from R ? g i s t e r t o t h e T r e a s u r v . J. C . N a ~ i e r . t o P r e s i d e n t W i l l i a m Howard
e or l l e c t i o n , Box 2 , f o l T a f t , ~ e c e m b e r1 8 , - i 9 1 1 , ~ a m e sC. ' ~ a ~ i C
der 2, Special Collections, Fisk University Library, Nashville,
T e n n e s s e e ; S h a n n o n , pp. 1 1 1 - 1 1 6 , 136-137.
L ' ~ ~o tf sT e n n e s s e e , 19D9 ( C h a p t e r 2 6 4 ) , House B i l l 2 4 2 ,
pp.
907-917;
H o r t o n , p.
45.
2 8 w ~ i e n n i a lR e p o r t o f t h e S t a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c
I n s t r u c t i ~ n ,A~p p e n d i x , S e n a t e a n d House, F i f t y - E i g h t h G e n e r a l
Assembly, S t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 1 3 , p. 2 9 5 ; T e n n e s s e e S c h o o l
Report, Biennial Report of t h e S t a t e Superintendent of Public
I n s t r u c t i o n f o r 1 9 0 9 - 1 9 1 0 , p p . 48-49; H o r t o n , p. 4 6 .
2 9 ~ e s c r i p t i v ee x a m p l e s o f c a m p a i g n i n g a c t i v i t i e s may b e
f o u n d i n t h e N a s h v i l l e G l o b e e d i t i o n s o f December 3 1 , 1 9 0 9 a n d
March 18, 1 9 1 0 .
For a d e t a i l e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e campaigns
on b e h a l f o f t h e b l a c k n o r m a l , s e e S h a n n o n , C h a p t e r 111.
3 0 ~ a s h v i l l eG l o b e a n d I n d e p e n d e n t , A p r i l 1 9 , 1 9 3 5 , a s
c i t e d i n R . Grann Lloyd, Tennessee A g r i c u l t u r a l and I n d u s t r i a l
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1912-1962 ( N a s h v i l l e , 1 9 6 2 1 , p; 6 .
3 1 ~ h e J o h n s o n C i t y Comet, March 1 7 , 1 9 1 1 ; J u d g e 3. P . Young,
E d i t o r , S t a n d a r d H i s t o r y o f Memphis, T e n n e s s e e , From a S t u d y o f
t h e O r i g i n a l S o u r c e s ( K n o x v i l l e , 1 9 1 2 ) , p p . 440-441.
Vol.
3 2 ~ u l l e t i n , M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal S c h o o l , 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2 ,
1, n o . 1, p. 6 .
3 3 ~ h eJ o h n s o n C i t Comet, F e b r u a r y 2 6 , 1 9 1 1 , a n d March 3 0 ,
1 9 1 1 ; David S i n c l a b , H i s t o r y o f t h e E a s t T e n n e s s e e
S t a t e C o l l e g e ( n . p . , 1 9 4 7 1 , pp. 11-12.
3 4 ~ e w i s ,p - 1 5 0 ; Shannon, p. 89.
3 5 ~ e tse r C . Lamon, "The T e n n e s s e e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l
Normal S c h o o l :
P u b l i c Higher Education f o r Black Tennesseans,"
T e n n e s s e e H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l x , 32 ( S p r i n g , 1 9 7 3 ) , 5 4 ; S h a n n o n ,
p. 1 1 7 .
3 6 ~ e n n e s s e eS t a t e L i b r a r y a n d A r c h i v e s , B i o r a h i c a l
NO.
D i r e c t o r y . T e n n e s s e e G e n e p a l A s s e m b l y , 1796-1l a ) , C h e s t e r C o u n t y , McNairy C o u n t y , p. 3 5 .
3 7 ~ h 5J o h n s o n C i t y C o m e t , March 1 7 , 1 9 1 1 .
-
3S~bid.
1912
- 9
3 9 3 u l l e t i n , M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal S c h o o l , 1 9 1 1 V o l . 1, n o . 1 , p . 3 8 .
4 0 1 1 ~ i e n n i aR
l e ~ o r to f t h e S t a t e S u ~ e r i n t e n d e n to f P u b l i c
I n s t r u c t i o n o f ~ e n n k s s e e ,1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 2 ,
kppendix t o t h e S e n a t e
a n d House J o u r n a l s o f t h e F i f t y - E i g h t h G e n e r a l Assembly o f t h e
S t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 1 3 , p. 3 3 1 .
4 1 ~ u l l e t i n , T e n n e s s e e A ~ r i c u l t u r a la n d I n d u s t r i a l S t a t e
LJormal S c h o o l , Volume I , n o . 2 , S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 1 2 , p . 16.
4 2 ~ h a n n o n , pp.
1 1 9 , 138.
-
43~bid.
4 4 ~ h a n n o n lp p . 1 6 7 , 2 0 2 .
4 5 1 1 ~ u p e r i n t e n d e n ot f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , B i e n n i a l R e p o r t ,"
Appendix t o t h e S e n a t e and House J o u r n a l s o f t h e F i f t y - E i g h t h
G e n e r a l Assembly o f t h e S t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 1 3 , p. 56.
4 6 n ~ u p e r i n t e n d e n t . . B i e n n i a l R e p o r t " ( 1 9 1 5 ) , p. 223.
4 7 ~ u l l e t i n , M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal S c h o o l , 1 9 1 1 1 9 1 2 V o l . 1 , n o . 1, p . 1 2 . T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s h a d b e e n q u o t e d
d i r e c t l y f r o m A c t s o f T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 0 9 , Ch. 2 6 4 , H o u s e B i l l 2 4 2 ,
p. 913.
-9
4 8 ~ o m e r P i t t a r d , The F i r s t F i f t y Years: M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e
S t a t e C o l l e g e . 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 6 1 ( M u r f r e e s b o r o , 1 9 6 1 ) , p. 6 3 .
-
49~bid.
5 0 ~ u l l e t i n , M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal S c h o o l , 1 9 1 2 - 1 9 1 3 ,
Volume 111, n o . l . , pp. 1 8 - 2 1 , 2 8 .
5 1 ~ h a n n o n , pp. 174-176.
1914,
-
5 2 i 3 u l l e t i n , M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e Normal S c h o o l , 1 9 1 3 Volume I V , n o . 1, pp. 4 5 , 55.
GEOGRAPHIC IRONY AN?
'fiddle
THE NEW ENGLAND LITERARY I;.lAGINATION
: l i c h a e l Dunne
Tennessee S t a t e University
I n h i s s o n n e t "New Z n g l a n d " ( 1 9 2 5 1 , E d w i n A r l i n g t o n R o b i p son draws a z e t a p h o r i c a l r e l a t i o n between t h e h o s t i l e w i n t e r
c l i z a t e o f h i s n a t i v e region--"here1'--and
t h e j o y l e s s , concience-driven l i v e s o f its inhabitants.'
In positive contrast
3obinson p r e s e n t s a Warner, s u r e l y s o u t h e r n , climate--"there1'-a n d t h e f r e e l y passionate l i v e s o f i t s i n h a h i t a n t s .
The c l i m a t i c
a n d e m o t i o n a l c o n t r a s t c a n n o t h e l p p r o d u c e " e n v y " i n New E n g l a n d e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o R o b i n s o n ' s s p e a k e r i n t h e poerx.
Such an
e n v i o u s c o n d i t i o n may b e v i e w e d as a n A m e r i c a n v e r s i o n o f t h e
a t t i t u d e which Paul F u s s e l l h a s i d e n t i f i e d i n English t r a v e l
w r i t e r s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e two w o r l d w a r s .
In his
s t u d y , Abroad, F u s s e l l h a s d e s c r i b e d t h i s l i t e r a r y a t t i t u d e a s
a s p e c i e s o f " h e l i o p h i l y , " t h e l o n g i n g f o r emotional and s e x u a l
f r e e d o m , s y m b o l i z e d by t h e warmth a n d l e i s u r e o f s o u t h e r n c l i a a t e s , and t h e r e j e c t i o n o f i n h i b i t i n g , P u r i t a n i c a l mores,
s y a b o l i z e d by t h e c o l d o f n o r t h e r n u r b a n ~ i v i l i z a t i o n . ~I n
F o b i n s o n ' s c a s e , t h e p e r s o n i f i e d " C o n s c i e n c e who a l w a y s h a s t h e
r o c k i n g - c h a i r " i s a New E n g l a n d v e r s i o n o f t h e a c r o n y m i c D o r a
o f ? ~ s s e l l ' s s t u d y , t h e D e f e n s e o f t h e Realm Act t h a t c o m p l i c a t e d and repressed t h e moral l i v e s o f English f r e e s p i r i t s
u n d e r t h e p r e t e n s e o f p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y .3
T h e New E n g l a n d e r s '
envy o f t h e S o u t h e r n e r s is understandable, one assumes, i n t h e
same s e n s e a s t h e E n g l i s h m a n ' s envy o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e
Riviera.
And y e t , R o b i n s o n ' s poem h a s a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n .
His hyperb o l i c e x t r e x e s o f c l i n a t e and c h a r a c t e r cannot h e l p but r a i s e
questions.
Is i t t r u e , as R o b i n s o n ' s s p e a k e r c l a i m s , t h a t " t h e
Is t h e r e n o r e d e e m i n g v a r i e t y
wind i s always n o r t h - n o r t h e a s t ? "
i n t h e w e a t h e r o f :Jew Z n g l a n d ? Do c h i l d r e n i n Flew E n g l a n d t r u l y
" l e a r n t o walk on f r o z e n t o e s ? "
Furthermore, do ishabitants of
n o r e h o s p i t a b l e c l i m e s a c t u a l l y " b o i l " w i t h "a l y r i c y e a s t of
l o v e ? " Some i r o n y i s s u r e l y a t w o r k i n t h i s p o e m , a n i r o n y
involving a conflict of perspectives:
one assuredly t h e speake r ' s but a n o t h e r j u s t a s a s s u r e d l y t h e view o f an ~ u t s i d e r . ~
R o b i n s o n ' s s p e a k e r c a n s e e as c l e a r l y as a n y o u t s i d e r t h a t t h e
r e g i o n i s n a r k e d by a c o l d n e s s o f b o t h c l i m a t e a n d c h a r a c t e r .
The s p e a k e r c a n a l s o s e e t h a t t h i s c o l d n e s s i s n o t t h e t o t a l
p i c t u r e o f h i s homeiacd and t h a t , even i f i t were, t h e o p p o s i t e
e x t r e ~ ei s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e f e r a b l e .
I n h i s a m b i v a l e n c e ~ o b i n s o n l ss p e a k e r i s l i k e a n o t h e r t r u l y
r e g i o n a l f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , h ' i l l i a m F a u l k n e r ' s S u e n t i n Compson.
I n academic e x i l e a t Harvard, Quentin must, l i k e Robinson's
speaker, simultaneously recoznize the fundaxental deficiencies
of h i s r e g i o n and defend i t s v i r t u e s t o an o u t s i d e r , h i s censor i o u s Canadian roommate.
When S h r e v e McCannon a s k s Q u e n t i n a t
t h e end o f Absalom, Absalom!
"Why d o you h a t e t h e S o u t h ? "
Quen'in a n s w e r s , "I d o n t .
I dont!
I dont h a t e it! I dont h a t e
i t ! both s i d e s of t h e t r u e r e g i o n a l i s t ' s ambivalence a r e
c a p t u r e d i n t h i s a g o n i z e d c r y , a s t h e y a r e i n N a t h a n i e l Hawt h o r n e ' s a n a l y s i s o f h i s f e e l i n g s toward h i s n a t i v e Salem i n t h e
"Custom-House" s k e t c h p r e f a c e d t o The S c a r l e t L e t t e r .
Hawthorne
writes:
It i s no rnatter t h a t t h e p l a c e i s j o y l e s s f o r him;
t h a t h e i s w e a r y o f t h e o l d wooden h o u s e s , t h e mud
and d u s t , t h e dead l e v e l o f s i t e and s e n t i m e n t , t h e
c h i l l e a s t wind, and t h e c h i l l e s t o f s o c i a l atmospheres;--all t h e s e , and whatever f a u l t s b e s i d e s he
may s e e o r i m a g i n e , a r e n o t h i n g t o t h e p u r p o s e .
The
s p e l l s u r v i v e s , and j u s t a s powerfully a s i f t h e n a t a l
s p o t were a n e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e . 6
Of e s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s p a s s a g e i s H a w t h o r n e ' s e a s y
e q u a t i o n o f c l i m c t e and e m o t i o n a l l i f e i n terms c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l i n g t h o s e o p e r a t i n g i n R o b i n s o n ' s poem.
This is a disting u i s h i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e New E n g l a n d l i t e r a r y i m a g i n a t i o n .
Like
a n y t r u e r e g i o n a l i s t , t h e New E n g l a n d w r i t e r i s a m b i v a l e n t t o w a r d
h i s n a t i v e r e g i o n , b u t h e i s c o n d i t i o n e d , a s w r i t e r s from o t h e r
r e g i o n s need n o t b e , t o convey t h i s a m b i v a l e n c e t h r o u g h imagery
based on r a d i c a l c o n t r a s t s o f c o l d n e s s and warmth, r e p r e s s i o n and
passion.
Two s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t e x t s may s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e
the ancestry o f t h e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n flowering i n Robinson's
poem.
T h e f i r s t i s H a w t h o r n e ' s t a l e "The May-Pole o f ' l e r r y
?!aunt," p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 3 5 , t h e s e c o n d , T h e E d u c a t i o n o f H e n r y
Adams, f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 0 7 .
I n Hawthorne's t a l e " j o l l i t y " f u l f i l l s t h e envicd function
t h a t Robinson a s s i g n s t o " J o y , " a n d "gloom" i s H a w t h o r n e ' s
opposing v i c e , e q u i v a l e n t t o Robinson's "Conscience."
Charact e r i s t i c a l l y , Hawthorne r a i s e s t h i s e m o t i o n a l c o n f l i c t t o t h e
allegorical level:
l l J o l l i t y and gloom were c o n t e n d i n g f o r a n
empire."7
To d r a m a t i z e t h i s c o n f l i c t i n t h e New E n g l a n d s o u l ,
t h e a u t h o r h a s ma2e t h e s e t t l e r s o f P l e r r y Mount t h e e z b o d i m e n t
o f " j o l l i t y " a n d t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y New E n g l a c i ? . ~ r i t a n s
t h e embodiment o f "gloom."
A s i n R o b i n s o n ' s poem, t h e e n o t i o n a l l y p o s i t i v e p o l o seems a t f i r s t t h e a u t h o r ' s u n i v o c a l c h o i c e .
! < o d e l e d o n t h e h i s t o r i c a l s e t t l e r s o f Thomas M o r t o n ' s :,;aunt
\ d o l l a s t o n , t h e c o l o n i s t s o f M e r r y Mount w o r s h i p p l e a s u r e , r e p r e s e n t e d i n p r e - F r e u d i a n t e r n s h e r e by a n a y - p o l e .
The n a r r a t o r
s a y s a d m i r i n g l y o f t h e s e c o l o n i s t s and t h e i r e m o t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e :
"Should t h e i r banner be t r i u m p h a n t ,
t h e y were t o podr s u n s h i n e
o v e r New Y n g l a n 2 ' s r u g g e d h i l l s , a n d s c a t t e r f l o w e r - s e s d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s o i l ( p . 5 4 ) . The P u r i t a n s seem a s o d i o u s a s t h e c o l o n i s t s a r e a t t r a c t i u e , a s we s e e i n n e g a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h i s
sort:
" N o t f a r f r o a ' I e r r y Mount was a s e t t l e m e n t o f F d r i t a n s ,
x o s t d i s m a l w r e t c h e s , who s a i d t h e i r p r a y e r s b e f o r e d a y l i g h t , a n d
t h e n w r o u g h t i n t h e f o r e s t o r c o r n f i e l d , t i l l e v e n i n g niade i t
p r a y e r t i m e a g a i n 1 ' ( p . 6 0 ) . The a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c seems c l e a r l y
t o d i c t a t e the reader's acceptance of the colonists, advocates
o f t h e D i o n y s i a n m a y - p o l e , a n d r e j e c t i o n o f Lhe i n h i b i t e d P u r i t a n s , o f whom t h e n a r r a t o r s a y s , " T h e w h i p p i n g p o s t
. might
b e t e r m e d t h e P u r i t a n May-Pole" ( p . 61 )
.
. .
F u r t h e r m o r e , Hawthorne p r e s e n t s t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e
i n i m a g e s r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n f o r m i n g R o b i n s o n ' s poem.
The c o l o n i s t s , a s i s c l e a r i n t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d a b o v e , a r e
associated with sunlight.
They a r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
p h a l l i c may-pole a n d w i t h a b u n d a n t f l o w e r s .
On t h e c o n t r a r y ,
t h e P u r i t a n s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h armor and d a r k n e s s , images
suggestive o f coldness and i n f e r t i l i t y .
In poetic terms, such
imagery o p e r a t e s as i n s i s t e n t l y a s t h e t a l e ' s p l o t t o draw t h e
r e a d e r t o w a r d t h e a l t e r n a t i v e r e p r e s e n t e d bv t h e c o l o n i s t s .
Even t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e w o r d s j o l l i t y a n d gloom t e m p t t h e
reader toward h e l i o p h i l y .
A s i n R o b i n s o n ' s poem, h o w e v e r , t h e a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e a n t i 'riawthornels r h e t o r i c r e s e m b l e s
t h e s i s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by i r o n y .
Robinson's i n t h a t he does n o t attempt a p o s i t i v e defense of t h e
n a t i v e New E n g l a n d e r s .
Rather, he undermines t h e p o s i t i v e impression o f t h e i r antagonists through hyperbole.
These colon i s t s are t o o committed t o p l e a s u r e , as are t h e S o u t h e r n e r s i n
R o b i n s o n ' s poem
Who b o i l e l s e w h e r e w i t h a s u c h l y r i c y e a s t
Of l o v e t h a t y o u w i l l h e a r t h e m a t a f e a s t
Where demons would a p p e a l f o r some r e p o s e ,
S t i l l clamoring where t h e c h a l i c e overflows
And c r y i n g w i l d e s t who h a v e d r u n k t h e l e a s t
I n a similar manner, Hawthorne's n a r r a t o r o b s e r v e s i n p a s s i n g
t h a t " i t was h i g h t r e a s o n t o be s a d a t Merry Xountl' ( p . 5 8 ) ,
an admittedly mild irony.
He i s s o o n m o r e s e v e r e , h o w e v e r ,
turning t o authorial exposition t o observe:
" T h e men o f whom
we s p e a k , a f t e r l o s i n g t h e h e a r t ' s f r e s h g a i e t y , i m a g i n e d a
w i l d p h i l o s o p h y o f p l e a s u r e , a n d came h i t h e r t o a c t o u t t h e i r
l a t e s t day-dream1' ( p . 5 9 ) . The r e a d e r c a n n o t a v o i d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e c o l o n i s t s a r e t o o f r e n e t i c , as u n a c c e p t a b l y e x t r e m e
i n t h e i r p u r s u i t o f j o l l i t y a s t h e P u r i t a n s a r e i n t h e i r advocacy
o f gloom.
Even h e r e , m o r e o v e r , t h e a u t h o r ' s i r c n y p l a y s a p a r t .
The r e a d e r i s f i n a l l y f o r c e d t o q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e P u r i t a n s
could p o s s i b l y be s o j o y l e s s a s t h e n a r r a t o r s u g g e s t s .
Passages
of t h i s s o r t are representative:
"When t h e y n e t i n c o n c l a v e , i t
was n e v e r t o k e e p up t h e o l d Z n g l i s h m i r t h , b u t t o h e a r sermons
t h r e e h o u r s l o n g , o r t o p r o c l a i m b o u n t i e s on t h e h e a d s o f wolves
and t h e s c a l p s o f I n d i a n s 1 ' ( p p . 50-61.)
Here t h e i r o n y i s most
provocative.
Where d o e s Hawthorne a c t u a l l y s t a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e
P u r i t a n s ? Some c l a r i f i c a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e o u t s i d e t h i s t a l e ,
i n The S c a r l e t L e t t e r , f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e Hawthorne i r o n i c a l l y
says about a Puritan holiday:
. . .
the
I n t o t h i s f e s t a l season o f the year
P u r i t a n s conpressed whatever m i r t h and p u b l i c joy
t h e y d e e m e d a l l o w a b l e t o human i n f i r m i t y ; t h e r e b y
s o f a r d i s p e l l i n g t h e customary cloud, t h a t , f o r t h e
space of a s i n z l e holiday, they appeared scarcely
more g r a v e t h a n most o t h s r communities a t a p e r i o d
of general a f f l i c a t i ~ n . ~
The h y p e r b o l e h e r e s u g g e s t s a r h e t o r i c a l a n a l o g y t o H a w t h o r n e ' s
a u t h o r i a l s t a n c e i n "The May-Pole," c r i t i c i s m t i n g e d w i t h amused
sympathy.
I n another passage i n t h e novel h e s a y s l e s s equivoc a l l y a b o u t t h e P u r i t a n l e a d e r s t h a t t h e y "had f o r t i t u d e and
s e l f - r e l i a n c e , and, i n time o f d i f f i c u l t y o r p e r i l , stood up f o r
t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e s t a t e l i k e a l i n e o f c l i f f s a g a i n s t a tempestuous tide.1'9 I n a s e n s e , P u r i t a n v i c e s and v i r t u e s a r e c l o s e l y
a l l i e d i n Hawthorne's eyes, i n f l e x i b l e s t e r n n e s s appearing only
as a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f a b s o l u t e m o r a l i n t e g r i t y .
In either case,
however, t h e P u r i t a n s a r e i n danger o f remaining i s o l a t e d from
w a r m t h a n d human s y m p a t h y , t r a p p e d on t h e f a r s i d e o f a n i r r e c oncilable duality.
I n t h e t a l e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , Hawthorne s t r i v e s t o t r a n s cend t h i s d u a l i t y through symbolis-.
U n l i k e R o b i n s o n , who p r e s e n t s h i s c o n f l i c t o n l y i n a n t i p o d a l e x t r e m e s as "here" and
" t h e r e , " Hawthorne e s t a b l i s h e s a p o s s i b l e s y n t h e s i s i n t h e pers o n s o f E d i t h and E d g a r , a newly m a r r i e d c o u p l e o f Merry ?lount
settlers.
They a r e c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d on t h e o n e hand w i t h
images o f warmth and f e r t i l i t y :
H i s r i g h t hand h e l d a g i l d e d s t a f f , t h e e n s i g n o f high
d i g n i t y among t h e r e v e l l e r s , a n d h i s l e f t g r a s p e d t h e
s l e n d e r f i n g e r s o f a f a i r n a i d e n , n o t less g a i l y decorated than hinself.
B r i g h t r o s e s glowed i n c o n t r a s t with
t h e dark and .slossy c u r l s o f each, and were s c a t t e r e d
round t h e i r f e e t , o r had s p r u n g up spontaneously t h e r e .
( p p . 56-57)
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s e t w o e s c a p e t h e c h a r g e o f f o r c e d g a i e t y
t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r l e v i e s on t h e o t h e r c o l o n i s t s , because t h e i r
m a r r i a g e i s based on t r u e l o v e and n o t mere s e n s u a l indulgence.
They do n o t sl?.ply " b o i l , " as Robinson s a y s , "with
a lyric
yeast of love."
Hawthorne's n a r r a t o r s a y s about Edith and Edgar,
"From t h e n o n e n t t h a t t h e y t r u l y l o v e a , t h e y h a d s u b j e c t e d t h e n s e l v e s t o e a r t h ' s doom o f c a r e , a n d s o r r o w , a n d t r o u b l e d j o y , a n d
h a d n o m o r e a home a t Y e r r y M o u n t " ( p . 5 8 ) . H e r e i s a p r o m i s i n g
d r a m a t i c coqpror.i,se, t h e r e a d e r s u s p e c t s .
.. .
T h e r e a d e r i s c o r r e c t i n h i s s u s p i c i o n s , as t h e s t o r y ' s c o n c l u s i o n makes c l e a r .
Endicott, the leader of the Puritans, has
b e e n c a l l e d a L v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f he s t o r y a " r e m o r s e l e s s
e n t h u s i a s t " ( p . 6 3 ) a n d a "man o f i r o n " ( p . 6 6 ) .
Even s o , i n t h e
c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e t a l e , h e i s moved by t h e t r u e l o v e o b v i o u s i n
t h e young c o u p l e ' s b e h a v i o r , and s o he c h o o s e s t o b l e s s r a t h e r
t h a n condemn them a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r h e d o n i s t s .
The s i g n o f
h i s b l e s s i n g is b r i l l i a n t l y symbolic:
E n d i c o t t , t h e s e v e r e s t P u r i t a n o f a l l who l a i d t h e
r o c k - f o u n d a t i o n o f New E n g l a n d , l i f t e d t h e w r e a t h
o f r o s e s from t h e r u i n o f t h e May-Pole, and t h r e w
i t , w i t h h i s own g a u n t l e t e d h a n d , o v e r t h e h e a d s o f
t h e L o r d a n d Lady o f t h e May.
(p. 66)
T h i s p a s s a g e p r e s e n t s a r a r e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s , a symb o l i c y o k i n g o f " h e r e " a n d " t h e r e , " " j o l l i t y and g l o o m , " warmth
and c o l d n e s s .
The , , g a u n t l e t e d h a n d w a n d t h e " w r e a t h o f r o s e s "
c o n n e c t t h e two p o l e s o f t h e r e g i o n a l a m b i v a l e n c e i n a u n i q u e
fashion.
Thus, t h e P u r i t a n v i c t o r y , which seems d e s t i n e d t o
d e s t r o y e n t i r e l y a l l h o p e o f j o y f o r New E n g l a n d , i s s y m b o l i c a l l y subsumed i n t o a l o v i n g m a r r i a g e , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o l u t i o n
f o r a comedy, n o t a t r a g e d y .
H e n r y Adams f o u n d n o s u c h s y m b o l i c r e s o l u t i o n f o r r e g i o n a l
ambivalence, d e s p i t e h i s repeated claim t h a t h i s autobiography
c h r o n i c l e s a search f o r "order through chaos, d i r e c t i o n through
space, d i s c i p l i n e through freedom, u n i t y through multiplicity."lO
I t h i n k a r e a d e r o f T h e E d u c a t i o n o f H e n r y Adams m u s t r e c o g n i z e
the sincerity of the author's search.
The r e a d e r m u s t a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h a t Adamsf t r e a t m e n t o f t h e r e g i o n a l a m b i v a l e n c e r e s e m b l e s
R o b i n s o n ' s more n e a r l y t h a n H a w t h o r n e ' s .
Adams s h a r e s w i t h b o t h
h i s c o - r e g i o n a l i s t s a n i r o n i c v i s i o n , and h e f o l l o w s t h e i r p r a c t i c e
a l s o i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s v i s i o n t h r o u g h images o f warmth and c o l d ,
"Joy" and "Conscience."
He r e s e m b l e s R o b i n s o n a n d d i f f e r s f r o m
Hawthorne i n f a i l i n g t o f i n d a n a r t i s t i c a l l y o r g a n i c d e v i c e t o
b r i d g e t h e i r o n i c dichotomy.
Adams d i f f e r s a l s o f r o m R o b i n s o n
i n h i s c o m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t between "here" and " t h e r e "
by e s t a b l i s h i n g two l o c i f o r e a c h .
The e n v i e d " t h e r e " i s somet i m e s Q u i n c y , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , and sometimes t h e American S o u t h .
The w r e t c h e d " h e r e " i s s o m e t i m e s t h e c i t y o f B o s t o n a n d s o m e t i m e s
New E n g l a n d i n g e n e r a l .
One b e n e f i t o f Adams' m u l t i f a c e t e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e g i o n i s
h i s c o n c e s s i o n t h a t New E n g l a n d h a s m o r e t h a n o n e s e a s o n .
In his
book t h e w i n d i s n o t " a l w a y s n o r t h - n o r t h e a s t . "
This variety is
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , however, a s
Adams w r i t e s :
"The c h i e f c h a r m o f New E n g l a n d was h a r s h n e s s o f
c o n t r a s t s and extremes o f s e n s i b i l i t y - - a c o l d t h a t f r o z e t h e blood,
a n d a h e a t t h a t b o i l e d i t . " A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g two u n p l e a s a n t
c l i m a t i c e x t r e m e s i n t h e r e g i o n , Adams p r o c e e d s q u i c k l y , i n t h e
mode p r a c t i c e d by H a w t h o r n e a n d R o b i n s o n , t o move f r o m i m a g e s o f
h e a t a n d c o l d t o t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e y may b e t a k e n
t o represent.
He c o n t i n u e s :
"So t h a t t h e p l e a s u r e o f h a t i n g - o n e s e l f i f no b e t t e r v i c t i m o f f e r e d - - w a s n o t i t s r a r e s t amusement;
b u t t h e c h a r m was a t r u e a n d n a t u r a l c h i l d o f t h e s o i l , n o t a
c u l t i v a t e d w e e d o f t h e a n c i e n t s " ( p . 7 ) . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h i s Mew
Englander expresses himself emotionally i n terms o f "Fire and Ice,"
as d i d h i s c o - r e g i o n a l i s t Robert F r o s t .
H a v i n g g i v e n t w o n e g a t i v e d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e New E n g l a n d c l i m a t e , Adams t h e n t u r n s i n a f a m i l i a r d i r e c t i o n b y p o l a r i z i n g t w o
sites and two c l i m a t e s a s t h e v e h i c l e s f o r a m e t a p h o r i c a l c o n t r a s t
i n modes o f e x i s t e n c e .
F i r s t o f a l l , come t h e s e a s o n s :
"Winter
and summer, t h e n , w e r e two h o s t i l e l i v e s , and b r e d two s e p a r a t e
natures.
W i n t e r was a l w a y s t h e e f f o r t t o l i v e ; summer was t r o p i c a l
l i c e n s e " ( p . 9 ) . T h e s e c l i m a t i c c a t e g o r i e s p e r m i t Adams t o a n a l y z e
t h e r e l a t i o n s o f " j o l l i t y a n d gloom1' e v e n i n t h e l i f e o f a c h i l d ,
a s i n t h i s long, but a p t quotation:
W i n t e r a n d summer, c o l d a n d h e a t , town a n d c o u n t r y ,
f o r c e a n d f r e e d o m , marked two modes o f l i f e a n d t h o u g h t ,
balanced l i k e lobes of t h e brain.
Town w a s w i n t e r c o n f i n e m e n t , s c h o o l , r u l e , d i s c i p l i n e ; s t r a i g h t , gloomy
s t r e e t s , p i l e d w i t h s i x f e e t o f snow i n t h e m i d d l e ;
f r o s t s t h a t made t h e snow s i n g u n d e r w h e e l s o r r u n n e r s ;
t h a w s when t h e s t r e e t s b e c a m e d a n g e r o u s t o c r o s s ; s o c i e t y
o f u n c l e s , a u n t s , a n d c o u s i n s who e x p e c t e d c h i l d r e n t o
b e h a v e t h e m s e l v e s , a n d who w e r e n o t a l w a y s g r a t i f i e d ;
above a l l else, w i n t e r r e p r e s e n t e d t h e d e s i r e t o escape
and go f r e e .
Town w a s r e s t r a i n t , l a w , u n i t y .
Country,
o n l y seven m i l e s away, was l i b e r t y , d i v e r s i t y , outlawry,
t h e e n d l e s s d e l i g h t o f m e r e s e n s e i m p r e s s i o n s g i v e n by
n a t u r e f o r n o t h i n g , a n d b r e a t h e d b y b o y s w i t h o u t knowi n g it.
( p p . 7-61
T h e c o u n t r y , Q u i n c y , i s t h e s e t t i n g f o r t h e mcst d r a m a t i c a n d memo r a b l e e p i s o d e i n Adams1 c h i l d h o o d , h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s s q u e l c h i n g
o f Adams' y o u t h f u l r e b e l l i o n b y s i l e n t l y d r a g g i n g h i m t o s c h o o l
by t h e h a n d .
Even s o , t h e n e g a t i v e p o l e i n t h e c o n t r a s t i s c l e a r l y
Boston, a prime c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e r o l e o f "herev i n t h e imagination
o f a n y New E n g l a n d w r i t e r .
E l s e w h e r e i n T h e E d u c a t i o n , Adams w r i t e s a b o u t B o s t o n , "The
c l i m a t e made e t e r n a l w a r o n s o c i e t y , a n d s e x w a s a s p e c i e s o f crime"
( p . 2 6 9 ) . I n s u c h r e m a r k s we r e c o g n i z e p a r a l l e l s t o R o b i n s o n ' s
h y p e r b o l i c c o n d e m n a t i o n o f New E n g l a n d a s c e t i c i s m , e s p e c i a l l y h i s
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s ' a t t i t u d e toward s e x :
"Passion is
h e r e a s o i l u r e o f t h e w i t s , / We're t o l d , a n d Love a c r o s s f o r
them t o bear.''
From s u c h e v i d e n c e i t i s t e m p t i n g t o c o n c l u d e t h a t
t h e " g r i s l y s a i n t s " o f Hawthorne's t a l e have succeeded t o t a l l y i n
e x t i r p a t i n g a l l s i g n s o f t h e may-pole.
Adams w o u l d n o t r e p u d i a t e
s u c h a c o n c l u s i o n , b u t o n e s u s p e c t s h e would p r o b a b l y n o t e n d o r s e
it either.
T h e o t h e r a s p e c t o f Adams' g e o g r a p h i c a l m e t a p h o r b o t h c l a r i f i e s
and c o m p l i c a t e s
ambivalence.
Consider h i s description of
spring i n t h e South:
The t u l i p and t h e c h e s t n u t g a v e no s e n s e o f s t r u g g l e
against a stingy nature.
The s o f t , f u l l o u t l i n e s o f
t h e l a n d s c a p e c a r r i e d no h i d d e n h o r r o r o f g l a c i e r s i n
i t s bosom.
The b r o o d i n g h e a t o f t h e p r o f l i g a t e veget a t i o n ; t h e c o o l charm o f t h e r u n n i n g w a t e r ; t h e t e r r i f i c s p l e n d o r o f t h e June thunder-gust i n t h e deep and
s o l i t a r y woods, were a l l s e n s u a l , a n i m a l , e l e m e n t a l ,
No E u r o p e a n s p r i n g h a d shown him t h e s a m e i n t e r m i x t u r e o f d e l i c a t e grace and p a s s i o n a t e d e p r a v i t y t h a t
m a r k e d t h e M a r y l a n d May.
(p. 268)
By i m p l i c a t i o n a t l e a s t , New E n g l a n d o p e r a t e s a s a n e g a t i v e p o l e
o f judgment i n p h r a s e s s u c h a s " s t i n g y n a t u r e ' ' and " h i d d e n h o r r o r s
of glaciers."
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , Adams c o n n o t a t i v e l y r a i s e s t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e South i s a l s o flawed through t h e phrase
A s any r a t e , t h e p a s s a g e s u g g e s t e d t h i s
"passionate depravity."
p o s s i b i l i t y t o T. S . E l i o t , a p o e t w i t h New E n g l a n d a n c e s t o r s .
The i m p r e s s i o n was s o c l e a r t o E l i o t a s t o r e a p p e a r a s a n e g a t i v e
a l l u s i o n i n h i s poem " G e r o n t i o n . " l l
One d e t e c t s i n Adams a s i m i l a r
attitude.
A n o t h e r e l e m e n t e n t e r s t h i s c o m p l e x e q u a t i o n when Adams t u r n s
from i s s u e s p r i m a r i l y i n v o l v i n g s e n s u a l i t y - - o r t h e l a c k o f it-t o i s s u e s i n v o l v i n g g r a n d e r moral q u e s t i o n s , s l a v e r y , f o r example.
E v e n when a d d r e s s i n g t h e g r e a t m o r a l i s s u e s o f h i s l i f e t i m e , howe v e r , Adams i s i n c a p a b l e o f w r i t i n g w i t h o u t i r o n y .
As a result,
h i s m e t a p h o r i c a l p a i r i n g o f s l a v e r y and t h e poor c o n d i t i o n o f
S o u t h e r n r o a d s i s a t once a n i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e S o u t h and an i r o n i c
t w i t t i n g o f New E n g l a n d p r i g g i s h n e s s :
To t h e New E n g l a n d m i n d , r o a d s , s c h o o l s , c l o t h e s , a n d
a c l e a n f a c e were c o n n e c t e d a s p a r t s o f t h e law o f
order o r d i v i n e system.
Bad r o a d s m e a n t b a d m o r a l s .
The m o r a l o f t h i s V i r g i n i a r o a d w a s c l e a r , a n d t h e boy
f u l l y l e a r n e d i t . S l a v e r y was w i c k e d , a n d s l a v e r y
was t h e c a u s e o f t h i s r o a d ' s b a d n e s s w h i c h a m o u n t e d t o
s o c i a l crime--and y e t , a t t h e end o f t h e r o a d a n d prod u c t o f t h e c r i m e s t o o d Mount V e r n o n a n d G e o r g e
Washington.
(p. 47)
The a s s o c i a t i o n o f George Washington and s l a v e r y , w i t h a l l i t s
a o r a l a n d p a t r i o t i c a m b i v a l e n c e , i s s y m p t o m a t i c o f Adams* h a b i t u a l
view.
T h e r e i s a l w a y s a n o t h e r s i d e t o any q u e s t i o n , no m a t t e r
how s i m p l e t h e p h r a s i n g m i g h t make i t s e e m .
Even " j o l l i t y a n d
gloom" a r e n o t s i m p l y good a n d e v i l a s o n e m i g h t assume.
In this
r e s p e c t , a s i n s o many o t h e r s , h e r e s e m b l e s H a w t h o r n e a n d R o b i n s o n .
None o f t h e s e t h r e e w r i t e r s w o u l d b e l i k e l y t o s u b s c r i b e t o
t h i s d o c t r i n e o f New E n g l a n d r e g i o n a l i s m g l e a n e d f r o m t h e J o u r n a l s
o f Henry David Thoreau:
"I h a v e n e v e r g o t o v e r my s u r p r i s e t h a t
I s h o u l d h a v e been born i n t o t h e most e s t i m a b l e p l a c e i n a l l t h e
A t l e a s t two o f t h e
w o r l d , and i n t h e v e r y n i c k o f t i m e , too."12
writers--perhaps a l l three-would wish t o q u a l i f y t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n
o f H a w t h o r n e ' s , a p p e a r i n g i n a l e t t e r t o h i s f e l l o w New E n g l a n d e r
Horatio Bridge:
"New E n g l a n d i s g u i t e a s l a r g e a l u m p o f e a r t h
a s my h e a r t c a n r e a l l y t a k e i n . " l
Probably t h e only acceptable
summary o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y d e f i n i n g t h e r e g i o n a l a m b i v a l e n c e o f
t h e s e t h r e e New E n g l a n d w r i t e r s i s t h e o n e o f f e r e d by E m i l y
D i c k i n s o n , t h e c r y p t i c p r a c t i t i o n e r o f a n e q u i v a l e n t form o f
irony.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a v o i d i n g t h e h y p e r b o l e o f h e r male
c o - r e g i o n a l i s t s , D i c k i n s o n w r i t e s , " I s e e Xew E n g l a n d l y . " 1 4
So do t h e y a l l !
MOTES
l ~ d w i nA r l i n g t o n R o b i n s o n , C o l l e c t e d Poems (New Y o r k :
Macmillan, 1 9 3 7 ) , pp. 900-01.
2 ~ e eP a u l F u s s e l l , A b r o a d :
British Literary Travelling
B e t w e e n t h e W a r s (New Y o r k :
O x f o r d , 1 9 8 0 ) , pp. 130-41.
3 ~ e eF u s s e l l ' s c h a p t e r " I H a t e i t H e r e , " A b r o a d , p p .
15-
23.
4 ~ o n c e r n i n g t h e p o e m t s i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e , s e e H . H . Waggoner
a n d R i c h a r d E. A m a c h e r , T h e E x p l i c a t o r , X , 5 ( M a r c h 1 9 5 2 1 , 3 3 .
' w i l l i a m F a u l k n e r , Absalom, Absalom!
V i n t a g e , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 378.
( 1 9 3 6 ; r p t . New Y o r k :
6 ~ a t h a n i e lH a w t h o r n e , T h e S c a r l e t L e t t e r , V o l . I o f T h e
C e n t e n a r y E d i t i o n o f t h e W o r k s o f N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e , de.
(Columbus: Ohio S t a t e Univ. P r e s s ,
William Charvat. e t a l .
7 ~ a t h a n i e lH a w t h o r n e , T w i c e - T o l d T a l e s , V o l . I X o f T h e
C e n t e n a r y E d i t i o n o f t h e Works o f N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e , e c
William Charvat. e t a l .
(Columbus: Ohio S t a t e Univ. P r e s s .
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s w o r k a p p e a r in
19741, p. 54.
the text.
8 ~ h eS c a r l e t L e t t e r , p .
he
S c a r l e t L e t t e r , p.
230.
238.
1 ° ~ e n r y A d a m s , T h e E d u c a t i o n o f H e n r y Adams, e d . E r n e s t
Samuels (Boston:
Houghton M i f f l i n , 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 1 2 . A l l f u r t h e r
r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r i n t h e t e x t .
"T.
S . E l i o t , T h e C o m p l e t e Poems a n d P l a y s , 1 9 0 9 - 1 9 5 0
(New Y o r k :
Harcourt B r a c e , 1 9 5 2 ) , p. 21.
LC
Henry David T h o r e a u , The H e a r t o f T h o r e a u ' s J o u r n a l s , e d .
Odell Shepard (Boston:
Moughton M i f f l i n , 1 9 2 7 1 , p . 256.
LJ
Quoted i n Horatio Bridge, Personal Recollections o f
E a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e ( 1 8 9 3 ; r p t . New Y o r k :
H a s k e l l House, 19681,
P. 1 5 5 .
1 4 ~ m i l y D i c k i n s o n , T h e C o m p l e t e Poems o f E m i l y D i c k i n s o n ,
e d . Thomas H . J o h n s o n ( B o s t o n : L i t t l e , B r o w n , 1 9 6 0 ) , p . 1 3 2 .
Randall Stewart f i r s t identified these t h r e e a p t passages i n
h i s e s s a v "Regional C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e L i t e r a t u r e o f New
England,i1 i n R e g i o n a l i s m and Beyond, ed. George Core ( N a s h v i l l e :
V a n d e r b i l t Univ. P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 1 , pp. 157-8.
THE KENTUCKY HILL WOMAN: EARTH MOTHER I N A TIYE OF TRANSITION Sharon Whitehead S o m e r s e ? Community C o l l e g e I n t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s , t h e Appalachian Mountains
e x t e n d 1 , 3 0 0 m i l e s f r o m Vermont t o N o r t h Alabama.
The s o u t h e r n m o s t p o r t i o n o f t h e m o u n t a i n c h a i n i s known a s t h e S o u t h e r n
Appalachian region.
It c o n s i s t s o f mountain peaks, r o l l i n g h i l l s
The e a s t e r n b o r d e r i s d e f i n e d
a n d p l a t e a u s d e m a r c a t e d by r i v e r s .
by t h e B l u e R i d g e M o u n t a i n s a n d t h e w e s t e r n r i m by t h e C u m b e r l a n d
Plateau.
The G r e a t V a l l e y l i e s between.
T h e p o r t i o n o f t h e C u ~ b e r l a n dP l a t e a u w h i c h l i e s i n S o u t h e a s t e r n K e n t u c k y may b e d e s c r i b e d a s a r o l l i n g r e g i o n , d i s s e c t e d
I t was o n c e endowed w i t h f o r e s t s
by r i d g e s a n d winding r i v o r s .
o f t u l i p p o p l a r , beech, oak, walnut, and c h e s t n u t t r e e s , w i t h
abundant wild l i f e and f e r t i l e s o i l .
"The Kentucky c o u n t r y was
I t was a l s o a c c e s s i b l e a n d i t s
w i d e l y known f o r i t s f e r t i l i t y .
g o v e r n m e n t was e a r l y o r g a n i z e d a n d s t a b l e .
To t h i s p i o n e e r l a n d
o f p r o m i s e , !hen, m i g r a t i o n f l o w e d i n a s w o l l e n stream a f t e r t h e
Revolution."
The r i v e r l a n d s w e r e s e t t l e d f i r s t , t h e n t h e b o r d e r
c o u n t i e s i n e a s t e r n K e n t u c k y , a n d f i n a l l y , t h e m o ~ n t a i n s . ~T h e
influx of migrants continued steadily f o r twenty-five years a f t e r
1 7 8 7 ; by 1 8 1 2 , t h e f l o w s u b s i d e d , a n d by 1 8 3 0 , " a l l t h e p r e s e n t
s t o c k o f t h e b a s i c p o p u l a t i o n h a d a r r i v e d , a n d f e w s e t t l e r s came
i n t o t h e r e g i o n a f t e r t h a t d a t e . 113
Diverse t h e o r i e s have developed concerning t h e a n c e s t r y and
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e a r l y s e t t l e r s i n t h e Kentucky h i l l s .
They
have been t r a c e d t o S c o t t i s h c h i e f t a i n s o r t o English redemptioners
and indentured servants.
They h a v e b e e n c a l l e d h a r d y , s e l f - r e l i a n t
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t as w e l l as i l l i t e r a t e , u n c o u t h , u n d i s c i p l i n e d ,
and b a r b a r i c .
Individualism and s t o i c i s m a r e traits a t t r i b u t e d
t o t h e f i r s t h i l l people a s w e l l a s t r a d i t i o n a l i s m , f a t a l i s m and
r e l i g i o u s fundamentalism.
Whatever t h e i r e x a c t o r i g i n a n d c h a r a c t e r , t h e Kentucky h i l l
people proved t o be r e s i l i e n t .
I n f a c t , t h e y managed t o s u r v i v e
and f l o u r i s h i n v i r t u a l i s o l a t i o n f o r nearly a century, developing
a c u l t u r e i n which u t i l i t a r i a n h a n d c r a f t s , t h e b a l l a d , t h e f i d d l e
a n d t h e r e c i p e f o r home b r e w w e r e f a m i l i a r c o m p a n i o n s .
During the
f i r s t h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , however, t h e o u t s i d e world
a r r i v e d i n t h e form o f l a n d s p e c u l a t o r s , mining and lumbering
operators, road b u i l d e r s , n i s s i o n a r y teachers, preachers, doctors,
a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Government.
H a r r i e t t e S i k p s o n A r n o w , a w r i t e r f r o m s o u t h e a s t e r n Kent u c k y , p u b l i s h e d t h r e e n c v e l s a b o u t t h e Kentucky h i l l p e o p l e a s
they experienced unprecedented s o c i a l and economic changes i n
t h e i r r e g i o n from 1920 t o 1945.
I n Mountain P a t h (19361, H u n t e r ' s
Horn ( 1 9 4 9 ) a n d T h e D o l l m a k e r ( 1 9 5 4 ) , Arnow v i e w e d t h e t r a n s f o r -on
o f h i l l s o c i e t y t h r o u ~ ht h e e v e s o f t h e h i l l women. c r e a t i n ...
g
r e a l i s t i c female characters t o voice- t h e i r impressions, reactions
and a d j u s t m e n t s .
This paper w i l l describe t h e p r i n c i p a l female
c h a r a c t e r i n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e n o v e l s , f o c u s i n g upon t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e a r c h e t y p a l E a r t h Mother r e f l e c t e d i n h e r i d e n t i t y .
C a r l G . J u n g , t h e German p s y c h o l o g i s t , u s e d t h e a n c i e n t t e r m
" a r c h e t y p e " i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s t h e o r i e s o f t h e " c o l l e c t i v e unc o n s c i o u s , " a p a r t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s mind n o t a c q u i r e d b u t i n b o r n ,
not individual but universal.
The c o l l e c t i v e u n c o n s c i o u s c o n s i s t s
o f " p r & m o r d i a l t y p e s " o r " u n i v e r s a l i m a g e s " common t o e v e r y human
When i d e n t i being.
One s u c h i m a g e i s t h e a r c h e t y p a l G r e a t M o t h e r .
f i e d w i t h t h e e a r t h a n d t h e c y c l e s o f n a t u r e , s h e becomes t h e
E a r t h Mother.
She is thought t o have k i n s h i p w i t h domestic animals,
e s p e c i a l l y t h e cow.
She encompasses t h a t which i n s p i r e s d e v o t i o n
o r awe:
t h e church, t h e u n i v e r s i t y , c i t y o r country, heaven o r
earth.
Her image is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e m y s t e r i o u s and deep, t h e
s e a and f o r e s t .
She symbolizes f e r t i l i t y , being captured i n images
o f p r e g n a n t women a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o r n u c o p i a , a p l o u g h e d
f i e l d o r garden.5
The l i t e r a r y c r i t i c e m p l o y s J u n g ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a r c h e t y p e t o d e s c r i b e "an image, a d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l , a p l o t p a t t e r n ,
o r a c h a r a c t e r t y p e t h a t o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y i n l i t e r a t u r e , myth,
r e l i g i o n , o r f o l k l o r e and i s , t h e r e f o r e , b e l i e v e d t o evoke profound e m o t i o n s i n t h e r e a d e r b e c a u s e i t awakens a p r i m o r d i a l image
i n t h e u n c o n s c i o u s memory a n d t h u s c a l l s i n t o p l a y i l l o g i c a l b u t
s t r o n g responses."6
C e r t a i n l y t h e p r i n c i p a l female c h a r a c t e r s
i n Arnow's n o v e l s evoke t h o s e p r o f o u n d e m o t i o n s .
The k i n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a r c h e t y p a l E a r t h M o t h e r a n d A r n o w ' s
r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s e x t e n d s beyond d e p t h p s y c h o l o g y o r l i t e r a r y
criticism.
C o r i e Cal i n Mountain P a t h , M i l l y Ballew i n H u n t e r ' s
H orn a n d G e r t i e N e v e l s i n T h e D o l l m a k e r w e r e n o t a+!are o f a r c h e t y p a l images i n t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s minds.
They w e r e c o n s c i o u s o f
t h e i r r o l e a s d i c t a t e d by t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c u l t u r e , a r o l e
c l o s e l y p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e E a r t h Mother i n a l l o f h e r c o m p l e x i t y .
-
A b r i e f s y n o p s i s o f e a c h o f t h e n o v e l s must p r e c e d e a des c r i p t i o n o f C o r i e , M i l l y and G e r t i e .
Path r e c o r d s t h e i m p r e s s i o n s o f L o u i s a S h e r i d a n , a young t e a c h e r from Lexington s e n t i n
t h e 1920s t o a remote mountain school.
The p l o t i n c l u d e s moons h i n i n g , f e u d i n g and i n t r i g u e .
The d e p i c t i o n o f t h e f a n i l y w i t h
which L o u i s a r e s i d e s and t h e s u b t l e s u g g e s t i o n s o f L o u i s a ' s
m a t u r a t i o n k e e p t h e book f r o m b e i n g c a t e g o r i z e d a s a " t y p i c a l u
novel about t h e "typicalf' mountaineers of t h e e a r l y nineteenth
century.
T h e n o v e l Horn i n t r o d u c e s t h e B a l l e w s , a f a m i l y s t r u g g l i n g
t o s u r v i v e on L i t t l e Snokey-Creek d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s o f t h e
Depression.
The p l o t c e n t e r s o n Nunnelly. B a l l e w ' s o b s e s s i o n w i t h
c a t c h i n g a n i n f a m o u s r e d f o x named K i n g D e v i l .
The i n h a b i t a n t s o f
t h e community . s t r u g g l e t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n a rapidly
changing environment:
t h e g r a v e l r o a d h a s c o m e , b r i n g i n g i n WPA,
A A A , t h a Law, t h e r a d i o a n d n e w s o f t h e w a r a c r o s s t h e w a t e r .
The
s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s l e a v e by t h e same r o a d , g o i n g t o work i n i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s o r t o f i g h t i n t h e war.
D o l l m a k e r r e s u m e s t h e s t o r y o f t h e h i l l p e o p l e a t t h e same
r i t i c a l point i n history.
The i n t r u s i o n o f t h e o u t s i d e world
.as d i s r u p t e d l i f e i n B a l l e w , K e n t u c k y , a s i s t e r c o m m u n i t y t o L i t t l e
Smokey C r e e k .
T h e y o u n g men a n d women a r e g o n e , l e a v i n g t h e o l d
a n d i n f i r m w i t h t h e women a n d c h i l d r e n .
The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r ,
G e r t i e Nevels, t r a n s p o r t s h e r young f a m i l y t o a government-run
housing p r o j e c t i n D e t r o i t t o j o i n h e r t i n k e r e r husband, Clovis,
a l o v e r o r machines and h i g h wages.
Historical accuracy, meticulous attention t o d e t a i l , graphic
imagery, u n i v e r s a l and r e g i o n a l themes c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e w r i t i n g of
H a r r i e t t e Arnow.
She d e p i c t s w i t h p r e c i s i o n and i n s i g h t t h e people
o f t h e Kentucky h i l l s as they c o n f r o n t t h e t w e n t i e t h century.
She
k n e w t h e p l a c e a n d t h e c u l t u r e w e l l , b u t s h e k n e w t h e h i l l women
best.
C o r i e C a l , Milly Ballew, and G e r t i e Nevels a r e d i s t i n c t
i n d i v i d u a l s who, w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e Kentucky h i l l s , s u g g e s t
t h e a p p e a r a n c e and t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e E a r t h Mother:
they are
earthy, maternal, and they suggest an a f f i n i t y with t h e e a r t h ,
n a t u r e , and f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s .
C o r i e C a l i n Path i s t h e m a t r i a r c h i n t h e m o u n t a i n home
where Louisa S h e r i d a n boards.
T h e y o u n g s c h o o l t e a c h e r , small
a n d p r i m , c o n t r a s t s m a r k e d l y w i t h C o r i e , t h e w i f e o f L e e Buck C a l
and mother o f t h r e e l i v i n g c h i l d r e n .
Her s t a t u r e and c o l o r i n g
s u g g e s t t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e E a r t h Mother:
She was l a r g e :
not hippy a f t e r the fashion
o f w e l l - f e d women i n t h e c i t i e s , b u t t a l l a n d t h i n
and rangy with long l o o s e l y put t o g e t h e r bones,
and a l o n g neck s e t under a l o n g b u t well-shaped
head.
H e r j a w s w e r e l o n g a n d t h i n , s o was h e r
nose, and h e r c h i n l o n g and pointed--almost p r e t t y .
Her f e e t , h o w e v e r , w e r e w h a t c a u s e d L a u i s a t o f o r g e t t h a t i t was i m p o l i t e t o stare.
They were l o n g
l i k e t h e r e s t o f h e r ; narrow h e e l s , l o n g widespreading toes with each g r e a t t o e standing a l i t t l e
a p a r t from i t s s m a l l e r sisters and seeming t o e n j o y
a much w i d e r r a n g e o f e x p e r i e n c e .
Corie
was a rhapsody i n brown, e v e n h e r b l u e e y e s were
f l e c k e d w i t h l i g h t s t h e c o l o r o f brown s a n d i n y e l l o w
s u n l i g h t .7
. ..
M i l l y B a l l e w i n Horn d i f f e r s i n a p p e a r a n c e f r o m C o r i e .
M i l l y T s v o i c e s u g g e s t s both h e r appearance and h e r p e r s o n a l i t y .
N u n n e l l y B a l l e w , M i l l y t s h u s b a n d , h a s r e t u r n e d home f r o m o n e
of h i s periodic visits t o the general store:
"A woman's v o i c e ,
l i g h t a n d b r e a t h l e s s a n d t o u c h e d w i t h t h e sam g a i e t y t h a t f i l l e d
t h e c h i l d r e n ' s , c a l l e d from above t h e house."'
A s M i l l y and t h e
f o u r c h i l d r e n r u n t o g r e e t Nunn, h e l o o k s a t h i s w i f e :
"his eyes
s l i p p e d o v e r h i s wife, from h e r f o r e h e a d w i t h t h e l i t t l e wispy
c u r l s t h a t a l w a y s came when s h e worked i n t h e f i e l d a n d s w e a t e d ,
down h e r t h i n c h i l d ' s body i n a r a g g e d f a d e d d r e s s a n d f e e d s a c k a p r o n t o h e r b a r e brown f e e t " (-,
p. 5 ) . A c h i l d - l i k e
q u a l i t y enhances M i l l y ' s e a r t h i n e s s .
C e r t i e N e v e l s i n The D o l l m a k e r b r i n g s o t h e r q u a l i t i e s t o
t h e f i g u r e o f t h e E a r t h Mother.
C e r t i e i s a t a l l , m u s c u l a r woman,
mother o f f i v e c h i l d r e n and w i f e o f C l o v i s Nevels.
She can r u n
a f a r m a n d h a n d l e a m u l e a s w e l l a s a n y man.
She t a k e s p r i d e i n
h e r c a p a b i l i t i e s and d o e s n o t t r y t o c o n c e a l h e r masculine t r a i t s :
"And e v e n i n t h e m a n ' s w o r k s h o e s , t h e l o n g a n d s h a p e l e s s c o a t ,
g r e e n - t i n g e d w i t h a g e , open g i v i n g g l i m p s e s o f a b l u e apron faded
i n s t r a n g e s q u a r e s a s i f i t m i g h t have a t one t i m e been something
e l s e - - a man's denim t r o u s e r s o r o v e r a l l jumper--she h e l d h e r s e l f
proudly, s a ing:
'You w a n t my name; I ' m C e r t i e N e v e l s f r o m B a l l e w ,
I n a l a t e r scene, Certie sees her r e f l e c t i o n i n a
Kentucky.'"$
m i r r o r and r e a c t s :
S h e s a w a h u g e a n d u g l y woman, f l a t - c h e e k e d , s t r a i g h t lipped, straggeldy-headed, h e r f a c e grazed with t i r e d n e s s and c o a l d u s t , even h e r chapped l i p s g r a y .
The
s t r a i g h t , a l m o s t b u s h y b l a c k b r o w s b e l o w t h e bony f o r e h e a d w e r e o n a l e v e l w i t h h e r own, a n d s h e r e a l i z e d
s h e was l o o k i n g a t h e r s e l f - - t h e same o l d C e r t i e who h a d
made h e r m o t h e r weep.
S h e l a u g h e d a l o n g l a u g h , a good
(Dollmaker, p. 1 3 5 )
laugh.
Beyond a n y a r c h e t y p a l u n c o n s c i o u s i m a g e w i t h i n t h e i r m i n d s ,
t h e common c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e s e t h r e e h i l l women h e l p e d
t o d e f i n e t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s and v a l u e s .
T h e i r environment and
c u l t u r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d r o l e s f o r b o t h men a n d women.
The f e male r o l e s u g g e s t e d e s s e n t i a l l y t h e E a r t h Mother, b u t t h a t image
t o o k on d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e K e n t u c k y
hills.
C o r i e ' s e a r l y l i f e had been h a r d .
Her m o t h e r d i e d , l e a v i n g
C o r i e w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a n a d u l t when s h e was y e t a
child.
S h e g r e w u p q u i c k l y and i n t e r n a l i z e d t h e c o d e o f t h e
Kentucky m o u n t a i n s , a c o d e b ~ h i c hi n c l u d e d moonshining and f e u d i n g .
A s a m o u n t a i n woman, t h e o n l y d i r e c t i o n h e r l i f e c o u l d t a k e was
toward m a r r i a g e and motherhood.
S h e m a r r i e d L e e Buck C a l a n d
obeyed t h e B i b l i c a l and c u l t u r a l mandate t o "be f r u i t f u l and
multiply."
.
M i l l y l o s t a t a n e a r l y a g e b o t h f a t h e r a n d m o t h e r a n d was
w o r k i n g i n a c o a l camp \.:hen s h e m e t one o f t h e m i n e r s , Nunn B a l l e w .
Nunn s c a n d a l i z e d L i t t l e S n o k e y C r e e k c o m m u n i t y when h e m a r r i e d
M i l l y , a c o m p l e t e s t r a n g e r w i t h unknown a n d t h e r e f o r e q u e s t i o n a b l e
ancestry.
M i l l y was f o u r t e e n a t t h e time, o f p r i m e m a r r y i n g a g e
and very f e r t i l e .
S h e h a s b o r n e s i x c h i l d r e n , t w o o f whom h a v e died.
During t h e course o f t h e s t o r y , s h e b e a r s t h e seventh. G e r t i e ' s y o u t h , l i k e C o r i e ' s a n d M i l l y ' s , was h a r d .
Her
mother was f r e q u e n t l y ill, and h e r f a t h e r had been c r i p p l e d i n
a logging accident.
Whereas C o r i e and M i l l y m a s t e r e d t h e d o m e s t i c
s k i l l s t r a d i t i o n a l l y p e r f o r m e d b y women, G e r t i e w o r k e d i n t h e
f i e l d s a n d managed t h e f a r m u n t i l h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r H e n l e y was
o l d enough t o h e l p .
Henley a l o n e acknowledges t h a t G e r t i e saved
t h e family's farm, and a s he l i e s dying on a foreign b a t t l e f i e l d
d u r i n g t h e w a r , h e b e q u e a t h s t o h e r t h e money e a r n e d i n h i s c a t t l e
dealings.
Like C o r i e and M i l l y , Gertie had no formal e d u c a t i o n .
She had a n i m p o r t a n t advantage, however.
Her f a t h e r t a u g h t h e r t o r e a d t h e B i b l e and h e l p e d h e r memorize s c r i p t u r e s , poems, and The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
He a l s o t a u g h t h e r t o whittle.
G e r t i e proved t o be a n e a g e r s t u d e n t . G e r t i e ' s educational advantage, h e r masculine appearance
a n d b e h a v i o r a l i e n a t e h e r f r o m t h e o t h e r h i l l women.
She t h i n k s
independently, d e a l i n g w i t h a v a r i e t y o f r e l i g i o u s and moral
i s s u e s n o r m a l l y c o n s i g n e d t o t h e men.
The woodworking s k i l l ,
r a t h e r t h a n a n y d o m e s t i c c r a f t , b e c o m e s h e r m o s t f u l f i l l i n g mode
of expression.
Her m o s t c h e r i s h e d d r e a m i s t o p u r c h a s e a f a r m
o f h e r own:
"It was a s i f t h e war and H e n l e y ' s d e a t h had b e e n a
p l a n t o h e l p set h e r and t h e c h i l d r e n f r e e s o t h a t s h e might l i v e
a n d b e b e h o l d e n t o n o man, n o t e v e n t o C l o v i s l '
( D o l l m a k e r , p. 1 2 2 ) .
H i l l s o c i e t y h a s no p l a c e f o r a n i n d e p e n d e n t , land-owning
woman, h o w e v e r .
G e r t i e c a n work i n t h e fie1.d and s a v e t h e f a m i l y
f a r m , b u t i t i s t h e o n l y s o n , H e n l e y , "who i n d y i n g h a d t a k e n
w i t h him t h e Kendick name, t h e Kendick l a n d "
( D o l l m a k e r , p. 6 0 ) .
G e r t i e c a n s a v e t h e n i c k e l s and dimes from h e r e g g and w a l n u t
s a l e s , combine them w i t h t h e money b e q u e a t h e d by H e n l e y , a n d s h e
c a n e v e n a p p r o a c h Old J o h n B a l l e w w i t h a n o f f e r t o buy t h e d e s e r t e d
f a r m h e owns.
But Old John b a c k s o u t o f t h e a g r e e m e n t , and G e r t i e
j o i n s C l o v i s i n D e t r o i t when t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f m o u n t a i n m o r e s
i n t e r v e n e and s p e l l o u t t h e d u t y o f a w i f e t o b e w i t h h e r husband.
T h e n a t u r a l d i g n i t y a n d r e s e r v e t h e s e t h r e e women e x h i b i t cannot be a t t r i b u t e d t o appearance.
They a r e e a r t h y , u n r e f i n e d , s i m p l y d r e s s e d , a g e d beyond t h e i r y e a r s .
The d i g n i t y o f e a c h must be found i n the q u a l i t i e s o f h e r c h a r a c t e r . Corie's materpal nature is evident i n her care for her
family and h e r p r i d e i n h e r c h i l d r e n .
"Her p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s a r e
f o r h e r man a n d h e r c h i l d r e n , e v e n t o t h e s u b m e r g e n c e o f h e r
own i n d i ~ i d u a l i t y . ' ~ l oS h e a d v i s e s , c o m f o r t s a n d s u s t a i n s t h e
inexperienced Louisa a s another c h i l d .
Corie is t h e person with
whom L o u i s a i d e n t i f i e s n d f r o m whom s h e l e a r n s p a t i e n c e , e n d u r ance and g r a t e f u l n e s s . 1
'f
C o r i e t s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e E a r t h Mother must be c o n s i d e r e d
within t h e context o f her l i f e i n Cal Valley.
She values h e r
c h i l d r e n as h e r g r e a t e s t a s s e t s , y e t a s a r e s u l t o f t h e h a r s h
mountain environment--the shaded v a l l e y s , t h e poor defenses
a g a i n s t w i n t r y w e a t h e r , t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f s i c k n e s s and t h e
lack o f medical care--three o f Coriets children l i e buried i n t h e
f a m i l y ' s g r a v e y a r d : "Corie nodded and l i f t e d t h e churn d a s h e r
g e n t l y u p a n d down l o o k i n g i n t o t h e f i r e , a s i f h e r t h r e e d e a d
b a b i e s m o v e d t h e r e s o m e w h e r e b a c k o f t h e r e d d e n i n g f l a m e s " (Path,
P. 2 7 7 ) .
C o r i e m a s t e r s t h e d o m e s t i c s k i l l s , c h u r n i n g by t h e f i r e l i g h t , s t i r r i n g a p p l e b u t t e r , making c o o k i e s , d i p p i n g c a n d l e s ,
c a r i n g f o r t h e a n i m a l s as s h e d o e s h e r c h i l d r e n .
She enjoys
t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s g e n e r a l l y , b u t t o o o f t e n , they merely keep h e r
hands busy a s s h e anxiously a w a i t s t h e r e t u r n o f h e r moonshining,
f e u d i n g h u s b a n d , L e e Buck.
S h e s p e n d s many m e l a n c h o l i c e v e n i n g s
a l o n e , p r e o c c u p i e d by some t a s k , w o r r i e d y e t r e s i g n e d t o s i l e n c e .
L o u i s a w a t c h e s C o r i e o n e e v e n i n g as L e e Buck p r e p a r e s t o l e a v e
t h e house, everyone knowing t h a t a c l a s h between f e u d i n g c l a n s
is imminent:
" C o r i e moved f o r w a r d a s i f s h e w o u l d t o u c h h i m o r
s a y something, b u t i n t h e end d i d n e i t h e r .
Only s t o o d and s o f t l y
p a t t e d B e e t l e C t h e baby3 o n t h e s h o u l d e r w h i l e L e e Buck w a l k e d
t o t h e door and walked o u t w i t h o u t l o o k i n g back, and t h e l a t c h
c l i c k e d " (Path, p . 3 3 4 ) . L o u i s a r e c o g n i z e s w h a t e n a b l e s C o r i e t o
remain s i l e n t and w a i t :
" p o u i s g wished f o r what Corie had,
s o m e t h i n g warm a n d a l i v e t h a t s h e c o u l d t o u c h a n d h e a r i t s regular breathing.
Something s h e could p r e s s h e r face a g a i n s t
and s h u t o u t t h e c o l d u n n a t u r a l l i g h t , and t h e sound o f t h e wind
i n t h e h i g h e r h i l l s " (Path, p . 3 3 6 ) .
The p o r t r a i t o f M i l l y a s a m o t h e r i n g f i g u r e is more s h a r p l y
defined than t h a t o f Corie.
Milly nurtures every l i v i n g creature
a r o u n d h e r , h e r c h i l d r e n , Z i n g , t h e B a l l e w s ' , o l d hound, t h e two
p u p p i e s Nunn b u y s a f t e r Z i n g ' s d e a t h , a n d B e t s e y t h e f a m i l y ' s
cow.
E v e n h e r h u s b a n d Nunn r e f l e c t s u p o n t h e a u r a s u r r o u n d i n g
- h e r a s h e r e t u r n s home l a t e one e v e n i n g d u r i n g a b l i z z a r d :
I1Aye,
L o r d , h a v e p i t y o n a l l men o u t i n t h e s n o w a n d t h e d a r k who h a d
n o l i g h t o f t h e i r own t o a o t o ; i t w a s w o r t h a l l t h i s h e a d s w i m m i n g t r i p j u s t t o c o m e b a c k t o M i l l y ' s l i g h t " (-,
p. 9 3 ) .
M i l l y h e a r s Nunn c o m i n g , m e e t s h i m o n t h e p a t h a n d g u i d e s h i m i n s i d e " w i t h s o l i c i t o u s c a r e " (-,
p. 9 5 ) .
I n o n e s c e n e , M i l l y seems t o become a n embodiment o f t h e
E a r t h Mother.
H e r t w o - y e a r - o l d s o n Deb h a s w a n d e r e d a w a y f r o m
her watchful eye.
A f r a n t i c M i l l y f i n d s him s e a t e d on a l i m b
h i g h i n a c e d a r tree.
With mixed f e a r f o r h i s s a f e t y and p r i d e
i n h i s p r o w e s s , s h e t r i e s t o c o a x h i m down.
Eventually, she
c l i m b s t h e t r e e a f t e r him and s l a p s h i s b o t t o m p b a y f u l l y :
"But
Deb s m i l e d s l y l y a n d b e g a n t r y i n g t o u n d o h e r d r e s s , a n d M i l l y
s e t t l e d h e r s e l f on one b i g limb w i t h a n o t h e r a t h e r s h o u l d e r s and
l e t him n u r s e .
S h e t o o k a chew o f t o b a c c o from a l i t t l e t i g h t
r o l l o f home g r o w n i n h e r a p r o n p o c k e t
a n d amused h e r s e l f
. . .
by s p i t t i n g a t a l i z z a r d o n a r o c k a n d r u n n i n g o n e h a n d l i g h t l y
t h r o u g h D e b ' s damp c u r l i n g h a i r " (Horn, p . 1 5 ) .
M i l l y ' s m a t e r n a l n a t u r e , l i k e C o r i e ' s , h a s been molded by
the circumstances of her l i f e i n the h i l l s .
Two o f h e r o f f s p r i n g
have d i e d .
She adores h e r c h i l d r e n but d e p l o r e s t h e thought
o f a n o t h e r pregnancy.
Despondent o v e r t h e l a t e s t o n e , s h e f l e e s
t o t h e o u t d o o r s a n d t h e company o f t h e q u i e t ewes:
"she wished
s h e w e r e as good a s t h e y - - e a c h h e a v y w i t h l a m b , w a i t i n g o u t h e r
time with no f e a r and no s i n f u l q u e s t i o n i n g o f God's w i l l "
p. 2 3 2 ) .
\
(m,
M i l l y l s thoughts about being born female r e f l e c t the harshn e s s of t h e environment:
"Aye, L o r d , i t would b e b e t t e r n e v e r
t o have a cirl c h i l d ; t h e y saw n o t h i n g b u t p a i n and t r o u b l e a n d
w o r k a n d s o many w e n t w r o n g , o r e l s e m a r r i e d s o m e g o o d - f o r - n o t h i n g
l i t t l e f e i s t w h e n t h e y w e r e t o o l i t t l e t o know t h a t k i s s e s come
e a s i e r t h a n v i c t u a l s a n d t h a t a h o u s e f u l o f youngens comes e a s i e s t
o f a l l " (Horn, p . 5 7 ) . T h e s e t h o u g h t s s e e m i r o n i c a s t h e y come
f r o m M i l l y , a woman who s e t t l e s c o m f o r t a b l y o n a l i m b t o n u r s e h e r
c h i l d , a woman who e p i t o m i z e s t h e E a r t h M o t h e r .
G e r t i e does n o t s u g g e s t t h e image o f E a r t h Mother a s s t r o n g l y
a s M i l l y , b u t G e r t i e c a r e s f o r , t e a c h e s , a d v i s e s , and d i s c i p l i n e s
her children.
S h e m e e t s t h e i r p h y s i c a l a n d e m o t i o n a l n e e d s , conv e y i n g t o them a s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y .
C a s s i e , t h e most f r a g i l e and
s e n s i t i v e o f G e r t i e ' s c h i l d r e n , e l i c i t s most o f t e n G e r t i e ' s nurturing.
The two p a u s e o n a n e x c u r s i o n t h r o u g h t h e woods a f t e r
C a s s i e h a s f a l l e n down, a n d G e r t i e b e n d s o v e r t h e c h i l d :
"She
w a s c r y i n g now.
' I c a n s e e l i t t l e g i r l s i n y o u r e y e s , Mom, l i t t l e
bitty girls.'
'They're little Cassies,'
G e r t i e s a i d , bending
h e r h e a d t o l o o k a t a smear o f b l o o d o n C a s s i e ' s t e e t h s o t h a t
t h e l i t t l e g i r l s went away.
S h e s c o o p e d h e r upon o n e arm.
C a s s i e c u d d l e d a g a i n s t h e r , o n e arm a b o u t h e r n e c k , h e r c h e e k
o n h e r s h o u l d e r , a l l h e r c h i l d f o r a n i n s t a n t ' ' ( D o l l m a k e r , p . 44).
.. .
A s do C o r i e and Milly, G e r t i e s u g g e s t s t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r
o f t h e m o t h e r f i g u r e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h e r own s i t u a t i o n .
W h i l e a t home i n t h e h i l l s , s h e k n o w s how t o p r o v i d e f o r h e r
family.
I n d e e d , o n o n e o c c a s i o n , by a c t i n g q u i c k l y and e f f i c i e n t l y ,
s h e s a v e s h e r b a b y Amos' l i f e b y p e r f o r m i n g a n e m e r g e n c y t r a c h e o tomy o n him w i t h h e r w h i t t l i n g k n i f e .
The t r a i n t r i p t o D e t r o i t t o j o i n h e r husband C l o v i s d i s concerts Gertie a s it does her children.
The f e a r s o f t h e o l d e r
c h i l d r e n a r e o f f s e t f o r a t i m e b y t h e i n t r i g u e o f new e x p e r i e n c e ? ,
b u t C a s s i e i s o v e r c o m e by t h e s m e l l s o f t h e t r a i n a n d t h e n o i s e
of t h e crowded t e r m i n a l .
She b u r i e s h e r f a c e i n G e r t i e ' s l a p .
A l l o f t h e c h i l d r e n t u r n t o G e r t i e f o r r e a s s u r a n c e when t h e y i n s p e c t t h e c o l d , dingy apartment i n t h e Merry H i l l Housing P r o j e c t :
"The t i r e d , h u n g r y , s h i v e r i n g c h i l d r e n l o o k e d a t G e r t i e , t h e i r e y e s
a s k i n g and e x p e c t i n g o f h e r t h e warmth and food s h e had always
g i v e n " (Dollmaker, p. 1 5 4 ) . G e r t i e , i n t h a t f o r e i g n p l a c e , i n
t h a t moment a n d i n t h e m o n t h s t o c o m e , c a n n o t r e s p o n d .
She f e e l s
d i s p l a c e d , i n e f f e c t i v e and f r u s t r a t e d a s a mother, a w i f e , a person.
Gertie l o s e s her children i n Detroit j u s t a s she l o s e s herself.
C l y t i e a n d E n o c h , l i k e t h e i r f a t h e r , a r e a b s o r b e d by t h e
project's culture.
Amos, t h e y o u n g e s t , w i l l g r o w u p a s a n u r b a n
child.
Two o f G e r t i e ' s c h i l d r e n c h e r i s h l i f e i n t h e h i l l s a n d
cannot a d j u s t t o urban l i f e , but G e r t i e ' s e f f o r t s t o h e l p these
c h i l d r e n come t o n a u g h t .
Reuben, h e r o l d e s t s o n , r e b e l s a g a i n s t
h e r a s h e d o e s a g a i n s t e v e r y t h i n g i n h i s new e n v i r o n m e n t ,
He
e v e n t u a l l y s l i p s away a n d r e t u r n s t o t h e h i l l s ; a n d G e r t i e t h i n k s :
"She c o u l d r a i s e b u s h e l s o f s w e e t p o t a t o e s , f a t t e n a p i g , k i l l i t ,
a n d make g o o d s a u s a g e m e a t , b u t s h e d i d n ' t know how t o b u y .
She
c o u l d b o r n a f i n e a n d l a u g h i n g b o y b a b y a n d make h i m g r o w u p b i g
a n d s t r o n g , b u t i n s i d e him a l l h i s l a u g h t e r d i e d " ( D o l l m a k e r ,
p. 3 1 8 ) .
Gertie f i n d s t h a t her mothering cannot s a t i s f y Cassie's
n e e d , e i t h e r , b u t t h e r e s u l t i s more t r a g i c i n h e r c a s e t h a n
i n Reuben's.
C a s s i e r e a c t s t o t h e p r e s s u r e o f g r o w i n g up i n t h e
c r o w d e d p r o j e c t by r e t r e a t i n g t o t a l l y i n t o h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
a n i m a g i n a r y f r i e n d , C a l l i e Lou.
The r e t r e a t t a k e s C a s s i e a n d
C a l l i e Lou b e y o n d a t a l l wooden f e n c e i n t o t h e p r i v a c y o f t h e
r a i l r o a d y a r d w h e r e t h e y may p l a y u n n o t i c e d a n d u n i n t e r r u p t e d .
It is there t h a t a t r a i n h i t s Cassie, severing both of her legs.
G e r t i e holds her dying c h i l d , t r y i n g t o comfort her a s s h e has
s o many t i m e s i n t h e p a s t .
A g a i n , h e r e f f o r t s seem f u t i l e a s
C a s s i e i s s n a t c h e d f r o m G e r t i e ' s a r m s a n d w h e e l e d by t h e a t t e n d a n t s
into the s t e r i l e hospital:
"She r e a c h e d f o r t h e b u n d l e , b u t t h e
c a r t had f l e d from h e r i n a h i s s i n g , c r y i n g wind a n d s h e had f l e d
a f t e r i t down t h r o u g h t h e r u s h i n g , c h o k i n g h a l l s , p a s t s m o o t h
But t h r o u g h i t a l l C a s s i e had n e v e r been
and s i l e n t d o o r s .
h e r own a g a i n " ( D o l l m a k e r , p . 3 7 5 ) .
.. .
The m a t e r n a l i m p u l s e i s f e l t i n t e n s e l y by C o r i e , M i l l y a n d
Gertie.
E a c h woman a l s o s e n s e s a n a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e e a r t h , w i t h
t h e c y c l e s o f n a t u r e , and with f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s .
Corie l i v e s
h e r l i f e i n harmony w i t h n a t u r e and t e a c h e s L o u i s a a n i m p o r t a n t
lesson:
From C o r i e s h e l e a r n e d g r a t e f u l n e s s a n d t h a n k f u l n e s s
for a l l things:
d r y w o o d , r a i n when t h e s p r i n g w a s l o w ,
c o l d s n a p s t h a t c u r e d u p c o l d a n d made a s p e l l f o r k i l l i n g h o g s , s u n s h i n y d a y s , snowy d a y s ( t h e y m e a n t g o o d
c r o p s ) , h a r d f r o z e n b a r e ground f o r i t w a s t h e n t h a t t h e
c h i l d r e n d i d n o t wet t h e i r f e e t o r r u i n t h e i r s h o e s .
Without being a p e s s i x i s t , Corie expected t h e worst o f
a l l p o s s i b l e combinations i n a l l t h i n g s , and a s a r e s u l t , w a s e t e r n a l l y g r a t e f u l f o r some l i t t l e t h i n g s .
(Path, p . 2 1 5 )
M i l l y , l i k e G e r t i e , p r e f e r s t h o s e t a s k s w h i c h may b e p e r f o r m e d
outdoors, l i k e t h e c u t t i n g and s t r i p p i n g o f cane:
M o l a s s e s making t i m e was h a r d b u t :,!illy l i k e d
all parts o f it. She liked t o s t r i p t h e long
broad b l a d e s from t h e s h i n i n g s i l v e r y s t a l k s ,
t i e t h e blades i n t o bundles, and t h i n k o f Lizzie,
t h e b l a c k h e i f e r , f e a s t i n g ea c a n e f o d d e r w i t h t h e
l i t t l e b l a c k c a l f t h a t was t o b e w o r k i n q h a r d o n
two t e a t s w h i l e s h e m i l k e d t h e o t h e r two.
She
l i k e d t o s t a n d on t i p - t o e r e a c h i n g f o r a head o f
c a n e , golden-brown and s h i n i n g , s h e a n d t h e cane-held alone an instant together against the blue
s i l k s k y ; t h e n s h e was p u l l i n g i t d o x n , c u t t i n g
i t o f f a n d f e e l i n g a s e c o n d ' s s a d n e s s t h a t was
f o r g o t t e n i n r e a c h i n g f o r a n o t h e r a n d knowing
t h a t u p a n d down t h e c a n e r o w s g r e w a m o u n t i n g
p i l e o f c h i c k e n feed--and M i l l y i n h e r m i n d ' s
e y e w o u l d see f a t h e n s p e c k i n g a t t h e c a n e h e a d s
o n a snowy d a y .
(Horn, p . 2 4 )
M i l l y l s a f f i n i t y with n a t u r e and n a t u r e ' s c r e a t u r e s is
a p p a r e n t i n h e r c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a e t s e y , t h e f a m i l y ' s cow.
On o n e o c c a s i o n , M i l l y t u r n s t o B e t s e y w h e n t r o u b l e d a b o u t N u n n ,
" a n d s h e b e g a n t o c r y a n d c r i e d o n as s h e m i l k e d , h e r f o r e h e a d
p r e s s e d a g a i n s t B e t s e y l s f l a n k , s o u n d l e s s t e a r s s l i d i n g down
i n t o t h e f o a m i n g m i l k 1 ' (Horn, p . 3 8 1 ) .
Of a l l c r e a t u r e s , M i l l y i d e n t i f i e s m o s t c l o s e l y w i t h K i n g
D e v i l , t h e c r a f t y r e d f o x Nunn h a s h u n t e d o b s e s s i v e l y f o r y e a r s
a n d a n i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l i n t h e n o v e l Horn. T h e p e o p l e o f L i t t l e
Smokey C r e e k a t t r i b u t e s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s t o t h e l e g e n d a r y f o x
who h a s e l u d e d h u n t e r s , s t o l e n c h i c k e n s , k i l l e d s h e e p , a n d l e d
hounds t o t h e i r d e a t h s i n c h a s e s o v e r f i e l d and c l i f f .
Signifi c a n t l y , M i l l y o b s e r v e s t h e fox a t c l o s e r a n g e , and t h e r e is no
h i n t o f t h e h n n t e r - h u n t e d c h a l l e n g e t h a t l u r e s Nunn o n r e l e n t lessly:
I n o n e p l a c e t h e l e a v e s on t h e l e d g e seemed
r i c h e r , redder, l i k e t h e flaming bush t h a t
a p p e a r e d t o Moses i n t h e B i b l e .
But t h e t h i n g
was n o t l e a v e s b u t a g r e a t r e d f o x , b r i g h t e n e d
by t h e sun.
A s i f e a g e r f o r h e r t o see h i m , h e
s t o o d s t i l l among t h e r e d l e a v e s , h e a d t u r n e d
toward h e r , f i e r y - t i p p e d b r u s h l i f t e d , mouth
o p e n , h a p p i l y , p l e a s a n t l y , l i k e a dog.
With a last c o o l g l a n c e , he dropped h i s head
and picked up a hen, one o f Nancy's White
Rocks, fresh-dead and limber.
(Horn, p . 2 3 1
...
M i l l y a n d K i n g D e v i l meet o n c e a g a i n o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e
fox's capture.
The h o u n d s o v e r t a k e K i n g D e v i l a n d make t h e k i l l
j u s t o u t s i d e a house where M i l l y is h e l p i n g t o d e l i v e r a baby.
M i l l y r e a c h e s King Devil f i r s t :
I1Milly saw t h e l o n g r e d h a i r ,
s t a i n e d i n s p o t s w i t h new-shed b l o o d , b u t g l e a m i n g s t i l l . S h e
.
r a n h e r h a n d a l o n g t h e f o x ' s b e l l y - - s o m e t h i n g moved f e e b l y
u n d e r t h e skin--one j e r k a n d t h e n i t was s t i l l , l i k e t h e f i r s t
and l a s t s t r u g g l e f o r l i f e i n a baby c h i c k e n t o o f e e b l e f o r t h e
hatching."
King D e v i l was a "queen" heavy w i t h young o n e s .
Milly sorrows f o r t h e s i s t e r creature:
"but t h e vixen had run
so free:
n o t many t h i n g s c o u l d b e s o f r e e " (Horn, p p . 3 9 5 , 3 9 6 ) .
..
Communion w i t h t h e e a r t h a n d f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s i s a l s o a n
integral part of Gertie's life.
I n moments o f c r i s i s o r c h a o s ,
Gertie f l e e s t o the outdoors.
I n one e p i s o d e , s h e s t a n d s exh a u s t e d o u t s i d e t h e d o c t o r ' s o f f i c e w h e r e s h e h a s b r o u g h t Amos,
h e r c r i t i c a l l y ill c h i l d :
"She walked s l o w l y a l o n g t h e cement
walk t h a t l e d t o t h e f r o n t p o r c h , l i f t i n g h e r f a c e t o f e e l t h e
r a i n , f o r a f t e r t h e w h i t e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e h o t l i t t l e room, t h e
c o l d r a i n and t h e d a r k were l i k e o l d f r i e n d s " (Dollmaker, p. 2 9 ) .
G e r t i e ' s bond w i t h n a t u r e and t h e e a r t h becomes synonymous
w i t h p r o c u r i n g h e r own f a r m .
She e x p r e s s e s h e r dream i n t h e
A s a tenant farmer's wife, she
i m a g e r y o f t h e Old T e s t a m e n t .
i d e n t i f i e s with t h e wandering t r i b e s o f I s r a e l .
The f a r m s h e
d a n t s t o buy becomes t h e P r o m i s e d Land.
When i t a p p e a r s t h a t
s h e h a s i n d e e d b o u g h t t h e f a r m w i t h t h e money s h e h a s s a v e d a n d
w i t h t h e f u n d s b e q u e a t h e d t o h e r by h e r b r o t h e r H e n l e y , G e r t i e
s i n g s t h e hymn "How F i r m a F o u n d a t i o n , Ye S a i n t s o f t h e L o r d " :
"Her f o u n d a t i o n w a s n o t God b u t w h a t God h a d p r o m i s e d Moses-land.
W h a t m o r e , o h , L o r d , w h a t m o r e c o u l d a woman a s k ? "
(Dollmaker, p. 1 1 2 ) .
...
G e r t i e l s d r e a m f a d e s when s h e s u c c u m b s t o c o m m u n i t y p r e s s u r e
and j o i n s C l o v i s i n D e t r o i t .
W i t h o u t t h a t e s s e n t i a l communion
with t h e e a r t h and n a t u r e , G e r t i e f e e l s d i s o r i e n t e d .
Denied h e r
own l a n d , s h e h a s n o f o u n d a t i o n u p o n w h i c h t o s t a n d .
S h e now
c i t e s a d i f f e r e n t B i b l i c a l image:
"Upon t h e w i l l o w s i n t h e m i d s t
t h e r e o f , we h a n g e d o u r h a r p s , a n d t h e y t h a t w a s t e d u s r e q u i r e d o f
us m i r t h , s a y i n g , 'Sing u s one a t h e songs a Zion.'
B u t how
s h a l l we s i n g t h e L o r d ' s s o n g i n a s t r a n g e l a n d " ( D o l l m a k e r , p . 1 3 3 ) .
G e r t i e ' s estrangement is e s p e c i a l l y poignant a f t e r Cassie's
death.
L i k e C o r i e , G e r t i e n e e d s some l i v i n g t h i n g t o h o l d .
Like
Milly, she longs f o r a kindred s p i r i t :
! ' I f s h e c o u l d w a l k now,
walk a l l n i g h t , walk and w a l k , f o r e v e r ; i f s h e had c o r n t o
gather
e v e n a cow t o m i l k , some g e n t l e cow t h a t w o u l d l e t
h e r l e a n h e r f o r e h e a d " ( D o l l m a k e r , p. 3 7 6 ) , Dock, t h e f a m i l y ' s
. She r e a l i z e d t e a r s
mule comes t o mind:
"Where w a s Dock?
were f a l l i n g on h e r t w i s t i n g hands.
She had never c r i e d f o r
C a s s i e , b u t now s h e c r i e d f o r a m u l e , a m u l e t h a t w o u l d n ' t r e c o l l e c t h e r , b u t w i t h him s h e had been s o f r e e , s o u n a f r a i d "
( D o l l m a k e r , p. 4 8 0 ) .
...
..
The s h o c k o f C a s s i e ' s d e a t h p l u n g e s G e r t i e i n t o w h i r l i n g
delirium.
She l o s e s h e r w i l l .
She l i e s unkempt, s l e e p i n g f i t f u l l y , drugged w i t h phenob5rbitol.
I n i n t e r m i t t e n t moments o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , Gertie r e a l i z e s s h e w i l l n e v e r l e a v e D e t r o i t a n d
Cassie.
She begins t h e labored process o f o r i e n t a t i o n t o the
Gertie thus
urban environment.
Her c o n t a c t p o i n t i s t h e e a r t h .
encourages t h e c h i l d r e n t o p l a n t g r a s s and l i l a c s p r i g s on t h e i r
meager p l o t o f ground.
The f a m i l y sits around t h e k i t c h e n t a b l e
o n e h o t summer e v e n i n g m a k i n g g a r d e n i n g p l a n s f o r t h e n e x t
spring:
"An w h e r e t l l we h a v e t h e c o r n c r o p ? "
Clovis
asked, smiling i n s p i t e o f t h e sweat running i n t o
h i s eyes.
"Under t h e w e s t w i n d e r s o ' s i t ' l l s h a d e u s , "
Enoch s a i d , and t h e y a l l laughed a l i t t l e .
( D o l l m a k e r , p. 4 4 9 )
T h e n o v e l s Horn a n d D o l l m a k e r l i n k s i g n i f i c a n t s y m b o l s w i t h
the principal female characters:
M i l l y i d e n t i f i e s with King
D e v i l ; G e r t i e c a r v e s a b l o c k o f c h e r r y wood t o r e v e a l t h e man
A s mentioned e a r l i e r , G e r t i e ' s f a t h e r t a u g h t
hidden within.
h e r t o w h i t t l e , a n d w h i t t l i n g became h e r c r e a t i v e o u t l e t :
I ' v e n e v e r h a d much t i m e f e r w h i t t l e n f o o l ishness.
Oh, a f e w d o l l s .
C a s s i e - - t h a t ' s my
crazy over the dolls I whittle,
l e a s t girl--she's
b u t when I g i t a l l s e t t l e d I ' m a i m e n t o w o r k u p
a p i e c e a w i l d c h e r r y wood I ' v e g o t .
It's big
enough f e r t h head and s h o u l d e r s uv a f a i r s i z e d man i f
i f I can e v e r h i t on t h e r i g h t
face.
( D o l l m a k e r , p. 1 6 )
...
The developments i n h e r l i f e a f f e c t G e r t i e l s p e r c e p t i o n o f
t h e man i n t h e wood.
While s h e remains i n t h e f a m i l i a r h i l l s o f
K e n t u c k y , w o r k i n g t o w a r d b u y i n g h e r own f a r m , G e r t i e p e r c e i v e s
t h e man a s " a l a u g h i n g C h r i s t u n c r o w n e d w i t h t h o r n s a n d w i t h
t h e scars o f t h e n a i l h o l e s i n h i s h a n d s a l l h e a l e d away; a
C h r i s t who h a d l o v e d p e o p l e , h a d l i k e d t o m i n g l e w i t h t h e m a n d
l a u g h a n d s i n g " ,-(
p. 5 4 ) .
When C l o v i s l e a v e s t o w o r k
i n D e t r o i t , G e r t l e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e b l o c k o f wood f o r c o m p a n y ,
w h i t t l i n g and dreaming o f a well-fed, well-housed family s e c u r e
o n h e r own l a n d .
T h e n when t h e d r e a m d i s i n t e g r a t e s a n d G e r t i e
t a k e s h e r " r i g h t f u l place" beside h e r husband i n t h e housing
p r o j e c t , t h e p a r t i a l l y c a r v e d h e a d a n d s h o u l d e r s i n t h e wood
provide support.
G e r t i e f o r g e t s t h e n o i s y , crowded a l l e y and
l o s e s h e r s e l f i n t h e w o r k o f r e v e a l i n g t h e h i d d e n man.
A
m a r k e d c h a n g e i n G e r t i e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e b l o c k o f wood
G e r t i e t u r n s t o t h e wood i n h e r
o c c u r s when C a s s i e i s k i l l e d .
d e l i r i u m , p r o j e c t i n g o n t o t h e h i d d e n man h e r i n e x p r e s s i b l e g r i e f
and horror:
"One s i d e w a s now n o b l o c k o f wood a t a l l , b u t t h e
c l o t h - d r a p e d s h o u l d e r s o f someone t i r e d o r o l d , more l i k e l y
t i r e d , f o r t h e s h o u l d e r s , t h e sagging head, bespoke a weariness
unto death."
Instgad o f laughing Christ, Gertie then begins t o
see a J u d a s w i t h c u p p e d h a n d s " h o l d i n g l i g h t l y a t h i n g t h e y c o u l d
n o t keep" (Dollmaker, pp. 400, 4 0 5 ) .
The same c o n f u s i o n o f i d e n t i t y becomes pronounced i n G e r t i e ' s
own l i f e .
C l o v i s h a s a l w a y s d i s m i s s e d G e r t i e ' s wood c a r v i n g a s
idleness.
Before they l e f t the h i l l s , h i s constant rejoinder
was:
" I f ' n you must w a s t e elbow g r e a s e on w h i t t l e n , c o u l d n ' t
you make a a x h a n d l e e r s o m e t h e n somebody c o u l d u s e ? " ( D o l l m a k e r ,
p. 3 1 ) . A f t e r t h e move t o D e t r o i t , t h e m e a g e r i n c o m e a n d h i g h
c o s t o f l i v i n g r e i n f o r c e Clovis' argumect.
He d r a w s u p p l a n s f o r
C l o v i s w i l l c u t rough f i g u r e s
a home o p e r a t i o n w i t h a j i g s a w :
o f d o l l s a n d c r u c i f i x e s f r o m p i e c e s o f s c r a p wood; G e r t i e w i l l
smooth a n d s h a p e them w i t h h e r k n i f e .
Enoch, t h e i r s o n , w i l l
p a i n t and peddle t h e f i n i s h e d products.
G e r t i e m u s t make a c h o i c e :
s h e may f o l l o w h e r own c r e a t i v e
i m p u l s e s a n d c o n t i n u e t o r e v e a l t h e man i n t h e wood o r s h e may
a c q u i e s c e t o C l o v i s and mass-produce jumping-jack d o l l s .
Her
d e c i s i o n p r o v e s t o b e a s e n i g m a t i c a s t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e man i n
t h e wood a n d , i n d e e d , a s h e r own i d e n t i t y .
In the novel's climactic
s c e n e , G e r t i e h a u l s t h e b l o c k o f wood t o a n e a r b y s c r a p wood l o t .
Her g r i m c o u n t e n a n c e c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h t h e l a u g h i n g , i n q u i s i t i v e f a c e s o f t h e a l l e y ' s c h i l d r e n who a c c o m p a n y h e r .
Gertie seizes
a n a x e a n d , w i t h t w o s h a r p b l o w s , s p l i t s t h e b l o c k o f wood i n
half.
S h e t h e n a s k s t h e p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e l o t t o s p l i t t h e wood
She i n t e n d s t o
i n t o e v e n smaller p i e c e s s u i t a b l e f o r c a r v i n g .
w h i t t l e small f i g u r e s t o b e s o l d a t a C h r i s t m a s b a z a a r .
G e r t i e ' s d e c i s i v e a c t i o n r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s about h e r motiIs s h e d e f e a t e d o r v i c t o r i o u s ? Does s h e i d e n t i f y w i t h
vation.
t h e C h r i s t o f t h e J u d a s ? T h e f a c e i n t h e wood e v a d e d h e r , a n d
Her g e s t u r e
p e r h a p s h e r d e c i s i o n a r i s e s frbm a s e n s e o f f u t i l i t y .
may, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n d i c a t e t h e r e c o v e r y o f h e r s t r o n g w i l l ,
h e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o s u r v i v e i n t h e new e n v i r o n m e n t .
Futhermore,
w h a t d o e s t h e a c t i o n s u g g e s t a b o u t G e r t i e ' s i d e n t i t y ? Has i t
a l t e r e d a s d r a s t i c a l l y a s h e r e n v i r o n m e n t ? Even b e f o r e l e a v i n g
t h e h i l l s , G e r t i e d i f f e r e d from C o r i e and M i l l y i n h e r masculine
o r i e n t a t i o n , h e r i n d e p e n d e n t s p i r i t a n d h e r mode o f c r e a t i v e e x pression.
T r a g i c a l l y , i n t h e u r b a n environment, G e r t i e ' s conf u s i o n o f i d e n t i t y becomes a n o t h e r d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e .
The t h r e e n o v e l s b y H a r r i e t t e Arnow, M o u n t a i n P a t h , H u n t e r ' s
a n d The D o l l m a k e r , d e l i n e a t e t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i d e n t i t y
and environment, Although Corie must cope w i t h d e v a s t a t i n g personal experiences, h e r world is b a s i c a l l y s t a t i c .
S h e knows h e r
f u n c t i o n and h e r p l a c e a s d e f i n e d by t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g t r a d i t i o n s
o f t h e Kentucky h i l l s .
C o r i e k n o w s who s h e i s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s
widespread d i s r u p t i o n i n M i l l y ' s world a s a r e s u l t o f events outs i d e t h e h i l l s , l i t t l e i n h e r personal L i f e changes.
She, l i k e
Corie, f e e l s competent t o f u l f i l l t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s d i c t a t e d
by h e r r o l e .
G e r t i e ' s world, however, a l t e r s c o m p l e t e l y , l e a v i n g
G e r t i e d i s o r i e n t e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d when c o n f r o n t e d b y d i f f e r e n t
circumstances, r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , and values.
She must Live i n
constant confusion o r adapt t o survive.
Horn,
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e E a r t h M o t h e r may s t i l l
be s e e n i n G e r t i e as s h e a t f i r s t r e s i s t s t h e n a d a p t s t o l i f e
i n t h e housing project.
W i l l t h a t u n c o n s c i o u s image h a v e as
p r o f o u n d a n i n f l u e n c e upon G e r t i e ' s u r b a n i z e d d a u g h t e r , C l y t i e ,
o r d o e s t h e u n c o n s c i o u s image become c o n s c i o u s o n l y w i t h i n a
p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t ? Is t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e E a r t h M o t h e r
m o r e l i k e l y t o s u r f a c e i n women l i k e t h o s e l i v i n g i n t h e K e n t u c k y
h i l l s , r e l y i n g upon t h e e a r t h , s e n s i t i v e t o t h e c y c l e s o f n a t u r e ,
working c l o s e l y with t h e i r animals, f i n d i n g t h e i r places within
t h e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e ? O t h e r a n a l y t i c a l e s s a y s b a s e d upon o t h e r
n o v e l s w i l l have t o be w r i t t e n t o answer t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .
Regardless o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l and psychological i m p l i c a t i o n s
f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n and grandchildren, Corie Cal, Milly Ballew,
a n d G e r t i e N e v e l s , c r e a t i o n s o f H a r r i e t t e Arnow a n d t h e K e n t u c k y
A s Eckley observes,
h i l l s , embody t h e a r c h e t y p a l E a r t h M o t h e r .
" B e c a u s e t h e y a r e women, t h e y a r e m o r e c l o s e l y i n t o u c h w i t h t h e
r e a l essence of l i f e
the births, the deaths, the sicknesses,
the hardships."l2
C o r i e , M i l l y and G e r t i e e x p r e s s t h e "mother love"
d e s c r i b e d b y J u n g , " t h e m y s t i c r o o t o f a l l growth a n d c h a n g e
t h e l o v e t h a t means homecoming, s h e l t e r , a n d t h e l o n g s i l e n c e from
which e v e r y t h i n g begins and i n which e v e r y t h i n g ends."l3
...
...
NOTES
' ~ o h n C. C a m p b e l l , T h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d e r a n d H i s H o m e l a n d ,
2nd e d .
(1921; r p t .
Spartanburg, South Carolina:
The R e p r i n t
Co., 19731, p. 3 2 1
' ~ a r rM~
. C a u d i l l , N i g h t Comes t o t h e C u m b e r l a n d s :
A
B i o g r a p h y o f a D e p r e s s e d A ~ e a( B o s t o n , T o r o n t o :
L i t t l e , Brown
a n d C o . , 1 9 6 2 1 , p. 2 2 .
4 ~ G. . J u n g , T h e A r c h e t y p e s a n d T h e C o l l e c t i v e U n c o n s c i o u s ,
2 n d e d . , t r a n s , R.F.C.
Hull (1959; r p t . Princeton, N.J.:
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 1 , p p . 3-5.
6 ~ Hugh
.
Holman, A Handbook t o L i t e r a , t u r e , 4 t h e d i t i o n
( I n d i a n a p o l i s : B o b b s - M e r r i l l , 1 9 8 0 1 , p. 3 4 .
' ~ a r r i e t t eArnow, M o u n t a i n P a t h , 2 n d e d . ( 1 9 3 6 ; r p t . B e r e a ,
Kentucky:
Council o f t h e Southern Mountains P u b l i s h e r s , 1963),
P. 32.
ZO.,
' ~ a r r i e t t e Arnow, H u n t e r ' s H o r n (New Y o r k :
The MacMillan
1 9 4 9 1 , p. 5 .
A l l further references appear i n the text.
63
9 ~ a r r i e t t eA r n o w , T h e D o l l m a k e r (New Y o r k :
The MacMillan C o . ,
1 9 5 4 ) , p . 5.
A l l further references appear i n t h e text.
' O ~ i l t o n E c k l e y , H a r r i e t t e A r n o w (New Y o r k : T w a y n e P u b l i s h e r s ,
A l l further references appear i n the text.
I n c . , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 47.
11
E c k l e y , p , 51.
LL
E c k l e y , p . 74. 1 3 ~ u n g , p.
92. WILLIAM FAULKNER AND CAROLINE GORDON:
THE AMERICAN ADAM
TWO VIEWS OF
S a r a Dunne
Middle Tennessee S t a t e University
R . W . B. L e w i s ' s s t u d y The A m e r i c a n Adam i s , h e s a y s , a n
a t t e m p t " t o d i s e n t a n g l e from t h e w r i t i n g s and pronouncements o f
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s a n d e m e r g e n t A m e r i c a n myth."'
The myth e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e w r i t i n g s o f Hawthorne, C o o p e r , M e l v i l l e ,
Emerson, and Thoreau d e p i c t e d " l i f e a n d h i s t o r y a s j u s t beginning.
It d e s c r i b e d t h e world as s t a r t i n g up a g a i n under f r e s h i n i t i a t i v e ,
i n a d i v i n e l y g r a n t e d s e c o n d c h a n c e f o r t h e human r a c e , a f t e r t h e
f i r s t c h a n c e had been s o d i s a s t r o u s l y fumbled i n t h e d a r k e n i n g Old
world."*
Lewis d e s c r i b e s t h e t y p i c a l h e r o o f s u c h l i t e r a t u r e as
"an i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d i n g a l o n e , s e l f - r e l i a n t a n d s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g ,
r e a d y t o c o n f r o n t w h a t e v e r a w a i t e d h i m w i t h t h e a i d o f h i s own
unique and i n h e r e n t resources."3
Lewis c a l l s t h i s " h e r o i c a l l y innoc e n t 1 ' h e r o t h e A m e r i c a n Adam, a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n w h i c n we f i n d
him i s s a i d t o b e " i n f o r m e d b y t h e Adamic v i s i o n . "
L e w i s ' s " E p i l o g u e " t o The A m e r i c a n Adam i s d e v o t e d t o c e r t a i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y w o r k s h e c o n s i d e r s t o c o n t a i n Adamic h e r o e s .
O n e s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r ' s I s a a c M c C a s l i n i n Go
Down, M o s e s .
The volume is a series o f s t o r i e s c h r o n i c l i n g t h e
YcCaslin f a m i l y o f J e f f e r s o n , M i s s i s s i p p i , from 1772 up t o 1947,
f r o m L u c i u s Q u i n t u s C a r o t h e r s M c C a s l i n down t o I s a a c , h i s g r a n d s o n .
One o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n l s m o s t w i d e l y - r e a d s t o r i e s i s " T h e B e a r , "
i n which I s a a c ' s i n i t i a t i o n i n t o h u n t i n g , indeed i n t o l i f e i t s e l f ,
is recounted.
P o s s i b l y t h e most o f t e n anthologized o f t h e s t o r i e s
i s " D e l t a A u t u m n , " w h e r e i n I s a a c i s n e a r l y e i g h t y y e a r s o l d . By
t h i s t i m e t h e d e l t a w i l d e r n e s s h a s d w i n d l e d down t o a small t r i a n g l e , a n d i t , l i k e I s a a c , i s a b o u t t o p a s s i n t o memory.
I n p a r t f o u r o f " T h e B e a r , " we l e a r n t h a t I s a a c , a t a g e
twenty-one, r e f u s e s t o a c c e p t h i s i n h e r i t a n c e o f l a n d because t h e
f i r s t M c C a s l i n t o own i t e n g a g e d n o t o n l y i n s l a v e r y b u t a l s o i n
miscegenation with one o f t h e s l a v e s , and i n i n c e s t with t h e m i s cegenous o f f s p r i n g .
T h a t i s t o s a y , L . Q . C. M c C a s l i n 1 s s e x u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s s l a v e Eunice produces Tomasina, and h i s
a f f a i r w i t h Tomasina p r o d u c e d a s o n c a l l e d Tomey's T u r l .
As an
a d u l t , I s a a c d i s c o v e r s t h a t Tomey's T u r l i s h i s c o u s i n .
Isaac is
r e p e l l e d n o t by h i s b l o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p t o T u r l a n d h i s o f f s p r i n g
b u t b y h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s c a l l o u s i n d i f f e r e n c e t o h i s own b l o o d kin.
There is a l s o a n o t h e r reason f o r I s a a c t o r e f u s e h i s inheritance.
By t h e a g e o f t w e n t y - o n e I k e h a s a d o p t e d t h e v i e w s
o f h i s h a l f - I n d i $ n , h a l f - N e g r o s p i r i t u a l f a t h e r , Sam F a t h e r s ,
toward t h e ownership o f land:
t h a t l a n d i s t o be occupied and
u s e d b u t n o t t o b e owned.
When I s a a c ' s c o u s i n M c C a s l i n E d m o n d s
q u e s t i o n s him a b o u t t h e r e p u d i a t i o n o f h i s i n h e r i t a n c e , h e r e plies:
I c a n t r e p u d i a t e i t . It was n e v e r m i n e t o r e p u d i a t e .
It was n e v e r F a t h e r ' s and Uncle Buddy's t o b e q u e a t h
me t o r e p u d i a t e b e c a u s e i t w a s n e v e r o l d I k k e m o t u b b e ' s
t o s e l l t o Grandfather f o r bequeathment and repudiation.
B e c a u s e i t was n e v e r I k k e m o t u b b e l s f a t h e r s 1
f a t h e r s ' t o bequeath Ikkemotubbe t o s e l l t o Grandf a t h e r o r a n y man b e c a u s e o n t h e i n s t a n t w h e n I k k e motubbe d i s c o v e r e d , r e a l i s e d , t h a t h e c o u l d s e l l i t
f o r money, o n t h a t i n s t a n t i t c e a s e d e v e r t o h a v e b e e n
h i s f o r e v e r , f a t h e r t o f a t h e r t o f a t h e r , a n d t h e man
who b o u g h t i t b o u g h t n ~ t h i n g . ~
I n t h i s p a s s a g e I s a a c seems t o be e c h o i n g t h e s e n t i m e n t s o f
Thomas S k i d m o r e , a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l e a d e r o f t h e W o r k i n g m e n ' s
Movement a n d a p r o g r e s s i v e l a b o r i t e .
Lewis q u o t e s Skidmore i n
Skidmore wrote:
t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f The A m e r i c a n Adam.
One g e n e r a t i o n c a n n o t s e l l , g i v e o r c o n v e y , e v e n i f
i t had t h e r i g h t , t o a n o t h e r .
The r e a s o n i s , t h a t
The o n e i s p r e t h e one is dead; the other living.
sent; the other absent.
They do n o t a n d c a n n o t
t o come t o a t r e a t y , t o make d e l i v e r y ; t o
give o r receive.5
&,
S k i d m o r e , a n d o t h e r s l i k e him, saw t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f p r o p e r t y as
a dark h o l d - o v e r from t h e European Old World a n d a p r a c t i c e t h a t
d e f i e d t h e e q u a l i t y promised i n t h e Declaration o f Independence.
I s a a c ' s r e p u d i a t i o n grows o u t o f a d i f f e r e n t kind o f reasoning,
b u t b o t h men r e p r e s e n t t h e A d a m i c b e l i e f t h a t m a n ' s a t t a c h m e n t
t o the land ought t o resemble a love a f f a i r r a t h e r than a marriage.
Obvious i n both passage, a l s o , is t h e d e s i r e of one g e n e r a t i o n
t o d i v o r c e i t s e l f from t h e wrongs o f a p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n .
I n s t e a d o f t a k i n g t h e l a n d and farming i t , I k e t a k e s up carp e n t r y b e c a u s e , we a r e t o l d , " I f t h e N a z a r e n e h a d f o u n d c a r p e n t e r i n g g o o d f o r t h e l i f e a n d e n d s He h a d a s s u m e d a n d e l e c t e d t o
s e r v e , i t would b e a l l r i g h t t o o f o r I s a a c McCaslin" ( p . 3 0 9 ) .
Isaac marries h i s partner's daughter, and although they a r e
m a r r i e d f o r many y e a r s , t h e t w o n e v e r p r o d u c e a c h i l d .
Ikels
b r i d e a l l o w s him o n e l o o k a t h e r n a k e d f o r m , o n e s e s s i o n o f unA t t h i s time,
i n h i b i t e d love-making s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e wedding.
s h e t r i e s t o e x t r a c t a promise from I s a a c t h a t h e w i l l c l a i m h i s
H i s r e p l y i s : "No, I t e l l y o u .
I wont.
I cant.
inheritance.
Never."
I n r e t u r n , I s a a c ' s young w i f e s a y s t o him, l a u g h i n g ,
"And t h a t ' s a l l .
T h a t ' s a l l f r o m me.
I f t h i s d o n t g e t you t h a t
The s c e n e c l o s e s
s o n you t a l k a b o u t , i t wont b e mine" ( p . 3 1 4 ) .
T h e A m e r i c a n Adam i s c o n w i t h Mrs. M c C a s l i n ' s m o c k i n g l a u g h t e r .
f r o n t e d by t h e A m e r i c a n ( a n d e t e r n a l ) E v e , b u t t h i s t i m e h e h a n d s
t h e a p p l e back t o h e r .
I s a a c , l i k e t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A d a m i c h e r o , seems t o f i t
neatly Lewis's description,:
"standing a l o n e , s e l f - r e l i a n t and
s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g " and l'heroically innocent. " 6 T h i s congruence,
moreover, i s n o t c o i n c i d e n t a l .
B e f o r e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f The
A m e r i c a n Adam i n 1 9 5 5 , L e w i s p u b l i s h e d a n a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " H e r o i n t h e Yew W o r l d :
F a u l k n e r ' s 'The Bear.'"
In that article,
L e w i s c a l l s t h e M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a w i l d e r n e s s , "A n e w , u n s p o i l e d
a r e a i n which a genuine and r a d i c a l moral freedom could once a g a i n
be exe cised--as once, l o n g ago, i t had been, i n t h e garden o f
Eden."?
I k e ' s r e f u s a l t o own t h e l a n d e n a b l e s h i m t o "move i n a
I k e ' s innoworld o f l i g h t - - a l i g h t s t i l l meagre b u t d e f i n i t e . " 8
c e n c e i s t h e r e f o r e a c h i e v e d i n Adamic t e r m s d e s p i t e t h e i m m i n e n t
disappearance o f t h e garden and i n t h e face o f temptation offered
by h i s E v e - l i k e , a c q u i s i t i v e b r i d e .
A n o t h e r n o d e r n f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r who r e s e m b l e s I s a a c M c C a s l i n
Miss G o r d o n , l i k e
i n many w a y s i s C a r o l i n e G o r d o n ' s A l e c k M a u r y .
F a u l k n e r , was a s o u t h e r n w r i t e r p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h s o u t h e r n
themes and s o u t h e r n s e t t i n g s .
H e r b e s t f i c t i o n c e n t e r s o n Mr.
M a u r y , b o t h i n h e r n o v e l A l e c k Maury, S p o r t s m a n a n d i n h e r c o l l e c t i o n
o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , O l d Red a n d O t h e r S t o r i e s .
Both McCaslin and
Maury a r e b o r n i n t o w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d S o u t h e r n f a m i l i e s ; b o t h men
a r e i n t r o d u c e d by o l d e r b l a c k men t o h u n t i n g a t a n e a r l y a g e ;
M c C a s l i n a n d :4aury b o t h d e c l i n e t o f o l l o w t h e i r f a t h e r s a s p l a n t e r s .
M c C a s l i n becomes a c a r p e n t e r , Maury a c l a s s i c s t e a c h e r .
Neither
man e v e r o w n s a l a r g e a m o u n t o r ' l a n d o r o f p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y .
Both
c h a r a c t e r s , a s c h i l d r e n , a r e s e p a r a t e d e i t h e r by d e a t h ( i n McCaslints
c a s e ) o r f o r t h e s a k e o f e d u c a t i o n ( i n Maury's c a s e ) from t h e i r
natural parents.
I k e i s r e a r e d p r i m a r i l y by h i s o l d e r c o u s i n
M c C a s l i n E d m o n d s , a n d Maury i s s e n t t o l i v e w i t h h i s A u n t V i c a n d
U n c l e J a m e s s o t h a t h i s A u n t V i c may t u t o r h i m i n L a t i n .
Most
i m p o r t a n t , e a c h c h a r a c t e r t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e m u s t r e n e w h i s bond
with the wilderness.
I n " D e l t a AutumnN M c C a s l i n , n e a r l y e i g h t y
y e a r s o l d , h a s given up a c t u a l l y hunting, but s t i l l is compelled
t o go on t h e y e a r l y h u n t i n g t r i p s because h e s e e s "himself and t h e
t h e i r two s p a n s r u n n i n g o u t t o g e t h e r ,
wilderness--as coevals,
n o t toward o b l i v i o n , nothingness, but i n t o a dimension f r e e o f both
I n G o r d o n ' s s t o r y " T h e L a s t Day i n t h e
time and space" (p. 354).
F i e l d " s h e , l i k e Faulkner, i d e n t i f i e s t h e e l d e r l y man's l i f e - s p a n
A t t h e s t o r y ' s b e g i n n i n g , Mr. Maury
with the seasons o f the year.
.
s a y s , " T h a t w a s t h e f a l l when t h e l e a v e s s t a y e d g r e e n s o l o n g .
I t l o o k e d l i k e w i n t e r was n e v e r c o m i n g . " g
B u t by t h e s t o r y ' s e n d ,
when Mr. M a u r y r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s c h r o n i c a l l y a c h i n g l e g w i l l p r o b a b l y p r e c l u d e any more h u n t i n g t r i p s l i k e t h e one h e d e s c r i b e s
everywhere
all
i n the story, he observes "the leaves
o v e r t h e g r o u n d 1 ' ( p . 1 6 7 ) . Mr. M a u r y ' s own a u t u m n , s y m b o l i z e d by
t h e f a l l e n l e a v e s , is a t hand.
. ..
. .
. . .
...
A s i n t h s l i f e o f I s a a c M c C a s l i n , t h e women i n M r . M a u r y ' s
l i f e seem d e t e r m i n e d t o bend him t o t h e i r w i l l s .
A t times, i n fact,
h e t a k e s a c e r t a i n amount o f p r i d e i n h i s s u f f e r i n g s a t t h e h a n d s
A s a boy, he exaggerates t o h i s s i s t e r a n account o f a
o f women.
b e a t i n g r e c e i v e d from Aunt V i c .
He s a y s , "I r e m e m b e r t h a t o n o n e
o f my v i s i t s h o w I s h o w e d my s i s t e r a s c a r o n my l e g a n d b o a s t e d
t h a t t h e d a y b e f o r e I h a d s t o o d i n a p o o l o f b l o o d d r a w n f r o m my
The p o o l was p r o b a b l y
n a k e d l e g s by t h a t b u g g y w h i p o f A u n t V i c t s .
a few f l e c k s o f blood f a l l e n on t h e c a r p e t , b u t t h e r e was
a b o u t i t . A u n t V i c w a s , a s we s a i d , ' q u i c k o n t h e d r a w . 1 1 t P 8
doubt
Aleck Maury's m a r r i a g e f a r e s b e t t e r than I s a a c M c C a s l i n l s ,
b u t h i s a c c o u n t o f i t i n " O l d Red1! a n d r a n d o m r e m a r k s g l e a n e d
from t h e n o v e l and t h e o t h e r s t o r i e s i n d i c a t e a r e l a t i o n s h i p
M r . Maury, l o n g a f t e r h i s w i f e ' s
heavily loaded with conflict.
death, c a l l s t h e i r c o n f l i c t "Guerilla warfare and t r y i n g t o t h e
nerves, b u t t h a t had been o n l y a t f i r s t .
F o r many y e a r s t h e y
h a d b e e n t w o e n e m i e s c o n t e n d i n g i n t h e o p e n " ( p . 1 4 1 ) . He r e members a b o u t h i s w i f e :
"She had n e v e r g i v e n up hope o f changing
h i m , o f m a k i n g h i m o v e r i n t o t h e man s h e t h o u g h t h e o u g h t t o b e .
Time a n d a g a i n s h e a l m o s t h a d him.
And t h e r e w e r e l o n g p e r i o d s ,
o f c o u r s e , d u r i n g w h i c h h e h a d b e e n w o r n down b y t h e c o n f l i c t "
p . 1 4 1 S i m i l a r l y , I s a a c m c c a s l i n , remembering h i s w i f e ,
t h i n k s , "Women h o p e f o r s o m u c h .
They n e v e r l i v e t o o l o n g t o
still believe t h a t anything within the scope o f t h e i r passionate
w a n t i n g i s l i k e w i s e w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h e i r p a s s i o n a t e hope"
(p. 352).
A s a v e r y o l d man, i n a s t o r y c a l l e d "The P r e s e n c e , "
M a u r y l s u t t e r d i s g u s t w i t h women i s e x p o s e d when h e c r i e s p a s s i o n a t e l y , "Women!
I ' v e b e e n w a t c h i n g them.
They'll rock t h e world
A few l i n e s l a t e r , h e p r i v a t e l y t h i n k s
i f they d o n ' t look out!"
t h a t e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o women i n h i s l i f e n o w , " h e s e e m e d
(p. 186).
t o h a v e b e e n i n s e r v i t u d e t o them a l l h i s l i f e "
F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f b o t h A l e c k Maury a n d
I s a a c McCaslin w i t h w i l d e r n e s s c r e a t u r e s - o f n e a r l y mythic proportions.
"Old Red" i s c a l l e d t h a t b e c a u s e i n i t M r . Maury c o n s c i o u s l y i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f w i t h t h e w i l y f o x c a l l e d O l d Red h e
h u n t e d a s a y o u n g man.
F a u l k n e r w r i t e s i n "The B e a r " t h a t " t h e
o l d male b e a r i t s e l f , s o l o n g unwifed and c h i l d l e s s as t o have
b e c o m e i t s own u n g e n d e r e d p r o g e n i t o r w a s h i s C 1 k e l s J a l m a mater"
(p. 210).
I n " D e l t a Autumn" I k e m o r e t h a n o n c e r e m i n d s h i m s e l f
t h a t , l i k e t h e b e a r Ben, h e t o o is c h i l d l e s s .
The p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n t h e t w o c h a r a c t e r s a r e , I h o p e , obvious.
Why, t h e n , c a n we n o t n e a t l y c l a s s i f y A l e c k M a u r y w i t h
I k e a s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e A m e r i c a n Adam? T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t
three reasons.
F i r s t , Mr. M a u r y i s a f i c t i o n a l i z e d v e r s i o n o f
C a r o l i n e G o r d o n ' s own f a t h e r , W i l l i a m F i t z h u g h G o r d o n .
I t seems
reasonable t o assume t h a t Gordon's f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
o f Maury would b e i n f l u e n c e d m o r e by h i s m o d e l ' s c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s
t h a n by t h o s e f r o m some l i t e r a r y s o u r c e .
Gordon r e c o u n t s , i n
t h e r e i s s u e d e d i t i o n o f A l e c k M a u r y , S p o r t s m a n ( 1 9 8 3 ) hcw s h e
came t o w r i t e t h e n o v e l .
I n t h e e a r l y 1930s a t r i p t o P a r i s
o n a Guggenheim F e l l o w s h i p " b o r e l i t t l e t a n g i b l e f r u i t u ( p . 2941,
s o t h a t G o r d o n a n d ker h u s b a n d , A l l e n T a t e , r e t u r n e d t o t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s t o l i v e i n a h o u s e on t h e banks o f t h e Cumberland R i v e r .
Her f a t h e r l i v e d i n a f i s h i n g l o d g e o n t h e C a n e y F o r k R i v e r , i n
E a s t T e n n e s s e e , a n d t h e T a t e s o f t e n v i s i t e d him t h e r e .
Drawing
on h e r e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e i n t e r v i e w i n g c e l e b r i t i e s f o r a New
York n e w s p a p e r s y n d i c a t e , Gordon b e g a n , w i t h h e r t y p e w r i t e r a t
h e r elbow, t o a s k h e r f a t h e r a b o u t h i s e a r l y l i f e .
Mr. G o r d o n
b e c a m e s o i n t r i g u e d w i t h t h e ~ r o i e c tt h a t , s h e s a v s , "One
m o r n i n g a t two o ' c l o c k h e b r o k e t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e f i s h i n g l o d g e
by s h o u t i n g :
'Caroline!
T h i s i s g o o d , t a k e i t down'" ( p . 2 9 7 ) .
A n o t h e r r e a s o n t h a t C a r o l i n e Gordon n e v e r i n v i t e s u s t o
v i e w Maury a s a n A d a m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t h a t h e r w r i t i n g i s i n f l u e n c e d by C l a s s i c a l r a t h e r t h a n C h r i s t i a n o r B i b l i c a l myth.
William
F i t z h u g h Gordon t a u g h t c l a s s i c s and C a r o l i n e Gordon was a s famil i a r w i t h T h e I l i a d a n d The O d y s s e y a s many o t h e r w r i t e r s w e r e
with t h e Bible.
I t i s i n B i b l i c a l o r C h r i s t i a n myth t h a t i n n o c e n c e
i s a highly v a l u e d q u a l i t y , m o r e s o t h a n i n C l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r s .
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t a w r i t e r whose f i r s t e x p o s u r e
t o l i t e r a t u r e was p r o b a b l y L a t i n a n d Greek m i g h t h a v e n e i t h e r t h e
d e s i r e n o r t h e i n c l i n a t i o n t o emphasize a h e r o i c c h a r a c t e r ' s innoc e n c e , a n d b y L e w i s ' s own d e f i n i t i o n , t h e A m e r i c a n Adam i s " h e r o i c a l l y i n n o c e n t .Ir
T h i r d , and most i m p o r t a n t , I t h i n k , i s t h a t Gordon's v e r y
g e n d e r may h a v e p r e v e n t e d h e r f r o m w r i t i n g l i t e r a t u r e l l i n f o r m e d
by t h e Adamic v i s i o n . "
I n order t o w r i t e such l i t e r a t u r e , an
a u t h o r m u s t b e w i l l i n g t o i d e a l i z e h i s m a l e h e r o , a s I t h i n k we
A s many
can s a f e l y s a y Faulkner h a s done w i t h I s a a c McCaslin.
c r i t i c s have pointed o u t , I s a a c can be e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d with
C h r i s t h i m s e l f i n h i s humble c h o i c e o f c a r p e n t r y , i n h i s s i m p l e
l i f e , i n h i s adherence t o p r i n c i p l e , i n h i s sexual near-purity.
C a r o l i n e G o r d o n seems, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d e t e r m i n e d t h a t h e r
r e a d e r s s e e A l e c k Maury a s a l t o g e t h e r h u m a n , w a r t s a n d a l l .
Some
of M r . Mauryls llwarts"--flaws-a r e selfishness, gluttony (he
weighs 230 p o u n d s ) , c h i l d i s h n e s s , l y i n g , and s e l f - p i t y .
I n "Old
R e d M Mr. M a u r y , a n e x p e r t f i s h e r m a n , r e f u s e s t o w r i t e a b o o k a b o u t
f i s h i n g b e c a u s e h e d o e s n o t w a n t e v e r y o n e e l s e t o know a s much a s
He a l s o r e f u s e s t o a t t e n d h i s cousin's funeral because
he does.
he prefers t o fish.
I n s t e a d , he concocts a l i e about h i s kidney condition, one t h a t he s u s p e c t s h i s daughter w i l l s e e through
i f he groans too loudly.
Nor w i l l Maury l o o k a t h i s d a u g h t e r ' s '
f a c e d u r i n g t h i s c h a r a d e , " f o r f e a r o f c a t c h i n g t h a t smile o n h e r
face--the g i r l had l i t t l e s e n s e o f decency" ( p . 1 2 4 ) .
Gordon's i r o n y i s muted and g e n t l e i n t h e p r e c e d i n g passage,
b u t i n , , T h e P r e s e n c e " s h e m a k e s Mr. M a u r y l s c h i l d i s h n e s s q u i t e
obvious.
When h e l e a r n s t h a t J e n n y M o w b r a y , h i s l a n d l a d y who
h a s t a k e n " a f i e r c e m o t h e r l y i n t e r e s t " i n h i m , may s e l l h e r
b o a r d i n g h o u s e , d i v o r c e h e r u n f a i t h f u l h u s b a n d , a n d move b a c k t o
Y o u l l l r u n o f f t o KenK e n t u c k y , h e t h i n k s , "What a b o u t me?
tucky.
I'll h a v e t o f i n d some o t h e r p l a c e t o l i v e " ( p . 1 8 5 ) .
T h i s i s t h e s t o r y i n w h i c h Mr. M a u r y h a s c o m p l a i n e d s o b i t t e r l y
a b o u t h i s s e r v i t u d e t o women a n d a b o u t women " r o c k i n g t h e w o r l d . "
I t s e e m s q u i t e o b v i o u s t h a t M a u r y i s m o r e w o r r i e d t h a t Mrs. Mowbray's
s e r v i t u d e t o h i m may s o o n c e a s e .
The s t o r y a l s o e n d s i r o n i c a l l y
w i t h M r . Maury, n o t a n e s p e c i a l l y r e l i g i o u s man, m u t t e r i n g t h e
Anglic Salutation'
,'Holy Mary, M o t h e r o f God, p r a y f o r u s s i n n e r s ,
now a n d a t t h e h o u r
o f o u r d e a t h " ( p . 1 8 7 ) . He h a s u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e v e r t e d t o a p r a y e r t a u g h t him by h i s Aunt V i c , a n o t h e r
...
...
mother f i g u r e .
Gordon s e e m s i n t e n t o n o u r s e e i n g Maury a s c h i l d i s h l y s e l f i s h and s e l f - p i t y i n g .
When o n e m o t h e r f i g u r e t h r e a t e n s
t o d i s a p p e a r , he immediately t h i n k s o f a n o t h e r , and a p p e a l s t o
yet a third.
O b v i o u s l y Mr. M a u r y d e f i e s L e w i s ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e Adamic h e r o a s "an i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d i n g a l o n e , s e l f - r e l i a n t
a n d s e l f p r o p e l l i n g , r e a d y t o c o n f r o n t w h a t e v e r a w a i t e d him w i t h
t h e a i d o f h i s own u n i q u e a n d i n h e r e n t r e s o u r c e s . " l l
Mr. M a u r y , u n l i k e I s a a c M c C a s l i n , s e e m s a l m o s t t o w a l l o w i n
d o m e s t i c c o m f o r t , d e s p i t e h i s view o f h i m s e l f a s Old Red, t h e
f r e e , w i l d c r e a t u r e who r e s i s t s c a p t u r e a n d e n t r a p m e n t .
The
s t r u c t u r e o f " D e l t a Autumn" a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f A l e c k Maury,
Sportsman a r e evidence o f t h i s .
Faulknerls description of Isaac's
"He h a d h a d a w i f e a n d
domestic arrangements is q u i t e brief:
l i v e d with h e r and l o s t her
before he and h i s c l e v e r o l d
d i p s o m a n i a c p a r t n e r h a d f i n i s h e d t h e h o u s e f o r t h e m t o move i n t o
i t : --and i t was s t i l l k e p t f o r him by h i s d e a d w i f e ' s widowed
But he s p e n t t h e time w i t h i n those w a l l s waiting
niece.
f o r N o v e m b e r , b e c a u s e e v e n t h i s t e n t w i t h i t s muddy f l o o r s a n d
t h e b e d w h i c h w a s n o t w i d e e n o u g h n o r s o f t e n o u g h n o r e v e n warm
e n o u g h , w a s h i s home" ( p . 3 5 2 ) .
Isaac's preference for the disc o m f o r t s o f t h e m u d d y , c o l d t e n t a n d f o r t h e c o m p a n y o f men o v e r
t h e c o m p a n i o n s h i p o f h i s n i e c e ' s f a m i l y a r e much m o r e i n k e e p i n g
w i t h t h e Adamic t r a d i t i o n - - t h e i n n o c e n t A m e r i c a n h e r o p i t t e d
a g a i n s t t h e American w i l d e r n e s s .
...
. ..
A much l a r g e r p o r t i o n o f A l e c k M a u r y , S p o r t s m a n i s g i v e n o v e r
M r . Maury d e s c r i b e s e v e r y h o u s e h e e v e r
t o domestic d e t a i l s .
A t the novel's
l i v e d i n , many o f t h e m i n r a t h e r p r e c i s e d e t a i l .
c o n c l u s i o n , when h e c o n s i d e r s m o v i n g i n w i t h h i s d a u g h t e r a n d h e r
husband, he says:
I w a s a l r e a d y , i n my i m a g i n a t i o n , l i v i n g i n t h e
I t t o o k s h a p e b e f o r e me s o
new p l a c e .
s o l i d l y t h a t s o m e t i m e s now I l o o k b a c k o n i t
and f i n d it hard t o b e l i e v e t h a t I have n o t
a c t u a l l y l i v e d i n t h a t house, on t h a t r i v e r .
A small w h i t e c o t t a g e i t w a s , n e s t l i n g o n t h e
T h e r e would b e a b i g
edge o f a gentle bluff.
yard with flower beds and o f f t o one s i d e a
p a s t u r e and a n e n c l o s u r e f o r S t e v e ' s g o a t s .
I could s e e q u i t e c l e a r l y t h e path t h a t sloped
o n t h e r i g h t down t o t h e l i t t l e r i v e r .
It
s t a r t e d from t h e rear--need I s a y t h a t t h i s
i d e a l c o t t a g e had two rear e n t r a n c e s ? One,
S a l l y ' s and S t e v e ' s , was l a t t i c e d and covered
with vines.
The o t h e r was a small p l a t f o r m o n
w h i c h I s e t my m i n n o w b u c k e t , my c a n e p o l e s
a n d a l l my o t h e r p a r a p h e r n a l i a .
(p. 273)
...
...
The image o f t h e two r e a r e n t r a n c e s , o n e l a t t i c e d and v i n e covered, t h e o t h e r a b a r e , f u n c t i o n a l platform.seem symbolic o f
M r . M a u r y l s d e s i r e f o r a k i n d o f d o m e s t i c a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t would
o f f e r t r a d i t i o n a l c o m f o r t y e t s t i l l l e a v e him f r e e o f t h e e n t r a p We n o t i c e a l s o t h a t
ments o f t h e proverbial vine-covered c o t t a g e .
S a l l y ' s h u s b a n d - - n o t Mr. M a u r y - - w i l l h e l p c o m p l e t e t h e d o m e s t i c
scene by keeping g o a t s , f u l f i l l i n g t h e r o l e o f a g r a r i a n domesticator
t h a t Mr. Maury r e j e c t e d many y e a r s e a r l i e r .
I n t h e e n d , because t h e dream house i s u n a t t a i n a b l e , M r .
Maury d e c i d e s n o t t o l i v e w i t h S a l l y a n d S t e v e , a n d h e l e a v e s
t h e m a b r u p t l y t o move i n t o a f i s h i n g l o d g e r u n b y a y o u n g f a m i l y .
By d o i n g t h i s , h e w i l l e n s u r e b o t h h i s own c o m f o r t a n d h i s own
H e s a y s i n "Old Red" t h a t " i t w a s o n l y i n h o t e l s t h a t
freedom.
a man w a s m a s t e r o f h i s own room" ( p . 1 2 4 ) , b u t we n o t i c e t h a t
Maury a l w a y s f i n d s " f a m i l y u h o t e l s r u n b y m o t h e r l y women.
By
p l a c i n g M r . M a u r y i n a v a r i e t y o f d o m e s t i c s e t t i n g s - - h i s own
f a t h e r ' s h o u s e , h i s Aunt V i c ' s more g l o r i o u s p l a n t a t i o n , h i s
w i f e ' s f a m i l y p l a c e , t h e many h o u s e s h e l i v e s i n d u r i n g h i s
t e a c h i n g c a r e e r , t h e f i s h i n g l o d g e s and boarding houses he inh a b i t s d u r i n g r e t i r e m e n t - - G o r d o n i r o n i c a l l y u n d e r c u t s Mr. M a u r y ' s
Her e m p h a s i s o n M a u r y ' s l o v e
n o t i o n o f h i s own i n d e p e n d e n c e .
o f d o m e s t i c i t y , t h e c o d d l i n g by h i s m o t h e r l y l a n d l a d y , h i s
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f home-cooked f o o d , f o r m a s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o I s a a c
M c C a s l i n ' s l o v e o f t h e " t e n t w i t h i t s muddy f l o o r u w h i c h h e c a l l s
h i s home.
I s a a c McCaslin's t e n t s e r v e s a s a symbol f o r h i s r e s i s t a n c e
t o f e m a l e e n t r a p m e n t and d o m e s t i c a t i o n , a n d a c c o r d i n g t o Nina
Baym, t h e Adamic m y t h r e q u i r e s i t s f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r s t o b e
e i t h e r "entrappersw o r "domesticators."
I s a a c McCaslin's b r i d e
is an entrapper.
S h e i s l i k e t h e F a u l k n e r women d e s c r i b e d by
I r v i n g owe-in W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r , A C r i t i c a l S t u d y :
"the thisw o r l d l y s e x . t h e c h i l d - b e a r e r s who c h a i n men t o p o s s e s s i o n s a n d
embody- t h e i n d e s t r u c t i b l e u r g e t o r a c i a l s u r v i v a i . "
Faulkner's
men ( i n c l u d i n g I s a a c M c C a s l i n ) a r e , Howe s a y s , " h a p p i e s t when
t h e y ' g e t a w a y , ' e s c a p i n g t o t h e woods f o r a f e w w e e k s o f f e m a l e l e s s c o m p a n i o n s h i p . H i s women jise h a p p i e s t
when men a r e
subdued t o t h e i r s o c i a l tasks."
Baym w r i t e s t h a t " S u c h a p o r t r a y a l o f women i s l i k e l y t o b e u n c o n g e n i a l , i f n o t b a s i c a l l y i n I t i s n o t l i k e i x t h a t women w i l l
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , t o a woman.
w r i t e b o o k s i n w h i c h women p l a y t h i s p a r t . "
To r e f i n e Baym's
s t a t e m e n t s o m e w h a t , we m i g h t s a y t h a t C a r o l i n e G o r d o n , a n d p e r h a p s o t h e r women w r i t e r s , i f t h e y d o p o r t r a y f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r s
a s entrappers o r domesticators, indicate t h a t such a portrayal
Mr. Maury sees h i s w i f e ,
r e p r e s e n t s a m a s c u l i n e v i e w o f women.
h i s d a u g h t e r , h i s A u n t V i c , a n d a f l i r t a t i o u s widow h e e n c o u n t e r s
a s d o m e s t i c a t o r s , a n d h e s e e s h i m s e l f a s t h e w i l y f o x who e s c a p e s them, b u t Gordon's i r o n i c u n d e r c u t t i n g o f Maury's f a n c i f u l
view o f h i m s e l f , h e r exposure o f h i s f l a w s , cues t h e r e a d e r t h a t
t h e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s h e employs i n t h e s t o r i e s does n o t concur
w i t h t h i s view.
...
T h e n o t i o n o f t h e A p e r i c a n Adam i s , a s Baym a s s e r t s , v e r y
l i k e l y the exclusive property o f masculine c r i t i c s , j u s t a s a
p u r e l y Adamic c h a r a c t e r i s l i k e l y t o b e p r o d u c e d o n l y by a m a s c u l i n e imagination.
O l g a V i c k e r y , w r i t i n g i n 1 9 5 9 , p r e s a g e s Baym's
contention.
I n a n a r t i c l e w h i c h we s u s p e c t i s a r e t a l i a t i o n t o
Lewis's work, s h e s a y s o f I s a a c McCaslin t h a t "In r e j e c t i n g s i n ,
I s a a c a l s o r e j e c t s humanity.
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , he h o l d s himself
a l o o f f r o m c l o s e human t i e s ; t h o u g h h e i s u n c l e t o h a l f t h e
c o u n t y , h e is f a t h e r t o no-one and husband s o l e l y t o t h e w i l d e r ness.
Having confused t h e w i l d e r n e s s w i t h t h e Garden o f Eden,
he n o t only dedicates but s a c r i f i c e s h i s l i f e t o itmw15 Annette
Kolodny, i n The Lay o f t h e Land, c a l l s I s a a c both "son and l o v e r "
of the wilderness.
Kolodny emphasizes t h e m a t e r n a l a s p e c t s o f
n a t u r e i n American t h o u g h t a n d s a y s t h a t "American p a s t o r a l ,
u n l i k e European, h d s a t its very c o r e t h e promise o f f a n t a s y
i n d a i l y r e a l i t y . llPk
I k e , h a s , i n t h e s e t e r m s , r e j e c t e d Eve
( h i s bride) i n favor o f an idealized mother-figure.
I n h e r e n t i n t h e n o t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n Adam i s t h e n o t i o n
o f Eve, t h e s e d u c e r , t h e t e m p t r e s s .
I k e s a y s o f h i s w i f e , when
h e sees h e r n u d e , "They a r e b o r n a l r e a d y b o r e d w i t h w h a t a boy
a p p r o a c h e s o n l y a t f i f t e e n w i t h b l u n d e r i n g and a g h a s t trembling.
.She i s l o s t .
She was born l o s t " ( p . 3 1 4 ) .
It is
d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g i n e a woman w r i t e r o r c r i t i c c o n d o n i n g t h e
i d e a t h a t man may a c h i e v e i n n o c e n c e , b u t t h a t woman i s s o
s t e e p e d i n s i n t h a t s h e may n o t .
K o l o d n y , V i c k e r y , Baym, a n d
K a t e Millet a l l e m p h a s i z e i n t h e i r works t h a t s u c h a v i e w is a n
outgrowth o f a p a t e r n a l i s t i c society.
..
I s a a c M c C a s l i n , w h e t h e r we c o n d o n e h i s r e p u d i a t i o n o f t h e
i n h e r i t a n c e o r d o n o t , i s n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e s e n t e d t o u s by h i s
c r e a t o r w i t h no b l a t a n t l y i r o n i c q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .
In fact, he
i s p r o p o s e d a s a l l t h e m o r e s a i n t l y w h e n we c o n s i d e r w h a t h e h a s
foresworn:
sexual l o v e and f i l i a l love.
F a u l k n e r e l e v a t e s him
i n t o a purely f i c t i o n a l , i d e a l i z e d realm.
C a r o l i n e Gordon cann o t i d e a l i z e h e r Mr. M a u r y i n t h e s a m e w a y , b e c a u s e s h e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y c a n n o t c a s t h e r s e l f o r a n y o t h e r woman i n t h e r o l e o f
domesticator, entrapper, o r temptress.
Ultimately the reader
r e s p o n d s t o I s a a c a s a c h a r a c t e r who c o u l d e x i s t o n l y i n f i c t i o n .
Mr. M a u r y i s a much m o r e c o m p l e x c h a r a c t e r t h a n t h e A d a m i c h e r o
because h i s creator, consciously o r otherwise, has rejected t h e
Adamic m y t h i n f a v o r o f r e a l i s m .
Gordon's f i c t i o n emphasizes,
a s Adamic f i c t i o n d o e s n o t , t h a t human b e i n g s - - e v e n i n d e p e n d e n t
a n d s t u b b o r n o l d men--do n o t e x i s t a p a r t f r o m s o c i e t y a n d t h a t
no real a d u l t is " h e r o i c a l l y innocent."
NOTES
'R. W . B. L e w i s , T h e A m e r i c a n Adam ( C h i c a g o :
o f Chicago P r e s s , 19551, p. 4 .
University
4 ~ i l l i a mF a u l k n e r , Go Down, Moses ( 1 9 4 0 ; r p t . New York:
V i n t a n e B o o k s , 1 9 7 3 1 , p p . 256-57.
A l l further references t o
t h i s Tolume will^ a p p e a r - i n t h e t e x t .
7 ~ W.. B . L e w i s , "The Hero i n t h e New World: W i l l i a m
F a u l k n e r l s The B e a r , Kenyon R e v i e w , 1 3 ( 1 9 5 1 1 , 654.
8 ~ e w i s , "The H e r o , " p.
659.
9 ~ a r o l i n eG o r d o n ,
O l d Red and O t h e r S t o r i e s (New York:
S c r i b n e r ' s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 158. A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s
volume w i l l a p p e a r i n t h e t e x t .
1 ° c a r o l i n e G o r d o n , A l e c k Maury, S p o r t s m a n ( 1 9 3 4 ; r p t .
S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s Univ. P r e s s , 19801, p. 5 4 .
Carbondale, Ill.:
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s volume w i l l a p p e a r i n t h e t e x t .
How T h e o r i e s
1 2 ~ i n aBaym, "Melodramas o f B e s e t Manhood:
o f American F i c t i o n E x c l u d e Women A u t h o r s , " American Q u a r t e r l y ,
33 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 133.
A C r i t i c a l Study, 3rd ed.
1 3 1 r v i n g Howe, W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r :
(1951; r p t . Chicago:
Univ. o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 1 , p. 1 4 4 .
A Critical
1501ga V i c k e r y , The N o v e l s o f W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r :
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( B a t o n Rouge:
La. S t a t e Univ. P r e s s ) , p. 1 3 3 .
1 6 ~ n n e t t eK o l o d n y , The Lay o f t h e Land ( C h a p e l H i l l :
o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 1 , p . 7.
Univ.
HERITAGE A N D DERACINATION I N
FOUR KENTUCKY WRITERS
Gwen C u r r y
Georgetown C o l l e g e
Each o f u s must d e c i d e what a t t i t u d e t o t a k e toward t h e p a s t .
To d e n y t h e p a s t i s i n i t s e l f t o t a k e a p a r t i c u l a r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d
i t . C e r t a i n conventional o p i n i o n s c o l o r o u r g e n e r a l view o f t h e
past.
F o r example, i t i s t h o u g h t t h a t d w e l l i n g i n t h e p a s t i s as
n e u r o t i c a s r e p r e s s i n g i t . To r o m a n t i c i z e o r i d e a l i z e t h e p a s t ,
t o l i v e i n t h e p a s t , n e g l e c t i n g t h e p r e s e n t o r t h e f u t u r e i s cons i d e r e d by m o s t t o b e a n u n h e a l t h y a t t i t u d e .
History, whether
public o r personal, is thought t o teach u s , t o provide insight,
We b e l i e v e we l e a r n u s e f u l l e s s o n s f r o m h i s t o r y ; we f i n d r o l e m o d e l s
i n i t s h e r o e s ; we f i n d i n s t r u c t i o n i n i t s l e g e n d s a n d i t s m y t h s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , we f i n d o u r r o o t s i n b o t h t i m e a n d p l a c e .
Roots,
which g e n e r a l l y seem t o r e f e r t o p l a c e , a l s o r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o
time.
Roots l o c a t e u s , n o t o n l y i n community, i n r e g i o n , b u t a l s o
i n history.
But r o o t s which r e a c h i n t o t h e p a s t a l s o provide
nourishment f o r f u t u r e growth.
They p r o v i d e c o n t i n u i t y , and t h e y
o f f e r t h e s e c u r i t y a n d c o m f o r t o f k n o w i n g a n d o f b e i n g known.
The two w o r d s " h e r i t a g e " a n d " d e r a c i n a t i o n , " r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
c a r r y p o s i t i v e and negative connotations.
G e n e r a l l y we a s s o c i a t e
h e r i t a g e w i t h l e g a c y , w i t h i n h e r i t a n c e , w i t h f a m i l y , w h i l e der a c i n a t i o n makes u s t h i n k o f s e p a r a t i o n , o f d r i f t i n g , o f b e i n g uprooted.
To d e n y o n e ' s h e r i t a g e c u l t u r a l l y i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y
similar t o r e p r e s s i o n , which p r o d u c e s n e u r o s i s o r p s y c h o s i s i n a n
individual.
To b e d e n i e d o n e ' s h e r i t a g e i s c o n s i d e r e d o p p r e s s i o n ,
as i s i m p l i e d , f o r e x a m p l e , by t h e r e c e n t e m p h a s i s on r e c o n s t r u c t i n g
b l a c k h i s t o r y o r women's h i s t o r y .
D e r a c i n a t i o n i s synonymous w i t h
insecurity o r alienation.
The r o o t l e s s person is a n exile--a
stranger i n a strange land.
Y e t , l o o k i n g a t i t a n o t h e r way, der a c i n a t i o n may h o l d p o s i t i v e a t t r i b u t e s .
Autonomy a n d a n o n y m i t y
p r o v i d e room t o g r o w a n d t o d e v e l o p i n d i v i d u a l i t y ; w h i l e o n t h e
c o n t r a r y , b e i n g r o o t e d p e r m a n e n t l y i n o n e r e g i o n o r c o m m u n i t y may
c a u s e o n e t o b e c o m e " s t u c k i n t h e m u d , " may s t i f l e g r o w t h a n d
c h a n g e , a n d may t h r e a t e n i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
O n e may b e c o m e " r o o t bound."
New b e g i n n i n g s a r e a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o t h o s e who c a n t r u l y
f o r g e t t h e p a s t and p u t i t b e h i n d them.
J u s t as e v e r y o n e m u s t , w r i t e r s must a l s o d e c i d e what a t t i t u d e s
t o t a k e toward t h e past--the h i s t o r i c a l o r p u b l i c p a s t , o r t h e i r
own p e r s o n a l o r p r i v a t e p a s t .
T h i s p a p e r w i l l examine t h e a t t i t u d e s
t o w a r d t h e p a s t o f f o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s o f o u r own r e g i o n - Kentucky.
J a n i c e H o l t G i l e s i n The K e n t u c k i a n s , H a r r i e t t e Simpson
, J a n e S t u a r t i n Land o f t h e Fox, a n d
E l i z a b e t h Hardwick i n S l e e p l e s s N i g h t s show v e r y d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s
toward t h e past--both p u b l i c and personal.
G i l e s a n d Arnow, i n
t h e i r n o v e l s a b o u t K e n t u c k y i n t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y War, t r e a t t h e
historical past of the region.
S t u a r t and Hardwick, i n t h e i r
e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t e m p o r a r y n o v e l s , a t t e m p t t o come t o g r i p s w i t h
a personal o r private past.
1
Of t h e f o u r , J a n i c e H o l t G i l e s ' n o v e l , T h e K e n t u c k i a n s ,
e x h i b i t s t h e most conventional u s e of t h e past.
It is a typical
h i s t o r i c a l novel.
B u i l d i n -g u .o o n ~ u b l i ch i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d . i t
b r i n g s t o g e t h e r f i c t i o n a l , h i s t o r i c a l , and sometimes e ~ e n ' l e ~ e n d a r y
characters a t a particular place during a specific t i m e i n history.
Through t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f Dave C o o p e r , a f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r ,
we s e e B e n j a m i n L o g a n , J a m e s H a r r o d , D a n i e l B o o n e , G e o r g e R o g e r s
C l a r k , a n d many o t h e r s , b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d f i c t i o n a l , a s t h e y
move t h r o u g h t h e K e n t u c k y w i l d e r n e s s a n d s e t t l e a t B o o n e s b u r g
(Boonesborough), Harrodstown (Harrodsburg), and Logan's F o r t
( S t a n f o r d ) . G i l e s seems t o b e q u i t e f a i t h f u l t o t h e p u b l i c h i s A comparison o f h e r
t o r i c a l r e c o r d o f t h e t i m e period--1775-1777.
n o v e l w i t h h i s t o r i e s o f t h i s R e v o l u t i o n a r y War E r a r e v e a l s f e w
discrepancies.
T h r o u g h t h e a u t h o r ' s u s e o f d i a l e c t a n d p o i n t o f v i e w we
i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e c e n t r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , Dave C o o p e r , o n e o f t h e
We p a r t i c i p a t e i n h i s c o n f l i c t s w i t h C o l o n e l
o r i g i n a l Long H u n t e r s .
H e n d e r s o n a n d t h e T r a n s y l v a n i a Company a n d i n h i s d i s a g r e e m e n t s
a n d l a t e r a l l i a n c e s w i t h D a n i e l B o o n e a n d J a m e s H a r r o d a s h e ret u r n s t o K e n t u c k y i n 1 7 7 5 t o make h i s c l a i m - - t o r a i s e h i s c a b i n a n d
We a r e w i t h h i m a s h e h u n t s b u f f a l o a n d f i g h t s
p l a n t h i s corn.
Indians.
By G i l e s ' u s e o f p o i n t o f v i e w t h e r e a d e r i s b r o u g h t
i n t o t h e value system o f t h e f r o n t i e r .
We come t o a c c e p t C o o p e r ' s
a t t i t u d e toward t h e land--the s e t t l i n g o f it and t h e defense o f it.
T h r o u g h t h e n o v e l ' s f i c t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e we come t o u n d e r s t a n d
emotionally a s well a s intellectually--at l e a s t insofar a s the
a u t h o r understands--why
t h e s e t t l e r s went t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s and
why t h e y s t a y e d .
We l e a r n o f t h e i r c u s t o m s , t h e i r d i e t s , t h e
way t h e y b u i l t a n d f u r n i s h e d t h e i r h o u s e s .
We e x p e r i e n c e t h e
way t h e y f e l l i n l o v e a n d m a r r i e d , how t h e y b o r e t h e i r c h i l d r e n
a n d how t h e y s u f f e r e d t h e i r l o s s e s .
We s e e how t h e y l e a r n e d t o
l i v e with danger.
We p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r d a i l y l i f e .
Because
we b e g i n t o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s , t h e a u t h o r e n g a g e s o u r
e m o t i o n s a n d we b e g i n t o c a r e w h a t h a p p e n s .
General knowledge o f
h i s t o r y s e r v e s a s f o r e s h a d o w i n g ; f a m i l i a r p l a c e names a n d t h e
specific d e t a i l of s e t t i n g link present readers directly t o the
c h a r a c t e r s - - f i c t i o n a l and r e a l .
We b e g i n t o t h i n k o f t h e m a s o u r
fathers, our family, our forebears.
We l o o k a t t h e i r b r a v e r y a n d
come t o a d m i r e o u r a n c e s t o r s .
T h i s is a n o v e l a b o u t h e r i t a g e .
T h i s n o v e l s a y s , we a c c e p t t h e l e g a c y o f t h e p i o n e e r s .
This is
w h e r e we come f r o m .
T h i s i s w h e r e we a r e now r o o t e d .
Yet, t h e
Kentucky
a u t h o r , J a n i c e Holt G i l e s , is n o t a t r u e Kentuckian.
is h e r adopted n o t h e r n a t i v e s t a t e .
H a r r i e t t e Ardow's r e c e n t n o v e l , The Kentucky
a p p e a r o n t h e s u r f a c e t o b e a s i m i l a r k i n d o f book.
race,^
would
It t r e a t s
t h e same h i s t o r i c a l e r a .
Both n o v e l s are s e t i n t h e same g e n e r a l
r e g i o n o f Kentucky.
Both are w r i t t e n i n t h e s t y l e o f a r e constructed frontier dialect.
The Kentucky T r a c e u s e s a p o i n t
o f v i e w similar t o t h a t o f The K e n t u c k i a n s .
I n Arnow's book t h e
r e a d e r is i n s i d e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f W i l l i a m David L e s l i e C o l l i n s ,
a surveyor o r i g i n a l l y o f a well-to-do Virginia family.
Yet t h e
books are similar o n l y s u p e r f i c i a l l y .
Although C i l e s l novel is
a book a b o u t h e r i t a g e , Arnow's n o v e l i s a b o u t d e r a c i n a t i o n .
Near t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e n o v e l L e s l i e C o l l i n s e s c a p e s b e i n g
h a n g e d o n l y t o f i n d o n r e t u r n i n g t o h i s home t h a t h i s g o o d s , h i s
s t o c k , h i s s l a v e s , h i s w i f e a n d baby a r e gone w i t h o u t a t r a c e .
With something l i k e r e l i e f h e sets o u t f o r Kentucky, o s t e n s i b l y
t o look f o r h i s family.
However, h e seems t o r e g r e t t h e l o s s o f
h i s s l a v e s a n d h i s g o o d s much m o r e t h a n t h e l o s s o f h i s w i f e a n d
baby.
We f i n d t h a t h i s h a d b e e n a s h o t g u n w e d d i n g a n d h e k n o w s t h e
baby is n o t even h i s .
U n l i k e G i l e s , Arnow m a k e s l i t t l e e f f o r t t o
l i n k h e r h i s t o r i c a l novel t o g e n e r a l knowledge o f t h e p e r i o d
through characters o r events.
H o w e v e r , Arnow u s e s s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s
i n abundance t o d e s c r i b e t h e t r a i l h e r c h a r a c t e r t a k e s t o Kentucky:
h i s d i e t , h i s c l o t h i n g , t h e k i n d s o f trees i n t h e f o r e s t s , t h e
sounds o f r a i n on dead p i n e n e e d l e s on t h e t r a i l , t h e s m e l l o f t h e
c a m p f i r e s , t h e r o a r o f t h e F a l l s o f t h e Comberland.
It is e a s y
e n o u g h t o map C o l l i n s 1 t r a i l b y t h e n a m e s o f r i v e r s , b u t Arnow
k e e p s him o f f t h e n e a r l y l e g e n d a r y W i l d e r n e s s Road a n d away f r o m
Harrodsburg and Boonesborough.
I n s t e a d s h e l e a d s him t o w a r d
French Lick v i a P r i c e ' s S t a t i o n .
Somewhere a c r o s s t h e S o u t h F o r k
o f t h e C u m b e r l a n d s h e h a s him camp i n a row o f r o c k h o u s e s .
Here
h e c h a n c e s upon a s t r a n g e c o l l e c t i o n o f r o o t l e s s p e o p l e :
an
I n d i a n w i t h o u t a t r i b e ; a b l a c k s l a v e woman n a m e d R a c h e l ; a namel e s s grey-eyed w h i t e baby whose mother won't c l a i m him; a n d t h e
m o t h e r , a " y e l l o w - h e a d e d woman" t r a v e l i n g a l o n e w i t h o u t a man-husband, l o v e r , o r guide.
Here C o l l i n s s t a y s t o h e l p a n o t h e r
r o o t l e s s man, D a n i e l S t r u n k , make s a l t p e t e r i n e x c h a n g e f o r t h e
gunpowder t h a t h e d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d s .
D u r i n g C o l l i n s ' s t a y a t t h e r o c k h o u s e , R a c h e l names t h e baby
William David a f t e r him, and C o l l i n s b e g i n s t o c a l l t h e I n d i a n
" L i t t l e Brother."
C o l l i n s ' s l a v e , J e t h r o , a p p e a r s w i t h some o f
h i s s t o c k , h i s d o g s , h i s f a m i l y B i b l e a n d t h e news t h a t t h e w i f e
and baby a r e dead.
C o l l i n s ' r e a c t i o n t o t h i s news i s t o s a y :
" F o r g e t i t . S a d i e was dead.
Q u i t l o o k i n g back"
(KT, p. 1 9 4 ) .
I n f a c t , C o l l i n s ' whole a t t i t u d e toward t h e p a s t is t o " f o r g e t
it":
Used t o be?
It d i d n ' t seem l o n g s i n c e h e ' d
h e a r d h i s g r a n d p a r e n t s t a l k o f t h e "used t o
be."
He'd wondered t h e n i f t h e words meant
He s h p o k h i s
t h e same t h i n g as "back t h e n . "
head.
T h e u s e d t o b e w a s f o r o l d m e n ; men s o
o l d they had nothing l e f t b u t t h e used t o be.
H i s w o u l d n ' t b e much.
R i g h t now h e o u g h t t o
be making part' o f it.
(KT, p . 1 4 6 )
C o l l i n s , t h e s o n o f V i r g i n i a g e n t r y , f i n d s h i m s e l f drawn i n t o
t h i s s t r a n g e new " f a m i l y . "
Looking toward t h e f u t u r e r a t h e r
t h a n t h e p a s t , C o l l i n s s a v e s t h e baby from t h e wrath o f i t s
c h i l d - m u r d e r i n g m o t h e r , t h e " y e l l o w - h e a d e d woman. " He f i n d s a
cow t o p r o v i d e m i l k f o r t h e b a b y b o y , a n d e v e n t u a l l y c h r i s t e n s
a n d a d o p t s him.
C o l l i n s now d e s i r e s t o p r e s e n t t h e b a b y t o h i s
own p a r e n t s a s a g r a n d c h i l d s i n c e a l e t t e r f r o m t h e m t e l l s him
t h a t t h e y have d i s i n h e r i t e d t h e i r o t h e r s o n s f o r b e i n g on t h e
wrong s i d e o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n - - f o r b e i n g L o y a l i s t s .
(We h a v e a l r e a d y l e a r n e d t h a t C o l l i n s s h o t o n e o f h i s own b r o t h e r s a t t h e
b a t t l e o f Camden.) Most o f C o l l i n s 1 o r i g i n a l f a m i l y a r e d e a d
o r d i s p e r s e d j u s t as t h e c o l o n i e s 1 o r i g i n a l t i e s w i t h t h e m o t h e r
country a r e broken.
England's a t t i t u d e toward t h e c o l o n i e s i s
m i r r o r e d by t h e y e l l o w - h e a d e d woman's a t t i t u d e toward h e r g r e y eyed baby.
H e r i t a g e i s f o r s a k e n ; r e v o l u t i o n means d e r a c i n a t i o n .
C o l l i n s p r e v i o u s l y had " c u r s e d t h e w r i t e r f o r t h e l i e p u t
i n t o h i s Bible"
(KT, p . 6 7 ) when h i s w i f e S a d i e e n t e r e d t h e
wrong d a t e o f b i r t h f o r h e r b a s t a r d s o n i n t h e B i b l e which h e l d
record o f C o l l i n s 1 "maternal and p a t e r n a l a n c e s t o r s f o r f i v e
g e n e r a t i o n s b a c k " (KT, p . 6 6 ) . Now C o l l i n s h i m s e l f f a l s i f i e s
the record i n the family history section of the Bible i n order
He writes a l e t t e r to
t o c l a i m W i l l i a m D a v i d a s h i s own s o n .
h i s p a r e n t s i n v e n t i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p and marriage t o t h e c h i l d ' s
imaginary mother.
He e v e n i n v e n t s a g e n t l e m a n ' s s u r n a m e - C a r l y l e - - f o r h e r s o t h a t h i s p a r e n t s w i l l more e a s i l y a c c e p t t h e
b a b y a s t h e i r own g r a n d c h i l d .
I n one s e n s e W i l l i a m David i s t r u l y
L e s l i e C o l l i n s 1 own s o n .
T h e c h i l d b e a r s C o l l i n s ' name now a n d
o w e s h i s l i f e t o t h e man who f i r s t s a v e d him f r o m a m o t h e r who
w a n t e d t o k i l l him a n d t h e n p r o v i d e d f o o d t o s u s t a i n t h a t l i f e .
T h e b a s t a r d c h i l d a d o p t e d by a r o o t l e s s s u r v e y o r w i l l become t h e
inheritor o f the Collins family o f Virginia.
Leslie Collins has
created h i s heritage.
I n a way i t s e e m s i r o n i c t h a t Arnow t u r n s t o t h e e a r l i e s t .
p a g e s o f o u r American h i s t o r y t o t a l k a b o u t t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f
deracination.
U s i n g a n a l m o s t l e g e n d a r y time o f t h e p a s t - - t h e
American Revolution on t h e w e s t e r n frontier--The Kentucky T r a c e
i l l u s t r a t e s how a man c a n i n a s e n s e become h i s own a n c e s t o r ,
c a n s h a p e h i s own d e s t i n y a n d t a k e c o n t r o l o f h i s own f u t u r e .
The real hope o f t h e f u t u r e o f t h i s c o u n t r y l i e s i n t h e p r o m i s e
of the grandparents1 acceptance of t h i s bastard child a s t h e i r
own h e i r .
I n T h e K e n t u c k y T r a c e Arnow r e j e c t s t h e i d e a s t h a t t h e
p a s t was more s t a b l e t h a n t h e p r e s e n t , t h a t h i s t o r y i s s a c r e d ,
Instead s h e demonstrates t h a t our
a n d t h a t d e r a c i n a t i o n i s new.
American h e r i t a g e
deracination.
Of t h e two b o o k s t r e a t i n g t h e p e r s o n a l p a s t , J a n e S t u a r t ' s
u n c o n v e n t i o n a l n o v e l , Land o f t h e F O X ? i s b a s e d o n t h e m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l a t t i t u d e - - t h a t denying o r r e p r e s s i n g t h e p a s t can lead
t o psychosis.
The p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h i s n o v e l i s t h a t o f a
s c h i z o p h r e n i c y o u n g woman, Kay F o r r e s t e r , who s u f f e r s a m e n t a l
breakdown.
The r e a d e r i s i n s i d e h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s , s l i p p i n g o u t
o f r e a l i t y and i n t o f a n t a s y with no warning a s t h e n a r r a t i v e s h i f t s
from f i r s t t o t h i r d person and back.
Kay F o r r e s t e r ' s b r e a k w i t h
r e a l i t y i s c a u s e d by h e r r e p r e s s i o n o f some t r a u m a t i c f a c t s o f
Her f a n t a s i e s t a k e s h a p e a s a p e r s o n - - a f a t man w i t h
her past.
a c i g a r who f o l l o w s h e r p e r s i s t e n t l y - - a n d a p l a c e - - t h e " l a n d o f
t h e fox."
Stuart describes t h i s fantasyland:
"0 l o v e l y c o u n t r y
d a y s when
I r o a m e d t h e f i e l d s i n d r e a m s , my f a c e b u r i e d i n
Q u e e n A n n e ' s l a c e a n d g o l d e n r o d , my f e e t s o s o f t a n d t e n d e r i n
spring-green windswept g r a s s "
(LF, p. 4 ) .
...
Describing t h i s imaginary place Stuart writes:
I n t h e f o r e s t , t h e p i n e trees a r e t a l l and d a r k .
They s t a n d s o c l o s e t o g e t h e r t h a t t h e i r n e e d l e s
intertwine.
No s u n l i g h t c a n s l i p t h r o u g h w h e n
w i n t e r w i n d s whip t h e p i n e s i n t o e r e c t n e s s , snow
s l i d e s a c r o s s t h e i r heads and f r e e z e s s o l i d , a
roof o f i c e and s t e e l s e a l s o u t t h e peeking s t a r s .
The h a r d ground
I n s i d e , i t i s warm a n d p e a c e f u l .
is carpeted w i t h moss, t r a i l i n g a r b u t u s climbs
t h i s way a n d t h a t , m u s h r o o m s g r o w t a l l a n d f a t ,
h a p p y s e a t s f o r l i t t l e e l v e s who s e w a n d s i n g .
(LF, P. 2 4 )
D e t a i l s o f c o u n t r y s w e e t n e s s ( q u i t e r e m i n i s c e n t o f some o f
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e Kentucky s c e n e r y i n Giles' n o v e l ) are
mingled with f a i r y t a l e r e f e r e n c e s t o e l v e s , f r o g princes, f a i r y
princesses, and s o f o r t h .
Kay F o r r e s t e r , w i f e a n d m o t h e r , l o n g s
t o b e "A p l a i n p r i n c e s s , a s i m p l e m a i d e n r e t u r n i n g homew ( L F ,
p. 2 4 ) .
I n s t e a d s h e sees b e l o w h e r , " b r a i n e d o u t on t h e s i d e w a l k , r a p e d a n d b e a t e n , f e e t s t i c k i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e mud l i k e t h e
c h a r a c t e r o f some ~ i m e s - p i c a y u n e p o l l c e - r e p o r t ,
the people of
p a s t , d r a g g e d a l o n g i n t h e i r a g o n y a n d k e p t a l i v e by
Innumerable encounters, never allowed t o croak i n t o a g l o r i o u s
non-existence b u t t h r o t t l e d and s t r a n g l e d i n t o a d m i t t i n g t h a t
t h e y were and n e v e r s h o u l d have been"
(LF, p. 4 ) .
...
peg
Kay F o r r e s t e r e r u p t s i n t o p s y c h o t i c v i o l e n c e - - s h e t h i n k s s h e
h a s k i l l e d h e r h u s b a n d ' s b o s s when i n f a c t s h e h a s t u r n e d t h e gun
on h e r s e l f ,
She is h o s p i t a l i z e d and h e r mental h e a l t h is r e s t o r e d
when s h e f a c e s h e r r e p r e s s e d p a s t - - t h e n i g h t s h e l o s t h e r v i r g i n i t y ,
n o t because s h e cared f o r t h e boy, but i n o r d e r t o be "free, o f
a l l t h e r u l e s a n d t r a d i t i n n s t h a t w e r e t r y i n g t o make f i e 3 p a r t
o f a w o r l d [shg
d i d n ' t want t o be a p a r t ofq1 (LF, p. 1 4 6 ) . She
h a d f e l t r e j e c t e d a f t e r w a r d s n o t o n l y by t h e b o y , b u t a l s o by
h e r community, b e c a u s e s h e was " d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e s t , d i f f e r e n t ,
different."
S h e t h i n k s , "Maybe t h e y k n e w t h a t I s a w s p i r i t s f r o m
the past.'
.I1 ( L F ,
p. 146).
S h e s a y s t o h e r h u s b a n d , "When y o u
t o o k m e a w a y f r o m i t a l l , when y o u o f f e r e d me a n e w l i f e , i t
was a l r e a d y t o o l a t e .
B e c a u s e I c o u l d n o t g e t away f r o m t h e o l d
one.
But I can.
(LF, p. 1 4 6 ) . A f t e r s h e h a s c o n f r o n t e d h e r
r e p r e s s e d p a s t , Kay a n d h e r h u s b a n d J a s o n d e c i d e t o m o v e a w a y f r o m
t h e c i t v o f New O r l e a n s .
S h e savs:
.
. ."
We a r e g o i n g b a c k t o w h e r e we l i v e d b e f o r e ,
when we w e r e h a p p i e r .
We a r e g o i n g b a c k t o t h e l a n d w h e r e o u r
c h i l d r e n were born.
We a r e g o i n g b a c k , a n d we a r e g o i n g f o r w a r d .
We a r e r e t u r n i n g t o t h e l a n d t h a t b o r d e r s t h e
mystic b l u e lake--.
We a r e g o i n g b a c k t o t h e f o u r t h e l e m e n t ,
earth.
(LF, p. 1 5 2 )
...
..
...
...
The n o v e l c o n c l u d e s on t h i s n o t e :
" T h e r e c a n b e no f o r g e t t i n g
who I am o r w a s , o r w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o me.
I thought, once,
t h a t I c o u l d f o r g e t c o m p l e t e l y - - b u t I was wrong" (LF, p. 1 5 3 ) .
I n J a n e S t u a r t ' s n o v e l Kay F o r r e s t e r c o m e s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t t h e way t o f a c e t h e f u t u r e a n d m a k e a new b e g i n n i n g i s n o t
t o f o r n e t t h e "used t o be" a s L e s l i e C o l l i n s o f Arnow's n o v e l
s a y s , b u t t o remember t h e p a s t t r u l y and g o o n from t h e r e - p a r a d o x i c a l l y t o go on by g o i n g back.
One i s t e m p t e d t o comment o n J a n e S t u a r t ' s own l i f e c h o i c e s
i n t e r m s o f t h e a t t i t u d e e x p r e s s e d by t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i n
Land o f t h e F o x .
H e r e i s a woman who h a s c h o s e n t o c o m p e t e w i t h
h e r own f a m o u s l i t e r a r y f a t h e r who r o o t e d h i m s e l f a n d h i s w o r k s
H i s daughter, Jane, has said
f i r m l y i n h i s own n a t i v e r e g i o n .
o f h e r s e l f , " I am o n e o f t h e s t r a n g e s t k i n d s o f K e n t u c k i a n s - an expatriate.
. I h a v e n ' t r e a l l y l i v e d a t home s i n c e I w a s
I t w i l l p r o b a b l y b e a l o n g t i m e u n t i l I ' n o home'
sixteen.
a g a i n , t o o , b e c a u s e I ' v e b e c o m e c a u g h t u p i n my own way o f
life.
B u t i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r much b e y o n d t h e h o m e s i c k n e s s
t h a t comes o v e r m e s o o f t e n , b e c a u s e , i n a way, I ' v e n e v e r l e f t
I w i l l a l w a y s b e more a p a r t o f t h e e a r l y y e a r s s p e n t
Kentucky.
t h e r e than t h e l a t e r ones passed wandering a l l over t h e
world.
."4
I t i s h a r d n o t t o i d e n t i f y Kay F o r r e s t e r , p u r s u e d
by t h e h a l l u c i n a t o r y f a t man w i t h a c i g a r , w i t h J a n e S t u a r t ,
p u r s u e d b y t h e g h o s t o f h e r own w r i t e r f a t h e r , J e s s e S t u a r t .
I t i s h a r d n o t t o s e e Kay F o r r e s t e r ' s f a n t a s y " l a n d o f t h e f o x "
a s t h e f i e l d s a n d f o r e s t s o f J a n e S t u a r t ' s o l d home p l a c e i n WHollow i n E a s t e r n Kentucky--a r e a l l a n d o f t h e f o x .
It is hard
n o t t o w a n t t o a s k i f t h e a u t h o r h a s t r u l y f a c e d h e r own p a s t
s o t h a t s h e can go on t o t h e f u t u r e .
..
...
..
The l a s t n o v e l i s t I w i s h t o c o n s i d e r i s a n o t h e r e x p a t r i a t e
Kentuckian, E l i z a b e t h Hardwick.
Of t h e f o u r n o v e l i s t s I am
d i s c u s s i n g , E l i z a b e t h Hardwick p e r h a p s h a s t h e g r e a t e s t l i t e r a r y
r e p u t a t i o n a s a c r i t i c , a s f o u n d i n g e d i t o r o f t h e New Y o r k R e v i e w
o f B o o k s , a s t h e f o r m e r w i f e o f t h e New E n g l a n d p o e t R o b e r t
Lowell, and a s t h e author o f t h e e novels.
The m o s t r e c e n t o f
t h e s e novels, S l e e p l e s s Nights15 published i n 1979, i s a n enigmatic
book.
Hardwick c l a i m s i n t h e opening paragraph t h a t i t w i l l be a
" w o r k o f t r a n s f o r m e d a n d e v e n d i s t o r t e d memory" ( S N , p . 3 ) .
One r e v i e w e r o b s e r v e s :
"At f i r s t reading, Sleepless N i e appears
t o be a haphazard assemblage o f fragmentary p o r t r a i t s , anecdotes,
a p h o r i s m s , m e d i t a t i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , wayward b i t s a n d
. .
pieces,
."6
The book f i t s n o n e o f o u r p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a s
about n o v e l s because i t h a s no p l o t , t e l l s no r e a l s t o r y , and
h a s n o c h a r a c t e r s who r e a l l y e n g a g e o u r s y m p a t h i e s .
The same
r e v i e w e r s a y s t h a t Hardwick depends "almost e n t i r e l y on s t y l e
a s h e r p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y " w r i t i n g " b e a u t i f u l words a b o u t u g l y ,
d e s p e r a t e , b o r i n g p e o p l e . "7
E l i z a b e t h Hardwick c l a i m s t h e n o v e l is n o t autobiography
a n d y e t s h e names h e r c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r E l i z a b e t h , g i v e s h e r a
youth i n Lexington, Kentucky, and h a s h e r l e a v e Lexington t o
l i v e i n New Y o r k C i t y , j u s t a s t h e a u t h o r h e r s e l f d i d .
Yet, a s
a n o t h e r r e v i e w e r h a s o b s e r v e d , t h e r e a d e r s e n s e s t h a t "Hardwick
has k e p t u s a t a d i s t a n c e while s h e h i d e s behind t h e v e i l s o f
memory."8
I f e a r t h a t b o t h t h e s e r e v i e w e r s miss t h e p o i n t o f
t h i s novel.
I n a t e l e v i s i o n i n t e r v i e w w i t h Dick C a v e t t s h o r t l y
a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f h e r n o v e l , E l i z a b e t h Hardwick s a i d t h a t
s h e f e l t d e r a c i n a t i o n was o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h e m e s i n
contemporary f i c t i o n .
Sleepless Nights is a novel about t h a t
c o n t e m p o r a r y phenomenon o f d e r a c i n a t i o n , a n d I b e l i e v e a c l o s e
examination o f t h i s novel w i l l prove most e n l i g h t e n i n g i n t h i s
d i s c u s s i o n o f h e r i t a g e and d e r a c i n a t i o n .
I t i s n o t e x a c t l y a c c i d e n t a l t h a t a l l t h e Kentucky w r i t e r s
I am d i s c u s s i n g a r e women.
The q u e s t i o n o f h e r i t a g e and der a c i n a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e t o a woman.
Consider t h e most
e l e m e n t a r y f a c t o f h e r i t a g e , " c a r r y i n g o n t h e f a m i l y name": a s
s o o n a s a woman c o n t r a c t s a t r a d i t i o n a l m a r r i a g e s h e f o r f e i t s
t h a t p r i m a r y r i g h t o f h e r i t a g e , a n d i n h e r s u b s e q u e n t name
change must n e c e s s a r i l y e x p e r i e n c e an i n t e n s e f e e l i n g o f d e r a c i nation.
P a u s e t o c o n s i d e r f o r a m o m e n t a woman s u c h a s E l i z a b e t h
H a r d w i c k who i n a n e a r l i e r t i m e r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e v e n e r a b l e
name o f t h e L o w e l l s o f B o s t o n a n d i n s t e a d c h o s e t o l i v e , t o w o r k ,
a n d t o w r i t e u n d e r h e r own L e x i n g t o n , K e n t u c k y , n a m e o f H a r d w i c k .
The most p u z z l i n g t h i n g a b o u t Hardwick's r e c e n t n o v e l , S l e e p l e s s Nights, is an absence, a silence.
Nowhere i n t h i s p s e u d o a u t o b i o g r a p h y , t h i s pseudo-memoir, d o e s s h e remember o r r e m i n i s c e
a b o u t h e r famous husband,Robert L o w e l l , a l t h o u g h s h e s p e a k s o f
h i m o c c a s i o n a l l y a s He ( i n i t a l i c s ) . S h e w r i t e s o f h e r l i f e i n
Boston thus:
"Boston:
an intermission.
Many t h i n g s h a p p e n
between t h e a c t s .
E v e r y t h i n g h a s c o m e t o me a n d b e e n t a k e n f r o m
me b e c a u s e o f m o v i n g f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e t 1 ( S N , p . 1 2 1 ) . T h i s i s
a book a b o u t w h a t t a k e s p l a c e " b e t w e e n t h e a c t s n - - d u r i n g t h e i n t e r mission.
And i n f a c t , i s n ' t t h i s ~ e r s o n a l f o c u s a t r u e r , e v e n
a m o r e r e a l i s t i c way o f p e r c e i v i n g t h e p a s t ? T h e m a t t e r s o f
public record--whether h i s t o r i c a l o r personal--never contain t h e
real truth of our heritage.
Elizabeth Hardwick1s persona Elizabeth i n S l e e p l e s s Nights
s u f f e r s from i n s o m n i a .
A s s h e l i e s awake--sleepless--she
remembers i n c i d e n t a l b i t s a n d p i e c e s o f h e r l i f e :
Henry Clay High
S c h o o l i n L e x i n g t o n , t h e u n i v e r s i t y , "Man o ' War o n v i e w , " i m a g e s
o f h o r s e s "everwhere, o n c a l e n d a r s , on a s h t r a y s l t t t h e r a c e s ,
dancing a t Joyland.
She remembers h e r m a i d s , J o s e t t e and I d a , and t h e i r l i v e s .
S h e t h i n k s o f a homosexual young man, J . , whom s h e l i v e d w i t h i n t h e H o t e l S c h u y l e r when s h e f i r s t w e n t t o New Y o r k ; s h e r e m e m b e r s B i l l i e H o l i d a y a s s h e a n d J . s a w h e r and heard h e r s i n g .
S h e r e c a l l s a c e r t a i n man named A l e x a s "a t y p e , a g e n r e , " and a D r . Z i n H o l l a n d and h i s l o v e a f f a i r s . She t h i n k s o f bag l a d i e s i n New York, o f a murdered f r i e n d . But s h e does n o t r e m i n i s c e a b o u t h e r husband. E a r l y i n t h e n o v e l Hardwick w r i t e s :
It i s n o t t r u e t h a t i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r where
you l i v e , t h a t you a r e i n H a r t f o r d o r D a l l a s
merely yourself.
Also it is n o t t r u e t h a t a l l
a r e linked naturally t o t h e i r regions.
Many
a r e f l u n g down c a r e l e s s l y a t b i r t h a n d t h e y e x p e r i e n c e t h e diminishment and sometimes t h e
p l e a s a n t t r u c u l e n c e o f t h e i r random m i s p l a c e ment.
...
The s t a i n o f p l a c e h a n g s o n n o t a s a b i r t h r i g h t b u t a s a s o r t o f a r t i f i c e , a b i t o f cosmetic.
I p l a c e m y s e l f among t h e i m p o r t s , t h o s e
j a r r i n g and j a r r e d p i e c e s t h a t sit i n t h e c l o s e t
I h a v e n o reamong t h e m a t c h i n g c h i n a s e t s .
l a t i o n s t h a t I know o f b o r n o u t s i d e t h e S o u t h
and h a r d l y any l i v i n g o u t s i d e i t even today.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , I am a f r a i d o f t h e c o u n t r y n i g h t
and its honest slumbers, uneasy even i n t h e
d a y l i g h t w i t h " o r i g i n a l settlers" and o l d
American s t o c k .
The highway, t h e a s p h a l t p a t h s ,
t h e thieves, t h e contaminated s k i e s l i k e a
s u f f o c a t i n g c l o a k o f mangy f u r , t h e m i l l i o n s i n
(SN, p . 1 2 )
t h e i r b o r o u g h s - - t h a t i s t r u l y home.
S h e writes o f h e r Kentucky homeplace:
F a r e w e l l t o Kentucky and o u r a g r e e a b l e v i c e s .
We g o t o b e d e a r l v , b u t b e c a u s e o f w h i s k e y
seldom with a c l e a r head.
We a r e f o n d o f
s t r i n g b e a n s a n d t h i n s l i c e s o f s a l t v ham.
When I l e f t home my b r o t h e r s a i d :
It w i l l
b e w o n d e r f u l i f you make a s u c c e s s o f l i f e ,
t h e n you c a n f o l l o w t h e r a c e s .
Farewell t o the precious limestone, t o the
d y n a s t i e s o f s w i f t h o r s e bones.
(SN, p. 1 8 )
A f t e r s h e l e f t Kentucky and went t o l i v e i n t h e H o t e l S c h u y l e r
i n New Y o r k , s h e s a y s , " T h e r o o t l e s s n e s s h a r d e n e d o v e r e v e r y t h i n g , l i k e a scab." ( S N , p . 3 3 ) . S h e w r i t e s , "When y o u t r a v e l
y o u r f i r s t d i s c o v e r y i s t h a t y o u d o n o t e x i s t u ( S N , p . 5). S h e
s a y s p h o t o g r a p h s b e a r r e c o r d o f t h e p a s t , a n d o f h e r own p h o t o -
graphs s h e s a y s s h e has " t h r e e hundred o r more, t h a t b e a r witness
t o form; p i c t u r e s i n t h e drawer, i n t h e o l d box, photographs t h a t
make o n e h i s own a n c e s t o r .
Of o t h e r s I h a v e c a r e d a b o u t , c a r e d
A s i t s h o u l d be.
f o r years--not a t r a c e , n o t a f i n g e r p r i n t .
T h o s e who l e a v e n o t h i n g b e h i n d c a n n o t b e m i s s e d f o r l o n g t 1 ( S N ,
p. 7 1 ) .
In trying t o define her past, her heritage, Elizabeth
s a y s s h e h a s been " l o o k i n g f o r t h e f o s s i l i z e d , f o r something-persons and p l a c e s t h i c k and encrusted with f i n a l shape; i n s t e a d
t h e r e a r e many, many m i n n o w s , w i l d l y swimming, t r e m b l i n g , v i g i (SN, pp. 5 - 6 ) .
Hardwick o p e n s h e r
l a n t t o escape t h e net"
n o v e l by s a y i n g , " I f o n l y o n e knew w h a t t o r e m e m b e r o r p r e t e n d
t o remember.
Make a d e c i s i o n a n d w h a t you w a n t f r o m t h e l o s t
You c a n t a k e i t down l i k e a c a n
things w i l l present i t s e l f .
from a s h e l f .
Perhaps.
One c a n w o u l d b e m a r k e d Rand Avenue i n
K e n t u c k y a n d some w o u l d r e c a l l t h e a d d r e s s a t l e a s t a s t r u e .
I n s i d e t h e can a r e t h e blackening porches o f w i n t e r , t h e gas
She concludes t h i s novel about
g r a t e s , t h e swarm" ( S N , p p . 3 - 4 ) .
h e r i t a g e a n d d e r a c i n a t i o n , t h i s r e c o r d o f many " s l e e p l e s s n i g h t s "
by w r i t i n g , " S o m e t i m e s I r e s e n t t h e g l o s s a r y , t h e c o n c o r d a n c e
o f t r u t h , many h a v e a b o u t my r e a l l i f e , h a v e l i k e a n e x t r a p a i r
I mean t h a t s u c h f a c t i s t o me a h i n d r a n c e t o
of spectacles.
memory" ( S N , p . 1 5 1 ) .
Of t h e s e f o u r K e n t u c k y women w r i t e r s , b o t h Arnow a n d G i l e s
c h o s e t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f men, i g n o r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a s i t
p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n s women.
Jane S t u a r t u s e s t h e p o i n t o f view
o f a woman s u r r o u n d e d a n d p e r s e c u t e d by m e n - - t h e f a t man, h e r
husband, h i s boss, h e r p s y c h i a t r i s t .
Even t h e h a l l u c i n a t o r y
Kay F o r r e s t e r m u s t
"Foxie" o f t h e "land o f t h e fox" i s male.
somehow f i n d h e r s e l f a s a woman i n t h i s " f o r e s t " o f men.
But
E l i z a b e t h H a r d w i c k f a c e s h e a d o n - - a s a woman--the q u e s t i o n o f
"I h a v e a l w a y s , a l l
h e r i t a g e and deracination.
She w r i t e s :
I t h a s come many
o f my l i f e , b e e n l o o k i n g f o r h e l p f r o m a man.
t i m e s a n d many m o r e i t h a s n o t u ( S N , p . 1 2 ) . S h e a l s o c o m m e n t s ,
" O r g a s m s o f t w e n t y y e a r s a g o l e a v e n o memorytt (SN, p . 6 6 ) .
H a r d w i c k s t a r t s E l i z a b e t h o n t h e m o s t o r d i n a r y way o f
searching f o r heritage--looking t o her parents.
She w r i t e s ,
"Mother and f a t h e r a r e soon dead.
T h a t i s w h a t i t a l l comes t o ,
b u t d o t h e y s e e t h e i r own d e a t h a s t h e l o s s o f m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r ? "
(SN, pp. 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
Elizabeth dismisses h e r f a t h e r r a t h e r uncerem o n i o u s l y , r e m e m b e r i n g him m e r e l y a s b e i n g " i n t h e room n e x t t o
t h e a t t i c , r e a d i n g and smoking.
He may b e a l i t t l e d r u n k - - i t i s
n i g h t " (SN, p. 9 4 ) . Hardwick w r i t e s :
" I c a n s e e him o n l y a s a
I w i l l say, can s a y ,
character i n l i t e r a t u r e , already recorded.
h e was v e r y h a n d s o m e , a n d i n d e e d , when e m b a l m e d , w i t h h i s h a i r
p a r t e d on t h e wrong s i d e , h i s p r o f i l e reminded e v e r y o n e o f t h a t
He was n o t d e f i n e d by w o r k b u t by t h e
o f John Barrymore.
.I1
(SN, pp. 9 0 - 9 1 ) .
It i s t h e presence o f
avoidance of it.
51izabethts m o t h e r which p e r v a d e s t h e n o v e l .
She s a y s o f h e r
m o t h e r , " I n e v e r knew a n y o n e s o l i t t l e i n t e r e s t e d i n memory,
i n a n c e s t o r s , i n r e c o r d s , i n sweetened back-glancing s c e n e r i e s ,
l i t t l e a d o r n m e n t s o f p r i d e " (SN, p. 9 2 ) . S h e remembers a b o u t
" I n e v e r knew a p e r s o n s o i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e p a s t .
It
her:
.
...
w a s a s i f s h e d i d n o t know who s h e w a s u ( S N , p . 6 ) . B u t s h e s a y s ,
"I w a s b e w i t c h e d b y my m o t h e r a n d w o u l d w a k e u p o n 1 1 6 t h S t r e e t
i n New Y o r k l o n g i n g f o r t h e s i g h t o f h e r r o u n d , s o f t c u r v e s , h e r
h a i r t w i s t e d i n t o limp c u r l s a t t h e temples, h e r weight on t h e
s t e p l a d d e r washing windows, h e r r o a s t s and p o t a t o e s 2nd f a t
y e a s t r o l l s ; a n d h e r p a t i e n t b r e a t h i n g i n t h e b a c k room a s s h e
l a y s l e e p i n g i n a lumpy o l d f e a t h e r bed" (SN, p. 1 8 ) . The n o v e l
i s f i l l e d w i t h l e t t e r s f r o m E l i z a b e t h t o h e r m o t h e r , some beT h r o u g h t h e many l e t t e r s
g i n n i n g , " D e a r Mama," s o m e " D e a r e s t M."
t o h e r mother Elizabeth d e f i n e s h e r uniquely female h e r i t a g e .
I n t h i s w a y , E l i z a b e t h H a r d w i c k a t t e m p t s t o b e c o m e h e r own a n c e s t o r , a s a p e r s o n a w i t h h e r own name d e f i n e s a h e r i t a g e p a r a d o x i c a l l y achieved through deracination.
S h e a s k s h e r s e l f , "Why d i d n ' t
you c h a n g e y o u r name? Then you c o u l d make u p a n y t h i n g you l i k e ,
w i t h o u t i t s e e m i n g t o b e t r u e when a l l o f i t i s n o t ? " And t h e n
s h e r e p l i e s , "I d o n o t know t h e a n s w e r . "
Yet t h i s book, a l o n e of
a l l t h e s e f o u r , r e a l l y comes t o g r i p s w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n .
Of t h e s e f o u r women n o v e l i s t s , t h r e e h a v e c h o s e n t o l e a v e
t h e i r n a t i v e Kentucky, whereas t h e f o u r t h chose i n s t e a d t o l e a v e
h e r own home s t a t e a n d t o a d o p t K e n t u c k y .
I n a s e n s e , each h a s
w r i t t e n h e r own h i s t o r y .
Even G i l e s , t h e o n e m o s t f a i t h f u l t o
p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e , h a s e s t a b l i s h e d h e r own h e r i t a g e t h r o u g h h e r
own d e r a c i n a t i o n .
But o f t h e f o u r , E l i z a b e t h Hardwick is t h e one
who i s m o s t c o n s c i o u s o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f h e r i t a g e a n d d e r a c i n a t i o n
as i t r e l a t e s t o r e g i o n .
Janice Holt Ciles follows the traditional
p a t h o f s e e k i n g r o o t s i n h i s t o r y and being f a i t h f u l t o t h a t p u b l i c
record.
Jane S t u a r t has h e r c h a r a c t e r accept t h e Freudian premise
o f facing traumatic events o f the past factually before being
a b l e t o l i v e i n t h e f u t u r e , y e t s h e seems unable, as a w r i t e r ,
t o a c c e p t t h e same p r e m i s e f o r h e r s e l f .
H a r r i e t t e Arnow a n d
E l i z a b e t h Hardwick b o t h seem t o a d v o c a t e a r a d i c a l r e - w r i t i n g
o f h i s t o r y , t o recommend a n a c c e p t a n c e o f d e r a c i n a t i o n a s a p o s i t i v e , on-aoina, a f f i r m a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , p e r h a p s a n e c e s s a r y experience.
These f o u r n o v e l s s e t f o r t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t ways o f t r e a t i n g
the past:
t o re-enter t h e p a s t and r e - l i v e i t , r e c o n s t r u c t i n g
i t as f a c t u a l l y a s p o s s i b l e ; t o f o r g e t t h e p a s t , t o f o r g e one's
own h i s t o r y , c r e a t e o n e ' s own h e r i t a g e , a n d f o r g e t t h e " u s e d t o
be"; t o remember t h e p a s t t r u l y , f a c e i t s q u a r e l y and t h e n g o on
t o t h e f u t u r e by g o i n g b a c k t o t h e p a s t ; a n d l a s t , t o remember
w h a t e v e r s t i c k s i n t h e memory b e c a u s e t h a t i s t h e t r u e p a s t reg a r d l e s s o f what p u b l i c r e c o r d holds.
I n t h i s l a s t n o v e l Hardwick
s a y s t o l e t t h o s e m e m o r i e s s w i m f r e e l y i n t o t h e m i n d - - t h e "many,
many m i n n o w s , w i l d l y s w i m m i n g , t r e m b l i n g , v i g i l a n t t o e s c a p e t h e
n e t " - - b u t t o a c c e p t t h e f a c t t h a t memory i s a l w a y s t r a n s f o r m e d ,
distorted.
S h e s a y s t h a t we a l l w r i t e o u r own h i s t o r i e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f how h a r d we t r y t o d o o t h e r w i s e .
From t h e s e n o v e l s we c a n c o n c l u d e , t h e n , t h a t a h e a l t h y
approach is t o develop a sense of individual i d e n t i t y inside a
s e n s e o f p l a c e , b u t t o l o o k back a t t h e p a s t w i t h o u t e i t h e r f e a r
o r n o s t a l g i a ; t o a s s i m i l a t e w h a t e v e r we s e e t h e r e o f v a l u e a n d
t o r u t h l e s s l y discard t h e u s e l e s s ; t o be s e l e c t i v e , t o pick
a n d c h o o s e a s we w r i t e o u r own h i s t o r i e s ; t o c r e a t e o u r own l e g e n d s a n d m y t h s , t o m a k e o u r s e l v e s o u r 6wn a n c e s t o r s ,
NOTES
anic ice
M i f f l i n , Co.,
Houghton
H o l t G i l e s , The K e n t u c k i a n s (Cambridge:
1953).
2 ~ a r r i e t t eS i m p s o n A r n o w , T h e K e n t u c k y T r a c e :
A Novel
o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n (New Y o r k :
A l f r e d A Knopf, 1974);
h e r e a f t e r c i t e d i n t h e t e x t a s KT.
3 ~ a n eS t u a r t , L a n d o f t h e F o x (New Y o r k :
McGraw-Hill
Book C o . , 1 9 7 5 ) ; h e r e a f t e r c i t e d i n t h e t e x t a s LF.
4 ~ an n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o W h i t e B a r n , a s q u o t e d i n D o r o t h y
E d w a r d s T o w n s e n d , K e n t u c k y i n A m e r i c a n L e t t e r s , V o l . 111,
1913-1975 (Georgetown Kentucky:
Georgetown C o l l e g e P r e s s ,
1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 324-325.
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H o u s e , 1 9 7 9 ) ; h e r e a f t e r c i t e d i n t h e t e x t a s SN.
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6 ~ e a r lK . B e l l , " E l i z a b e t h H a r d w i c k a n d Mary M c C a r t h y
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Review o f S l e e p l e s s N i g h t s
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