AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF
Cynthia L. Meays for the degree of Master of Science in Rangeland Resources
presented on March 27, 2000.
Title: Elevation. Thermal Environment, and Stream Temperatures on Headwater
Streams in Northeastern Oregon.
Redacted for Privacy
Abstract approved:
Larr1Larson and Michael Borman
A case study examining the relationship between stream temperatures
and the thermal environment through which streams flow was conducted on the
headwaters of 4 tributaries of the Burnt River (Barney, Elk, Greenhorn, and Stevens
Creeks) in northeastern Oregon during July through August 1998 and 1999. Barney
Creek and Stevens Creek are in adjacent drainages, both with northerly aspects. Barney
Creek drainage was completely burned over in 1989 while Stevens Creek vegetation
remained intact. Elk Creek had 2 cold water tributaries and groundwater inputs.
Greenhorn Creek was much more variable in terms of disturbance and vegetation.
Stream discharge and air, soil, and water temperature data were collected at 150
m increments from 1370 to 1830 m elevation on each stream. Analyses compared daily
mean air, soil, and water temperatures at each elevation within each stream, year, and
month. Mean daily minimum and daily maximum air and water temperatures were also
analyzed. For all streams in this study. elevation was significantly associated with air,
soil, and water temperatures (p<O.000I). For most cases on each of the streams, mean
daily air, soil, and water temperatures increased with every 150 meter drop in elevation.
The thermal environment (air and soil surrounding the stream) as well as the stream
temperatures responded similarly on each creek. Barney Creek had the overall highest
mean daily air, soil, and water temperatures, followed by Greenhorn, Stevens, and Elk
Creeks. Barney Creek was burned over in 1989 and had essentially no overstory
canopy cover. Elk Creek consistently had the lowest mean daily air, soil and water
temperatures. Elk Creek received substantial cold water subsurface and from 2
tributaries. Of the 4 creeks, Stevens Creek consistently had the greatest increases in
mean daily air, water, and soil temperatures with descending elevation. Stevens Creek
was adjacent to and very similar to Barney Creek with 2 notable differences. Stevens
Creek had intact forest overstory canopy and it carried about half the flow of Barney
Creek. Greenhorn Creek was the most variable in terms of temperature changes with
descending elevation for mean daily air, water, and soil. Greenhorn Creek has been
heavily disturbed by mining activity.
Elevation was also significant for mean daily maximum temperatures for air,
soil, and water (p<O.000I). Mean daily maximum air and water, as well as mean daily
minimum water temperatures generally increased with descending elevation on all 4
streams. Mean daily minimum air temperature showed more variation with elevation,
and likely reflected patterns of cold air drainage or cold air pockets. Thermal
environment, heavily influenced by elevation, appeared to be a major influence on
stream temperature.
©Copyright by Cynthia L. Meays
March 27, 2000
All Rights Reserved
ELEVATION, THERMAL ENVIRONMENT, AND STREAM TEMPERATURES ON
HEAD WATER STREAMS IN NORTHEASTERN OREGON
by
Cynthia L. Meays
A THESIS
submitted to
Oregon State University
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of
Master of Science
Completed March 27. 2000
Commencement June 2000
Master of Science thesis of Cynthia L. Meays presented on March 27, 2000
APPROVED:
Redacted for Privacy
Co-Major Professor, representing Rangeland Resources
Redacted for Privacy
Co-Major Proö rieDresentin Range land Resources
Redacted for Privacy
Head of Department of Rang'eland Reources
Redacted for Privacy
Dean of Gr'W chool
I understand that my thesis will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State
University libraries. My signature below authorizes release of my thesis to any reader
upon request.
Redacted for Privacy
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe a heartfelt thanks to so many people for guiding and encouraging me as I
worked on my thesis. I would first like to thank Oregon State University Department of
Rangeland Resources for the financial support provided for my study.
To my committee, it truly was a blessing to work with such a remarkable group
of people. To Dr. Larry Larson and Dr. Michael Borman, thank you for being my comajor professors. Thank you Larry for your inspiration for our project, and thank you
Mike for keeping me organized and on track. Our project was challenging (both
mentally and physically), but I sure had a lot of fun working with both of you. To Dr.
Dave Thomas, what can I say to express my appreciation for all the time that you spent
with me working on our statistical analysis? You are a trooper! I sure enjoyed the time
we spent together. I have learned a great deal from working with you. Thanks for your
support. To George Taylor, thank you for your encouragement and support. Thank you
also for teaching me principles and concepts from the world of climatology and
atmospheric science. To Dr. John Tappeiner, thank you for serving as the graduate
student representative on my committee.
To the faculty, staff, and graduate students of the Rangeland Resources
Department, thank you for your encouragement and support. It has been great working
with such a terrific group of people. I will miss you all.
To Dr. Tamzen Stringham, thank you for encouraging me to study at Oregon
State University, and thank you for your assistance and support throughout my program.
To Jerry and Pat Franke, Cheryl Bradford, and everyone involved in the Burnt
River project, thank you for all your assistance. I really enjoyed the time that I spent
with each of you. To Kathy Lowson and Andrea Laliberte, thank you for your
assistance collecting data. We had some great hikes, eh?
To my best friend Kathy Lowson, thank you for all of your assistance on my
project. We have shared a lot of laughs and struggles. Thank you for your support and
encouragement, especially during those stressful times. Last summer was the best!
To my tango partner Jess Wenick, thank you for your encouragement and
friendship, and thank you for enrolling in ballroom dancing with me, it was funt To
Craig Carr, thank you for your support and words of encouragement in the final stages
of my project, now it is your turn to shine!
To Dr. Duane McCartney, Rob Dinwoodie, Chris Nykoluk, Herald
Hetherington, Dr. Russ Horton, and the professors in the Department of Natural
Resource Science at UCC thank you for encouraging me to pursue a Masters Degree.
To my friends Laura, Kari, Tina, Marty, Keith, Debbie, Brenda, Joyce, Erin,
Simone, Cindy, Ingela, Shannon, Chuck, Sharon, and Bob from Canada, thank you for
your support and encouragement. Prepare for fun!
And last but not least, to my family Clint, Shannon, Faith, Jack, Mary, Ian,
Pockets, Rose, Binki, T-bird, Tom and especially to my mom Mavis, thank you for your
encouragement, love, and support.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
1
LITERATURE REVIEW
3
Energy Transfer...
3
Water Temperature and Thermal Environment Studies
8
STUDY AREA
17
METHODS
19
Stream Location
19
Temperature Measurements
19
Supporting Measurements
20
Statistical Methods
22
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
24
Headwater Springs
24
Headwater Analysis
24
Side Channel Analysis
25
Temperature Analysis
27
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
66
BIBLIOGRAPHY
74
APPENDICES
77
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
Mean air temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
67
Mean water temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
68
Mean soil temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
69
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
Hot season climate data (1961-1990) from Unity Ranger District
headquarters, Unity, OR
18
Calculated linear distance (m) and slope (rise/run) from a 7.5 minute
quadrant topographic map for all 4 streams
21
Mean daily minimum air temperatures for July and August 1998 and
1999
28
Mean daily minimum water temperatures for July and August 1998
and 1999
30
Mean daily minimum air temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1998
31
Mean daily minimum air temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1999
32
Mean daily minimum water temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1998
34
Mean daily minimum water temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1999
35
Mean daily maximum air temperatures for July and August 1998 and
1999
36
Mean daily maximum water temperatures for July and August 1998
and 1999
37
Mean daily maximum air temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999
38
Mean daily maximum water temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1998
40
Mean daily maximum water temperature differences for descending
elevation, July and August 1999
41
Mean daily air temperatures for July versus August 1998 and 1999....
42
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table
Page
Mean daily water temperatures for July and August 1998 and 1999
43
Mean daily soil temperatures for July and August 1998 and 1999
44
Mean daily air temperature differences for descending elevation, July
and August 1998 and 1999
46
Mean daily water temperature differences for descending elevation,
July and August 1998
47
Mean daily water temperature differences for descending elevation,
July and August 1999
48
Mean daily soil temperature differences for descending elevation, July
and August 1998
50
Mean daily soil temperature differences for descending elevation, July
and August 1999
51
Mean daily slopes (overall rate of mean temperature change °C/1 50 m
drop in elevation) for air, water, and soil, July and August 1998 and
1999
52
Mean times of first daily minimum air temperature for July and
August 1998 and 1999
55
Mean times of first daily minimum water temperature for July and
August 1998 and 1999
56
Mean time differences for first daily minimum air temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999
58
Mean time differences for first daily minimum water temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999
59
Mean times of first daily maximum air temperature for July and
August 1998 and 1999
60
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table
Page
Mean times of first daily maximum water temperature for July and
August 1998 and 1999
61
Mean time differences for first daily maximum air temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999
62
Mean time differences for first daily maximum water temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1998
64
Mean time differences for first daily maximum water temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1999
65
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
Page
ANOVA Tables
78
Concepts and Definitions
89
Processes and Rates of Heating
90
Time of first minimum and maximum air and water temperature
tables for July and August 1998 and 1999
93
Mean, minimum, and maximum air, water, and soil temperature
tables for July and August 1998 and 1999
96
Mean air, soil, water, and mean minimum and mean maximum air
and water temperature figures for July and August 1998 and 1999...
100
Discharge measurement figures for all streams
125
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to the loving memory of my grandparents, Harry and Jessie
Adamson.
ELEVATION, THERMAL ENVIRONMENT, AND STREAM TEMPERATURES
ON HEADWATER STREAMS IN NORTHEASTERN OREGON
INTRODUCTION
In 1996, Oregon's Department of Environmental Quality established a statewide
temperature standard as a criterion to designate streams and other water bodies as water
quality limited under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act (Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, Title 33). The numerical temperature standard was based on salmonid
biology (Technical Subcommittee on Temperature Report to Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality 1994). Oregon Administrative Rules (OAR 340-41-{basin](3))
state that water quality standards for surface waters do not apply to waterbodies when
natural conditions result in values of a water quality parameter that are outside the
values allowed by the standard. In such cases, the naturally-occurring values become
the standard. Natural conditions may include geologic, hydrologic, meteorological,
biological, or other factors that influence the biological, chemical, or physical
characteristics of a waterbody.
Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act indicates that state standards must reflect
the normal water temperatures, flow rates, seasonal variations, existing sources of heat
input, and the dissipative capacity of identified waters (Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, Title 33).
Many studies have been conducted to identify factors that influence
stream temperature. Those factors include air temperature; meteorological conditions;
solar radiation; physics and energy transfer mechanisms; groundwater; stream
orientation; and thermal environment. The purpose of this project was to conduct a
2
case study of 4 streams in the same watershed and document their thermal
environments. The thermal environment through which a stream flows is an important
component of "natural conditions."
3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Energy Transfer
Before discussing the various forms of energy transfer, a few definitions need to
be introduced. The following definitions are given as tools for understanding the
concepts discussed later.
Definitions
There are 3 fundamental processes of heat transfer: convection; conduction; and
radiation (Hidore and Oliver 1993; Linsley et al. 1949; Cutnell and Johnson 1992; Strahler
and Strahler 1992; and Ahrens 1993).
Convection is heat transfer by bulk movement of gas or liquid. As air or water is
warmed, it becomes less dense, rises, and is replaced by cooler air or water. Air or water
will continue to rise until it has expanded and lost enough heat so that its density is the
same as its environment (Linsley et al. 1949).
Conduction is heat transfer directly through a material by means of internal
molecular activity without any visible motion of matter. As a material is heated, molecules
vibrate faster with more energy, and the more energetic molecules pass on some of their
energy to less energetic molecules. By conduction, heat can pass from a gas into a liquid
or solid, from a liquid into a solid or gas, and from a solid to a liquid or gas. Heat
transferred always flows from warmer to colder areas. Since air has low thermal
conductivity, it works well as an insulator. The heat conductivity (Calls/°C) of still air at
20 °C; dry soil; wet soil; and water are 0.0000614, 0.0006, 0.005, and 0.00143
respectively (Ahrens 1993).
4
Radiation is the transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves. All matter
with temperatures greater than absolute zero radiates energy. Generally, objects that are
good absorbers are good emitters of electromagnetic waves, and likewise, objects that are
poor absorbers are poor emitters (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Advection is another method of heat transfer and involves the horizontal
movement of air and water. Through advection, poleward flows of heat energy are
transported to higher latitudes thereby maintaining the global heat balance (Strahier and
Strahier 1992).
Thermal Cycles
1) Radiation
The absorption of radiation converts energy to sensible heat which raises the
temperature of the absorbing object (Hidore and Oliver 1993). Radiation can be either
direct, scattered or diiThse.
Solar radiation has relatively short wavelengths, and the atmosphere is nearly
transparent to this radiation. Incoming solar radiation is generally referred to as short-
wave. Outgoing (Earth) radiation is generally long-wave. The sun's energy spectrum is
comprised of 7 to 9% ultraviolet and shorter wavelengths at a length of less than 0.4 m;
41 to 44% visible light from 0.4 to 0.7 .tm; and 48 to 50% infrared wavelengths which are
greater than 0.7 m. The sun emits the maximum amount of radiation in the visible
spectrum at wavelengths near 0.5 pm (Ahrens 1993).
Solar energy that reaches Earth's surface (mostly visible light) is converted and
eventually radiated or released in another manner (mostly infrared) to the atmosphere as
5
Earth radiation (Hidore and Oliver 1993). Water vapor, CO2, and other variable gases,
are relatively transparent to solar radiation in the visible range, but they are good
absorbers of Earth's radiation.
Earth radiation has much longer wavelengths than solar radiation. The Earth
radiates energy at wavelengths in the far infrared band from approximately 3-30 rim.
Water vapor can absorb radiation in the bands from 5-8 pm and greater than 13 pm. CO2
is able to absorb radiation at 4 im and from 13 to 17 pm. Therefore, most Earth radiation
that is released to space occurs in a narrow band from 8 to 13 tim, known as the
atmospheric window (Hidore and Oliver 1993). CO2 is a relatively constant quantity in
the air, whereas water vapor varies greatly from place to place (Strahier and Strahier
1992).
Gases and water particles in the atmosphere that absorb Earth radiation also emit
energy. Some Earth radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is radiated to space, but nearly
2/3 is radiated back to the Earth's surface, which augments direct solar radiation (Hidore
and Oliver 1993). "Atmospheric radiant energy is the largest source of radiant energy
absorbed at Earth's surface - nearly double the amount of energy received directly from
the sun" (Hidore and Oliver 1993). The mean temperature of the atmosphere near the
Earth's surface is 15°C. Without the atmospheric effect, the mean temperature of the
Earth would be -23°C.
6
2) Daily Cycles
Daily temperature changes occur due to the rotation of Earth on its axis. Both
rotation and revolution of Earth on its axis determine daily and seasonal changes in
temperature experienced at a particular location.
Daytime heating
As the sun rises and the Earth's surface begins to heat, conduction rapidly moves
heat from the surface of the Earth to a thin boundary layer of air. Heat energy is moved
upward by diffusion of heated air molecules and convection currents, which occur due to
temperature differentials in the air. The highest temperatures occur during the day, when
large amounts of energy are flowing towards the Earth. "There is not a one to one
relationship between the time of highest solar input and highest temperature, because air
temperature results largely from absorbing Earth radiation" (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Maximum daytime temperatures usually occur several hours after the time of maximum
solar input, which is noon. In early afternoon, Earth is receiving a steady flow of
incoming long-wave radiation from the lower atmosphere (atmospheric effect). Hidore
and Oliver (1993) stated that when this flow of long-wave radiation from the atmosphere
reaches a maximum, the day's highest temperatures occur.
Lags of maximum solar input to maximum daily temperature vary in extent.
Generally, the lag will be greatest when the air is still and dry and the sky free of clouds.
Under these conditions, the maximum temperature of the day may not occur until an hour
or so before sunset. Under thick cloud cover or high humidity, the lag will be less due to
7
decreased incoming and outgoing radiation (Hidore and Oliver 1993). Wind shifts can
bring warm or cold air into an area producing daily high and low air temperatures at any
time of day.
Nighttime Cooling
As soon as the sun passes its zenith, solar radiation intensity starts to decrease. On
a clear day around sunset the ground surface and the boundary layer of air begin to receive
less energy than they emit and therefore start cooling (Hidore and Oliver 1993). Because
the ground surface is better at radiating energy, it cools more rapidly than the air. The air
closest to the ground becomes the coldest which is the opposite of the standard
atmospheric state. The amount of radiation released by the Earth decreases through the
night as the surface cools. Amount of cooling depends on the length of night, humidity,
and wind velocities. Cooling is greatest on nights with low humidity and clear calm skies.
In early morning, incoming solar energy balances outgoing Earth radiation resulting in
minimum daily temperatures (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Daily temperature range
Daily temperature range is a function of daytime heating and nighttime cooling.
Generally, calm days with clear skies and low relative humidity will have the largest
temperature ranges (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
3) Seasonal Cycles
Seasons occur due to changes in the amount of radiation a site receives through
the year. Amount of radiation varies with sun angle above the horizon (intensity) and the
8
change in daylight hours (duration) through the year. Seasonal changes in energy at a
particular location are due to the inclination of the Earth's axis which is 23°30' from being
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Maximum and minimum temperatures on the Earth's surface tend to lag seasonal
changes (Hidore and Oliver 1993). In the Northern hemisphere, the Earth's revolution
causes maximum and minimum solar energy to occur at the time of the summer and winter
solstices,June 21-22 and December 22-23 respectively. However, the months of
maximum and minimum solar energy are not the warmest and coldest. Instead a lag
(atmospheric affect) of a month or so occurs between time of maximum and minimum
solar radiation and the warmest and coldest months (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Water Temperature and Thermal Environment Studies
Meteorological Conditions
Edinger et al. (1968) discussed the response of water temperatures to
meteorological conditions. Using the concept of an equilibrium temperature and exchange
coefficients they estimated the net rate of heat exchange as the sum of radiative processes,
evaporation and conduction at the water/air interface.
Edinger et al. (1968) stated that rate of heat exchange was a fttnction of the
difference between actual water temperature and an equilibrium temperature at which the
net rate of heat exchange would be zero. They suggested that analytical approaches that
attempt to relate heat exchange to the difference between air and water temperatures did
not account for this principle and that the equilibrium temperature was continually
changing in response to varying meteorological conditions. Therefore, water temperature
9
was continually being driven toward an equilibrium temperature by the difference between
the two.
Edinger et al. (1968) noted that the lag time between the occurrence of maximum
equilibrium temperatures and maximum water temperatures for a diurnal cycle approached
6 hours. The maximum equilibrium temperature occurred near noon due to the influence
of short-wave solar radiation, and water temperatures tended to reach their maximum in
late afternoon around 16:00-18:00. The time lag between maximum equilibrium
temperature and maximum water temperature increased as the depth of the water
increased.
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer
Adams and Sullivan (1989) suggested that stream temperature was the sum of the
daily mean stream temperature and the stream temperature fluctuations about the mean.
According to Adams and Sullivan (1989), the daily mean stream temperature under
equilibrium conditions was always very near the daily mean air temperature. The
fluctuating stream temperature component would always be strongly influenced by the
fluctuating air temperature and solar insolation. Because of the influential role of air
temperature on stream temperature, it was crucial to use the local value of air temperature
to evaluate stream heating. Adams and Sullivan (1989) stated that stream depth affects
both magnitude of the stream temperature fluctuations and response time of the stream to
changes in environmental conditions.
According to Adams and Sullivan (1989), the main energy transfer modes
influencing stream temperature are short-wave solar radiation, long-wave radiation
10
exchange between the stream and both the adjacent vegetation and the sky, evaporative
exchange between the stream and the air, convective exchange between the stream and the
air, conduction transfer between stream and the streambed, and groundwater exchange
with the stream. They stated that the importance of each mode varied with the situation
especially for streams in natural settings.
Long-wave radiation exchange occurs between the stream and atmospheric water
and carbon dioxide particles. Adams and Sullivan (1989) stated that the driving potential
for heat transfer was the temperature difference between the stream surface and the air
outside the boundary layer adjacent to the stream surface. A transfer of heat would also
occur between the stream and streambed. Adams and Sullivan (1989) suggested that this
heat transfer occurred via groundwater mass transfer and by heat conduction.
Conduction and fluid exchange with water below the streambed would dampen the
temperature fluctuations of the stream. Adams and Sullivan (1989) stated that the
streambed or soil at a depth of 5 m is at a constant temperature near 8°C for the Pacific
Northwest. They ffirther stated that because soil temperature was much lower than the
average daily stream temperature in the summertime, a small net amount of heat moved
toward the streambed. They suggested that the driving potential for heat transfer was the
temperature difference between the stream and the temperature approximately 30 cm
below the ground surface.
Adams and Sullivan (1989) observed that the response of stream temperature to
diurnal air temperature was damped by the thermal inertia of the stream. Deeper streams
have more thermal inertia and heat up to equilibrium more slowly and fluctuate less at
equilibrium than shallow streams.
11
Adams and Sullivan (1989) identified local air temperature as the single most
important parameter influencing the daily mean stream temperature at equilibrium. They
stated that solar insolation was less important except for its influence on local air
temperature, and that direct solar radiation at the stream surface had relatively little impact
on mean stream temperature at equilibrium. They further suggested that the main
influence of solar radiation was on the magnitude of the stream temperature diurnal
variations, since solar radiation would only dominate the energy budget while the stream
was being heated from groundwater temperature to equilibrium conditions.
Air Temperature
Several studies have looked at the relationship between stream and air
temperature. Stefan and Preud' homme (1993) conducted an experiment estimating stream
temperatures from air temperatures on 11 streams in the Mississippi River basin. They
found that water temperature responded to air temperature with a time lag ranging from 4
hours for shallow rivers less than 2 feet deep, up to 7 days for rivers 15 feet deep. Using a
time lag improved their daily water temperature estimates from air temperature data.
They suggested that daily and weekly stream temperatures could be estimated by linear
relationships (for individual streams) with air temperature records. Stefan and
Preud'homme (1993) found that better results were obtained for shallow streams, which
were more responsive to air temperature due to a smaller thermal inertia. They also
suggested that other factors such as solar radiation, artificial heat inputs, and the thermal
conductivity of the sediments, influence stream temperature. In their study, weather
stations averaged 42 miles from their study sites.
12
McRae and Edwards (1994) examined the thermal characteristics of headwater
streams occupied by beaver in Wisconsin. They recorded hourly water, air, and soil
temperatures on 4 headwater streams during the summers of 1990 and 1991. They found
that stream temperatures followed air temperatures, even near groundwater sources.
Water-air-soil relationships were examined using multiple-correlation analyses with 1991
data and subsequent testing with an F-test. They discovered significant differences in daily
maximum air temperatures associated with shading differences on their streams, and
strong positive relationships between lagged water and air temperatures. They suggested
that air temperature played a dominant role in regulating stream temperatures even when
the thermal regimes were driven by groundwater discharge.
Solar Radiation
Several studies have been conducted looking at stream temperatures under various
logging practices (Brown et al. 1971; Beschta and Taylor 1988; Brown and Kiygier 1967;
Brown and Krygier 1970; and Brazier and Brown 1973). These studies found that stream
temperatures increased with the removal of streamside vegetation. The authors suggested
the temperature increases were due to removal of the shading on the streams, allowing
more solar radiation to reach the water surface and heat the streams. In each of their
papers, Beschta (1997), Brown and Krygier (1967), and Brown and Krygier (1970) stated
that solar radiation reaching the stream was the most important factor causing stream
temperature increase.
Ward (1985) observed that groundwater recharge and riparian vegetation in
forested watersheds influence the thermal regimes of small running waters to a large
13
degree. He stated that in forested watersheds, a large proportion of the total precipitation
entered a stream as subsurface flow which had very different thermal properties than water
entering as surface runoff. He concluded that bufferstrips influence groundwater and that
their removal altered thermal conditions in forested lotic ecosystems.
Adams and Sullivan (1989) noted that solar radiation input to a stream varies in
complexity. They stated that it is difficult to estimate solar input because: solar insolation
varies with location as well as time of day and day of year; and that cloud cover, adjacent
riparian vegetation and topographic features could also alter the amount of solar radiation
reaching a site. Adams and Sullivan (1989) suggested that removal of riparian vegetation
had only a modest impact on the mean stream temperature since the energy gained from
the increased solar radiation was partially offset by the increased energy loss by radiation
to the sky.
Larson and Larson (1996) stated that shade would limit direct solar radiation, but
if the air temperature in the shade was warmer than the stream temperature, the direction
of the net energy gain would be towards the water. Therefore, water temperature would
be dependent upon the surrounding thermal environment.
Groundwater and Climate
Ward (1985) reviewed data on thermal conditions in Southern Hemisphere lotic
systems. He stated that the most important hydrological variables influencing the thermal
characteristics of running waters were: source of the water, relative contribution of
groundwater, and flow or discharge. He suggested that lotic systems that receive a large
influx of groundwater would exhibit a high degree of thermal constancy. Adams and
14
Sullivan (1989) also stated that groundwater influx can have a depressing effect on stream
temperature. The magnitude of the effect being dependent upon the rate of groundwater
influx relative to volume of flow in the stream, and the temperature gradient.
Ward (1985) noted that the temperature of small exposed streams is influenced by
atmospheric conditions and that air temperature exerts a direct influence on both stream
and groundwater temperatures (non-thermal groundwaters are normally within 1 °C of the
mean annual air temperature of a given region).
Walker and Lawson (1977) stated that the association of air temperature with
other meteorological factors, such as vapor pressure, determines the equilibrium
temperature' where net heat exchange between the stream and atmosphere is zero.
However, thermal equilibrium is rarely reached since the equilibrium temperature changes
with changing meteorological conditions and stream temperatures lag behind equilibrium
temperatures. Walker and Lawson (1977) suggested that the only data required to predict
natural water temperatures in a watershed were site altitude, and the air temperature in
watershed.
Ward (1985) also stated that maximum stream temperatures exhibit a progressive
increase from the headwaters to the mouths of river systems. He stated that "altitude
exerts a primary influence on the thermal regimes of running waters through its influence
on air temperature (and therefore groundwater temperature)". Diurnal ranges also tended
to increase downstream as source waters responded to atmospheric changes. Meisner et
al. (1988) stated that groundwater temperatures decrease with lower air temperature at
higher elevation despite increased solar irradiation. They explained that as the density of
air decreases with increasing elevation, the insulating effect of air on the ground decreases.
15
Lower air temperatures and vapor pressures at high elevations decrease the absorption of
long-wave radiation by air and increase the loss of latent heat from the ground due to
evaporation. The result is an increased rate of heat flux from the ground and lower annual
ground and groundwater temperatures.
Thermal Complexity
Raphael (1962) stated "For most of the streams in the western United States, the
temperature of the water at its source is nearly at freezing temperature since most of the
flow originates as snow melt at high altitude. As the water moves downstream, whether it
flows through the natural channel or through an artificial reservoir, it is affected at its
surface by the sun and wind, which raise the temperature of the water during the summer.
It can readily be visualized that the greater the temperature difference of air and water, the
greater the surface area of the water, and the more slowly it moves, then the greater will
be the heating of the water." Raphael's (1962) comments suggested that the environment
through which a stream flows, as well as the stream characteristics are important in
determining the amount of heating that will occur.
In a series of papers (Brown 1967, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1980; Brown and Krygier
1967; and Brown et al. 1971), Brown developed and refined a simplified model to predict
stream temperature on small, low-flow, forested streams (< 610 m) following timber
harvest. His primary conclusion was that shade reduced stream heating in small (low
flow) forested streams by reducing the amount of direct solar radiation striking the stream
surface. Brown et al. (1971) noted that reliable predictions using the simplified model
were not possible if accurate measures of stream width, heat input, stream discharge, and
16
flow patterns were not obtained. Furthermore he noted that as the length of the stream
being modeled was extended, model accuracy declined and stream temperatures tended to
approach an equilibrium with air temperature. This conclusion is similar to the observation
by Edinger et al. (1968) that where stream temperatures approach thermal equilibrium,
solar heat exchange is less likely to dominant total heat exchange.
Larson and Larson (1996) proposed that the thermal importance of woody
vegetation to riparian ecosystems is site specific. They observed that watershed attributes
such as air mass characteristics, elevation gradient, adiabatic rate, channel (water) width
and depth, water velocity, surrounding landscape, and interfiow inputs all influence water
temperature and can be of equal or greater importance to stream temperature than
vegetation shade. Furthermore, on a watershed scale, both air and soil serve as large
thermal reservoirs that are directly influenced by global patterns of heating and cooling.
These reservoirs are large in comparison to flowing streams. In this situation one would
anticipate that the temperature of the layer of water would be constrained by, not
independent of, the temperatures of these thermal reservoirs, and would provide a direct
influence on the upper and lower temperature limits that water temperature can achieve
arson and Larson 1997).
17
STUDY ARJA
The Burnt River Basin is the site of a cooperative water temperature project
established by landowners, Burnt River Irrigation District, and a number of federal and
state agencies. The river drains about 2850 square km, ranging in elevation from its
headwaters at approximately 2135 m above sea level to its mouth at 640 m elevation
where it joins the Snake River (Mangelson and Zimmer 1997). This study has been
conducted on the North and South Forks of the Burnt River. These sub-basins are the
main sources of water for the Unity reservoir and the irrigation district. The North Fork
(water quality limited for temperature) has a southerly aspect and an elevation range of
2013 m at the headwaters of Greenhorn Creek to 1160 m at Unity Reservoir. The South
Fork (not listed as water quality limited for temperature) has a northerly aspect with an
elevation range of 2210 m at Barney Creek headwater springs to 1245 m at Whited
Reservoir, approximately 5.6 km southwest of Unity Reservoir. USGS flow data are
available on the North and South forks of the Burnt River from the early 1960s into the
early 1980s.
Table 1 provides relevant long-term (1961-1990) climate data for the Unity
Ranger District located in Unity, Oregon. July and August are the hottest months of the
year. July through September are the driest months.
18
Table 1. Hot season climate data (1961-1990) from Unity Ranger District headquarters,
Unity, OR.
Average max. temperature (°C)
Average mm. temperature (°C)
Average mean temperature (°C)
Monthly mean precipitation (cm)
Average days with max. temp. 32.2°C
June
24.6
4.3
14.4
2.9
2.8
July
30.0
6.3
18.2
0.11
10.7
Aug.
29.4
6.1
17.7
2.34
10.6
Sept.
23.8
1.6
12.7
1.37
0.8
Annual
14.8
-1.9
6.5
27.71
27.5
19
METHODS
The basic design for data collection was to establish a framework for partitioning
elevation and aspect influences on the north and south forks of Burnt River. Within the
framework, replicated temperature measurements of accumulated energy were taken of
air, soil, and water.
Stream Location
Sampling was conducted along 3 streams (Barney, Stevens, and Elk Creeks) on
South Fork and 1 stream (Greenhorn Creek) on North Fork Burnt River during July and
August 1998 and 1999. Barney and Stevens Creek are in adjacent drainages, with
northerly aspects. Barney Creek drainage was completely burned over in 1989 while
Stevens Creek forest vegetation remained intact. Elk Creek has a northeasterly aspect, 2
cold tributaries, and apparent groundwater inputs. Greenhorn Creek has a southeasterly
aspect and is most variable in terms of disturbance and vegetation.
Temperature Measurements
A data set was generated for individual sample locations on each stream. Sample
locations were established along an elevation gradient from 1830 to 1370 m in 150 m
increments. At each location the data set consisted of temperature data for air (1.1 m
above ground in shaded, well-ventilated areas), soil (0.3 m depth at stream side), and
water (measured in the free-flowing thalweg),
StowAway® data loggers were used to record air, water, and soil temperatures.
Air temperature loggers were attached to the north side of trees adjacent to the creeks in a
20
location with air circulation, sheltered from direct sunlight at a height of approximately L 1
m. An external sensor was used with data loggers measuring air temperature. Soil
temperature loggers were placed at a depth of 0.3 m in a non-saturated location as close
to the stream as possible. Stream temperature loggers were placed in the free-flowing
thalweg of the stream and were anchored with wire and weights. Data loggers recorded
temperatures every hour and were downloaded 3 times in each season.
Data loggers were tested for accuracy and precision at 0, 10, and 20°C at the
beginning and end of the 1998 field season, and at 10 and 20°C for the 1999 field season.
StowAway® data loggers have an accuracy of ± 0.2°C for the range of temperatures
encountered in this study. The data loggers were enclosed in waterproof
submersible cases.
Supporting Measurements
Water velocity and stream cross-sections were measured biweekly during the
study to establish flow volume and rate (distance per unit time) during individual time
periods. Cross-section, rate, and flow data were used to provide a context for interpreting
water temperature results.
Stream cross-sections were marked using permanent orange plastic headstakes.
Cross-section profiles were determined at the beginning of each summer. Stream flow
(discharge and velocity) was measured in 2-week intervals from late June through mid-
September of 1998 and 1999. Stream flow measurements were taken 6 times at each site
throughout both summers. Stream flow was measured at intervals between 10 and 20 cm
depending on the width of the stream. Flow measurements were recorded at a depth of
21
six-tenths (0.6) of the depth of the stream from the surface of the water using a pygmy
flow meter and the Aquacalc5000®. Depth of water and distance from the left headstake
were recorded at each station. Velocity was measured for 40 seconds at each station and
the AquacalcS000® computed the average. Discharge was computed by integrating
velocity, depth of water, and distance from the left headstake for all stations at each cross-
section. Stream flow and stream temperature of side channels were also measured.
Stream temperature was measured in the side channels just prior to joining the main stem
as well as just below where the side channel merges with the main stem. In 1999, stream
temperature loggers were placed at 3 headwater springs on Barney Creek at elevations of
2210, 2170, and 2200 m, and Stevens Creek headwater spring at 2035 m.
Slopes (rise/run) and linear distance between sites for each stream were calculated
from a 7.5 minute quadrant topographic map (Table 2).
Table 2. Calculated linear distance (m) and slope (rise/run) from a
7.5 minute quadrant topographic map for all 4 streams.
Descending Elevation (m)
1830to 1675 1675 to 1525 1525 to 1370
Overall
Linear Distance (m)
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
1311
1280
1494
1402
1859
2195
2195
1707
2316
3109
5761
2316
5486
6584
9449
5425
% Slope (rise/mn)
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
11.6
11.9
10.2
10.8
8.2
6.9
6.9
8.9
6.6
4.9
2.6
6.6
8.3
6.9
4.8
8.4
22
Statistical Methods
Time of data collected with the StowAway temperature loggers was rounded to
the nearest hour. Air, soil, and water data were then reduced from hourly values to daily
mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures. Daily minimum and maximum
temperatures for each elevation, stream, and year were subject to the following
constraints: the daily maximum temperature was the highest temperature recorded at or
after 7 a.m., and the daily minimum temperature was before the time of the maximum.
Times when first maximum and first minimum daily temperatures occurred were also
calculated. Times were calculated using a decimal system and were then converted to a
24-hour time clock. In 1998, temperature data was collected for July 10-31 and August 131. StowAway® temperature loggers used to collect air temperature data on Barney and
Stevens Creeks at 1525 m elevation were set incorrectly in July 1998 and therefore data
was only collected for July 10-12, July 30-31, and August 1-31. In 1999, temperature
data was collected from July 1 through August 31.
The PROC MIXED procedure in SAS (1996) was used for the data analysis of
effects of the fixed factors elevation (1830, 1675, 1525, 1370 m) and month (July,
August) for each year (1998, 1999) and stream (Barney, Elk, Greenhorn, Stevens). The
mixed linear model included the main effects for elevation, month, their 2-factor
interaction, and the random factor of day within month. From additional analysis the time
series of random effects for day were found to have a strong autocorrelation. Therefore,
day is to be regarded as a blocking factor relative to elevation effects and their possible
interactions with month. Because the month effects are components of days, no statistical
comparisons are made between the 2 months. Since the month-by-elevation interaction
23
was found to be significant in most cases (Appendix A), elevation was analyzed within
each month on each stream for each year. Because elevation effects were very large
relative to elevation-by-month interaction effects, elevation means over both months were
also compared.
Another mixed model with elevation specified as a linear regression variable and
day as a random, blocking factor was applied separately for each stream, month, and year
combination. Using this regression model, the slope, or rate of change (change °C/1 50 m
drop in elevation), was compared to zero for each stream and month.
Side-channel temperatures were compared to the main channels for Barney, Elk,
and Greenhorn Creeks. We did not encounter a side channel to Stevens Creek. The
PROC AUTOREG procedure in SAS (version 7, 1999), with a first-order autoregressive
structure for the differences between the corresponding side and main channel hourly
temperatures, was used to compare the mean difference between side and main channel
temperatures to zero.
24
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Headwater Springs
On June 23, 1999, StowAway® temperature loggers were placed in 3 different
headwater spring locations on Barney Creek and 1 headwater spring on Stevens Creek.
They recorded water temperature on an hourly basis. Temperature loggers were
downloaded and relaunched once during the season, on August 18. They were retrieved
on September 14.
Barney headwater spring 1 was located at an elevation of 2210 meters. The linear
distance (based on a 7.5 minute quadrant topographic map) from spring ito 1830 meters
elevation (upper site of temperature study) was 1900 meters.
Barney headwater springs 2 and 3 were located at elevations of2 170 and 2200
meters. The StowAway® temperature logger placed at spring 2 was never recovered and
spring 3 dried up a few days after the temperature logger was placed in the spring.
Consequently data is not available for either of these sites.
Stevens Creek had only 1 headwater spring area located at an elevation of 2035
meters. The linear distance (based on a 7.5 minute quadrant topographic map) from the
headwater spring to 1830 meters elevation (the upper site of temperature study) was 750
meters.
Headwater Analysis
Both Barney and Stevens headwater temperatures were nearly constant, with mean
temperatures of 3.1°C and 4.6°C, respectively. Water temperatures at Stevens headwater
spring had a greater range of water-temperature fluctuation, 1.6°C (minimum temperature
25
of 3.8°C and a maximum temperature of 5.4°C), than did Barney's headwater spring,
which had a range of 0.6°C (minimum temperature of 3.0°C, and a maximum temperature
of 3.6°C).
Although colder at the spring source, Barney Creek stream temperatures at the
upper elevation site (1830 meters) were always warmer than Stevens Creek. The warmer
temperatures of Barney Creek, compared to Stevens Creek, were attributed to the greater
linear distance from the headwater springs to the 1830 meter site. On Barney Creek,
water traveled a linear distance of 1900 meters to reach the 1830 meter elevation site.
Whereas, on Stevens Creek, water traveled only 750 meters from the springs to the 1830
meter elevation site. A longer exposure time to the thermal environment allowed more
time for water to accumulate heat energy.
Side Channel Analysis
Barney Creek
A side channel was located at
1768
m on Barney Creek between the upper 2 sites
of the study. For both years, the side channel had approximately the same discharge as the
main stem it joined. Temperature differences were either not or only marginally significant
between the side channel and the main stem of Barney Creek in
1998
(pO.3 1) and 1999
(p=O.085). Temperature differences in both years fell within the range of equipment
accuracy (±0.2°C). The side channel increased the overall discharge on Barney Creek
and may have buffered the thermal response of the creek. According to Adams and
Sullivan (1989), stream depth affects the magnitude of stream temperature fluctuations as
well as the response time of the stream to changes in environmental conditions.
26
Elk Creek
Two side channels contributed to Elk Creek flow between the upper 2 sites (1830
and 1675 m). Side channel 1 was located at 1716 m elevation and side channel 2 was
located at 1700 m elevation. The 2 side channels contributed approximately 50% of the
flow between the 1830 and 1675 m sites (Channel 1
20%, Channel 2 = 3 0%).
Discharge from both side channels was consistent throughout the summer for each year.
In 1998 and 1999, there were significant differences between both side-channel
temperatures and the main stem of Elk Creek (p<O.000l). In 1998, both side channels
were 1.8°C cooler than the main stem (SE = 0.218°C and SE = 0.010°C respectively). In
1999, side channel 1 was estimated to be 1.0°C cooler and side channel 2 was estimated to
be 1.3°C cooler than the main stem of Elk Creek (SE = 0.121°C, and SE = 0.061
respectively).
The discharge and cooler temperatures of the side channels in combination with
saturated soils contributed to the cool temperatures of Elk Creek. Ward (1985) stated
that to a large degree groundwater recharge in forested watersheds influences the thermal
regimes of small, running waters.
Greenhorn Creek
Greenhorn Creek had 2 side channels; side channel 1 located at 1682 m elevation,
and side channel 2 located at 1499 m elevation. Side channel 1 initially contributed onehalf of the main stem discharge at 1682 m elevation. However, by mid-July in both years,
side channel 1 was too low to measure with a pygmy meter. In 1998, side channel 2
contributed approximately 20% of the discharge to the main stem at 1499 m elevation. In
27
1999, side channel 2 contributed between 50 to 80% of the discharge to the main stem in
July, and approximately 20 to 40% in August. The large flows in 1999 on side channel 2
of Greenhorn Creek washed the stream temperature loggers away; therefore, no
temperature data was available for 1999. In 1998 and 1999, side channel 1 was warmer
than the main stem of Greenhorn Creek at 1682 m (p<O.000l). Side channel 1 was 0.5 °C
warmer (SE - 0.045°C) than the main channel in 1998, and 0.4 °C warmer (SE =
0.026°C) in 1999. Side channel 2 was warmer than the main stem of Greenhorn Creek at
1499 m elevation (p<O.0001). Side channel 2 was approximately 0.6 °C warmer than the
main channel in 1998 (SE = 0.094°C). Since side channel 1 was relatively small and was
only 0.4 to 0.5 °C warmer than the main stem, it likely did not alter the thermal condition
of the stream to a meaningftil extent. Similarly, side channel 2 did not substantively alter
the thermal condition of the main stem. The significance of these side channels was that
the increased volume of water may have buffered the thermal response of the creek.
Temperature Analysis
Ho 1: Average minimum temperature is the same for the parameter (air, water) regardless
of elevation.
1) Month (July vs. August)
In 1998, July had higher mean daily minimum air temperatures than August on all
4 streams (Table 3). Conversely in 1999, August had higher mean daily minimum air
temperatures than July. Differences in mean minimum air temperature between July and
August tended to be similar across streams and elevations in each year. Minimum air
temperature data from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Agrimet weather station located in
28
Table 3. Mean daily minimum' air temperatures for July and August 1998
and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
July
Duff.3
1999
August
Duff3
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
10.0
11.1
10.3
11.1
7.8
9.4
8.4
8.9
2.2
1.7
1.9
2.2
6.2
6.6
6.2
6.9
8.7
9.2
-2.3
-2.1
-2.5
-2.3
5.6
4.6
7.0
4.4
7.8
6.6
8.9
6.9
-2.2
-2.0
-1.9
-2.5
7.3
8.5
8.0
7.5
-2.1
8.5
8.7
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
9.8
9.4
10.3
8.9
7.7
7.0
8.0
5.9
2.1
2.4
2.3
3.0
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
9.2
10.5
9.7
9.1
6.8
8.0
7.3
6.4
2.4
2.5
2.4
2.7
5.2
6.5
5.6
5.7
-2.0
-2.4
-1.8
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
8.4
6.4
8.0
2.0
2.3
2.4
7.0
-2.1
8.0
-1.9
l0.7
8.3
6.6
8.6
-2.0
10.3
7.2
3.1
5.5
7.8
-2.3
1
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily
maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 are from July 10-31.
August mean daily minimum air temperatures were subtracted from those
in July to obtain the difference.
In 1998, air temperatures for July on Barney and Stevens creeks at 1525 m
were from July 10-12, 30, 31.
10.3
4.9
6.1
Hereford, Oregon also showed July warmer than August in 1998, and August warmer
than July in 1999. Hidore and Oliver (1993) noted that the amount of air cooling depends
on the length of the night, humidity, and wind velocities. These factors are variable, which
29
is likely why we did not see a trend associated with the difference in minimum air
temperatures between July and August during the 2 years of this study.
During 1998, July tended to yield warmer mean daily minimum water temperatures
than August (Table 4). Larger differences tended to occur at lower elevations. In 1999,
on all 4 creeks, August had warmer mean daily minimum water temperatures than July at
all elevations. Edinger et al. (1968), Adams and Sullivan (1989), Stefan and
Preud'homme (1993), McRae and Edwards (1994), Ward (1985), Walker and Lawson
(1977), Raphael (1962), and Larson and Larson (1996) indicated that atmospheric
conditions and/or air temperature strongly influence stream temperature. In our study,
both mean minimum air and water temperatures were concurrently warmer in July
compared to August 1998, and in August compared to July 1999. It appears reasonable
to suggest that the mean daily minimum water temperatures were responding to variable
atmospheric conditions (e.g. lower mean minimum air temperatures).
2) Elevation
For both years on all 4 streams, mean daily minimum air temperatures increased
with descending elevation in July, August, and when calculated over both months (Tables
5 and 6). However, there were exceptions to this trend on each of the streams. Cold-airdrainage patterns appeared to establish whenever temperature gradients favored the
replacement of warm, surface air with colder air from above. These patterns were
consistent for both years. Generally, we would expect minimum air temperatures to
increase with descending elevation due to adiabatic heating (defined in Appendix B).
30
Table 4. Mean daily minimum' water temperatures for July and August
1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
July
Duff.3
1999
August
Duff.3
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
9.6
10.2
9.0
9.2
0.6
6.4
1.0
11.4
12.5
10.3
1.1
10.8
1.7
-2.2
7.1
8.1
9.1
8.6
9.2
10.3
11.2
6.0
6.0
6.6
7.4
6.6
6.5
7.3
8.4
-0.6
-0.5
-0.7
-1.0
6.7
8.2
8.3
8.8
9.1
10.1
10.4
-1.5
-1.8
-1.6
-2.6
-2.1
-2.2
-2.1
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
6.8
7.0
7.9
9.4
6.5
6.5
7.2
8.3
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.1
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
9.1
11.4
11.2
13.4
8.4
10.5
10.3
11.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
1.8
11.7
Stevens Creek
6.8
8.4
10.0
11.6
-1.0
8.4
-1.8
9.8
-2.3
1.1
10.5
-2.2
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily
maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 are from July 10-31.
August mean daily minimum water temperatures were subtracted from
those in July to obtain the difference.
1830
1675
1525
1370
6.5
0.3
0.0
0.2
5.4
6.4
7.5
8.4
6.4
8.2
9.8
10.6
Table 5. Mean daily minimum1 air temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1998.
July2 1998
Elev (m)
Temp O3 Std Error P-value
August 1998
O3
Temp
Std Error P-value
July and August 1998
Temp O3 Std Error P-value
Baniey Creek4
1830 to 1675
1675to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.1
-0.8
0.8
0.228
0,411
0.411
<.0001
0.054
0.043
1.6
-1.0
0.5
0.192
0.192
0.192
<.0001
<.0001
0.012
1.3
-0.9
0.7
0.149
0.227
0.227
<.0001
0.125
0.125
0.125
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.122
0.122
0.122
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.0002
0.0039
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
-0.4
1675to 1525
1525 to 1370
-1.4
1.0
0.191
0.191
0.191
0.031
<.0001
<.0001
-0.7
1.1
-2.1
0.161
0.161
0.161
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
-0.6
1.0
-1.8
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.3
-0.8
-0.5
0.186
0.186
0.186
<.0001
<.0001
0.0069
1.2
-0.7
-0.9
0.157
0.157
0.157
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.3
-0.8
-0.7
Stevens Creek4
1.8
1830 to 1675
0.148 <.0001
1.6
0.125
<.0001
1.7
0.097 <.0001
1675 to 1525
0.4
0.217
0.059
0.3
0.125
0.012
0.4
0.125 0.0042
0.217 0.075
1525 to 1370
-0.4
-1.1
0.125
<.0001
-0.7
0.125 <.0001
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-3 1.
Mean daily minimum air temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation
to obtain the difference.
In 1998, air temperatures for July on Barney and Stevens creeks at 1525 m were from July 10-12, 30, 31.
Table 6. Mean daily minimum1 air temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1999.
July 1999
Elev (m)
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
August 1999
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
Ju1 and August 1999
Temp °C Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525to 1370
0.4
-0.5
0.7
0.196
0.196
0.196
0.028
0.023
0.0003
0.2
-0.1
0.5
0.196
0.196
0.196
0.6
0.139
0.139
0.139
0.024
0.057
<.0001
-1.1
2.3
-2.3
0.137
0.137
0.137
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.000 1
1.3
0.0038
0.0027
-0.7
-0.2
0.120
0.120
0.120
<.0001
<.0001
0.084
0.32
0.68
0,0096
0.3
-0.3
<.000 1
Elk Creçk
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-1.0
2.3
-2.5
0.194
0.194
0.194
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
-1.2
2.3
-2.1
0.194
0.194
0.194
<.0001
<.000 1
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.3
-1.0
0.1
0.169
0.169
0.169
<.0001
<.0001
0.56
1.2
-0.5
-0.5
0.169
0.169
0.169
Stevens Creek
<.0001
1.0
1.1
0.089
0.125 <.000 1
0.125 <.000 1
1.2
1830 to 1675
0.6
0.089
<.0001
0.6
0.125 <.0001
0.5
0.125 0.000 1
1675 to 1525
-1.0
0.089
-0.8
0.125 <.000 1
<.0001
0.125 <.0001
-1.1
1525 to 1370
Daily minimum daily temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily maximum temperature.
2
Mean daily minimum air temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation
to obtain the difference.
33
On all 4 creeks, mean daily minimum water temperature differences for descending
elevation were significant in July, August, and for both months during 1998 and 1999
(Tables 7 and 8). Exceptions occurred for both years on Elk Creek between 1830 and
1675 m, and in 1998 on Greenhorn Creek between 1675 and 1525 m. Generally, there
was an average increase of approximately 1°C for each 150 m drop in elevation on all 4
streams. As with air, minimum water temperatures are a product of cumulative exposure
to the surrounding thermal environment. Increasing stream exposure to a warming
thermal environment results in the accumulation of heat energy.
Ho2: Average maximum temperature is the same for the parameter (air, water) regardless
of elevation.
1) Month (July vs. August)
There was no apparent pattern with mean daily maximum air temperature (Table
9). Hidore and Oliver (1993) suggested that maximum air temperature is largely
dependent upon Earth radiation. The amount of radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is
dependent on the amount of CO2 and water vapor in the air. While CO2 is relatively
constant in the atmosphere, water vapor is more variable from place to place and through
time. Wind shifts and advection can also bring warm or cold air into an area producing
maximum and minimum temperatures at any time of the day.
No monthly trend was apparent for differences in mean daily maximum water
temperature based on this 2 year study (Table 10). A pattern of variable mean maximum
daily water temperatures appears reasonable given the variability and the lack of an
apparent trend in mean daily maximum air temperature from July to August.
Table 7. Mean daily minimum1 water temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1998.
July2 1998
Elev (m)
O3 Std Error P-value
Temp
August 1998
O3
Temp
Std Error P-value
July and August 1998
Temp O3 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.6
1.3
1.1
0.121
0.121
0.121
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.2
1.1
0.5
0.102
0,102
0.102
0.049
<.0001
<.0001
0.4
0.86
<.0001
<.0001
0.1
0.8
1.2
0.8
0.079
0.079
0.079
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.048
0.048
0.048
0.033
<.0001
<.0001
0.064
0.064
0.064
<.0001
0.053
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.2
0.9
1.5
0.073
0.073
0.073
0.0086
<.0001
0.0
0.7
<.0001
1.1
0.061
0.061
0,061
1.3
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to l525
1525 to 1370
2.3
-0.1
2.2
0.098
0.098
0.098
<.0001
0.16
<.0001
2.1
-0.1
1.3
0.082
0.082
0.082
<.000 1
0.18
<.000 1
2.2
-0.1
1.8
Stevens Creek
1.9
0.117 <.0001
0.139 <.0001
1.8
0.091
<.0001
1.6
1.3
0.139 <.0001
0.117 <.0001
1.5
0.091
1.6
<.0001
1675to 1525
0.139 <.0001
0.8
0.117 <.0001
1.2
0.091
<.0001
1.6
lS2Sto 1370
Daily minimum daily temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were for July 10-3 1.
Mean daily minimum water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation
to obtain the difference.
1830 to 1675
Table 8. Mean daily minimum1 water temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1999.
Elev (m)
July 1999
Temp °C2 Std Error P-value
August 1999
Temp oc2 Std Error P-value
July and August 1999
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
0.6
1675to 1525
l525to 1370
1.1
1.0
0.057
0.057
0.057
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.6
1.1
0.9
0.057
0.057
0.057
1.0
0.040
0.040
0.040
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.0
0.7
0.9
0.049
0.049
0.049
0.79
<.0001
<.0001
1.7
0.086
0.086
0.086
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.6
0.89
<.0001
<.0001
1.1
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.0
0.6
0.8
0.070
0.070
0.070
0.60
<.0001
<.0001
0.0
0.8
1.1
0.070
0.070
0.070
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.6
0.5
0.3
0,122
0.122
0.122
<.0001
<.0001
0.029
1.9
0.3
1.3
0.122
0.122
0.122
<.0001
0.045
<.0001
0.4
0.8
Stevens Creek
1.0
IS3Oto 1675
0.134 <.0001
1.8
0.134 <.0001
1.4
0.095 <.0001
1675 to 1525
1.1
0.134 <.0001
1.5
0.134 <.0001
0.095 <.0001
1.3
1525 to 1370
0.8
0.134 <.0001
0.8
0.134 <.0001
0.8
0.095 <.0001
Daily minimum daily temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily maximum temperature.
2
Mean daily minimum water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation
to obtain the difference.
1
36
Table 9. Mean daily maximum' air temperatures for July and August 1998
and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
1999
Duff.3
July
August
Duff.3
23.5
29.3
29.2
29.7
23.6
25.7
27.0
28.2
-0.1
3.6
2.2
21.3
23.7
23.5
25.0
21.1
23.0
22.0
24.7
0.2
0.7
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
25.8
31.8
31.5
29.6
26.9
26.5
29.2
29.8
-1.1
5.3
2.3
-0.2
1.5
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
20.8
26.0
26.5
28.3
20.7
25.3
26.3
27.4
0.1
0.7
0.2
0.9
1.5
0.3
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
24.8
28.1
26.9
29.0
23.8
27.7
26.5
29.0
21.3
23.4
24.3
25.9
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.0
21.4
23.6
24.4
26.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
Stevens Creek
27.4
26.5
0.9
23.9
23.7
0.2
26.6
25.6
1.0
23.7
23.2
0.5
27.6
26.4
1.2
24.0
23.7
0.3
29.7
28.3
1.4
26.5
25.9
0.6
1
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 are from July 10-31.
August mean daily maximum air temperatures were subtracted from those
in July to obtain the difference.
In 1998, air temperatures for July on Barney and Stevens creeks at 1525 m
were from July 10-12, 30, 31. Least square means.
1830
1675
1525
1370
37
Table 10. Mean daily maximum' water temperatures for July and August
1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
1999
Duff.3
July
August
Duff.3
13.8
15.4
18.7
19.4
-0.1
-0.2
0.5
0.2
-0.3
-0.3
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
16.1
17.8
15.0
16.8
1.1
1.0
13.7
15.2
20.2
21.7
20.2
0.0
0.6
18.1
19.2
21.1
-0.6
-0.2
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
9.8
11.4
13.2
14.0
9.4
10.8
12.1
12.6
0.4
0.6
9.4
10.9
1.1
12.3
12.5
8.9
10.0
11.1
11.7
12.8
12.5
13.9
18.4
12.6
12.8
14.2
18.5
1.4
0.9
1.2
0.8
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
15.0
14.8
15.9
21.7
14.6
13.7
15.4
20.1
0.4
1.1
0.5
1.6
-0.1
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
8.5
10.9
13.2
19.6
8.3
11.0
12.9
19.0
0.2
-0.1
0.3
0.6
7.2
7.9
9.3
11.1
17.3
10.3
12.3
17.7
-0.7
-1.0
-1.2
-0.4
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 are for July 10-31.
August mean daily maximum water temperatures were subtracted from those
in July to obtain the difference.
2) Elevation
Since month did not show an apparent trend for the mean daily maximum air
temperatures, the temperature differences for descending elevation were calculated over
the entire summer (July and August) for each year. Mean daily maximum air temperatures
generally increased with descending elevation on all 4 streams (Table 11). Exceptions
38
Table 11. Mean daily maximum1 air temperature differences for descending
elevation, July2 and August 1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
1999
Temp °C3 Std Error P-value
Temp 0C3 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek4
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
2.8
0.384
1.2
0.58 1
0.58 1
-0.7
3.9
0.6
0.9
0.307
0.307
0.307
<.0001
0.049
0.0061
<.0001
2.2
-0.6
<.000 1
2.1
0.129
0.129
0.129
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.135
0.135
0.135
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.040
0.26
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
4.9
0.8
1.4
0.188
0.188
0.188
<.000 1
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
3.6
-1.2
2.3
0.199
0.199
0.199
<.0001
2.1
<.000 1
<.000 1
0.9
1.6
Stevens Creek4
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
-0.8
0.223
0.0003
-0.4
0.199
0.076
0.9
0.288 0.0026
0.4
0.199 0.043
1525to 1370
2.0
0.288 <.0001
2.3
0.199 <.0001
1
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
Mean daily maximum air temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted
from that at the lower elevation to obtain the difference.
In 1998, air temperatures for July on Barney and Stevens creeks at 1525 m
were from July 10-12, 30, 31.
occurred at specific elevations on Barney (1998, 1525-1370 m), Elk Creek (1999, 16751525 m); Greenhorn (1998, 1675-1525 m), and Stevens Creek (1998 & 99, 1830-1675
m). As with minimum air temperatures, we would expect maximum air temperatures to
show a pattern of temperature increase with descending elevation due to adiabatic heating.
39
Mean daily maximum water temperatures also increased with descending elevation
on all 4 streams, in July, August, and for the entire summer (July through August) for both
1998 and 1999 (Tables 12 and 13). Exceptions occurred on Greenhorn Creek for both
years from 1830 to 1675 m. The average temperature increase for each 150 m drop in
elevation was approximately 2°C.
Ho3: Average mean temperature is the same for the parameter (air, water, or soil)
regardless of elevation.
1) Month (July vs. August)
During 1998, mean daily air temperatures were warmer in July than in August
(Table 14). In 1999, the differences were much smaller and August tended to be warmer
than July. A trend could not be discerned based on these 2 years. As with minimum and
maximum air temperatures, mean air temperatures would be dependent on meteorological
conditions from day to day in July and August.
In 1998, July tended to have higher mean daily water temperatures than August,
whereas in 1999, August mean daily water temperatures tended to be slightly higher than
in July (Table 15). Although for most cases, the differences in mean daily water
temperature between July and August appeared to be different on all 4 creeks, a trend
could not be discerned based on these 2 years. Variability in meteorological conditions
was likely why no trend was apparent.
In 1998 Barney creek generally had warmer mean daily soil temperatures in July
compared to August (Table 16). Elk Creek appeared to have warmer soil temperatures in
July versus August at 1830 and 1675 m elevation, but differences were negligible at the
lower elevations. Differences on Greenhorn and Stevens Creeks appeared to be generally
Table 12. Mean daily maximum1 water temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1998.
July2 1998
Elev (m)
Temp O3 Std Error P-value
August 1998
Temp °C3 Std Error P-value
Ju1' and August 1998
Temp °C Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.6
2.5
1.5
0.098
0.098
0.098
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.9
3.3
1.0
0.082
0.082
0.082
<.000 1
1.7
<.0001
<.0001
2.9
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.5
1.6
1.2
0.064
0.064
0,064
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.065
0.065
0.065
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.120
0.120
0.120
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.6
1.8
0.8
0.099
0.099
0.099
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.4
1.4
0.5
0.083
0.083
0.083
0.6
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-0.2
1.1
5.8
0.184
0.184
0.184
0.24
<.0001
<.0001
-0.9
1.7
4.8
0.155
0.155
0.155
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
-0.5
1.4
5.3
Stevens Creek
1830 to 1675
2.5
0.167 <.0001
2.7
0.141 <.0001
2.6
0.110
<.0001
1675 to 1525
2.3
0.167 <.0001
2.0
0.141 <.0001
2.1
0.110
<.0001
1525 to 1370
6.4
0.167 <.0001
6.1
0.141 <.0001
6.3
0.110
<.0001
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were for July 10-31.
Mean daily maximum water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation
to obtain the difference.
Table 13. Mean daily maximum' water temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1999.
Elev (m)
July 1999
O2
Temp
Std Error P-value
August 1999
O2
Temp
Std Error P-value
LMT and August1999
Temp
ta rrror i'-vaiue
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1.5
1675to 1525
1525 to 1370
3.0
1.0
0.103
0.103
0.103
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.6
3.3
0.7
0.103
0.103
0.103
<.000 1
1.5
<.0001
<.0001
3.2
0.9
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.3
1.3
0.073
0,073
0.073
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.063
0.063
0.063
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.140
0.140
0.140
0.52
<.0001
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.5
1.5
0.2
0.090
0.090
0.090
<.0001
<.0001
0.035
1.1
1.2
0.5
0.090
0.090
0.090
0.4
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-0.3
1.4
4.5
0.197
0.197
0.197
0.10
<.0001
<.0001
0.2
1.4
4.4
0.197
0.197
0.197
0.45
<.0001
-0.1
1.4
<.000 1
4.4
Stevens Creek
1830 to 1675
2.1
0.167 <.0001
2.5
0.167 <.000 1
2.3
0.118
<.0001
1675 to 1525
1.9
0.167 <.0001
2.0
0.167 <.0001
1.9
0.118
<.0001
1525 to 1370
6.2
0.167 <.0001
5.4
0.167 <.000 1
5.8
0.118
<.0001
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
Mean daily maximum water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation
to obtain the difference.
42
Table 14. Mean daily air temperatures for July and August 1998 and 1999.
1998
July
1999
August
Duff.2
14.6
15.1
-0.5
15.3
16.3
16.8
15.7
16.6
17.2
-0.4
12.8
13.6
13.9
14.5
13.4
13.7
13.7
15.0
-0.6
13.1
14.6
14.6
15.6
13.6
15.1
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.3
1830
15.2
13.1
2.1
12.5
1675
16.9
15.1
1.8
13.6
1525
18.0
16.4
1.6
14.7
1370
18.7
16.6
2.1
15.4
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
12.8
14.0
15.2
15.9
Elev (m)
July'
August
Duff.2
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
16.9
18.8
19.4
19.6
15.2
16.9
17.9
18.4
1.7
1.9
1.5
1.2
-0.3
-0.4
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
14.7
16.6
16.7
18.0
13.4
14.8
14.8
16.0
1.3
1.8
1.9
2.0
-0.1
0.2
-0.5
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
16.3
18.3
17.4
18.2
15.0
17.1
16.2
17.0
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
15.1
15.9
Stevens Creek
1
2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.5
August mean daily air temperatures were subtracted from those in July to
obtain the difference.
In 1998, air temperatures for July on Barney and Stevens creeks at 1525 m
were from July 10-12, 30, 31.
43
Table 15. Mean daily water temperatures for July and August 1998 and
1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July'
August
1999
Duff.2
July
August
Duff.2
9.6
10.7
12.5
13.6
10.8
11.9
13.8
14.7
-1.2
-1.2
-1.3
7.2
7.7
8.7
9.9
7.4
7.7
8.7
10.1
-0.2
0.0
0.0
-0.2
9.9
11.4
11.9
14.9
-0.9
-1.1
-1.0
-1.7
7.0
9.2
11.0
13.7
-0.9
-1.5
-1.8
-1.5
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
12.4
13.5
15.3
16.4
11.6
12.5
14.5
15.2
0.8
1.0
0.8
1.2
-1.1
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
7.9
8.5
9.7
11.6
7.6
7.9
9.0
0.7
10.5
1.1
0.3
0.6
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
11.3
13.0
13.1
17.2
10.9
12.0
12.5
15.6
0.4
9.0
1.0
10.3
10.9
13.2
0.6
1.6
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
1
2
7.4
7.2
9.6
0.2
6.1
9.5
-0.1
7.7
11.5
11.3
0.2
9.2
15.0
14.3
0.7
12.2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
August mean daily water temperatures were subtracted from those in July
to obtain the difference.
44
Table 16. Mean daily soil temperatures for July and August 1998 and 1999.
Elev (m)
July1
1998
August
1999
July
August
Duff.2
12.2
13.7
15.7
16.1
13.0
14.3
16.4
16.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.7
0.5
9.2
10.0
1.1
10.5
10.8
10.3
11.3
10.7
11.9
-0.8
0.2
-0.5
-1.2
8.5
13.4
10.5
13.4
10.4
13.9
12.2
14.4
-1.9
-0.5
-1.7
-1.0
8.4
10.0
9.9
9.8
11.2
11.4
16.0
-1.4
-1.2
-1.5
-1.9
Duff.2
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
13.6
15.6
18.3
18.3
13.4
14.8
17.4
17.3
0.2
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.1
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
10.7
11.1
11.6
12.5
10.2
10.0
11.4
12.5
0.2
0.0
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
10.9
11.4
13.3
14.6
11.1
11.6
13.2
14.8
-0.2
-0.2
0.1
-0.2
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
11.4
11.8
12.6
16.4
10.6
11.8
12.3
16.3
0.8
0.0
0.3
0.1
14.1
1
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
2
August mean daily soil temperatures were subtracted from those in July to
obtain the difference.
negligible in 1998. In 1999 August generally had warmer mean daily soil temperatures
than July. As with air and water temperatures, no trend was apparent based on these 2
years. Atmospheric conditions as well as saturated soils would influence soil
temperatures.
45
No trends were apparent for the differences in temperature between July and
August for mean soil, air, or water. However, soil, air, and water temperatures tended to
all be warmer in July versus August 1998 and in August versus July 1999.
2) Elevation
Since there was no apparent trend between July and August for the mean daily air
temperatures on all 4 streams, we can discuss the temperature differences for descending
elevation that were calculated over the entire summer (July and August) for each year.
For each year on all 4 streams, mean daily air temperatures were significantly different
between elevations (Table 17). Exceptions occurred in 1998 on Elk Creek between 1675
and 1525 m, and in 1999 on Greenhorn Creek between 1675 and 1525 m. Generally,
mean daily air temperatures increased with descending elevations on all 4 creeks. As with
minimum and maximum air temperatures, we would expect mean air temperatures to
increase with descending elevation due to adiabatic heating.
On all 4 streams, mean daily water temperature differences for descending
elevation were significant in July, August, and when calculated over the entire summer
(July and August) for both 1998 and 1999 (Tables 18 and 19). With one exception,
increases in mean daily water temperature occurred with descending elevation on each
stream. The exception was Greenhorn Creek, July 1998, 1675 to 1525 m (Table 18).
46
Table 17. Mean daily air temperature differences for descending elevation,
July' and August 1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
1999
Temp oC2 Std Error P-value
Temp 0C2 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.8
0.8
0.086
0.131
0.4
0.131
<.000 1
0.7
1.0
0.5
0.077
0.077
0.077
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.0078
0.5
0.2
1.0
0.072
0.072
0.072
<.0001
0.0082
<.0001
0.059
0.059
0.059
<.0001
0.84
Elk Creek
1830to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525to 1370
1.6
0.0
1.3
0.066
0.066
0.066
<.0001
0.74
<.0001
Greenhorn Creek
lS3Oto 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
2.0
-0.9
0.8
0.081
0.08 1
0.08 1
<.0001
<.0001
<.000 1
1.5
0.0
0.9
<.000 1
Stevens Creek3
1830to 1675
1.8
0.059 <.0001
1.1
0.053 <.0001
1675to 1525
1.2
0.077 <.0001
1.2
0.053 <.0001
1525 to 1370
0.5
0.077 <.000 1
0.6
0.053 <.0001
July temperatures in 1998 are from July 10-31.
2Me daily air temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that
at the lower elevation to obtain the difference.
In 1998, air temperatures for July on Barney and Stevens creeks at 1525 m
were from July 10-12, 30, 31.
1
Table 18. Mean daily water temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1998.
Elev (m)
July1 1998
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
August 1998
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
July and August 1998
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.1
1.8
1.1
0.068
0.068
0.068
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.9
2.0
0.7
0.057
0.057
0.057
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0,044
0.044
0.044
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.7
0.043
0.043
0.043
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.4
0.3
3.6
0.073
0.073
0.073
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
2.3
0.082
0.082
0.082
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.0
1.9
0.9
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.7
1.2
1.9
0.066
0.066
0.066
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.4
1.0
1.5
0.055
0.055
0.055
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.5
1.1
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1.7
0.1
1525to 1370
4.1
0.111
0.111
0.111
<.0001
0.42
<.0001
1.1
0.5
3.1
0.094
0.094
0.094
Stevens Creek
0.125 <.0001
0.125 <.0001
0.125 <.0001
1525to 1370
July temperatures in 1998 were for July 10-31.
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
2.1
1.9
3.5
2.5
1.7
2.9
0.106
0.106
0.106
1.8
3.2
2Mean daily water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain
the difference.
Table 19. Mean daily water temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1999.
July 1999
Elev (m)
Temp Ol Std Error P-value
August 1999
Temp °C' Std Error P-value
July and August 1999
Temp Ol Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.1
1.9
1.0
0.052
0.052
0.052
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.1
1.9
0.9
0.052
0.052
0.052
<.000 1
1.1
<.0001
1.9
1.0
<.000 1
0.037
0.037
0.037
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.045
0.045
0.045
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0,094
0.094
0.094
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.5
1.0
1.2
0.064
0.064
0.064
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.3
1.0
1.4
0.064
0.064
0.064
<.0001
<.0001
<.000 1
0.4
1.0
1.3
Greenhorn Creek
1830to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.3
0.6
2.3
0.133
0.133
0.133
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.5
0.5
2.9
0.133
0.133
0.133
<.0001
0.0002
<.000 1
1.4
0.6
2.6
Stevens Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
0.134 <.0001
2.2
0.134 <.0001
1.9
0.095 <.0001
1.5
0.134 <.0001
1.8
0.134 <.0001
1.7
0.095 <.0001
1525to 1370
3.0
0.134 <.0001
2.7
0,134 <.0001
2.9
0.095 <.0001
Mean daily water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain
the difference.
1
1.6
49
As with water and air, mean daily soil temperature differences for descending
elevation were significant in July and August for both 1998 and 1999 on all 4 streams
(Tables 20 and 21). Exceptions occurred on Barney Creek in 1998 between 1525 and
1370 m; on Elk Creek in July 1999 between 1525 and 1370 m; and on Stevens Creek in
July 1999 between 1675 and 1525 m. Saturated soil areas located near these sites
influenced soil temperatures. Generally, mean daily soil temperature increased with
descending elevation on all 4 creeks.
Mean air, water, and soil temperatures increased with descending elevation.
Meisner et al. (1988) stated that the density of air decreases with increasing elevation and
therefore the insulating effect on the ground decreases. They thither stated that lower air
temperatures and vapor pressures at high elevations decrease the absorption of long-wave
radiation by air and increase the loss of latent heat from the ground due to evaporation.
These factors tend to speed the rate of thermal cycling and lower mean daily temperatures
at higher elevations.
Ho4: Slope of mean daily temperature change (temperature change °C/1 50 m drop in
elevation) is equal to 0 for the parameter (air, water, or soil).
Table 22 shows the mean slope of temperature change (°CI1 50 m drop in
elevation) for air, water, and soil for July and August of 1998 and 1999. All 4 streams in
July and August of 1998 and 1999 demonstrated a significant increase in temperature with
descending elevation. Stevens Creek demonstrated the highest rate of increase (p<O.O5)
for mean air, water, and soil temperatures with each 150 m drop in elevation. Stevens
Creek had intact vegetation and ran through a fairly dense multi-canopy forest. Elk Creek
had the lowest rate of increase (p<O.O5) for mean water and soil temperatures with each
Table 20. Mean daily soil temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1998.
Elev (m)
July1 1998
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
August 1998
Temp 0C2 Std Error P-value
July and August 1998
Temp O2 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
2.0
2.7
0.1
0.092
0.092
0.092
<.0001
<.0001
0.59
1.4
2.7
-0.1
0.078
0.078
0.078
<.0001
<.0001
0.15
1.7
2.7
0.0
0.060
0.060
0.060
<.0001
<.0001
0.61
0.050
0.050
0.050
0.0084
0.035
0.035
0.035
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.5
0.5
0.9
0.077
0.077
0.077
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
-0,2
1.4
1.1
0.065
0.065
0.065
0.0038
<.0001
<.0001
0.1
0.9
1.0
<.0001
<.0001
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0.5
1.9
1.3
0.054
0.054
0.054
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.5
1.6
1.6
0.045
0.045
0.045
<.000 1
0.5
<.0001
<.0001
1.8
1.5
Stevens Creek
0.4
1830 to 1675
0.055 <.0001
1.2
0.046 <.0001
0.8
0.036 <.0001
0.8
0.055 <.0001
1675 to 1525
0.5
0.046 <.0001
0.6
0.036 <.0001
0.055 <.0001
1525 to 1370
3.9
4.0
0.046 <.0001
3.9
0.036 <.0001
July temperatures in 1998 were for July 10-3 1.
2Mean daily soil temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain
the difference.
Table 21. Mean daily soil temperature differences for descending elevation, July and August 1999.
Elev (m)
July 1999
O1
Std Error P-value
Temp
August 1999
Temp Ol Std Error P-value
July and August 1999
Temp O1 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.4
2.1
0.3
0.083
0.083
0.083
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.3
2.1
-0.4
0.083
0.083
0.083
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
1.4
2.1
-0.1
0.059
0.059
0.059
<.0001
<.0001
0.38
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.056
0.056
0.056
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
4.2
-2.3
2.6
0.047
0.047
0.047
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
1.3
0.3
-0.1
0.079
0.079
0.079
<.0001
0.0004
0.21
0.3
0.9
0.7
0.079
0.079
0.079
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
4.8
-2.9
2.9
0.066
0.066
0.066
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
3.6
-1.7
2.2
0.066
0.066
0.066
<.000 1
<.000 1
<.0001
Stevens Creek
0.045 <.0001
0.064 <.0001
1.5
1.4
0.064 <.0001
1.6
1830 to 1675
0.045
0.13
0.1
0.064 0.0008
0.064 0.22
0.2
0.1
1675 to 1525
0.045
<.0001
0.064
<.0001
4.4
4.6
0.064
<.0001
4.2
1525 to 1370
Mean daily soil temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain
the difference.
52
Table 22. Mean daily slopes (overall rate of mean temperature change °CI1 50 m drop in
elevation) for air, water, and soil, July and August 1998 and 1999.
July
Year
Factor
August
Slope Std Error P-value' R2
Slope Std Error P-value'
R2
Barney Creek
1998
1999
Air
Water
Soil
0.8
1.4
1.7
0.065
0.023
0.072
<.0001 0.93
<.0001 0.98
<.0001 0.90
1.1
1.3
Air
0.8
1.4
1.4
0.038
0.025
0.045
<.0001 0.99
<.0001 0.99
<.0001 0.94
0.7
Water
Soil
1.4
1.4
1.1
0.048
0.032
0.061
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.97
0.97
0.90
0.032
0.023
0.060
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.99
0.98
0.83
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.97
0.92
0.88
Elk Creek
Air
1.0
Water
1.3
Soil
Air
Water
Soil
<.0001 0.95
<.0001 0.95
<.0001 0.86
0.8
0.6
0.048
0.036
0.032
0.8
0.041
0.034
0.040
0.5
0.9
0.5
0.034
0.027
0.045
<.0001 0.99
<.0001 0.95
<.0001 0.80
0.5
0.9
0.7
0.042
0.031
0.020
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.98
0.92
0.94
0.063
0.066
0.033
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.95
0.89
0.95
0.040
0.055
0.100
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.99
0.92
0.57
0.046
0.046
0.081
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0.97
0.97
0.86
0.024
<.0001 0.99
1.0
0.029
<.0001
0.060
2.2
<.0001 0.94
0.040
<.0001
Soil
1.7
0.090
<.0001 0.84
1.9
0.094
<.0001
P-value represents significance level of the difference of the slope of the line
from a slope of zero for each month and year.
0.99
0.97
0.82
1998
1999
1.0
Greenhorn Creek
1998
1999
Air
0.5
Water
1.8
Soil
1.3
Air
0.8
Water
1.3
Soil
1.2
0.080
0.100
0.037
<.0001 0.90
<.0001 0.84
<.0001 0.96
0.5
0.037
0.063
0.149
<.0001 0.99
0.7
<.0001 0.91
1.5
<.0001 0.54
1.0
1.5
1.3
Stevens Creek
1998
Air
1.1
Water
2.5
1.6
Soil
1999
Air
1.0
Water
2.0
0.042
0.050
0.102
<.0001 0.97
<.0001 0.97
<.0001 0.81
1.2
2.3
1.7
53
150 m drop in elevation. Elk Creek flowed through saturated soils, and had 2 side
channels which contributed cooler water. Barney and Greenhorn Creeks had rates of
temperature increase (p<O. 05) for water and soil that were between Stevens and Elk
Creeks. Rates of air temperature change (p<O. 05) were similar for Greenhorn, Elk, and
Barney Creeks, but they were lower, as noted above, than for Stevens Creek.
Our results concurred with observations by Ward (1985) who stated that
maximum stream temperatures exhibit a progressive increase from the headwaters to the
mouths of river systems. Our results were also consistent with those of Meisner et al.
(1988) who stated that groundwater temperatures decrease with lower air temperature at
higher elevation despite increased solar irradiation. They explained that as the density of
air decreases with increasing elevation, the insulating effect of the air on the ground
decreases. Lower air temperatures and vapor pressures at higher elevations decrease the
absorption of long-wave radiation by air and increase the loss of latent heat from the
ground due to evaporation. The results are an increased rate of heat flux from the ground
and lower annual ground and groundwater temperatures. Consistent with these
observations, and our results, is the following description of radiant energy absorption at
the Earth's surface by Hidore and Oliver (1993). Solar energy that reaches the Earth's
surface (mostly visible light) is converted and eventually radiated or released in another
manner (mostly infrared) to the atmosphere as Earth radiation. Water vapor, CO2, and
other variable gases are relatively transparent to solar radiation in the visible range, but
they are good absorbers of Earth radiation. Some of the Earth radiation absorbed by the
atmosphere is radiated to space, but nearly 2/3 is radiated back to the Earth's surface,
which augments direct solar radiation. According to Hidore and Oliver (1993)
54
"Atmospheric radiant energy is the largest source of radiant energy absorbed at Earth's
surface - nearly double the amount of energy received directly from the sun."
Greater density of air at lower elevations (Meisner et al. 1988) combined with the
Hidore and Oliver (1993) discussion of Earth radiation support the reasonableness of our
results that air, soil, and water temperatures all increase at lower elevations.
Ho5: Average time of first minimum temperature is the same for the parameter (air, water)
regardless of elevation.
1) Month (July vs. August)
For most elevations, the mean time of daily minimum air temperature for July and
August were within an hour of each other on each stream (Table 23). In 1998, exceptions
occurred on Barney Creek at 1525 m; on Greenhorn Creek at 1830 and 1675 m; and on
Stevens Creek at 1830 m. In 1999, the exception was on Greenhorn Creek at 1370 m. In
those cases when the difference between the mean time of daily minimum air temperature
in July and August was large (greater than 1 hour), the time of first minimum air
temperature occurred earlier in July than in August. Everything else being equal, this
would be expected because sunrise is earlier in July than in August. Minimum daily
temperatures occur during early morning as incoming solar energy balances outgoing
Earth radiation (Hidore and Oliver 1993). However, there were too many cases where
there was no difference in the time of first minimum air temperature and therefore no trend
could be discerned based on these 2 years. Other factors likely shifted the timing of
balance. Generally, over all 4 streams for the entire summer, minimum air temperatures
occurred between 4:00 and 6:00 a.m. (Appendix C).
55
Table 23. Mean times of first daily minimum' air temperature for July and
August 1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
1999
July
August
Duff.3
4:56
4:52
4:43
4:19
5:14
4:41
5:25
5:35
0:37
-0:22
0:02
-0:10
4:48
4:35
5:15
4:56
Duff.3
Barney Creek
5:22
4:49
3:32
5:38
1830
1675
1525
1370
5:12
5:21
5:04
5:31
0:10
-0:32
-1:32
0:07
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
5:25
5:52
4:44
5:00
5:49
5:23
5:37
5:50
-0:27
-0:39
-0:37
-0:01
5:33
4:41
5:35
5:48
-0:08
-0:06
-0:20
-0:15
5:46
5:25
5:45
5:50
0:04
0:41
0:09
-1:04
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
4:35
4:44
5:35
5:30
6:14
6:21
6:27
6:02
-1:38
-1:38
-0:52
-0:32
5:50
6:06
5:54
4:46
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
4:49
5:44
5:25
5:52
-1:03
5:08
5:33
-0:25
5:35
0:09
5:17
5:37
-0:20
6:02
-0:37
5:58
5:45
0:13
5:35
5:29
0:06
5:23
5:54
-0:31
1
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily
maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
August mean daily time of first minimum air temperatures were subtracted
from those in July to obtain the time difference.
For both years, mean time of daily minimum water temperature on Barney and Elk
Creeks were not greatly different (Table 24). Differences in the mean time of daily
minimum water temperatures tended to be greater on Greenhorn and Stevens Creeks.
Time of first minimum water temperature tended to be earlier in July than August.
56
Table 24. Mean times of first daily minimum1 water temperature for July
and August 1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
July
Duff.3
1999
August
Duff.3
6:02
6:45
6:29
7:06
0:02
-0:22
-0:04
0:09
5:23
4:15
6:19
7:25
0:04
0:55
-0:07
-0:23
7:12
6:56
6:37
7:46
-0:57
0:25
0:15
-0:44
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
6:30
5:55
6:11
6:33
6:29
6:41
6:16
6:14
6:04
-0:03
-0:34
-0:30
0:02
6:23
6:25
7:15
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
4:25
5:00
6:14
7:16
5:04
4:50
6:31
7:04
-0:39
0:10
-0:17
0:12
5:27
5:10
6:12
7:02
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
5:22
6:27
6:44
7:08
6:41
7:23
7:25
7:50
-1:19
-0:56
-0:41
-0:42
6:15
7:21
6:52
7:02
Stevens Creek
1830
5:05
6:00
-0:55
5:41
6:17
-0:36
1675
7:03
7:06
-0:03
6:56
7:39
-0:43
1525
7:25
7:46
-0:21
7:43
8:27
-0:44
1370
6:57
7:25
-0:28
7:02
7:45
-0:43
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily
maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
August mean daily time of first minimum water temperatures were
subtracted from those in July to obtain the time difference.
Generally, minimum water temperatures occurred between 4:30 and 8:00 a.m.
during July and August (Appendix C). Minimum water temperatures tended, with
exceptions, to lag minimum air temperatures. Lag time ranged from a few minutes to well
over 2 hours.
57
2) Elevation
Since there was no strong trend between months for the mean time of daily
minimum air or water temperature, we can discuss elevation differences calculated over
the entire summer. Although there were some significant differences in the mean time of
daily minimum air temperature between elevations, there was no apparent trend (Table
25). Cold air drainage or air pockets were likely associated with the minimum air
temperatures and the time that they occurred would explain some of the variability on the
streams.
In 1998 and 1999, differences in mean time of daily minimum water temperature
occurred on all 4 streams between descending elevations (Table 26). Exceptions occurred
in 1998 on Barney Creek between 1675 and 1525 m, and between 1525 and 1370 m; on
Elk Creek between 1830 and 1675 m; and on Greenhorn Creek between 1675 and 1525
m. In 1999, a single exception occurred on Barney Creek between 1675 and 1525 m.
While the minimum water temperature generally increased with descending
elevation on all the streams, no trend was apparent for the time of minimum water
temperature. The time of minimum water temperature is a factor of meteorological
conditions as well as the natural environment surrounding the streams.
Ho6: Average time of first maximum temperature is the same for the parameter (air..
water) regardless of elevation.
1) Month (July vs. August)
In 1998, daily mean maximum air temperatures tended to occur later in August
than in July on Elk and Greenhorn Creeks (Table 27). For Barney Creek, time of mean
daily maximum air temperatures occurred later in July compared to August 1998 There
58
Table 25. Mean time differences for first daily minimum1 air temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999.
19982
Elev (m)
1999
Time diff Std Error P-value
Time difl Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0:12
0:47
-1:17
0:12
0:118
0:18
0.35
0.011
<.0001
-0:25
0:21
-0:48
0:09
0:09
0:09
0.0059
0.020
<.0001
0:11
0:11
0:11
0.182
<.0001
0.155
0:07
0:07
0:07
0.66
0.56
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0:35
-0:15
-0:31
0:12
0:12
0:12
0.0036
0.208
0.0089
0:15
-0:47
-0:15
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-0:08
-0:29
0:15
0:07
0:07
0:07
0.24
<.000 1
0.0241
0:03
-0:04
0:31
Stevens Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
-0:19
-0:04
0:08
0.0145
-0:07
0.25
0:06
-0:24
0:10
0.659
0:06
<.0001
1525to 1370
0:11
0:10
0.246
0:13
0:06
0.0317
1
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily
maximum temperature.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
Mean daily time of first minimum air temperature at the higher elevation was
subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain the difference.
59
Table 26. Mean time differences for first daily minimum1 water temperature
for descending elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999.
19982
Elev (m)
Time difi Std Error P-value
1999
Time diff Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830to 1675
1675to 1525
1525to 1370
0:20
-0:14
0:11
0:11
0:11
0:11
0.082
-0:3 1
0.21
0.34
0:07
-0:44
0:05
0:05
0:05
<.0001
0.137
<.0001
0:43
-1:33
-0:58
0:09
0:09
0:09
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0:06
0:06
0:06
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-0:11
-1:27
-0:48
0:11
0:11
0:11
0.34
<.000 1
<.0001
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-0:54
-0:09
-0:25
0:06
0:06
0:06
<.0001
0.137
0.0001
-0:25
0:24
-0:40
Stevens Creek
1830to 1675 -1:32
0:09
<.0001
-1:18
0:08
<.0001
1675 to 1525
0:09
-0:31
0.001
-0:47
0:08
<.0001
1525 to 1370
0:24
0:09
0.009
0:08
0:42
<.0001
Daily minimum temperatures were restricted to occurring before the daily
1
2
maximum temperature.
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
Mean daily time of first minimum water temperature at the higher elevation
was subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain the difference.
60
Table 27. Mean times of first daily maximum' air temperature for July and
August 1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
1999
July
August
Duff.3
14:50
17:29
15:37
16:58
13:50
16:04
13:39
15:58
1:00
1:25
1:58
1:00
15:02
16:00
14:23
15:33
14:02
14:19
14:06
14:41
1:00
1:41
Duff.3
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
14:30
16:33
15:34
15:22
13:56
15:35
14:17
14:35
0:34
0:58
1:17
0:47
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
13:19
13:44
14:14
14:33
14:21
14:54
14:45
15:00
-1:02
-1:11
-0:31
-0:27
0:17
0:52
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
14:16
13:22
14:44
15:22
14:31
12:58
16:04
16:10
-0:15
0:24
-1:20
-0:48
15:31
15:19
15:46
15:48
14:31
14:10
14:45
15:02
1:00
1:09
1:01
0:46
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
13:19
14:14
14:05
15:08
-1:08
15:10
14:29
0:41
0:26
14:21
13:52
0:29
-0:28
15:17
14:14
1:03
0:27
15:23
14:29
0:54
'Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
August mean daily time of first maximum air temperatures were subtracted
from those in July to obtain the time difference.
14:27
13:48
14:33
14:41
was no obvious trend for Stevens Creek in 1998. Conversely in 1999, daily mean
maximum air temperatures occurred 1 to 2 hours later in July than August on all 4 creeks.
Generally, over all 4 streams for the entire summer (July and August), maximum air
temperatures occurred between 2:00 and 5:00 p.m. (Appendix C).
61
No month-to-month trend was discernable for time of first mean maximum daily
water temperature (Table 28). Maximum water temperatures occurred on all streams
between 2:00 and 5:00 p.m. (Appendix C).
Table 28. Mean times of first daily maximum' water temperature for July
and August 1998 and 1999.
1998
Elev (m)
July2
August
July
1999
August
Duff.3
15:08
15:41
14:52
15:08
14:35
15:12
14:31
14:48
0:33
0:29
0:21
0:19
13:56
14:52
14:58
15:00
13:52
13:52
14:56
16:39
0:04
1:00
0:02
-1:39
15:04
14:02
14:02
16:31
-0:58
0:54
0:56
-0:25
Duff.3
Barney Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
15:19
14:41
14:25
15:03
14:50
14:45
14:41
14:39
0:29
-0:04
-0:16
0:24
Elk Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
12:52
14:16
14:55
15:03
13:41
14:15
15:29
16:12
-0:49
0:01
-0:34
-1:09
Greenhorn Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
13:30
13:57
14:38
16:41
14:33
14:08
14:31
16:23
-1:03
-0:11
0:07
0:18
14:06
14:56
14:58
16:06
Stevens Creek
1830
1675
1525
1370
13:46
14:04
-0:18
14:27
14:19
0:08
15:03
15:06
-0:03
15:04
16:00
-0:56
15:41
17:04
-1:23
16:10
17:48
-1:38
15:16
14:23
0:53
14:33
15:10
-0:37
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
August mean daily time of first maximum water temperatures were
subtracted from those in July to obtain the time difference.
62
2) Elevation
Differences in the time of daily maximum air temperature between elevations were
observed in 1998 and 1999 on all 4 streams (Table 29). However, no general trend could
be discerned based on these 2 years. Day to day variability in Earth radiation,
meteorological conditions and wind shifts are likely why we did not see a trend associated
with the time of maximum air temperatures.
Table 29. Mean time differences for first daily maximum' air temperature for
descending elevation, July and August 1998 and 1999.
19982
Elev (m)
Time dif1 Std Error P-value
1999
Time difl Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830to 1675
1675to 1525
1525 to 1370
1:51
-1:08
0:03
0:18
0:27
0:27
<.0001
0.011
0.92
2:26
-2:09
1:50
0:13
0:13
0:13
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
0:38
-0:55
0:52
0:12
0:12
0:12
0.0016
<.0001
<.0001
0:10
0:10
0:10
0.11
0.003
0.35
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675to 1525
1525to1370
0:29
0:10
0:17
0:13
0:13
0:13
0.027
0.43
0.18
Greenhorn Creek
1830to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
-1:14
2:14
0:22
0:18
0:18
0:18
<.000 1
<.000 1
0.21
-0:16
0:31
0:10
Stevens Creek
1830to 1675
0:08
0:10
0.44
-0:43
0:08
<.0001
1675to 1525
0:18
0:13
0.17
0:39
0:08
<.0001
1525to 1370
0:35
0:13
0.0079
0:11
0.19
0:08
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were from July 10-31.
Mean daily time of first maximum air temperature at the higher elevation
was subtracted from that at the lower elevation to obtain the difference.
1
63
For July, August, and the entire summer for each year on each stream with few
exceptions, there were differences in time of mean daily first maximum water temperature
between descending elevations (Tables 30 and 31). However, given the association
between stream temperature and the thermal environment it is not unreasonable that both
air and water showed no apparent trend.
Table 30. Mean time differences for first daily maximum1 water temperature for descending elevation, July and
August 1998.
July2 1998
Elev (m)
Time diff3 Std Error P-value
August 1998
Time diff3 Std Error P-value
July and August 1998
Time duff3 Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675to 1525
1525to 1370
-0:38
-0:16
0:38
0:12
0:12
0:12
0.0014
0.16
0.0014
-0:06
-0:04
-0:02
0.56
0.70
0.84
-0:22
-0:10
0:18
0:08
0:08
0:08
0.0047
0.19
0.019
0.0083
<.0001
0.0013
1:00
0:56
0:25
0:10
0:10
0:10
<.0001
<.0001
0.013
0:09
0:09
0:09
0.0006
<.0001
0:10
0:10
0:10
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1:25
675to 1525
0:38
0:08
1525 to 1370
0:15
0:15
0:15
<.0001
0.015
0.60
0:35
1:14
0:43
0:13
0:13
0:13
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525to 1370
0:27
0:41
2:03
0:14
0:14
0:14
0.053
0.0039
<.0001
-0:25
0:23
1:52
0:12
0:12
0:12
0.034
0.050
<.0001
0:01
0:32
1:57
0.91
Stevens Creek
0:10 <.0001
1:02
0:08
<.0001
1:09
0:07
<.0001
0:10
0.0002
0:08
1:58
<.0001
1:18
0:07
<.0001
1525to 1370
0:10
0.015
-2:41
0:08
<.0001
-1:33
0:07
<.0001
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
July temperatures in 1998 were for July 10-3 1.
Mean daily time of first maximum water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the
lower elevation to obtain the difference.
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1:16
0:38
-0:25
Table 31. Mean time differences for first daily maximum1 water temperature for descending elevation, July and
August 1999,
EIev (m)
July 1999
Time diff Std Error P-value
August 1999
Time diff Std Error P-value
July and August 1999
Time dift Std Error P-value
Barney Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0:33
-.0:48
0:15
0:09
0:09
0:09
0.0005
<.0001
0.095
0:37
-0:41
0:17
0:09
0:09
0:09
0,000 1
<.0001
0.060
0:35
-0:45
0:16
0:07
0:07
0:07
<.0001
<.0001
0.012
0:28
0:35
0:52
0:08
0:08
0:08
0.0004
<.0001
<.0001
-0:06
0:07
0:07
0:07
0.39
0.89
<.0001
Elk Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0:56
0:06
0:02
0:11
0:11
0:11
<.0001
0.601
0.86
0:00
1:04
1:43
0:11
0:11
0:11
1.0
<.0001
<.000 1
Greenhorn Creek
1830 to 1675
1675 to 1525
1525 to 1370
0:50
0:02
1:08
0:10
0:10
0:10
<.0001
0.84
<.0001
-.1:02
0:00
2:29
0:10
0:10
0:10
<.0001
1.0
<.0001
0:01
1:48
Stevens Creek
0:10
1:41
1830 to 1675
0:37
0.0004
0:10
<.0001
1:09
0:07 <.0001
1675 to 1525
0:10 <.0001
1:06
1:48
0:10
<.0001
1:27
<.0001
0:07
1525 to 1370 -1:37
0:10 <.0001
-2:39
0:10
<.000 1
-2:08
0:07
<.0001
Daily maximum temperatures were restricted to occurring after 7 am.
2
Mean daily time of first maximum water temperature at the higher elevation was subtracted from that at the
lower elevation to obtain the difference.
66
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The influence of solar radiation on stream temperature is decreased as thermal
equilibrium with the environment is approached (Edinger et al. 1968, Adams and Sullivan
1989). Under these conditions, heat transfer would most likely be dominated by the
difference between stream and air temperature (Adams and Sullivan 1989). The rate of
heat transfer would be determined by the temperature gradient between air and water, the
amount of surface area exposed to the thermal gradient, and the speed with which the
water moves through the environment (Raphael 1962).
For all streams in this study, elevation was significantly associated with air, soil,
and water temperatures (p<O.0001). For most cases on each of the streams, mean daily
air, soil, and water temperatures increased with every 150 meter drop in elevation.
Figures 1 to 3 illustrate the increase in mean daily air, soil, and water temperature with
descending elevation on all 4 streams for August 1999. Mean air temperature for August
1999 on Barney, Elk, Greenhorn, and Stevens Creeks increased from 15.1, 13.4, 13.6, and
12.8°C at 1830 m elevation to 17.2, 15.0, 15.9, and 15.9°C at 1370 m elevation
respectively (Appendix D). The overall rate of change (change °C /150 m drop in
elevation) for air temperature on each creek was 0.7, 0.5, 0.7, and 1.0 respectively. Mean
soil temperature for August 1999 on Barney, Elk, Greenhorn, and Stevens Creeks
increased from 13.0, 10.0, 10.4, and 9.8°C at 1830 m elevation to 16.0, 11.9, 14.4, and
16.0°C at 1370 m elevation respectively. The overall rate of change (change °C /150 m
drop in elevation) for soil temperature on each creek was 1.1, 0.7, 1.0, and 1.9
respectively. Mean water temperature for August 1999 on Barney, Elk, Greenhorn, and
o
Barney
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
Elevation (meters)
Figure 1. Mean air temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
Barney
X
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
-
- Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
6.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 2. Mean water temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
1370
1220
18.00 17.00 16.00 15.00 Barney
14.00 -
o
Elk
)(
Greenhorn
Stevens
13.00-
- - - Barney
12.00 -
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
11.00 10.00 -
--
9.00 -
'ill
1970
1820
1670
Elevation (meters)
Figure 3. Mean soil temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
1520
1370
1220
70
Stevens Creeks increased from 10.8, 7.4, 9.9, and 7.0°C at 1830 m elevation, to 14.7,
10.1, 14.9, and 13.7°C at 1370 m elevation respectively. The overall rate of change for
water temperature (change °C /150 m drop in elevation) on each creek was 1.4, 0.9, 1.5,
and 2.2 respectively. Similar trends occurred in July and August 1998 and July 1999
(Appendix D and Appendix E). The thermal environment (air and soil surrounding the
stream) as well as the stream temperatures responded similarly on each stream. Barney
Creek had the overall highest mean daily air, soil, and water temperatures, followed by
Greenhorn, Stevens, and Elk Creeks. Elk Creek consistently had the lowest mean daily
air, soil, and water temperatures. Of the 4 streams, Stevens Creek consistently had the
greatest increases in mean daily air, water, and soil temperatures with descending
elevation. Greenhorn Creek was the most variable in terms of temperature changes with
descending elevation for mean daily air, water, and soil. The variability was likely
associated with topographic (elevation and aspect) and disturbance characteristics along
the creek.
Elevation was also significant for mean daily maximum temperatures for air, soil,
and water (p<O.0001). Mean daily maximum air and water, as well as mean daily
minimum water temperatures generally increased with descending elevation on all 4
streams (Appendix D and Appendix E). Mean daily minimum air temperature showed
more variation with elevation, and likely reflected patterns of cold air drainage or cold air
pockets.
-7
Monthly differences were evident in the data but did not demonstrate repeated
trends over the 2 year study. Variability in annual, monthly, and daily patterns of air mass
movement and meteorological conditions are common in natural systems. It is important
to note that the lack of a trend suggests that atmospheric conditions introduced enough
temperature variation to mask trends associated with annual solar angle (radiation)
patterns.
Stream flow (discharge and velocity) was measured 6 times each year at each
elevation on each stream. For both years, stream discharge (m3/s) on Barney Creek,
Stevens Creek, and Greenhorn Creek decreased progressively throughout the summer
(Appendix F). Elk Creek maintained a relatively consistent flow throughout the summer
in part due to saturated soils and 2 side tributaries. On a relative basis in 1999, Elk Creek
had the largest flows, followed by Greenhorn, Barney and Stevens Creeks. Elk and
Barney Creeks had similar overall flow rates. Barney Creek was approximately twice the
flow of Stevens Creek. Greenhorn Creek had similar flows at its upper elevations to
Stevens, but by 1370 m elevation it had much larger flows due to a large tributary located
at 1499 m elevation. Velocity and discharge influence the rate and amount of heating on
streams (Edinger et al. 1968; Adams and Sullivan 1989; Ward 1985; Raphael 1962; and
Larson and Larson 1996). If all other factors were constant, we would expect Stevens
Creek to have had the most and fastest heating based upon discharge followed by Barney,
Greenhorn and Elk Creeks. Based upon velocity the sequence would be Greenhorn,
Stevens, Barney, and Elk Creeks in 1998; and Stevens, Greenhorn, Barney and Elk in
1999. Average velocity decreased on each stream as the season progressed in both 1998
(Barney, 0.59 to 0.19 mIs; Elk, 0.45 to 0.42 mIs; Greenhorn, 0.22 to 0.07 mIs; and
72
Stevens, 0.25 to 0.11 mIs), and 1999 (Barney, 0.39 to 0.24 mIs; Elk, 0.43 to 0.37 mIs;
Greenhorn, 0.33 to 0.12 mIs; and Stevens, 0.23 to 0.15 mIs). Average time for water to
travel from 1830 to 1370 m sites increased as the season progressed in both 1998 (Barney,
2.6 to 8.0 hours; Elk, 4.0 to 4.4 hours; Greenhorn, 11.9 to 37.5 hours; and Stevens, 6.0 to
13.7 hours), and 1999 (Barney, 3.9 to 6.4 hours; Elk, 4.3 to 4.9 hours; Greenhorn, 8.0 to
29.2 hours; and Stevens, 6.6 to 10.0 hours).
When evaluated within month, our results generally conformed to the expectations
regarding velocity and discharge. Stevens Creek consistently had the greatest rate of
increase and Elk Creek the slowest rate of increase in temperature with descending
elevation. Barney and Greenhorn Creeks demonstrated more variability depending on the
year and month.
The role of vegetation (canopy cover) in relation to air, soil, and water
temperatures was not specifically studied in this thesis. Stevens Creek had a multiple story
forested canopy and still demonstrated the highest mean increases in temperature with
descending elevation (°C1150 m drop in elevation) for air, soil, and water. Multistory
forested canopy cover would limit the amount of direct solar radiation reaching the stream
or soil surrounding Stevens Creek. However, vegetative cover also reduces the amount
and rate of Earth radiation escaping to the atmosphere at night. A comparison of daytime
heating to nighttime thermal patterns would help describe this process.
Stream temperature continuously adjusts toward the equilibrium temperature of
the thermal environment (Edinger et al. 1968). The equilibrium temperature in turn is
continuously being modified to reflect changes that occur within the thermal environment.
Atmospheric conditions tend to show the greatest and most frequent change within the
73
thermal environment. This study showed strong associations between water temperature
and atmospheric conditions. Elevation, a factor shown to have a strong association with
the thermal environment of this study, represents an indirect measure of vertical
atmospheric conditions and its influence upon the thermal environment. Similarly,
monthly associations represent exposure to annual, monthly, and daily patterns of
atmospheric conditions. The fact that 2 year trends were not established in this study
points to the dominating influence of atmospheric variation over consistent solar angle
patterns during July and August which dictate incoming solar radiation.
Thermal environment and stream temperatures are site specific and dependent
upon a number of factors. These factors include: elevation; meteorological conditions;
soil moisture and groundwater influence; stream depth, width, and velocity; gradient
(rise/run) and linear distance traveled (water); side channel inputs (water); and vegetation
cover. It would be unusual for only one driving force to dominate a number of streams
within a watershed. In this study, for example, the buffering impact of cold water inputs
were evident in Elk creek in contrast to the forest covered Stevens Creek which yielded
the greatest rate of heating of any of the streams studied. Land managers must consider
all of the above mentioned factors when evaluating stream temperature. Stream
temperature is a function of the thermal environment to which it is exposed.
74
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Beschta, R. L. 1997. Riparian shade and stream temperature: an alternative perspective.
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Mangelson and Zimmer. 1997. Burnt River Basin Water Temperature Modeling Study
for the Burnt River Temperature Steering Committee. Preliminary Draft Study
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McRae, G. and C. J. Edwards. 1994. Thermal characteristics of Wisconsin headwater
streams occupied by beaver: implications for brook trout habitat. Transactions of
the American Fisheries Society 123:641-656.
Meisner, J. D., J. S. Rosenfeld, and H. A. Regier. 1988. The role of groundwater in
the impact of climate warming on stream salmonines. Fisheries Vol.13, No.3: 28.
Oregon Administrative Rules, chapter 340-041-[basin] (3). Department of
Environmental Quality, Water Pollution. State-Wide Water Quality Maintenance
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Experiments (Spring 1996), Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., 1996. pp. 255-3 80.
76
Stefan, H. G. and E. B. Preud'homme. 1993. Stream temperature estimation from
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Strahier A. H., and A. N. Strahler. 1992. Modern Physical Geography. John Wiley &
Sons Inc. New York. pp. 3 8-46, 83.
Technical Subcommittee on Temperature Report to Oregon Department of
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77
APPENDICES
78
APPENDIX A
In the ANOVAs (Tables 1, 2 and 3), day is treated as a random effects blocking
factor and month is an aggregate of days. Month is not being statistically tested.
Table 1. ANOVAs for the fixed effects month (July and August), elevation (1830,
1675, 1525, 1370 m), their interaction, and the random effects day within month.
Air Temperatures
a. Barney Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val
1
3
3
51
136
136
P-Val
423.33 <.0001
6.85 0.0002
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
1
3
3
60
180
180
308.17 <.0001
0.3
0.8244
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
51
6.4456
Day(Month)
Residual
136
0.1912
Source
Den DF Estimate
14.5446
Day(Month)
60
180
0.1846
Residual
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val
1
51
3
136
136
3
31.19
1.25
P-Val
Source
<.0001
0.2927
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
1
3
3
60
180
180
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
136
Estimate
6.6528
0.572
Source
Dav(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
10.2787
0.5943
9.85
0.62
<.0001
0.6025
79
Table la. Barney Creek Continued
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-VaI
Month
1
51
Elev
3
136
33.31
3
Month*Elev
136
26.91
P-Val
<.0001
<.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-VaJ P-Val
Month
1
60
Elev
3
180
120.28 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
13.01 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
136
Estimate
12.0348
3.7885
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
26.3315
2.9179
80
Table 1. Continued
b) Elk Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
680.0
Month*Elev
3
153
12.65
P-Val
<.0001
<.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
60
1
Elev
3
180
191.32 <.0001
Month*Elev
180
3
11.84 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
4.3938
Residual
153
0.1113
Source
Den DF Estimate
10.8112
60
Day(Month)
0.1622
Residual
180
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val
Month
51
1
Elev
153
3
75.91
Month*Elev
3
153
5.08
P-Val
<.0001
0.0022
Source
Num DF Den DF F-VaI P-Val
60
Month
1
Elev
180
3
127.96 <.0001
Month*Elev
180
3
1.37 0.2539
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
5.0264
0.4018
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
7.8568
0.583
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val
Month
51
1
Elev
3
153
546.47
3
153
Month*Elev
2.39
P-Va!
<.0001
0.0709
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
60
1
Month
Elev
180
3
269.65 <.0001
Month*Elev
180
10.49 <.0001
3
Variance components estimates
Source
DF
Estimate
Day(Month)
Residual
51
153
10.840
0.908
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
24.250
0.5187
81
Table 1. Continued
c) Greenhorn Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Val
Month
1
51
Elev
153
3
274.07 <.0001
3
153
0.59 0.6256
Month*Elev
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Vai
Month
1
60
Elev
3
180
564.75 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
3.7 0.0129
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
6.5053
Residual
153
0.1685
Source
Den DF Estimate
60
14.6345
Day(Month)
Residual
180
0.1069
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*E!ev
Num DF Den DF F-Val
1
51
3
153
3
153
56.59
0.96
P-Va!
<.0001
0.4121
Source
Num DF Den DF
Month
60
1
Elev
3
180
Month*Elev
3
180
F-Vai
P-Val
39.78 <.0001
2.39 0.0704
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
6.2481
0.3816
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
10.8596
0.4441
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val
1
3
3
51
153
153
P-VaI
200.84 <.0001
2.21 0.0893
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Vai P-Val
Month
1
60
EIev
3
180
397.2 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
0.19 0.9036
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
12.5475
1.0209
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
26.7494
0.5655
82
Table 1. Continued
d) Stevens Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*EIev
Num DF Den DF
1
51
3
139
139
3
F-Val
P-Val
1250.16 <.0001
3.61
0.015
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
1
60
Elev
3
180
1217.02<.0001
Month*Elev
1.14 0.336
3
180
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
5.2031
Residual
139
0.0909
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
60
11.679
0.0861
Residual
180
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF
Month
51
1
Elev
3
139
3
139
Month*Elev
F-Val
P-Val
144.56 <.0001
9.79 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Val
1
Month
60
E!ev
3
180
121.89 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
1.98 0.1193
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
139
Estimate
5.8696
0.2404
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
8.515
0.2425
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF
Month
1
51
Elev
3
139
139
Month*Elev
3
F-Va!
P-Val
60.22
0.51
<.0001
0.6742
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
60
1
Elev
3
180
79.75 <.0001
Month*EIev
3
180
0.58 0.6267
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
Estimate
51
12.218
1.2738
139
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
Estimate
25.135
180
1.225
83
Table 2. ANOVAs for the fixed effects month (July and August), elevation (1830,
1675, 1525, 1370 m), their interaction, and the random effects day within month.
Water Temperatures: a) Barney Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Va!
Source
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
3027.91 <.0001
3
153
11.29 <.0001
Month*Elev
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
60
Month
1
4691.69 <.0001
Elev
3
180
Month*Elev
180
1.21 0.3088
3
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
51
Day(Month)
1.3426
153
Residual
0.05065
Source
Den DF Estimate
Dav(Month)
60
2.2837
0.04206
Residual
180
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Va!
1
51
Month
Elev
3
153
376.92 <.0001
3
153
Month*Elev
19.59 <.0001
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Source
1
60
Month
1769.1 <.0001
EIev
3
180
Month*Elev
0.36 0.7798
3
180
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
1.5246
0.161
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
2.3592
0.04972
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Source
1
51
Month
Elev
3
153
3515.36 <.0001
3
153
27.3 <.0001
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Va!
Source
1
60
Month
2583.32 <.0001
Elev
3
180
Month*Elev
4.97 0.0024
3
180
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
2.1685
0,1045
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
3.6958
0.1628
84
Table 2. Continued
b) Elk Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val
1
51
3
153
153
3
P-Val
2378.68 <.0001
35.64 <.0001
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
Den DF Estimate
1
60
3
180
180
3
P-Val
1392.16 <.0001
2.76 0.0437
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
0.261
Residual
153
0.04742
60
180
0.3863
0.06274
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-VaI P-Val
Month
1
51
Elev
153
3
882.98 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
153
22.57 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Vai P-Val
Month
60
1
Elev
3
475.4 <.0001
180
Month*Elev
180
9.87 <.0001
3
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
0.2989
0.05848
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
0.4269
0.07566
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-VaI
3
51
153
3
153
1
P-Va!
1334.37 <.0001
22.95 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
60
1
Elev
3
180
912.17 <.0001
Month*EIev
12.13 <.0001
180
3
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
0.658
0. 107 1
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
0.8108
0.1244
85
Table 2. Continued
c) Greenhorn Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
Month*Eley
3
153
F-Val
1931
27.65
P-Val
<.0001
<.0001
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
1
3
3
60
180
180
837.29 <.0001
5.89 0.0007
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
0.9591
Residual
153
0.1358
Source
Den DF Estimate
60
Day(Month)
1.8191
Residual
180
0.2722
M.iniimun
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF
1
3
3
51
153
153
F-Va!
P-Va!
1203.52 <.0001
28.07 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Va!
Month
1
60
Elev
3
180
408.03 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
17.07 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
Estimate
51
153
1.1041
0.105
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
1.9334
0.229
Maximnuni
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
1301.91 <.0001
3
Month*Elev
153
9.41 <.0001
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Source
Month
1
60
Elev
3
773.7 <.0001
180
Month*Elev
3
180
1.22 0.3025
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
1.6614
0.3718
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
60
180
Estimate
2.5188
0.6036
86
Table 2. Continued
d) Stevens Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Va!
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
2826.99 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
153
8.73 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
1
60
E!ev
3
180
1647.48 <.0001
Month*E!ev
3
180
8.84 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
0.7868
Residual
153
0.1729
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
60
1.3668
Residual
180
0.2788
Minimum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Va!
3
51
153
3
153
1
P-Val
878.06 <.000!
12.81 <.0001
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Vai
3
60
180
180
DF
Estimate
60
180
0.2798
1
3
P-Va!
547.69 <.0001
17.66 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
Estimate
51
153
0.9973
0.2127
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
1.425
Maximum
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Va!
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
3630.03 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
153
2.55 0.0582
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Va!
Month
1
60
E!ev
3
180
2638.11 <.0001
Month*E!ev
3
180
4.53 0.0044
Variance components estimates
Source
Day(Month)
Residual
DF
51
153
Estimate
0.8633
0.3084
Source
Dav(Month)
Residual
DF
Estimate
60
180
1.6577
0.4297
87
Table 3. AJ'4OVAs for the fixed effects month (July and August), elevation (1830,
1675, 1525, 1370 m), their interaction, and the random effects day within month.
Soil Temperatures
Barney Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va!
Month
EIev
Month*Elev
3
51
153
3
153
1
P-Val
2496.07 <.0001
15.9
<.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
Month
1
60
EIev
3
180
1663.79 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
21.01 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
0.9016
Residual
153
0.09347
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
60
0.7663
Residual
180
0.1064
Elk Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-VaI
1
51
3
153
3
153
P-Va!
723.98 <.0001
50.85 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Vai
Month
1
60
Elev
3
180
357.36 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
57.47 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
51
0.3089
Residual
0.06548
153
Source
Den DF Estimate
Dav(Month)
60
0.3849
180
0.0955
Residual
88
Table 3. Continued
Greenhorn Creek
1999
1998
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Month
Elev
Month*Elev
Num DF Den DF F-Va!
P-Va!
3
51
153
4618.5 <0001.
3
153
9.91 <.0001
1
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Val P-Val
1
60
Month
E!ev
3
180
4080.59 <.0001
3
180
78.85 <.0001
Month*E!ev
Variance components estimates
Source
Den DF Estimate
Day(Month)
0.3274
51
Residual
153
0.03181
Source
Den DF Estimate
60
0.7966
Day(Month)
Residual
180
0.0674
Stevens Creek
1998
1999
Mean
Test of Fixed Effects
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Va!
Month
1
51
Elev
3
153
8916.73 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
153
46.81 <.0001
Source
Num DF Den DF F-Va! P-Vai
1
Month
60
Elev
3
180
6477.96 <.0001
Month*Elev
3
180
21.28 <.0001
Variance components estimates
Source
DayMonth)
Residual
Den DF Estimate
51
153
0.5079
0.03287
Source
Den DF Estimate
60
0,7278
Day(Month)
180
0.06394
Residual
*Note similar ANOVA tables occurred for other variables including: time of first daily
maximum temperature, and time of first daily minimum temperature.
89
APPENDIX B
Concepts and Definitions
Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
gram of a substance by 1°C. Water requires approximately five times more heat energy
to increase its temperature by 1°C than sand and approximately four times more heat
energy than air. Due to its specific heat capacity, water tends to heat more slowly and
cool more slowly than air or soil. The specific heat capacity (cal!g!°C) of water; air;
and sand are 1.0, 0.24, and 0.19 respectively (Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Temperature is a measure of the quantity of energy, or heat per unit volume in an
object. More specifically, it is a measure of the kinetic energy produced by the
movement of molecules within the object. Heat measured in an object depends on both
temperature and mass. It takes five times more energy to increase the temperature of
25g (0.9oz) of water from 20 to 25 °C (68 - 77°F) than to increase 5 g (0.15 oz) of
water the same amount (Hidore and Oliver 1993). The temperature of an object, or
within an object, determines the direction in which energy will flow. Heat always flows
from the area of most heat or highest temperature, to that of least heat (Hidore and
Oliver 1993). The first and second laws of thermodynamics state that energy can only
be transformed, it cannot be created or destroyed, and that heat flows spontaneously
from an area or substance of higher temperature to one of lower temperature.
90
Albedo and Reflectivity
The amount of solar radiation absorbed by water will vary with depth and time of
day. The reflectivity of water decreases as the sun gets higher in the sky and as the
waters surface gets rough (Hidore and Oliver 1993). Table 4 illustrates the reflectivity
of various surfaces.
Table 4. Reflectivity of various surfaces to solar radiation (adapted from Hidore and
Oliver 1993).
Surface
Snow
Clouds
Cumuliform
Stratus
Cirrostratus
Grass meadow
Coniferous Forest
Deciduous Forest
Albedo % (reflectivity)
75-95
70-90
60-84
44-50
10-20
5-15
10-20
Water
angle of inclination of the sun
00
99+
10
35
6
2.5
2
30
50
90
Processes and Rates of Heating
Sensible Heat Transfer
Some of the Earth's energy is transferred from the Earth to the air above by
conduction. Since air is a poor conductor of heat, only a small layer of air is heated in
this manner. The layer of warm air becomes less dense and moves upward by
convection while the conduction process continues at the surface. This conduction-
91
convection energy exchange is the main heating process in the lower atmosphere
(Hidore and Oliver 1993).
Latent Heat Transfer
Evaporation, the process by which water is transformed from a liquid to a gaseous
state, requires a large amount of energy. Energy is absorbed and stored in the water
vapor until condensation occurs in the atmosphere, and the water vapor reverts to a
liquid state releasing energy back into the air. Evaporation occurs because of
differences in vapor pressure at the water surface and in the air above, air and water
temperatures, wind, atmospheric pressure, and quality of the water. The higher the
temperature, the greater the energy of the molecules and the greater the rate of emission
(Cutnell and Johnson 1992).
Adiabatic Heating and Cooling
Adiabatic heating is a thermodynamic process in which no heat exchange occurs
between a working system and its environment (Linsley et al. 1949). When a parcel of
air at one level is forced to a lower level, the higher pressure at the lower level
decreases the volume, and the work of compression is converted to heat energy which
increases the temperature of the air. The result is "dynamic heating". On the contrary,
when a parcel of air is lifted to a higher level, less external pressure is exerted on it and
it expands. The rising parcel does work on the surrounding air by exerting pressure
outward. The source of energy for this work is the heat in the ascending air, which
cools as it rises. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is approximately 1°C per 100 meters. If a
saturated parcel of air is lifted adiabatically, it will cool dynamically resulting in
92
condensation and the release of the latent heat of vaporization which reduces the rate
of cooling in the rising air parcel. The saturated adiabatic lapse rate is approximately
0.6°C per 100 meters.
93
APPENDIX C
Table 5. Time' of first minimum2 and maximum3 air and water temperatures (°C) for
July and August, 1998.
Water (°C)
Air (°C)
Month
Elevation(m) 1830 1675
1525
1830
1675
1525
1370
6:30
4:25
5:22
5:05
5:55
5:00
6:27
7:03
6:11
6:16
7:16
7:08
6:57
15:19
12:52
13:30
13:46
14:41
5:31
6:33
5:50
6:02
5:29
5:04
6:29
4:50
6:41
7:23
6:41
6:31
7:25
6:00
7:06
7:46
1370
Minmrnm
July
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
5:22
5:25
4:35
4:49
4:49
4:44
4:44
5:44
3:32
5:00
5:35
5:25
5:38
5:49
5:30
5:35
6:14
6:44
7:25
Maximum
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
14:30 16:33 15:34
13:19 13:44 14:14
14:16 13:22 14:44
13:19 14:14 14:05
15:22
14:33
15:22
15:08
14:25 15:03
14:16 14:55 15:03
13:57 14:38 16:41
15:03 15:41 15:16
Minimum
August Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
5:12 5:21
5:52 5:23
6:14 6:21
5:52 5:35
5:04
5:37
6:27
6:02
6:14
7:04
7:50
7:25
Maximum
13:56 15:35 14:17 14:35
Barney
14:50 14:45 14:4 1 14:39
14:21 14:54 14:45 15:00
Elk
13:4 1 14:15 15:29 16:12
14:3 1 12:58 16:04 16:10
Greenhorn
14:33 14:08 14:3 1 16:23
Stevens
14:27 13:48 "I.-,.) 14:4 1
14:04 15:06 17:04 14:23
'Values were analyzed using a decirnal system converted at the end into a time scale.
2
Time of first minimum temperature is restricted to occurring before first maximum.
' Time of first maximum temperature is restricted to occurring after 7 am.
1
94
Table 6. Time' of first minimum2 and maximum3 air and water temperatures (°C) for
July and August, 1999.
Water (°C)
Air (°C)
Month
Elevation(m) 1830 1675
1525
1370
1830
1675
1525
1370
6:04
5:27
6:23
6:25
6:12
6:52
7:43
7:15
7:02
7:02
7:02
Minimum
July
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
4:56
4:48
5:50
5:08
4:52
4:35
6:06
5:17
4:43
5:15
5:54
5:58
5:25
5:33
4:46
5:23
6:15
5:41
5:10
7:21
6:56
Maximum
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
14:50 17:29 15:37 16:58
15:02 16:00 14:23 15:33
15:31 15:19 15:46 15:48
15:10 14:21 15:17 15:23
14:52 15:08
14:52 14:58 15:00
14:56 14:58 16:06
15:04 16:10 14:33
15:08
13:56
14:06
14:27
15:41
6:02
6:45
4:15
6:56
7:39
Minimum
August Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
4:19 5:14
4:56 4:41
5:46 5:25
5:33 5:37
4:41
5:35
5:45
5:45
5:35
5:48
5:50
5:54
5:23
7:12
6:17
6:29
6:19
6:37
8:27
7:06
7:25
7:46
7:45
Maximum
Barney
13:50 16:04 1_,
Ii..) 15:58
14:35 15:12 14:31 14:48
Elk
14:02 14:19 14:06 14:4 1
13:52 13:52 14:56 16:39
Greenhorn
14:31 14:10 14:45 15:02
15:04 14:02 14:02 16:3 1
Stevens
14:29 13:52 14:14 14:29
14:19 16:00 17:48 15:10
'Values were analyzed using a decim al system converted at the end into a time scale.
2
Time of first minimum temperature is restricted to occurring before first maximum.
Time of first maximum temperature is restricted to occurring after 7 am.
95
Table 7. Time' of first minimum2 and maximum3 air and water temperatures (°C) over
bothJulyand August, 1998 and 1999.
Water (°C)
Air (°C)
Year
Elevation(m) 1830 1675 1525
1370
1830
1675
1525
1370
6:31
6:12
4:55
6:55
7:04
6:26
6:22
7:04
7:35
6:15
7:10
7:29
7:11
Minimum
1998
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
5:17 5:05
5:38 5:03
5:25 5:32
5:21 5:39
4:18
5:18
6:01
5:44
5:35
5:50
5:46
5:32
4:44
6:01
5:33
Maximum
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
14:13 16:04
13:50 14:19
14:24 13:10
13:53 14:01
14:56
14:29
15:24
14:19
14:58
14:46
15:46
14:54
15:05 14:43 14:33 14:51
13:16 14:16 15:12 15:37
14:01 14:03 14:35 16:32
13:55 15:04 16:22 14:50
Minimum
1999
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
4:38
4:52
5:48
5:20
5:03
4:38
5:45
5:27
4:42
5:25
5:49
5:51
5:30
5:41
5:18
5:39
6:03
5:25
6:44
5:59
6:34
4:43
7:09
7:17
6:27
6:15
6:45
8:05
7:11
7:14
7:24
7:23
Maximum
Barney
14:20 16:46 14:38 16:28
14:51 15:26 14:42 14:58
Elk
14:32 15:10 14:15 15:07
13:54 14:22 14:57 15:49
Greenhorn
15:01 14:45 15:15 15:25
14:35 14:29 14:30 16:18
14:49 14:07 14:45 14:56
Stevens
14:23 15:32 16:59 14:51
'Values were analyzed using a decirn al system converted at the end into a time scale.
2
Time of first minimum temperature is restricted to occurring before first maximum.
Time of first maximum temperature is restricted to occurring after 7 am.
96
APPENDIX D
Table 8. Mean, minimum, and maximum air, water, and soil temperatures (°C) for all
streams at all elevations (meters) for July', 1998,
Water (°C)
Air (°C)
Stream
Barney
Barney
Barney
Barney
Elevation (m) Mean Mm2 Max2
Mean
25.8
31.8
12.4
13.5
10.3
0
15.3
1830
1675
1525
1370
16.9
18.8
19.4
19.6
10.0
11.1
29.6
Elk
Elk
Elk
Elk
1830
1675
1525
9.8
9.4
1.)
14.7
16.6
16.7
18.0
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
1830
1675
1525
1370
16.3
18.3
17.4
18.2
11.1
10.3
8.9
9.2
10.5
9.7
9.1
Mm2 Max2
Soil (°C)
Mean
16.4
9.6
10.2
11.4
12.5
20.2
21.7
13.6
15.6
18.3
18.3
20.8
26.0
26.5
28.3
7.9
8.5
9.7
11.6
6.8
7.0
7.9
9.4
9.8
11.4
13.2
14.0
10.7
11.1
11.6
12.5
24.8
28.1
26.9
29.0
11.3
13.0
13.1
17.2
9.1
15.0
14.8
15.9
10.9
11.4
13.3
14.6
11.4
11.2
13.4
16.1
17.8
21.7
Stevens
1830
15.2
8.4
27.4
6.8
7.4
8.5
11.4
Stevens
1675
16.9
10.3
26.6
9.5
8.4
10.9
11.8
Stevens
l525
18.0
10.7
27.6
11.5
10.0
13.2
12.6
Stevens
1370
18.7
10.3
29.7
15.0
11.6
19.6
16.4
July temperatures in 1998 are from July 10-3 1.
2
'Mm' and 'Max' are mean minimum and mean maximum temperatures.
Air temperatures for Stevens and Barney creek at 1525 mare from July 10-12, 30, 31
in 1998. Least square means.
97
Table 9. Mean, minimum and maximum air, water and soil temperatures (°C) for all
streams at all elevations (meters) for August, 1998.
Water (°C)
Air (°C)
Stream
Barney
Barney
Barney
Barney
Elevation (m)
Mean Mm1 Max1
Mean Mm'
Soil (°C)
Mean
1830
1675
1525
1370
15.2
16.9
17.9
18.4
7.8
9.4
8,4
8.9
26.9
26.5
29.2
29.8
11.6
12.5
9.0
9.2
Max1
15.0
16.8
14.5
15.2
10.3
10.8
20.2
21.1
17.3
1830
13.4
14.8
14.8
16.0
7.7
7.0
8.0
5.9
20.7
25.3
26.3
27.4
7.6
7.9
9.0
10.5
6.5
6.5
7.2
8.3
9.4
10.8
12.1
12.6
10.2
10.0
11.4
12.5
15.0
23.8
27.7
26.5
29.0
10.9
12.0
12.5
15.6
8.4
10.5
10.3
11.6
14.6
13.7
15.4
20.1
11.1
16.2
17.0
6.8
8.0
7.3
6.4
13.1
15.1
6.4
8.0
8.3
7.2
7.2
9.6
11.3
14.3
6.5
8.4
9.8
10.5
8.3
16.4
16.6
26.5
25.6
26.4
28.3
11.0
12.9
19.0
10.6
11.8
12.3
Elk
Elk
Elk
Elk
1370
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
1830
1675
1525
1370
Stevens
Stevens
Stevens
Stevens
1830
1675
1525
1370
1675
1525
17.1
'Mm' and 'Max' are mean minimum and mean maximum temperatures.
13.4
14.8
17.4
11.6
13.2
14.8
16.3
98
Table 10. Mean, minimum and maximum air, water and soil temperatures (°C) for all
streams at all elevations (meters) for July, 1999.
Air (°C)
Stream
Barney
Barney
Barney
Barney
Elevation (m)
Water (°C)
Mean Mm' Max'
1830
1675
1525
1370
14.6
15.3
16.3
16.8
6.2
6.6
6.2
6.9
23.5
29.3
29.2
29.7
Elk
Elk
Elk
Elk
1830
1675
1525
1370
12.8
13.6
13.9
14.5
5.6
4.6
7.0
4.4
21.3
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
1830
1675
1525
1370
13.1
14.6
14.6
15.6
Stevens
Stevens
Stevens
Stevens
1830
1675
1525
1370
12.5
13.6
14.7
15.4
Mean
9.6
Mm1
6.4
Soil (°C)
Max1
13.7
15.2
18.1
19.2
Mean
12.2
13.7
15.7
16.1
10.7
12.5
13.6
8.1
9.1
23.7
23.5
25.0
7.2
7.7
8.7
9.9
6.0
6.0
6.6
7.4
9.4
10.9
12.3
12.5
9.2
10.5
10.8
10.7
5.2
6.5
5.6
5.7
21.3
23.4
24.3
25.9
9.0
10.3
10.9
13.2
6.7
8.3
8.8
9.1
12.8
12.5
13.9
18.4
8.5
13.4
10.5
13.4
4.9
23.9
23.7
24.0
26.5
6.1
5.4
6.4
7.5
8.4
7.2
9.3
11.1
17.3
8.4
10.0
9.9
6.1
6.6
5.5
7.7
9.2
12.2
'Mm' and 'Max' are mean minimum and mean maximum temperatures.
14.1
99
Table 11. Mean, minimum, and maximum air, water and soil temperatures (°C) for all
streams at all elevations (meters) for August. 1999.
Elevation (m) Mean Mm1 Max'
1830
15.1
8.5
23.6
1675
8.7
25.7
15.7
1525
27.0
16.6
8.7
1370
17.2
9.2
28.2
Stream
Barney
Barney
Barney
Barney
Elk
Elk
Elk
Elk
Soil (°C)
Water (°C)
Air (°C)
Mean Mm'
10.8
11.9
13.8
14.7
7.4
7.7
8.7
8.6
9.2
10.3
11.2
Max'
Mean
13.8
15.4
18.7
19.4
13.0
8.9
10.0
11.1
11.7
10.0
10.3
11.3
11.9
14.3
16.4
16.0
1830
1675
1525
1370
13.4
13.7
13.7
15.0
7.8
6.6
8.9
6.9
21.1
23.0
22.0
24.7
10.1
7.3
8.4
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
Greenhorn
1830
1675
1525
1370
13.6
7.3
8.5
15.9
8.0
7.5
21.4
23.6
24.4
26.0
9.9
11.4
11.9
14.9
8.2
10.1
10.4
11.7
12.6
12.8
14.2
18.5
10.4
13.9
12.2
14.4
Stevens
Stevens
Stevens
Stevens
1830
12.8
14.0
15.2
15.9
7.0
8.0
8.6
7.8
23.7
23.2
23.7
25.9
7.0
9.2
11.0
13.7
6.4
8.2
9.8
10.6
7.9
10.3
12.3
17.7
9.8
11.2
11.4
16.0
1
.
1675
1525
1370
15.1
15.1
6.6
6.5
'Mm' and 'Max' are mean minimum and mean maximum temperatures.
*
__fr- - -
U
- 15.00
1)
-J
*
0
Barney
2.
Greenhorn
Stevens
)(
a
Elk
- - - Barney
E
a 1700
- - - Elk
H
Greenhorn
Stevens
0
Elevation (meters)
Figure Ia. Mean air temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1998
20.00
19.00
18.00
Barney
17.00
-J
16.00
1)
Elk
)<
Grecitliorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
E
H
a
Elk
15.00
Greenhorn
Stevens
14.00
13.00
Elevation (meters)
Figure lb Mean air temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1998
.
Barnes
o
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barnes'
-- --Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
Elevation (meters)
Figure Ic. Mean air temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1999
18.00
16.00
14.00
aL)
U
t
12.00
)(
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
Greenhorn
10.00
Stevens
- - - Elk
8.00
6.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 2a. Mean water temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1998
1370
1220
16.00
15.00
14.00
13.00
*
o
12.00
Elk
Greenhorn
X
Stevens
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Elk
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 2b Mean water temperature (°C) for all streams August 1998
.
L
- - - Barney
J ::
1970
Barney
1370
1220
14.00
13.0()
12.00
11.00
10.00
G
Barney
IJ
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
L)
f
900
- - - Bariiev
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 2c Mean water temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1999
.
1370
1220
20.00
19.00
18.00
17.00
Barney
16.00
D
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
-
I
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
13,00
Stevens
12.00
11.00
10.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 3a. Mean soil temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1998
1370
1220
17.00
16.00
15.00
14.00
13.00
I:
Barney
A
Greenhorn
Stevens
X
Elk
- - - Barne\
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
10.00
Stevens
9.00
8.00
7.00
1970
*
o
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 3b. Mean soil temperature (°C) for all streams August 1998
1370
1220
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
)(
Stevens
- - - Bariicv
- - --Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 3 c. Mean soil temperature (°C) for all streams July 1999
1370
1220
D
Barney
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Bariiey
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 4a. Mean minimum air temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1998
1370
1220
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
L)
0
O
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
X
Stevens
8.00
7.50
I
- - - Barney
7.00
- - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 4b. Mean minimum air temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1998
1370
1220
7.50
7.00
6.50
- 6,00
o
Barney
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
5,50
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
5.00
Stevens
4.50
4.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 4c. Mean minimum air temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1999
1370
1220
9.50
9.00
8.50
0
*
Barney
D
Elk
Greenhorn
)(
0
I)
Stevens
- - - Barney
7.50
- - - Elk
H
Greenhorn
Stevens
7.00
6.50
6.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 4d. Mean minimum air temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
1370
1220
14.00
13.00
12.00
,-
11.00
G
Barney
Elk
A
Greenhorn
Stevens
Greenhorn
0
1)
10.00
)<
H
- - - Barney
9.00
Stevens
- - - Elk
8.00
7.00
6.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 5a. Mean minimum water temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1998
1370
1220
12.00
11.00
10.00
Barney
c)
0
9.00
11
Elk
)(
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
E
8.00
Greenhorn
Stevens
7.00
6.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure Sb. Mean minimum water temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1998
1370
1220
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7,50
o
Barney
Elk
)(
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
7,00
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
6.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 5c. Mean minimum water temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1999
1370
1220
12.00
11.00
10.00
*
-
I
9.00
X
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
8.00
- - - Elk
H
Greenhorn
Stevens
7.00
6.00
5.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 5d. Mean minimum water temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1999
1370
1220
*
Barney
A
Elk
Greenhorn
)(
Stevens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
Elevation (meters)
Figure 6a. Mean maximum air temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1 99
o
A
)<
Barney
Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
Elevation (meters)
Figure 6b. Mean maximum air temperature (°C) for all streams - August 998
32.00
/ //
30.00
28.00 -
Barney
L)
0
a)
26.00 -
-
Elk
)(
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
-a
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
24.00 H
N
Stevens
-
22.00 -
a
20.00
1970
J
x
I-
I
I
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 6c. Mean maximum air temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1999
-T
1370
1
1220
29.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
L)
0
1.:
D
25.00
Greenhorn
I-
E
Barney
Elk
X
24.00
Stevens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
H
23.00
Greenhorn
Stevens
22.00
21.00
Elevation (meters)
Figure 6d. Mean maximum air temperature (°C) for all streams
August 1999
o
Barney
Elk
)(
Greenhorn
Stevens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 7a. Mean maximum water temperature (°C) for all streams - July 1998
1370
1220
23.00
21.00
19.00
17.00
Barney
15.00
13.00
o
Elk
A
Greenhorn
X
Stc'ens
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
11.00
Greenhorn
Stevens
9.00
7.00
5.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 7b Mean maximum water temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1998
.
1370
1220
21.00
19.00
17.00
,_.
U
Barney
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
15.00
c-)
0
13.00
- - - Barney
- - - Elk
H 11.00
Greenhorn
Stevens
9.00
7.00
5.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 7c. Mean maximum water temperature (°C) for all streams - July 999
1370
1220
19.00
17.00
15.00
D
Barney
Elk
X
Greenhorn
Stevens
0
13.00
- - - Barney
11.00
- - - Elk
Greenhorn
Stevens
9.00
7.00
5.00
1970
1820
1670
1520
Elevation (meters)
Figure 7d. Mean maximum water temperature (°C) for all streams - August 1 999
1370
1220
0.25 -
0.20 -
0.15 U
Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
II
0.05 -
0.00
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure Sa Barney Creek 1370 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.25 -
0.20 -
0i5 LlDischarge 1998
0.10-
°Discharge 1999
0.05 -
0.00
2
4
3
Flow Cycle
- OL
riguie ou. Dariley
.
ee
ic' m - TL
LJ11Iargc .,t
vieauIeiiienis
...
5
6
0.25 -
0.20 -
C,,
0.15
DDischarge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.10 -
0.05 -
I
0.00
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 8c. Barney Creek 1675 m - Discharge Measurements
4
'
5
6
0.25
0.2 -
0.15
Discharge 1998
U
°Discharge 1999
0.1-
0.05 -
.;
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 8d, Barney Creek 830 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
I
6
0.25
0.20 -
-
Discharge 1998
0.10-
°Discharge 1999
0.05 M
0.00
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 9a. Elk Creek 1370 rn - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.25 -
0.20 -
Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.05 -
0.00
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 9b. Elk Creek 1525 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.25 -
0.20 -
0.15
1.)
biD
°Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.10-
0.05 -
0.00
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 9c. Elk Creek 1675 rn - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.25
0.20 -
-;
0.15 -
°Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.10-
0.05 -
0.00
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 9d. Elk Creek 1830 in - Discharge Measurement
4
5
6
0,90
0.80 0.70 0.60 -
Discharge 1998
0Discharge 1999
0.30 0.20 -
0.100.00
1
2
3
4
5
6
Flow Cycle
Figure 1 Oa. Greenhorn Creek 1370 rn - Discharge Measurements
L..)
0.14 -
0.12 -
0.1 -
0.08 Discharge 1998
0.06-
°Discharge 1999
0.04 -
0.02 -
U
I
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure lOb. Greenhorn Creek 1525 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.14
0.12
0.1 -
Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.04
0.02
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure lOc. Greenhorn Creek 1675 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.14 -
0.12 -
0.10 -
Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.04 -
0.02 -
0.00
I
''I
I
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure lOd. Greenhorn Creek 1830 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.09 0.08 -
0.07 0.06 -
0.05 U Discharge 1998
0
0Discharge 1999
0.03 0.02 0.01 I
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 1 la. Stevens Creek 1370 m - Discharge Measurements
4
6
0.25 -
0.2 -
Discharge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.05 -
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 1 lb. Stevens Creek 1525 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.25
0,2 -
015 LiDischarge 1998
°Discharge 1999
0.05
0
1
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure 11 c. Stevens Creek 1675 m - Discharge Measurements
4
5
6
0.20
0.118
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
Discharge 1998
0Discharge 1999
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
I
2
3
Flow Cycle
Figure lId. Stevens Creek 1830 m - Discharge Measurements
4
S