Gravelly Soil Liquefaction
Mark D. Evans, Ph.D., P.E.
Associate Professor
United States Military Academy
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Mahan Hall
West Point, NY 10996
ABSTRACT
Gravelly soils are sometimes present in tailings dams and
these soils are potentially liquefiable. In this presentation,
experiences in assessing the liquefaction potential of gravelly
soil in dams using both laboratory and in situ techniques are
discussed. These techniques are: large scale cyclic triaxial
testing with correction for membrane compliance; and large
scale Becker Hammer penetration testing. The results from a
laboratory investigation into cone penetration testing to assess
gravelly soil behavior is also presented. The results from
several investigations will be summarized and compared to
approaches and results obtained for investigations targeting
sandy soil. Shear modulus and damping properties for gravelly
soils are also presented.
INTRODUCTION
Evaluating dynamic properties and liquefaction behavior of
gravelly soils has become a high priority in the geotechnical
engineering community. Due to high hydraulic conductivity,
gravels and gravelly soils were once thought to be
unliquefiable. Gravel blankets and drains are often used as
remedial measures to improve liquefaction resistance by
rapidly dissipating high pore pressures generated during
earthquake loading. However, several liquefaction-induced
failures in gravel and gravelly soil prompted a critical
reevaluation of the behavior of gravelly soils subjected to
dynamic loading. In recent years, the liquefaction behavior of
gravelly soil has been investigated in the laboratory by many
investigators (see Reference list). Also, field evidence has
shown that most liquefied gravelly soils are comprised of both
sand and gravel.
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Embankment dams consisting of gravelly soil or founded upon
gravelly soil where gravel liquefaction has been considered
include:
•Aswan High Dam, Egypt
•Folsom and Mormon Island Dam, CA
•Ririe and Mackay Dams, Idaho
•Oroville and Seven Oaks Dams, CA
•Shimen and Baihe Dams, China
•Terzaghi and Seymour Dams, British Columbia
•Daisy Lake Dam, British Columbia
•Scott’s Flat and Santa Felicia Dams, CA
•Vern Freeman Diversion Structure, CA
•Devil Canyon Second Afterbay, CA
Grain size distributions for these soils range from rockfill to
sandy gravel or gravelly sand.
Aswan High Dam Analyzed for Liquefaction Potential
Triaxial Specimen of Aswan High Dam Sluiced Rockfill
Triaxial Specimen of Aswan High Dam Rockfill (gravel)
Triaxial Specimen of Aswan High Dam Rockfill (gravel)
Triaxial Specimen of Gravel
Triaxial Specimen of Gravel
1.00
(a)
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
GC=0%, Dr=40%
Pore Pressure Ratio
Pore Pressure Ratio
1.00
0.00
(b)
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
GC=20%, Dr=40%
0.00
0
3
6
9
12
15
0
3
Number of Stress Cycles
9
12
15
Number of Stress Cycles
1.00
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
GC=40%, Dr=40%
Pore Pressure Ratio
(c)
Pore Pressure Ratio
6
(d)
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
GC=60%, Dr=40%
0.00
0.00
0
3
6
9
12
Number of Stress Cycles
15
0
3
6
9
12
Number of Stress Cycles
Pore Pressure Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures
15
100
GC=0%
GC=20%
50
0
-50
(a)
First Stress Cycle
Deviator Stress (kPa)
Deviator Stress (kPa)
100
-100
GC=40%
GC=60%
50
0
-50
(b)
-100
-2
-1
0
1
2
-2
-1
Axial Strain (%)
0
1
2
Axial Strain (%)
100
GC=0%
GC=20%
50
0
-50
(c)
Fifth Stress Cycle
-100
Deviator Stress (kPa)
100
Deviator Stress (kPa)
First Stress Cycle
GC=40%
GC=60%
50
0
-50
(d)
Fifth Stress Cycle
-100
-2
-1
0
Axial Strain (%)
1
2
-2
-1
0
1
Axial Strain (%)
Stress – Strain Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures
2
Confining Pressure=100 kPa
(a) Matrix Relative Density=40%
Corrected for Membrane Compliance
0.4
GC=40%
0.2
GC=0%
Pore Pressure Ratio
CSR Causing 5% Double
Amplitude Strain
1.00
0.6
0
(b)
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
GC=40%
0.00
1
10
100
0
1000
3
6
9
12
15
Number of Stress Cycles
Number of Stress Cycles
5
100
Deviator Stress (kPa)
Axial Strain (%)
GC=0%
0
-5
-10
GC=40%
GC=0%
(c)
-15
GC=40%
GC=0%
50
0
-50
Fifth Stress Cycle
(d)
-100
0
3
6
9
12
Number of Stress Cycles
15
-2
-1
0
1
A xial Strain (%)
CSR, PP, and S-S Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures
2
1.20
(a)
Confinging Pressure =100 kPa
Corrected for Membrane
Compliance
0.4
0.3
0.2
Dr=65%, GC=0%
0.1
Dr=40%, GC=40%
Pore Pressure Ratio
CSR Causing 5% Double
Amplitude Strain
0.5
(b)
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
Dr=65%, GC=0%
0.20
Dr=40%, GC=40%
0.00
0
1
10
100
0
1000
3
9
12
15
Number of Stress Cycles
Number of Stress Cycles
100
5
Deviator Stress (kPa)
(c)
Axial Strain (%)
6
0
-5
Dr=65%, GC=0%
-10
Dr=40%, GC=40%
-15
(d)
50
Dr=65%, GC=0%
0
Dr=40%, GC=40%
-50
Fifth Stress Cycle
-100
0
3
6
9
12
Number of Stress Cycles
15
-2
-1
0
1
A xial Strain (%)
CSR, PP, and S-S Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures
2
CSR Causing 5%
Double Amplitude Strain
0.5
Confining Pressure=100 kPa
Relative Density=40%
Corrected for Membrane Compliance
0.4
0.3
GC=0%
GC=20%
GC=40%
GC=60%
0.2
0.1
0
1
10
100
Number of Stress Cycles
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR) for Sand and Gravel Mixtures
1000
3.5
Total Volumetric Strain (%)
3
2.5
Sand-Gravel Composites
2.8-in. Diameter Specimens
Two Membrane
Relative Density = 40%
(GC=Gravel Content)
GC=100%
2
1.5
εvt
1
GC=0, 20, 40, and 60%
0.5
εvt
εv
0
0
20
40
60
80
Effective Confining Pressure (kPa)
100
120
Volumetric Strain Caused by Membrane Compliance
0.8
Total Volumetric Strain
Volumetric Strain Due to System Compliance
0.7
Volumetric Strain of Soil Skeleton
Volumetric Strain Due to Membrane Rebound
Volumetric Strain, εv (%)
0.6
Sand-Gravel Composite
Gravel Content=20%
71 mm Diameter Specimen
Two Membranes, 0.3 mm Thick/Each
Relative Density=40%
0.5
0.4
εvt
0.3
εvs
0.2
εvm
0.1
εve
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Effective Confining Pressure, σ' (kPa)
Volumetric Strain Caused by Membrane Compliance
Cyclic Stress Ratio Causing 5%
Double Amplitude Strain, σd/2σ'
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
Sand-Gravel Composite
GC=100%
Dr=40%
Without Water Injection
With Water Injection
σ'=200 kPa
0.00
1
10
Number of Stress Cycles, N
Effect of Membrane Compliance on CSR Causing Liquefaction
100
200000
Sand-Gravel Composites
Confining Pressure = 100 kPa
Relative Density = 40%
Shear Modulus, G (kPa)
150000
GC=0%
GC=20%
GC=40%
100000
GC=60%
50000
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
Shear Strain, γ (%)
Shear Modulus – Shear Strain for Gravelly Soils
1
1.0
Best-Fit Curve and
Standard Deviation
Bounds, This Study
0.8
0.6
G/G max
This Study
Goto et al. (1994)
Goto et al. (1992)
Hatanaka et al. (1988)
Hatanaka and Uchida (1995)
Hynes (1988)
Iida et al. (1984)
Kokusho et al. (1994)
Konno et al. (1994)
Seed et al. (1986)
Shamoto et al. (1986)
Shibuya et al. (1990)
Souto et al. (1994)
Yasuda and Matsumoto (1994)
Yasuda and Matsumoto (1993)
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
Cyclic Shear Strain (%)
0.1
Normallized Shear Modulus – Shear Strain for Gravelly Soils
1
Becker Hammer Setup in Field (after Harder)
Becker Hammer Setup in Field (after Harder)
Becker Hammer Setup in Field (after Harder)
Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC
Top Half (36 in.)
Bottom Half (36 in.)
Probe Location
#1 Center
1.4” cone
SPT
#2 Intermediate
1.4” cone
1.4” cone
#3 Intermediate
0.70” cone
0.70” cone
#4 Intermediate
0.35” cone
0.35” cone
#5 Intermediate
0.70” dummy cone
0.70” dummy cone
#6 Intermediate
1.4” cone
1.4” cone
#7 Intermediate
SPT
SPT
Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC
15’’
Placing Gravel Specimen in Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC
Placing Gravel Specimen in Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC
1 tsf Stress vs. Ratio
(semi-log scale)
Data Corrected to:
Dr50
Chamber/Tip Ratio 50
Data Plotted:
Gravel
Sand#1
Sand#2
12000.00
10000.00
Stress (psi)
8000.00
6000.00
4000.00
2000.00
0.00
1.00
10.00
100.00
Ratio (Tip Diameter/Particle Diameter)
Preliminary Results of Cone Tests in Large Scale Chamber
12000.00
3 TSF Stress vs. Tip/Particle Raito
(semi-log)
10000.00
Stress (psi)
8000.00
6000.00
4000.00
2000.00
0.00
1.00
10.00
100.00
Ratio (Tip Diameter/Particle Diameter)
Preliminary Results of Cone Tests in Large Scale Chamber
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