Best Practices
Handbook
Best Practices for Advanced
Distributed Learning
Joint ADL Co-Laboratory
David J. Daly, Ph.D. and Amy Scott, Instructional
Design Specialist
www.jointadlcolab.org
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The development of this handbook has been a collaborative effort. We thank
our professional colleagues, subject matter experts, and the sample of users
who helped shape our thinking and work.
Special thanks to those who have reviewed and edited our summaries of
their research. Since this handbook is a work in progress, we will continue
to rely on the good will and help of many other researchers and developers
in the distance learning community.
We also want to thank Susyn Stecchi, Visual Information Specialist with the
Joint ADL Co-Lab, for her graphics and layout which significantly improved
the look and feel of this handbook.
Overview
Best Practices Handbook
This handbook addresses best practices associated with the analysis,
design, development, implementation, and evaluation of distance
learning.
The handbook will support DoD acquisition managers, instructional
designers, and developers with information, checklists, and job aids on
important distance learning topics. Requirements information and
“lessons learned” from current literature is synthesized and
summarized providing “scannable” web-based readings downloadable
from the Joint ADL Co-Lab website. Key information to be
remembered is presented either with examples, graphics, or summary
boxes in the left column on the page, and reinforced with either a
checklist or job aid at the end of each chapter.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Best Practices Overview
PAGE 1
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1
DISTANCE LEARNING ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Chapter 2
NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS”
Chapter 3
NEEDS ASSESSMENT & TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE
STUDY
Chapter 4
JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
Chapter 5
WRITING FOR THE WEB
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Distance Learning
Issues and Challenges
While the use of the Internet poses some significant advantages
for education and training, experts note some concerns
regarding the wholesale adoption of distance learning as the new
medium for learning. In the past, students have been
discouraged and dissatisfied when bad content was simply
delivered by a new technology. There were obviously other
major design, development, and implementation mistakes made
due to a lack in understanding student needs, each of the
required media for learning objectives, and each of the technical
support required by the new technology driven solution.
Advantages and Limitations of the Technology
In “Web-Based Training: Advantages and Limitations” Wallace
Hannum groups the advantages of web-based training, WBT,
into three major categories: logistical, instructional, and
economic. Logistical advantages refer to those advantages that
have to do with the ease of distribution and use. Instructional
advantages refer to those advantages that directly impact the
quality and potency of instruction delivered via WBT. Economic
advantages refer to cost advantages of WBT. (Hannum in WebBased Training; Khan, B. H.; 2001)
Advantages of Web-Based Training
LOGISTICAL
Flexible delivery of
training
Learn any time, any
place
Delivery to learner’s
desktop or notebook
computer
Cross platform
compatibility
No scheduling
problems
Easy distribution
INSTRUCTIONAL
Delivery of multimedia
Immediate delivery of
updated programming
ECONOMIC
Less costly than
traditional training
Reduces duplication of
effort
Doesn’t require
expensive facilities
Variety of instructional
events
Collaboration
Requires less technical
support
Can bill per use
Consistency
Inexpensive, widespread
distribution of materials
Security through
registration
Links to other sites
Ease of content
updates
Support EPSS
Learner control
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 1
The limitations were grouped in similar categories. There are
significant challenges in the development and implementation of
quality courseware balanced by the needs of the student and the
constraints imposed by distance technology.
Limitations of Web-Based Training
LOGISTICAL
INSTRUCTIONAL
ECONOMIC
Limited bandwidth
Multimedia slow in
loading
Changed or eliminated
links
Dial-up connections too
slow, especially for
multimedia
Difficult to authenticate
learners’ work and
examinations
No face-to-face interaction
Requires more learner initiative
Longer development time
Upfront funding
Limited formatting in current
browsers
Difficult to monitor learner’s
progress
Costly for small numbers
of learners
Costly for single shot
training
Hard to pick up where learners left
off
Learners must know or learn webbased tools
WBT authoring systems not as
sophisticated as CBT authoring
systems
Not for all subjects
Much WBT is repurposed printed
pages
Instructors must use non-linear
design
Misplaced emphasis on the
technology itself
Characteristics of Quality Web-Based Teaching and
Learning
The American Distance Education Consortium (ADEC) identifies
guidelines for evaluating web-based courses. ADEC’s basic
assumptions are:
The principles that lend themselves to
quality face-to-face learning environments
are often similar to those found in webbased learning environments.
With all forms of media converging to a
digital platform, advanced educational
technology may include a variety of
learning environments and information
appliances.
While rapidly emerging technologies offer
unlimited potential for virtual learning
environments for both face-to-face as well
as distance learners, practical application
of existing technologies may often prove
highly effective for various audiences and
objectives.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 2
ADEC Principles for quality distance learning include:
•
The learning experience must have a clear purpose with
tightly focused outcomes and objectives. Web-based
learning designs must consider the nature of content,
specific context, desired learning outcomes, and the
characteristics of the learner. Learner-centric strategies
include modular, standalone units that are compatible with
short bursts of learning. Learning modules may also be
open, flexible and self-directing.
•
The learner is actively engaged. Active, hands-on,
concrete experiences are highly effective. Learning by
doing, analogy, and assimilation are increasingly important
pedagogical forms. Where possible, outcomes should relate
to real-life experiences through simulation and application.
•
The learning environment makes appropriate use of a
variety of media. Various learning styles are best engaged
by learning outcomes. Selection of media may also depend
on nature of content, learning goals, access to technology,
and the local learning environment.
•
Learning environments must include problem-based as
well as knowledge-based learning. Problem-based
learning involves higher order thinking skills, such as
analysis, synthesis and evaluation, while knowledge-based
learning involves recall, comprehension and application.
•
Learning environments should support interaction and
the development of communities of interest. Learning is
social and sensitive to context. Learning experiences based
on interaction and collaboration support learning
communities while building support networks to enhance
learning outcomes. Multiple interactions, group collaboration
and cooperative learning may provide increased levels of
interaction and simulation.
•
The practice of distance learning contributes to the
larger social mission of education and training in a
democratic society. Changing mental models and
constructing new knowledge empowers learners and
encourages critical thinking. “Knowledge becomes a
function of how the individual creates meaning for his or her
experiences; it is not a function of what someone else says is
true.” (Jonassen, D., et al, 1995)
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 3
U.S. Army Case Study
* Generation X is defined
as having been born
between 1965 and 1980.
www.jour.unr.edu/outpost/speci
als/genx.overvw1,html
** Generation Y is
defined as having been
born in 1978 or later; also
known as the baby boom
echo.
www.wordspy.com/words/Gene
rationY.asp
Motivation energizes the
learner and directs his
attention.
Attention, which is
prerequisite to learning,
is sustained when
learners are relaxed and
alert to the stimuli that
the trainer wants learners
to perceive.
In a paper judged as “best paper” at the 2000
Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education
Conference (I/ITSEC), Millie Abell, Futures Training Division,
U.S. Army Headquarters Training and Doctrine Command
(TRADOC), asserts that distance learning courseware must
address the diverse needs of adult Generation X* and Y**
learners. As adults, all Army personnel have unique learning
needs. These include:
1. A need to know why learning is required.
2. A need to direct their learning.
3. A need to contribute their experiences to the learning
situation.
4. A need to apply what they have learned to solve real
world problems.
5. A need to feel competent and experience success
throughout the learning program.
Secondly, many soldiers have additional learning requirements
characteristic of Generation X. These include: a desire for
independent learning experiences that incorporate fast-paced
and visually intensive instruction; a need for frequent interactions
with corresponding feedback; and a strong desire to experience
a sense of accomplishment. Lastly, soldiers’ needs as distance
learners include the following: increased student-instructor
feedback since face-to-face communication is reduced or absent;
frequent student interactions to prevent distance learners from
becoming overly passive; highly structured learning activities to
ensure distance learners do not lose track of where they are; and
frequent and effective visuals, since imaging is critical to
learning.
Despite the advantages that distance learning provides, this
approach challenges trainers because learner motivation and, in
turn, attention are harder to sustain. Motivation energizes the
learner and directs his attention. Attention, which is prerequisite
to learning, is sustained when learners are relaxed and alert to
the stimuli that the trainer wants learners to perceive. The
following four barriers reduce distance learner motivation and, in
turn, attention:
1. Distance learners’ feedback to the trainer is reduced.
2. Distance learners become passive.
3. Distance learners lose track of where they were within
the instruction.
4. Distance learners are told, not shown.
These barriers were further described as indicated in the
next section.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 4
Distance Learning Barriers and Recommended
Solutions
1. Distance learners’ feedback is reduced. In both one-way
video teletraining and in audio-graphic instruction, for
example, the instructor cannot see the learners’ looks of
boredom or confusion, both of which cue the trainer to
change his/her instructional strategy. Moreover, the
common fear a learner experiences when asking questions
in a traditional setting is magnified in distance learning when
what he fears might be dumb questions are telecast across
the country or are preserved electronically for worldwide
distribution.
With this reduction in
feedback, three skills
become far more
critical to trainers –
Questioning,
Listening, and
Feedback.
With this reduction in feedback, three skills become far more
critical to trainers – Questioning, Listening, and Feedback.
Feedback should be:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trainers should
engage distance
learners within the first
two minutes of
instruction and sustain
participation
throughout the lesson.
Based on performance standards rather than on
personal opinion.
Followed by new action.
Quantitative, since numerical feedback indicates small
improvements that produce changes in learner
performance in the long run.
Prompt, but not necessarily as soon as possible.
Designers must consider whether delay is beneficial,
remembering that excessive delay decreases motivation,
weakens the feedback, and increases learner anxiety.
Frequent, since an accumulation of errors can reduce
motivation. If multiple errors are established, the
behavior the feedback seeks to encourage is foreign to
learners.
Positive, emphasizing correctness rather than mistakes.
Differential, indicating improvement the learner has
made since he was last evaluated. (Wlodkowski, 1993)
2. Distance learners become passive. With a target
population heavily conditioned by passively watching
television programs in which no overt reaction is expected,
trainers must vigorously solicit distance learner involvement
so that they will not generalize passive viewing to
distance learning.
Trainers should engage distance learners within the first two
minutes of instruction and sustain participation throughout
the lesson. In general, trainers should involve learners at
least 30 percent of the time for synchronous instruction and
up to 40 to 50 percent of the time for asynchronous
instruction. (Ostendorf, 2000) Periods of learner involvement
should be planned throughout the lesson and should include
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 5
An effective way for
learners to handle
content is to
summarize in their
own words what they
have learned.
Learners become
frustrated if they lose
sight of the lesson’s
organization.
student-to-student interactions ... Moreover, research shows
that an effective way for learners to handle content is to
summarize in their own words what they have learned.
Students who give such explanations show 30 percent
increases in achievement after learning, compared to
20 percent gains for those who do not summarize or
paraphrase. The more the student explains the content, the
greater the learning gain. (Howard, 2000) Finally, the
distance learner should follow each interaction with a period
of reflection and make it a habit to ask two questions: What
is the most important thing I learned, and What am I going to
do about it?
3. Distance learners lose track of where they are within
instruction. Synchronous distance learning technologies
often present transient rather than persistent stimuli, where a
distance learner, for example, can receive real-time video
teletraining or audio graphic instruction one moment, but it
disappears the next. When stimuli are transient, learners
become frustrated if they lose sight of the lesson’s
organization and, as noted earlier, their confusion and
frustration may go unnoticed in distance learning if feedback
to their instructor is reduced.
For this reason, trainers must craft clear organization into ata-distance courses. Experts recommend six activities for
structuring distance learning in order to help students stay on
track.
Incorporate
redundancy into
distance learning by
inserting review
periods.
a) Trainers should begin lessons with context; i.e., telling
learners what came before, where they are now, how the
task fits into combat (or the job), and what will come.
b) Incorporate pre-tests, since research has shown that
learners who take pre-tests do better on finals than those
who do not.
c) Incorporate redundancy into distance learning by
inserting review periods after an hour, a day, a week, a
month, and after six months. This sequence has
increased recall by 400 percent, and studies show that
70 percent of what is learned can be forgotten within
24 hours unless the learned attempts to remember the
information. (Rose and Nicholl, 1998)
Design compelling
beginnings and
endings to lessons,
and find ways to
reinforce the middle of
instruction.
d) Require learners to mind-map the content. This is a
graphic technique for helping them structure information,
and focus on and understand relationships between a
subject and its main themes. (Buzan, 1993)
e) Use a whole-part-whole presentation sequence because
it results in 50 percent faster learning over a part-whole
method. (Rose and Nicholl, 1998)
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
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f)
Visual communication
is usually the most
important sense
during instruction
because learners take
in so much more
information visually
that through other
senses.
Design compelling beginnings and endings to lessons,
and find ways to reinforce the middle of instruction.
Research shows that recall is highest (95 percent) at the
beginning of a sequence, but is reduced (20 percent) in
the middle. (Pike, 1994)
4. Distance learners are told, not shown. Although
instruction presented in multiple modalities is the most
robust, visual communication is usually the most important
sense during instruction because learners take in so much
more information visually that through other senses.
(Stolovich, 1999) We gain 75 percent of what we know
through vision, 13 percent through hearing, and 12 percent
through smell-touch-taste. (Pike, 1994)
The instructional developer’s most important skill is the ability
to think visually, using both word-pictures and iconic
representations. A picture is more effective than words
alone, and words and pictures together are six times more
effective than words alone.
Army research shows that distance learners perform
statistically and significantly better when trainers pay close
attention to the quality of courseware design and delivery.
More recent media research from Stanford University shows
how gender, image size, motion, and scene change affect
learner attention. Other considerations that trainers must
address when using electronic distance learning
technologies include the following: use of color in computer
displays; ways to minimize The Wayfinding Problem (i.e., the
learner loses track of where he is in the exercise); ensuring
system response times are acceptable to learners; enabling
students to acquire those interpersonal skills that facilitate
collaboration and community building; and limiting group size
to that which is appropriate for the content and nature of
assignments.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 7
Job Aid for Distance Learning
1. Consider both the advantages and disadvantages of the
technology when planning distance learning activities.
2. Ensure that:
• The learning experiences have a clear purpose with tightly
focused outcomes and objectives.
• The learners are actively engaged.
• The learning environment makes appropriate use of a
variety of media.
• Problem-based learning is included.
• Communities of interest are developed.
• The overall training goal or mission is evident.
3. Ensure that the learners:
• Know why learning the knowledge or skill is necessary.
• Direct their own learning.
• Contribute their experiences to the learning situation.
• Apply what they have learned in solving real world
problems.
• Feel competent and experience success throughout the
training program.
4. Design and develop distance learning activities with:
• Fast-paced and visually intensive instruction to vigorously
solicit distance learner involvement.
• Frequent interactions with corresponding feedback to
keep the student on a productive learning path.
• Clear organization to help students stay on track.
• Visually intensive instruction because learners take in so
much more information visually than through the other
senses.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • Distance Learning Issues and Challenges
PAGE 8
Needs Assessment or
“Gap Analysis” -Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
What is a Needs Assessment?
Suppose you are assigned to a task to develop a web-based
course on avionics, maintenance, or team training. Why not just
go right to doing a Job, Task, or Content Analysis?
Past best practices indicate that this type of request is often
more complex than initially indicated. The performance gap is
usually not entirely due to a training problem, and the solution to
the problem can require substantial funding. A proper needs
assessment can present the need in the context of an overall
mission requirement in support of the Service and Commanderin-Chief (CINC). A needs assessment can document and justify
organizational solutions, and can lead to the development of
planning objectives.
Needs Assessment
A needs assessment is
the process used to
identify and document a
gap between the
desired and actual unit
or individual human
performance, as well as
determine the cause for
the gap.
Training needs
assessment is the
systematic study of a
problem or innovation,
incorporating data and
opinions from varied
sources in order to make
effective decisions or
recommendations
involving training
solutions.
A needs assessment is the process used to identify and
document a gap between the desired and actual unit or individual
human performance, as well as determine the cause for the gap.
Needs assessment can be reactive in identifying deficiencies
between what exists and what is required. It can also identify
potential deficiencies between current and future requirements
as a result of changes in threat level, doctrine, organizational
structure, leadership development, and materiel. A needs
assessment provides a means to identify the gaps between
current results and desired results – a comparison of “what is”
with “what should be.” Needs assessment is designed to
maximize the use of resources in identifying and resolving
performance deficiencies. Training should not be developed or
revised unless needs assessment determines that training is the
means to resolve the deficiencies and that the needs analysis
shows there is a requirement. (MIL-HDBK-29612, Part 2A)
Training Needs Assessment
Training needs assessment is the systematic study of a problem
or innovation, incorporating data and opinions from varied
sources in order to make effective decisions or recommendations
involving training solutions. Performance discrepancies or needs
are defined as the differences between the desired performance
or knowledge or the optimals, and the current performance or
knowledge, or actuals. The goal of the trainer or instructional
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 1
developer is to reduce or eliminate performance deficiencies. (Air
Force Handbook 36-2235, Volume 6)
Needs assessments provide
a process for defining the
gaps between current and
desired results, and provide
the justification for identifying
and choosing the ways to
close those gaps.
A needs assessment is a
systematic exploration of the
way things are and they way
they should be.
Perspectives on Needs Assessment
What results are we now getting? How do those compare with
those we should deliver? Needs assessments provide a process
for defining the gaps between current and desired results, and
provide the justification for identifying and choosing the ways to
close those gaps. Before selecting any intervention, whether it is
training, human resources development, restructuring, or total
quality management, a needs assessment provides the basic
data for assuring that solutions, once selected, deliver desired
results. (Kaufman, R., A Needs Assessment Audit,
www.onap.fsu.edu)
Another school of thought says that a needs assessment is a
systematic exploration of the way things are and they way they
should be. These “things” are usually associated with
organizational and/or individual performance.
Why design and conduct a needs assessment? We need to
consider the benefits of any human resource development
intervention before we just go and do it:
•
•
•
•
What learning will be accomplished?
What changes in behavior and performance are expected?
Will we get them?
What are the expected economic costs and benefits of any
projected solutions?
(Robert H. Rouda and Mitchell E. Kusy, Jr.,
www.alumni.caltech.edu/~rouda/T2_NA.html)
The needs assessment
serves to identify the gaps,
and consider if the problem
can be solved by training.
The assessment is part of a
planning process focusing
on identifying and solving
performance problems.
Often overlooked as the first step in performance improvement
process is the training needs assessment. A need is not a want
or desire. It is a gap between “what is” and “what ought to be.”
The needs assessment serves to identify the gaps, and consider
if the problem can be solved by training. The assessment is part
of a planning process focusing on identifying and solving
performance problems. Why conduct a training needs
assessment?
•
•
•
•
•
To determine what training is relevant to your employees’
jobs.
To determine what training will improve performance.
To determine if training will make a difference.
To distinguish training needs from organizational problems.
To link improved job performance with organizational goals
and the bottom line.
(Jeannette Swist, www.amxi.com/amx_mi30.htm)
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 2
How to Conduct a Needs Assessment
Robert H. Rouda and Mitchell E. Kusy, Jr. describe Four Steps to
Conducting a Needs Assessment:
Step 1: Perform a “Gap” Analysis
The first step is to check the actual performance of organizations
and people against existing standards or to set new standards.
There are two parts to this:
• Perform a “gap” analysis.
• Identify priorities and
importance.
• Identify causes of
performance problems
and/or opportunities.
• Identify possible
solutions and growth
opportunities.
Current situation: Determine the current state of skills,
knowledge, and abilities of our current and/or future employees.
This analysis should examine our organizational goals, climate,
and internal and external constraints.
Desired or necessary situation: Identify the desired or necessary
conditions for organizational and personal success. This
analysis focuses on the necessary job tasks/standards, as well
as the skills, knowledge, and abilities needed to accomplish
these successfully.
Step 2: Identify Priorities and Importance
The second step is to determine if the identified needs are real, if
they are worth addressing, and specify their importance and
urgency in view of our organizational needs and requirements.
Some factors to consider are:
Cost effectiveness/cost avoidance: How does the cost of the
problem compare to the cost of implementing a solution?
Legal mandates: Are there laws requiring a solution? (For
example, safety or regulatory compliance)
Executive pressure: Does top management expect a solution?
Population: Are many people or key people involved?
Customers: What influence is generated by customer
specifications and expectations?
Step 3: Identify Causes of Performance Problems and/or
Opportunities
Now that we have prioritized and focused on critical
organizational and personal needs, we will next identify specific
problem areas and opportunities in our organization. We must
know what our performance requirements are if appropriate
solutions are to be applied. We should ask two questions for
every identified need:
•
•
Are our people doing their jobs effectively?
Do they know how to do their jobs?
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 3
Step 4: Identify Possible Solutions and Growth
Opportunities
If people are doing their jobs effectively, perhaps we should let
well enough alone. But if our people are not doing their jobs
effectively, training may be the solution, if there is a knowledge
problem.
Organizational development activities may provide solutions
when the problem is not based on a lack of knowledge and is
primarily associated with systematic change. These
interventions might include strategic planning, organizational
restructuring, performance management and/or effective team
building.
(Robert H. Rouda and Mitchell E. Kusy, Jr.,
www.alumni.caltech.edu/~rouda/T2_NA.html)
1. Identify measurable
performance needs or
performance gaps.
2. Define the impact of the
job in the context of
organizational levels.
3. Define the target
employee population or
target audience.
4. Conduct a cost/benefit
analysis or return on
investment analysis.
Best Practices for Needs Assessment
1. Identify measurable performance needs or performance
gaps.
Step 1: Determine individual’s and/or group’s required
performance in terms of measurable accomplishments.
Step 2: Determine individual’s and/or group’s required
current performance status vis-à-vis the required standards
established in Step 1.
Step 3: List the measurable gap in performance or needs by
comparing the required performance to the actual
performance.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 4
Example of Gap Analysis Table
Required
Performance
Current
Performance
Need(s) Gaps in
Performance
$25,000,000 in
commercial loans
processed properly
per annum.
$12,000,000 in
commercial loans
processed properly
per annum.
There is a
discrepancy of
$13,000,000 in
commercial loans
processed properly
per annum.
$25,000,000 of
secured individual
real estate loans
(mortgages)
processed properly
per annum.
$1,000,000 of
secured individual
real estate loans
(mortgages)
processed properly
per annum.
There is a deficiency
of $1,500,000 of
secured individual
real estate loans
(mortgages)
processed properly
per annum.
No rejections of
loans processed by
any Real Estate Loan
Officer.
12% rejections of
loans processed by
any Real Estate
Loan Officer.
There is a deficiency
of 12% rejections of
loans processed by
any Real Estate Loan
Officer.
(Kaufman, R.A., Rojas, A.M., and Mayer, M., Needs Assessment: A User’s Guide, Educational Technology
Publications, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993)
2. Define the impact of the job in the context of
organizational levels.
Define Job Impacts:
• Micro
• Macro
• Mega
Micro: This level of needs assessment and planning
includes a concern for the cumulative contributions of: (1)
organizational resources (or inputs), plus (2) the procedures
and methods (or processes) to be employed in
organizational activities, plus (3) the immediate results (or
products) accomplished). Examples of micro needs
assessment include:
•
•
•
•
•
Courses completed.
Competency test passed.
Skill acquired.
Learner accomplishments.
Instructor accomplishments.
Macro: This level combines the micro level contributions for
form what an organization can or does deliver (outputs) to its
external (outside of the organization) clients. This level is
made up of what an organization uses, does, and delivers to
itself as well as to its external clients. Examples of macro
needs assessment include:
•
•
•
•
Graduates.
Drop-outs.
Job placements.
Certified licensees.
Mega: This level combines the results (products and
outputs) of the macro level with a consideration of how useful
the organization’s contributions (outcomes) are to its clients
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 5
and to the world in which its contributions must function.
•
•
•
•
•
Self-sufficient, self-reliant, productive individual who
is socially competent and effective.
Contributes to self and others.
No addiction to others or to substances.
Financially independent.
Continued funding of agency.
(Kaufman, R., Thiagarajan, S., and MacGillis, P., The
Guidebook for Performance Improvement: Working with
Individuals and Organizations, Educational Technology
Publications, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993, p 111-113)
START HERE
Type
Analysis
Purpose
Outcomes
Headquarters
U.S. Air Force
(Mega)
Major
Commands
(Macro)
Units
(Macro)
Individual
(Micro)
USAF-wide
Performance
Operational
Job
Issues
Issues
Issues
Performance
Achieve
Determine
Develop
Determine
strategic goals/
performance
performance
performance on
objectives,
requirements
units/ teams
the job
The Air Force Training
Needs Assessment
Model below presents
change policy
Train for
the
type
of
analysis
at
each
level
(Micro,
Macro,
Mega).
The
directive, adopt
success
analyst can decide on one or more levels of analysis depending
fundamental,
adjust
on the complexity of the need.
organizational
environment
New policies
with training
objectives,
new/ revised
trng prgms,
management
New/revised
training
programs,
management
intervention
New/revised
training
programs,
management
intervention
Existing training
courses, new/
revised training
courses, job
aid,
management
3. Define the target employee population or target
audience.
This includes the demographics, education, experience,
preferences, and past training of the population. Some
sample questions might include:
•
•
•
•
How long have you been with this organization?
What types of other jobs have you held both inside
and outside the organization?
How long have you been in your current job?
What education and/or training were required for
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 6
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
your job entry?
What training did you receive on the job?
Do you believe this training was adequate?
On a scale of one to five, how would you rate your
proficiency as a computer user (one being the
lowest, five being the highest)?
What application programs do you use on a regular
basis?
Are you proficient in using the internet?
What are your general job duties?
What tasks do you like doing the best, and why?
What tasks do you like doing the least, and why?
What is the difference between a novice and an
expert in your job?
What motivates you to do your best work?
If there is one thing you could change, what would it
be?
4. Conduct a cost/benefit analysis or return on investment
(ROI) analysis.
An ROI compares the
monetary benefits of
the new solution with
the actual cost of the
program.
A ROI is developed after the implementation of the solution.
However, sometimes a quantitative estimate of
organizational benefits can be made before the
implementation of the solution.
ROI compares the monetary benefits of the new solution,
including training, new tools or resources, and/or other
organizational solutions, with the actual cost of the program
(ROI = Net Program Benefits/Program Costs X 100) .
Sometimes it is also helpful to capture intangible data that
purposely is not combined with the four levels of evaluation
developed by Kirkpatrick, a balance of different levels of data
are collected, representing a comprehensive measurement
of the evaluation process. (Phillips, J.J., Phillips, P.P.,
Lizette, Z.D., and Gaudet, C.; Evaluating the Return on
Investment of E-Learning: The ASTD E-Learning Handbook,
McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 2002)
Case Study 1: The American Petroleum Company
measured the effectiveness of a new technology program.
The goal of the training program was to increase job
performance in a sales environment. Two needs emerged
which provided the impetus for change. One was the need
to compete within the industry. The other was a lack of skills
and knowledge among the sales consultants in the
organization. Senior management had agreed to invest in
the e-learning program and the training department wanted
to be able to provide information on whether there was a
return on investment. The ROI showed a 97 percent return
on investment because of implementing the new technology
program. (Phillips et al, 2002)
Case Study 2: Acme Incorporated used CD-ROM
technology to train its field service engineers throughout the
country with the objective of increasing customer satisfaction
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 7
and increasing the amount of sales. Each of the field service
engineers already possessed a laptop computer. The costs
for the traditional program were weighed against the benefits
of the e-learning experience. Compensation for the
instructors was $65,000 per year plus benefits, bringing the
cost to $78,000. Compensation for the learner was done on
the field service engineers, yielding $164 per day. Delivery
costs were assessed, including travel, overhead, equipment
and materials in an instructor-led workshop. After calculating
the benefits, the ROI analysis showed a return of
129 percent. (Phillips et all, 2002)
Case Study 3: The cost to design the program may be
prorated over the expected life of the program. One
company developed a computer-based training program to
teach maintenance administrators and repair service clerks a
specific system technology. An ROI analysis revealed a
return of 319 percent in Year 1 and 366 percent return in
Years 2 and 3. There was no recurring cost of the initial
training design and development, so the cost was spread
over a three-year period (the time cycle of the CBT program).
Repeat calls were reduced by 22 percent. (Phillips et al,
2002)
In Implementing ROI: Five Steps to Saving Time, Money and
Resources, Patti P. Phillips presents results from the
development and implementation of a one-day sexual
harassment course. The training was presented to first and
second level managers, 655, and all employees in a
healthcare organization, 6,844. The fully-loaded program
costs were $277,987.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 8
Levels of Evaluation for a Sexual Harassment Course
Level 1:
Reaction
Level 2:
Learning
Level 3:
Level 4:
Impact
Level 5:
ROI
Overall
rating: 4.11
out of 5
65%
increase
post-test
vs. pretest
96%
conducted
meetings
and
completed
meeting
record
Turnover
reduction:
1,051%
93%
provided
action items
Skill
practice
demonstration
4.1 out of
5 on
behavior
change
study
Complaint
reduction:
$360,276
68% report
all action
items
complete;
92% report
some
action
items
complete
Total
improvement:
Application
$2,840,632
$3,200,908
(www1.astd.org/news_letter/October/Linkd/Phillips.html)
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 9
Needs Assessment Job Aid
This job aid follows the Needs Assessment/Needs Analysis
process identified in the Department of Defense Handbook:
Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to
Training and Education, MIL-HDBK-29612-2A. (See the
handbook for a detailed explanation of the recommended
process.) An example of this process is presented in the
Appendix of this Handbook.
Needs Assessment Job Aid
Step 1: Collect, group and analyze the triggering circumstances, symptoms or
indicators in the problem identification process.
Step 1.1: Identify triggering circumstances.
Step 1.2: Identify gaps in performance.
Step 1.3: Identify “high driver” performance problems.
Step 2: Determine the reliability of triggering circumstances.
Step 3: Begin by raising questions. The answers to these questions can isolate
the essence of the performance discrepancy, and later analysis will suggest
acceptable solutions.
Step 3.1: Identifying the impact of the job on the organization, client and
society.
Step 3.2: Identifying the consequence of job errors.
Step 4: Document evidence supporting the possible problem.
Step 4.1: Prioritizing performance problems.
Step 4.2: Estimating the benefits of investments to improve performance.
Step 5: Determine whether doctrine, training, organization, leadership, material
or a combination of these is the cause of the performance problem.
Step 6: Identify possible solutions to the problem addressing each cause.
Step 7: If the conclusion of the problem solving points to a training deficiency,
proceed with a Training Program Needs Analysis.
Step 8: Verify the training problem. The needs analysis confirms or rejects the
hypothesis that a change in training can correct or relieve the deficiency.
Step 9: Determine solutions. The training developer will determine all possible
training solutions or corrective actions to be taken to solve or alleviate the
problem.
Step 9.1: Develop alternative solutions.
Step 9.2: Evaluation of alternatives.
Step 9.3: Make recommendation.
Step 10: Develop needs analysis report and forward to appropriate agency for
action. The needs analysis report should contain a detailed description of the
problem, the selected solution, rationale for the solution, and the training
development requirement.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT OR “GAP ANALYSIS” – Determining the Impact of Performance Problems
PAGE 10
Needs Assessment and
Training Needs Analysis
Case Study
In August of 2000, the Central Office of the Veterans Benefits
Administration (VBA) tasked the Technical Training and
Evaluation Office (TT&E) in Orlando to develop a training
program for Field Examiners. The Central Office estimated the
training program costs to be from $200,000 to $400,000. A
combined government and industry team completed the needs
assessment/analysis report in March 2001. The needs
assessment documented:
•
•
•
•
A 40% error rate in the accuracy of Field Examiner
investigations.
A six month discrepancy in the time required to train new
Field Examiners.
The organization’s goal to improve Field Examiner
accuracy by 36% within five years (i.e., over 7%
improvement per year compared to the previous year’s
4.5% improvement).
The benefit of improving accuracy by 36% would be
increased confidence in the fiduciary management of
$341,000,000 per year.
In addition to performance-based training, the training needs
analysis indicated a requirement for an electronic performance
support system, which was not anticipated. Management
endorsed the recommendation. The approved budget for the
program was $1,650,000. Decision makers acknowledged the
benefits of improving performance in spite of the higher budget
estimate because the analysis:
•
•
Quantified the benefits of improved performance.
Linked improved job performance to organizational
goals.
The analysis was conducted using the following steps:
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 1
Step 1.
Collect, group, and analyze the triggering circumstances,
symptoms or indicators in the problem identification process.
Step 1.1. Identify Demographics of Target Audience
Target Audience:
• There are approximately 150-250 Field Examiners (Occupational
Code 1801).
• Mix of GS-9 and GS-10 level employees.
• Primarily high school and junior college graduates.
• Field Examiners are selected form other in-house jobs (they have
organizational experience, and 5-10 years experience in related job
categories).
• 91% of the Field Examiners have over 20 years experience.
• 82% of the Field Examiners are over age 50.
• Computer competency varies from non-users to experts.
• Field Examiners work in Field.
The training is now primarily on-the-job training.
Step 1.2. Document the sources of job manpower, personnel, and
training data.
Sources (both current and projected:
• Personnel retirement/attrition rates.
• Position descriptions and skill sets of Field Examiner personnel.
• Aggregate personnel performance data.
• Interviews with Field Examiners, Managers and Training
Coordinators.
• Professional development pathways.
• Training requirements and curricula.
• Organizational hierarchies and reporting requirements.
• Proposed regulatory changes impacting the organization and its
operations.
• Facility systems and resources.
Step 1.3. Identify Triggering Circumstances
Field Examiner Job
Protecting veteran or beneficiary of veteran
by:
• Reviewing rulings of incompetence
regarding client.
• Interviewing client in home, nursing home,
prison, drug rehab center, or hospital.
• Determining if client is incompetent,
dangerous to himself or society, taking
medications, and being cared for by the
guardian.
• Certifying guardians as fiduciaries.
• Investigating misuse of funds and fraud.
• Developing initial and follow -up field
investigation reports.
Triggering Circumstances for
performance problems:
• The need to make judgments
based on complex policies
and statutes.
• The impact of working in
dangerous work
environments.
• The emotional fatigue and
frustration from social work.
• The pressures due to the
potential for mistakes to lead
to congressional inquiries.
• The belief that this is a “dead
end” job.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 2
Step 1.4. Identify Gaps in Performance
Required Performance
Current
Current Performance
Performance
Need(s)
Gaps
Need(s)
Gaps
in in
Performance
Performance
Experienced Field
Examiners are required
to complete five field
exams with documented
report per week with no
significant errors.
Experienced Field
Examiners complete five
field exams with
documented report per
week with an average
accuracy rate of 60%
.
There is a discrepancy
of 40% in the error rate.
New Field Examiners
should reach proficiency
in six months.
New Field Examiners
reach proficiency in
one year.
For new Field
Examiners, there is a
deficiency of six months
in reaching proficiency.
Step 1.5. Identify “High Driver” Performance Problems
Field Examiners
FE Managers
Most Critical
Task
• Appointing a fiduciary
• Meeting beneficiary needs
• Completing field exams
• Identifying a fiduciary
• Timely completion of tasks
Most Difficult
Task
• Fund usage
• Evaluation of capacity to
manage funds
• Fund usage
Most Difficult
Duties
• Personal contact and
interview
• Follow -up
• Personal contact and
interview
• Documentation
Step 2.
Document the impact of the performance problems.
Step 2.1. Document the evidence supporting the performance
discrepancies.
Evidence resides in the following databases:
• Systematic Technical Accuracy Review (STAR) reports that identify job errors on
a quarterly basis.
• Distribution of Operational Resources (DOOR) reports that pertain to the
timeliness/elapsed time of completed field exams and the pending workload.
• Balanced Scorecard Goals that pertain to the product workload goals for each
regional office.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 3
Step 2.2. Identify the impact of performance discrepancies on the
Organization, Client, and Society.
Micro Level Products : Performance gaps impact the quality and timeliness of:
The interim products,
• Initial Examination Reports with rationale supporting
results, and performance. the decisions made by the Field Examiner.
• Follow Up Reports with rationale supporting the
decisions made by the Field Examiner
Macro Level Output:
The aggregate products
delivered to the client.
Performance gaps impact:
• The protection of the client – a stable and safe
guardian and/or fiduciary agreement.
Mega Level Outcomes: Performance gaps impact:
• Improved quality of life for the “incompetent” veteran
The effects on s ociety.
and/or beneficiary, the family, and community.
Step 2.3. Identify potential consequences of performance problems.
Task
• Personal contact and interview.
• Follow -up.
• Documentation.
• Appointing/certifying fiduciary.
• Timely service.
• Completing field exams.
• Evaluation of fund usage.
• Evaluation of capacity to manage
funds.
• Benefits entitlement.
Consequence
• Potential for overpayment.
• Client complaints.
• Rework.
• Potential misuse of beneficiary funds.
• Customer dissatisfaction.
• Lack of creditability.
• Potential waste of beneficiary funds.
• Potential misuse of beneficiary funds.
• Beneficiary may not get all benefits.
Step 2.4. Prioritize performance problems.
Rationale: Balanced
Scorecard Priorities and
Percentage of Overall STAR
Errors Identified
1. Timely service.
2. Documentation: completing field
examinations accurately.
3. Fund usage
4. Appointing/certifying a fiduciary.
5. Personal contact and interview.
6. Benefits entitlement.
7. Evaluation of capacity to manage funds.
8. Follow -up.
Balanced scorecard goal.
Balanced scorecard goal.
23%.
20%.
19%.
14%.
12%.
12%.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 4
Step 2.5. Estimate the benefits of investing in performance
improvement.
Benefits:
• Field Examiners oversee the management of $948,000,000 per year.
• The Five-Year Goal is to improve accuracy by 36% from 60% to 96%.
• This 7+% improvement goal per year is extremely aggressive, since the
previous two year’s performance improvement was 4.5% PER YEAR.
• This 36% goal accounts for the reduction of risk or uncertainty in the fiduciary
management of $341,280,000 per year (36 percent by $948,000,000).
Step 3.
Address the root cause of performance problems.
Step 3.1. Determine the root cause (i.e., doctrine, training,
organizational, leadership, material, etc.) of the performance
problems.
The root cause of the performance gaps included three primary domains:
Training
• Limited initial training
and performance
evaluation.
• Non-standardized
sustainment training.
• Management training
on the role and
responsibilities of the
Field Examiner job.
• More frequent
sustainment training.
Resources:
Tools and
Capabilities
• Computer.
• Cell phone.
• Official badge.
• Access to
FBS.
• Access to
BDN.
• Internet
access.
• E-mail.
Management Support
• Effective information dissemination.
• Additional in-house support.
• Using partners in dangerous areas.
• Ability to contact beneficiaries ahead
of time.
• Resolving time pressures.
• Field Examiner control of
workflow/workload.
• Recognition of Field Examiner
program value.
• Ability to work across state borders.
• Ability to access multiple state
benefits information.
• Minimizing travel problems.
Step 3.2. Develop planning objectives for each root cause.
Training
• Develop interim Field
Examiner training tools within
one year.
• Develop and implement a
standardized training program
within two years.
• Develop training for other
jobs impacting the field
investigation (not time
constraint is being placed on
this objective).
Resources
Ensure Field
Examiners
have all the
necessary
tools within
one year.
Management Support
• Develop an effective
method for information
dissemination within one
year.
• Provide guidance on
workload management
within one year.
• Submit a proposal to
reclassify the Field
Examiner position to a
GS-11 within one year.
Since Training was identified as a “Root Cause” of the
performance problem also, a Training Needs Analysis was
completed.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 5
Step 4.
Verify and estimate the scope of the training requirement.
Step 4.1. Define and analyze the training environment (training
philosophy, staff, students, curriculum, training resources).
TRAINING PHILOSOPHY
Current Situation:
• On-the-Job training approach.
• Training in two venues.
• Field Examiner manager is instructor at RO.
• Field Examiners mentor new hires in the field.
Impact:
• No standardization.
• Errors
• Takes one year to achieve proficiency.
STAFF
Current Situation:
• No dedicated instructors
• Manager is trainer.
• Senior Field Examiners are trainers in the field.
• Limited or no support staff.
Impact:
• Risk of non-standardized instruction.
• Need to use instructors as facilitators where possible.
• Instructor training required.
• Need to have manager run all performance evaluation.
• Instructor training required.
• Need a good field guide for field training.
• Need to get some support from other TPSS administrators.
STUDENTS
Current Situation:
• Hired from within VBA (GS-9/10).
• Variance in computer competency.
• Work from home.
• Have home computers.
Impact:
• Plus: Self-direction.
• May need entry-level computer training.
• Need help desk and home computer support.
CURRICULUM
Current Situation:
• No standardized curriculum.
• Mentor-based training in RO and Field.
• No systematic feedback or performance evaluation.
• Job evaluation via STAR feedback.
Impact:
• Need detailed task analysis f or standardization.
• Need both computer- and mentor-based performance evaluations.
RESOURCES
Current Situation:
• Computer training rooms are shared resources.
• Computers are outdated.
• Limited storage space for training materials.
• Lack of tools creates time/accuracy roadblocks.
• Multimedia equipment is available.
• Availability of portable video camera/playback equipment questionable.
Impact:
• Need assignment of upgraded computers with sound cards for RO and home
web-based training.
• Need designated long-term storage area.
• Need all tools identified for the job.
• Need dedicated equipment for Field Examiner training.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 6
Step 4.2. Estimate the boundaries of the training requirement.
TOPIC
Introduction
Overview of
Responsibilities
Analysis of Week’s
Work
Team
Responsibilities
(shareable crosstraining content
required for LIE,
VSR, RVSR, FE)
Personal Contact
and Interview
(initial field exam,
fiduciary interview,
other interviews –
shareable content)
Legal Issues
(shareable content)
Physical and
Mental Conditions
(typical mental
illnesses and
medications)
Capacity to
Manage Funds
Fund Usage
Social Adjustment
(shareable content)
Evaluate
Environment
Dependency
Needs
Benefits
Entitlement
(shareable content
from VSR benefits)
Review of Payment
Interview ing
References
Follow -Up Problem
Resolution
Documentation
Respond to
Inquiries
Total Classroom
Hours
Rough CBT/WBT
Estimate
(Preliminary)
TIME
RANGE
0.5
1.0
EST IN
MEDIA EST:
HOURS
FIELD
1.0
WBT, narration
2.0
WBT, narration
MEDIA EST:
CLASSROOM
OJT guide, workbook
OJT guide, workbook
OJT guide, workbook
2.0
4.0
WBT, narration; flow
charts; job aid
WBT, narration, flow OJT guide, workbook
charts, job aid
2.0
4.0
24.0
40.0
WBT, narration, flow OJT guide, workbook,
charts, check lists,
evaluation guide
simulations, role play,
video feedback
6.0
8.0
2.0
4.0
WBT, narration, job
OJT guide, workbook
aid
WBT, narration, flow OJT guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
charts, check lists
2.0
6.0
16.0
0.5
24.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
WBT, simulations
1.0
2.0
WBT
WBT, narration, flow charts,
check lists, simulations, role
play, video feedback
WBT, simulations
OJT guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
OJT guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
Workbook, evaluation
guide
Workbook, evaluation
guide
Piggyback of
VSR/RVSR training,
check list
2.0
0.5
6.0
1.0
8.0
24.0
16.0
6.0
24.0
8.0
90.0
160.0
30.0
53.0
OJT guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
Workbook, evaluation
WBT
guide
WBT, narration, flow OJY guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
charts, check lists
WBT, narration, flow charts,
check lists, simulations, role
play, video feedback
WBT, narration, flow charts,
check lists
WBT, narration, flow charts,
check lists
OJT guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
OJT guide, workbook,
evaluation guide
NOTE: Research has shown
that CBT and WBT
presentations significantly
reduce the time of traditional
classroom hours.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 7
Step 5.
Develop and evaluate alternative solutions.
Step 5.1. Develop alternative solutions
ALT 2: All
Instructor-led
Training
ALT 3: Both
Web-Based &
Instructor-led
Training
25 hrs
Instructor-led training
45 hrs
10 hrs
Instructor-led with
workbook/ field guide
Electronic performance
support system
Paper job aids
75 hrs
20 hrs
1 hrs
1 hrs
1 hrs
4 hrs
4 hrs
4 hrs
ALT 1: All
Web-Based
Training
49 hrs
MEDIA
Web-based training
Step 5.2. Evaluate alternative solutions.
Alt 1: All WBT
Alt 2: All ILT
Alt 1: Blended
(WBT & ILT)
Cost
Training Hours
Additional
Shadowing Hours
Technical Risk
Benefits/ Limitations
$1,8500,000
49 Hours
20-40 Hours
$2,140,000
125 Hours
(included)
$1,650,000
60 Hours
(included)
Moderate
• Trains knowledge and
procedures.
• Does not train
performance under
required conditions (i.e.,
personal contact and
interview skills).
• Training in only one
venue.
Moderate
• Trains knowledge
and procedures.
• Trains performance
under required
conditions (i.e.,
personal contact and
interview skills).
• Trains in RO and
field.
Supportability
Moderate
• Trains knowledge.
Does not train
procedures
effectively.
• Trains performance
under required
conditions (i.e.,
personal contact and
interview skills).
• Trains in RO and
field.
• Intense train-thetrainer requirement.
• N/A.
• Requires vast
storage space.
• Requires significant
staff support.
• Major addition to FE
Manager’s workload
at RO.
• Major addition to
Senior FE’s workload
at RO.
• Significantly impacts
student training time.
• Minimal train-thetrainer requirement.
• Requires allocation of
computers.
• Requires some
storage space.
• Requires some staff
support.
• Minor addition to FE
Manager’s workload at
RO.
• No addition to Sernior
FE’s workload at RO.
• Does not significantly
impact student training
time.
Low
Moderate – a lot of
material must be
developed to support
125 hours of training.
• Evaluates knowledge • Evaluates
and procedures.
knowledge.
• Does not evaluate
• Does not evaluate
performance under
procedures
required conditions (i.e., effectively.
personal contact and • Evaluates
interview skills).
performance under
required conditions
(i.e., personal contact
and interview skills).
Not manpower
Manpower intensive.
intensive.
Schedule Risk
Testing
Manpower &
Personnel
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
• Moderate train-thetrainer requirement.
• Requires allocation
of computers.
• Requires some
storage space.
• Requires some staff
support.
• Moderate addition to
FE Manager’s
workload at RO.
• Addition to Senior
FE’s workload at RO.
• Does not
significantly impact
student training time.
Moderate – different
types of media
developed.
• Evaluates
knowledge and
procedure s.
• Evaluates
performance under
required conditions
(i.e., personal contact
and interview skills).
Moderate manpower.
PAGE 8
Step 5.3. Make recommendation
Alternative 3 was recommended and approved. It provides an EPSS to
immediately support job performance. It also provides a blended training media
approach in two venues. After the NA, organizational changes were made to
eliminate risk associated with Alternative 3.
Step 6.
Develop and forward assessment report with funding options.
Option 1
st
1 Year
nd
2 rd Year
3 Year
th
4 Year
th
5 Year
th
6 Year
th
7 Year
th
8 Year
th
9 Year
th
10 Year
$400,000
$1,250,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
Option 2
$400,000
$650,000
$600,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
Option 3
$400,000
$425,000
$425,000
$400,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
$40,000
References.
Daly, D.J., Pitts, T., Seiser, H., Locascio, F., and Melon, E.
(2001). Field Examiner Needs Assessment/Training Situation
Analysis Report. Office of Technical Training and Evaluation,
Veterans Benefits Administration.
Note: The Needs Assessment and Training Needs Analysis
Process with Examples
(This example is taken from the Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA)
Training and Performance Support System managed by the VBA
Technical Training and Evaluation Office, Orlando, FL, Charles A.
Beagles, Ph.D., Director)
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • NEEDS ASSESSMENT &TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS CASE STUDY
PAGE 9
<This page left blank intentionally>
Job and Task Analysis
Job and task analysis are the first steps in building a structure for
capabilities-based learning. This process represents a job audit
or inventory: knowledge, skills and attitudes are identified and
isolated with a view to ultimately synthesizing them into a
hierarchical organization relevant to the writing of a learning
prescription. (Gilbert, T.F., 1962) In performing such an analysis,
the analyst must consider not only the physical components of
the subject, e.g., use of tools, references, job aids, etc., but also
the mental components, procedures, decisions, abstractions, etc.
(Davies, I., 1973)
Job Analysis
Whether developing a new training course or updating an
existing course, data is collected to conduct a job analysis. Job
analysis is a method used to obtain a detailed listing of tasks
necessary to perform a specific job or duty. Job-related data
should include:
•
•
•
•
The purpose.
The functional responsibility of personnel.
Required support equipment and materials.
Information on how the system works, is maintained, or
is used.
Collecting this date may involve:
•
•
•
•
•
Observing personnel in the work environment.
Interviewing job incumbents and supervisors.
Using questionnaire surveys.
Interviewing jury of experts.
Studying applicable documentation, including:
• Occupational field descriptions.
• Related training documents.
• Engineering data and specifications.
(MIL-HDBK-29812-2A)
Task Analysis
Task analysis is the process of detailing task performance. The
task performance details describe:
1. How the task is performed or the performance steps.
2. Under what conditions it is performed.
3. How well the individual must perform it or the
performance standards.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 1
These task performance details help the instructional developer
establish the individual training strategy and help design and
develop the training programs and products.
A task is defined as, “A
single unit of specific
work behavior, with clear
beginning and ending
points that is directly
observable or otherwise
measurable.”
A task is defined as, “A single unit of specific work behavior, with
clear beginning and ending points that is directly observable or
otherwise measurable.” A task may also be defined as a series
of actions leading to a terminal outcome, such as “starting
engines on an aircraft” or “performing an aborted take-off.” A task
is performed for its own sake, that is, it is not dependent upon
other tasks, although it may fall in a sequence with other tasks in
a mission, duty, or job.
Task analysis is in the process of breaking a task down to
identify the:
A task may also be
defined as a series of
actions leading to a
terminal outcome, such
as “starting engines on
an aircraft” or “performing
an aborted take-off.”
1. Component steps of a task.
2. Sequence of those steps.
3. Conditions under which the task will be performed (e.g.,
at night, in the field).
4. Task cues.
5. Standard of performance that must be achieved,
expressed in terms of accuracy, completeness,
sequence, or speed. (MIL-HDBK-29612-2A)
See the example on the next page detailing the components of a
task analysis.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 2
Task Identification Sheet
TASK TITLE: Assess the beneficiary’s physical and mental condition as it
relates to his or her capacity to manage funds.
TASK ACTION STATEMENT: Observe and assess the beneficiary’s physical
and mental condition, and note this information for inclusion in the field
examination report.
TASK CONDITION STATEMENT: Given case documentation, which may
include a copy of VA Form 21-592 (Request for Field Examination), a final
rating of incompetence, letters of guardianship, or other supporting legal
evidence of incompetence, reference materials, including 38 CFR (1300
series), M21-1 Part VIII, VBA Circulars, “Fast Letters,” Training Letters, Policy
Letters; access to BDN and BIRLS; and job aids.
TASK STANDARD:
A. Before assessing the beneficiary’s physical and mental condition, the Field
Examiner will:
1. Explain the provisions of the Privacy Act and document the fact that it
was explained on the check sheet.
2. Note the beneficiary’s demographic information on the field
examination check sheet.
B. The Field Examiner will note all of the following on the field examination
check sheet:
1. The beneficiary’s appearance, as it relates to his or her capacity to
manage funds.
2. The beneficiary’s physical condition, as it relates to his or her capacity
to manage funds.
3. The beneficiary’s mental condition, as it relates to his or her capacity
to manage funds.
4. The beneficiary’s diagnosis, as it relates to his or her capacity to
manage funds: (a) physical and (b) mental.
5. The beneficiary’s prescribed medications and compliance with taking
medications, as it relates to his or her capacity to manage funds.
6. The beneficiary’s orientation to:
a.
b.
c.
7.
Time, as it relates to his or her capacity to manage funds
Place, as it relates to his or her capacity to manage funds
Events, as it relates to his or her capacity to manage funds
The beneficiary’s ability to perform activities of daily living, as it relates
to his or her ability to manage funds.
Task Analysis Models
A fundamental assumption in performance technology, as well as
in instructional systems development, is that the education and
training a person receives should focus on enhancing his or her
job performance. Determining what a person must know and
must do to carry out a specific job is one very important aspect of
enhancing job performance. Task analysis serves this function.
Task analysis is the process of identifying the various tasks a
person must perform while completing a job, determining which
of these tasks require training, and identifying the component
knowledge and skill that a person must possess in order to
perform each task acceptably . (Hannum, Wallace; “Job-Task
Analysis” in the Guidebook for Performance Improvement;
Kaufman, R., Thiagarajan, S. and MacGillis, P.; Jossey-Bass
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 3
Pfeiffer, 1997)
There are a number of different task analysis models. All
present different approaches to analyzing different jobs. Three
general approaches to task analysis models include:
•
•
•
Behavioral task analysis.
Procedural task analysis.
Cognitive task analysis.
Behavioral Job Analysis
The most common method for analyzing job tasks requires a
decomposition of job tasks into simpler sub-tasks, component
tasks, or steps. Often a task analysis will begin with a job, then
identify separate duties that make up that job, and finally identify
the tasks that make up each separate duty. (Hannum, W. et al,
1997) The chart below shows the behavioral breakdown of a
task.
Decomposition of Job, Duty, Sub-Tasks
Job
Perform avionics maintenance
Duty
Maintain XYZ communication system
Task
Perform diagnostic test
Sub-Tasks 1. Connect communication system to the tester
2. Execute the test
3. Analyze the test results
Process and Task Analysis
Some task analysis models seek to identify the procedures a job
incumbent must complete. These models extend beyond just
breaking an overall task down into its component subtasks.
They seeks to identify the step-by-step procedures a job
incumbent follows when completing a task. (Merrill, 1980) These
models result in flowcharts detailing what is done in a particular
job, such as the one depicted on the next page:
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 4
Process Flow
1.1.1 Check for
rating of
incompetence or
evidence of legal
disability
FE receives VA Form
21-592 and other case
documentation from RO
End Task 1.1
Does
a rating of
incompetence
exist?
Yes
Note date of
incompetency
rating
Yes
Note fiduciary’s name,
title, court of
jurisdiction, docket
number and
comments
No
Does
a courtappointed
fiduciary
exist?
No
Do legal disabilities
other than court
appointment exist?
Yes
No
Note date of disability.
Describe legal
disability and
method of verification
1.2.2 Return case to
originating RO
End Task
Cognitive Task Analysis
Analyzing tasks that are completed mentally requires a cognitive
approach to task analysis, not a behavioral approach.
Traditional task analysis methods rely on behavioral
observations or reports of behaviors. This is not adequate when
the task is a thought process. Cognitive task analysis methods
would seek to determine what information an individual used in
completing a task and how he or she processed the information.
One method used for cognitive task analysis is gathering
information about an incumbent’s thoughts while he or she is
completing a task. Having the task performers describe what
they are doing in a running dialog as they are completing some
tasks does this. This is often called the “talk through” approach.
Best Practices: Common Task Analysis
Functions
There are many different task analysis models and procedures,
but most share such common functions as:
•
•
•
•
•
Task inventory.
Task description.
Task selection.
Task sequencing.
Analyzing performance and content levels.
Task Inventory
A task inventory is a listing of all the specific tasks a person
performs when doing certain jobs. For example, a task inventory
for an automobile mechanic would include such tasks as:
•
Remove and replace spark plugs.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 5
•
•
Diagnose the cause for stalling.
Adjust the timing.
There is considerable agreement among task analysis models
about what is included in task inventories; the inventory lists the
specific tasks that make up a job. Some task listings include
only tasks that are behaviorally stated that make up a job. Some
task listings include only tasks that are behaviorally stated and
directly observable such as check voltage of circuits. Others
include non-behaviorally stated tasks such as troubleshooting of
electrical problems.
Several different data collection methods can be used to gather
data from job incumbents to construct task inventories. Some
task analysts may use a combination of observation, interviews,
and surveys to create task inventories. This combination of
methods can alleviate the weaknesses of any one method alone.
Task Description
Task description is in the process of elaborating upon the tasks
or content identified during the task inventory to a more specific
level of detail. Because job and content analyses are somewhat
general, they do not provide the amount of detail needed to
design instruction. Therefore, during the process, subtasks and
subordinate skills are identified. (Loughner and Moller, 1998)
See the tables on the next page for more detailed information.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 6
Task Description
Task Number/Action 1.3.1 Send the appropriate letter to the veteran
Outcome
Notification of veteran
Initiating Cue
Agent receives signed Rating Decision and
completed application 26-4555
Standard
100% for entitled veterans
Knowledge/Skills/Attitudes
Identifier
Reference(s)
Prerequisites
P1
Read the Rating Decision for
the disability to determine the
correct letter and enclosures
to send to veteran
Metacognition
M1
Knowledge of disabilities
Knowledge
K1
Knowledge
K2
Understand the disability to
determine the correct letter
and enclosures to send to
veteran
Prepare the 26-39 or 26-39a
form letter. (Letters may be
found in the SAH program,
letters screen)
M26-12 201b
PH Case:
Send 26-39 letter to veteran
with SAH video
AH Case:
Send 26-39a letter with
appropriate information:
For visually impaired:
Braille booklet or audio tape
cassette; large print booklet
26-69-1 Part II
For loss of use of hands:
26-69-1 Part II
Skills
Attitudes
Notes
S1
A1
Task Selection
When task analysts complete task inventories, they identify
numerous specific tasks that make up a job. Since training
budgets as well as the time available for training are limited, it is
often not economical or reasonable to train all tasks. Thus
various task analysis models provide procedures for selecting
tasks for training. For example, if a particular task is critical to
overall job performance, then training would be provided on the
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 7
task instead of another task that was less critical to overall job
performance.
Different task analysis models employ different criteria for task
selection. Tracey, Flynn, and Legere (1966) specified several
criteria for use in task selection for a model developed for the
U.S. Army. The following task selection criteria were identified:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Universality.
Difficulty.
Criticality.
Frequency.
Practicality.
Frequency.
Practicability.
Achievability.
Quality.
Deficiency.
Retainability.
Follow-on training.
They suggest that each task in the task inventory indicate either
yes or no on each of the criteria. Others have used a scaling
approach to rate tasks from high to low in regard to each of the
criteria. The most common set of the task selection criteria
include only four of the original ten criteria: universality, criticality,
difficulty, and frequency. (Jonassen, Hannum and Tessmer,
1989) One common approach to task selection if termed the D-IF model, because it uses difficulty, importance, and frequency as
the task selection criteria.
Of Some
Importance
Easy, Monthly
2.
Moderately
Important/
Difficult,Weekly
3.
Very Important/
Difficulty, Daily
4.
Job Duty
Analysis
Design
Deploy, Install &
Configure
Importance
Difficulty
Frequency
Manage
Monitor & Optimize
Troubleshoot, Repair &
Restore
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 8
Sequencing Tasks and Task Components
The process of task sequencing requires further review of the
tasks to determine the appropriate sequence of instruction. If the
task to be trained is procedural, the sequence in which the task
is performed may or may not be the best sequence for
instruction. For example, more complicated sub-tasks may be
trained out of sequence as a prerequisite to ensure the learner
has mastered the sub-task prior to performing the job task.
Sequencing of instruction also varies according to the theory or
model on which it is based. (Jonassen and Hannum, 1986/1991)
Task Sequence Diagram
Underwriter
receives loan
package
1.1
Review the documentation
in the loan package and
transfer the information to
the Loan Analysis Form
1.1.1
Determine
type of
loan
1.1.2
Determine
eligibility
1.1.3
Review
appraisal &
Notification
of
Certification
of
Reasonable
Value
1.1.4
Determine
debt &
credit
history
1.1.5
Determine
outcome
1.1.6
Determine
assets
1.2
Finalize Loan
Analysis Form
1.2.1
Calculate
loan
amount
1.2.2
Calculate
monthly
payment
1.2.3
Calculate
residual
income
1.2.4
Calculate
income-to
debt ratio
1.2.5
Render final
decision (If
authorized)
End Task
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 9
Analyzing Performance and Content Levels
When analyzing performance and content levels, the behavior
that the learner demonstrates as a result of the instruction is
categorized. Analysts often use Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, first published in 1956, which classifies
learning outcomes into three domains:
•
•
•
Cognitive.
Affective.
Psychomotor.
Each domain is then divided hierarchically. The cognitive
domains, for example, increase in complexity from knowledge to
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Another important taxonomy was developed by Robert Gagne.
Gagne identified five categories of learning outcomes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Intellectual skills.
Cognitive strategies.
Verbal information.
Motor skills.
Attitudes.
Each category is also divided hierarchically. The table on the
next page illustrates the categorization of tasks by learning level
after they have been selected and incorporated as learning
objectives.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 10
Objective Hierarchy
Terminal Objective
1.0
Given the WBT and its resources (Glossary, Links, Help) and scenarios,
the student will be able to recognize the foundational information
necessary to perform the day-to-day tasks of an entry-level loan
specialist. The standard will be scoring 80 percent or higher on the
comprehensive course post-test.
Enabling Objectives
1.0.1
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Given the training material (i.e., information,
chart/tables, forms, examples) and scenario
segments, the student will be able to recognize
the steps to take to determine if the veteran is
eligible for the VA Home Loan program by:
Recalling definitions of the various types of veterans.
Recognizing the general rule of eligibility.
Recalling the exceptions to the 2-year requirement.
Defining active duty.
Identifying reservist and national guard eligibility
requirements.
Recognizing eligibility requirements for unmarried
surviving spouse.
Recognizing how to determine if veteran qualifies based
on proof of service documentation.
Identifying documentation needed for determination of
eligibility.
Recalling how to review documentation necessary for
the eligibility process.
Identifying the steps to verify if the veteran has
previously used his/her entitlement.
Recognizing the ways the veteran’s entitlement can be
restored.
Recognizing the procedures for issuing a certificate of
eligibility.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
Level
Bloom Level 2:
Comprehension
Bloom Level 1:
Knowledge
Bloom Level 2:
Comprehension
Bloom Level 1:
Knowledge
Bloom Level 2:
Comprehension
Bloom Level 1:
Knowledge
Bloom Level 2:
Comprehension
Bloom Level 1:
Knowledge
PAGE 11
Job and Task Analysis Job Aid
In 1986, the International Board of Standards for Training,
Performance, and Instruction identified competencies for
performing job, task, and content analysis:
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS
PAGE 12
Writing for the Web
Why Writing Differently for the Web is Vital to Online Learning
So why write differently for the web?
• Reading is like taking a
long, hot bath …
• Reading a newspaper
is like taking a hot
shower …
• Reading the web is like
taking a cold, quick
shower!
The advent of electronic media has provided the platform to
disperse information to an even greater audience. Now
programs like Dreamweaver, FrontPage and even Microsoft
Word allow even the most novice developers to post their
content to the web. If you have even the slightest opinion you
can easily share it with the world through the Internet. But how
to best convey your message to your audience? Many web
authors are under the mistaken impression that the way you
write prose for a printed medium is the same way that you write
prose for an electronic medium. Readers approach electronic
media very differently than print media. To provide an analogy to
illustrate this concept:
•
•
•
1. Know your audience.
2. Be succinct and
scannable.
3. Copyedit.
Reading a book is like taking a long, hot bath….
Reading a newspaper is like taking a hot shower…
Reading the web is like taking a cold, quick shower!
There are a few best practices for writing for the web that you
should keep in mind:
1. Know your audience.
2. Be succinct and scannable.
3. Copyedit.
1. Know Your Audience
The most important thing that you can do when thinking about
your web content is to know your audience. Audience
complaints fall into mainly three categories:
1. Content.
2. Navigation.
3. Design.
Audience complaints fall
into mainly three
categories:
1. Content
2. Navigation
3. Design
Content. Audience complaints about content can include that it
is too long, and takes too long to read or involves too much
scrolling. Another complaint is that it is not relevant or poorly
organized.
Navigation. When planning and organizing your website and
content, it is very important to think about how the reader will
move through the content. Some of the most common audience
complaints regarding content are:
•
•
•
It requires too many clicks to get through the content.
There are too many links within the content.
There are dead ends where the content stops and you
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
PAGE 1
•
cannot get back to where you once were.
The content is poorly organized in general.
Design. If your audience is distracted, you will never be able to
convey your message. That is, if you use too many fonts, colors,
clutter, pop-up ads, or if your content is too slow to download,
your audience will get impatient and just move on.
Before writing the first word of your content, it is useful to give
some thought to the following questions:
•
•
•
•
•
What are the needs and concerns of your audience? (i.e.
reference, marketing, research, etc.)
Is your audience local, national, global?
How computer literate is your audience?
What is your audience’s primary learning style?
Does your audience have any special needs or
accessibility issues that will affect the text and formatting
of your site, such as:
♦ visual
♦ auditory
♦ language
♦ cultural
2. Be Succinct and Scannable
“It is a very sad thing
nowadays that there is so
little useless information.”
-- Oscar Wilde
If Mr. Wilde said that during the start of the last century, what
would he possibly think of life in the new millenium? There is so
much information available at our fingertips now, how do you
determine what is relevant and what isn’t? The thing is, that the
reader should not have to spend time trying to figure it out, it is
up to you, the author, to tell the reader what is important and
what you want them to know. The way in which you do that is by
keeping your content concise and easy to read.
The following is an example of the before and after of a website
edited for succinctness and scanability:
Before…
United States Intelligence Community
Who We Are and What We Do
Throughout history, the leaders of nations and armies have
sought to be forewarned of dangers and forearmed with
information that reduces uncertainty and provides a critical edge
for decisions. The effort to meet these fundamental needs of
decisionmakers is what lies behind the practice of intelligence.
That practice consists of collecting and interpreting information,
overcoming in the process any barriers erected to keep secret
the activities, capabilities, and plans of foreign powers and
organizations.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
PAGE 2
Today, intelligence is a vital element in every substantial
international activity of the US government. Every day, the
agencies and offices that make up the US Intelligence
Community provide an important information advantage to those
who manage the nation's strategic interests--political, economic,
and military. Intelligence organizations support a broad range of
consumers, from the national level of the President, the Cabinet,
and the Congress, to the tactical level of military forces deployed
in the field.
For intelligence officers, this means maintaining an ability to warn
policymakers and military leaders of impending crises, especially
those that threaten the immediate interests of the nation or the
well-being of US citizens. It also means giving government and
military officials advance knowledge of long-term dangers, such
as the threats posed by countries that covet weapons of mass
destruction. It means helping to safeguard public security by
countering threats from terrorists and drug traffickers. It means
supporting economic security by uncovering foreign efforts at
bribery and other schemes to tilt the playing field of international
trade. And it means multiplying the effectiveness of US military
forces deployed for operations.
A series of statutes and Executive Orders provides legal
authority for the conduct of intelligence activities. Key documents
include the National Security Act of 1947 (as amended), which
provides the basic organization of the US's national security
effort, and Executive Order 12333, which provides current
guidelines for the conduct of intelligence activities and the
composition of the Intelligence Community. Together with other
laws and orders, these two documents are meant to ensure that
intelligence activities are conducted effectively and conform to
the US Constitution and US laws. They also provide a statutory
basis of accountability to the Congress.
The national intelligence effort is led by the Director of Central
Intelligence (DCI), who oversees the Intelligence Community
organizations described in more detail in the following pages.
Resources for these organizations are tied together in the
National Foreign Intelligence Program--the budget for these
national activities, which support political, economic, and military
decisionmakers, is developed by the DCI and presented to the
Congress annually. Intelligence activities that are more narrowly
focused and intended to support tactical military forces are
funded separately in two programs within the Department of
Defense. These programs--the Joint Military Intelligence
Program and the Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities
aggregation--fall under the aegis of the Deputy Secretary of
Defense. In recent years, the line between national and tactical
activities has become less distinct and, in fact, national and
tactical capabilities have been brought to bear on intelligence
problems in complementary ways. The goal of intelligence,
however, has remained constant--to support decisionmakers with
the best possible information, no matter its source.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
PAGE 3
After…
United States Intelligence Community
Overview of Activities
The Intelligence Community serves a broad range of clients from
the President, Cabinet, and Congress to military forces deployed
in the field.
Our activities include:
§
Warning policymakers/military leaders of impeding
crises, especially those that threaten the immediate
interests of the nation or the well-being of US citizens.
§
Informing government/military officials about long-term
dangers such as threats posed by countries that wish to
acquire weapons of mass destruction.
§
Helping to safeguard public security by countering
threats from terrorists and drug traffickers.
§
Supporting economic security by uncovering foreign
efforts at bribery and other activities designed to disrupt
international trade.
§
Enhancing the effectiveness of US military forces in
areas of action.
The legal authority for our activities is based on:
§
The National Security Act of 1947 (as amended) which
provides the basic organization of the US’s national
security effort.
§
Executive Order 12333 which provides current
guidelines for the conduct of intelligence activities and
the composition of the Intelligence Community.
Our funding is based on:
§
The National Foreign Intelligence Program
§
The Joint Military Intelligence Program
§
Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities
What was done to the document:
§
§
§
§
Eliminated clichés such as “Tilt the playing field.”
Created sub-heads to break up text and bolded them for
emphasis.
Used bullets where possible for easier reading.
Provided white space between bullets when the text was
longer than one line.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
PAGE 4
• Chunk your content.
• Keep sentences short.
• Create appropriate headings
and sub-headings.
• Use bullet points for
readability.
• Create links for users that
are interested in pursuing
sub-topics.
• Use active voice.
• Remove emotive language
and clichés.
• Make your words your links
– no “click here for …”
§
§
§
Created links for users who might be interested in
gaining more information about particular items.
Rewrote emotive language such as “countries that covet
weapons of mass destruction” to “countries that wish to
acquire weapons of mass destruction.”
Rewrote passive language.
Here are some tips to follow when thinking about how to keep
your content succinct and scannable:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chunk your content.
Keep sentences short.
Create appropriate headings and sub-headings.
Use bullet points for readability.
Create links for users that are interested in pursuing subtopics.
Use active voice.
Remove emotive language and clichés.
Make your words your links — no “click here for…”
3. Copyedit your work
Nothing is worse than users discovering misspelled words,
broken links, or badly flowing text. The following is a humorous
way to remember some grammatical rules:
Errors take away from the
message of the text.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Make each pronoun agree with their antecedents.
Join clauses good, like a conjunction should.
About them sentence fragments.
When dangling, watch your participles.
Verbs has got to agree with their subjects.
Don't write run-on sentences they are hard to read.
Don't use commas, which aren't necessary.
Try to not ever split infinitives.
Its important to use your apostrophe's correctly.
Correct speling is essential.
Eschew ostentatious erudition.
Avoid cliches like the plague.
Avoid run-on sentences they are hard to read.
Never use no double negatives.
Use the semicolon properly, always where it is appropriate;
and never where it is not.
Reserve the apostrophe for it's proper use and omit it where
it is not needed.
Proofread carefully to see if you any words out.
Avoid commas, that are not necessary.
When you reread your work, you will find on rereading that a
great deal of repetition can be avoided by rereading and
editing.
A writer must not shift your point of view.
Do not overuse exclamation marks!!! (In fact, avoid them
whenever possible!!!)
And do not start a sentence with a conjunction.
Place pronouns as closely as possible, especially in long
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
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• Check for inconsistencies
in facts, names, and other
elements.
• Check spelling.
• Check tables, charts,
figures for accuracy.
• Reorganize written content
for clarity.
• Improve flow of text.
• Edit paragraphs and
sentences for clarity and
conciseness.
• Check headings for
consistency of level and
presentation.
• Check titles against table
of contents.
• Check for inconsistencies
in font, color, size.
• Check grammar and
punctuation.
• Check for errors,
omissions,
inconsistencies.
• Check that text line breaks
are appropriate.
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sentences, as of ten or more words, to their antecedents.
Hyphenate only between syllables and avoid un-necessary
hyphens.
Write all adverbial forms correct.
Don't use contractions.
It is incumbent on us to avoid archaisms.
If any word is improper at the end of a sentence, a linking
verb is.
Steer clear of incorrect verb forms that have snuck into the
language.
Take the bull by the hand and avoid mixed metaphors.
Avoid modernisms that sound flaky.
Avoid barbarisms: they impact too forcefully.
Never, ever use repetitive redundancies.
Everyone should be careful to use singular pronouns with
singular nouns in their writing.
If we've told you once, we've told you a thousand times:
avoid hyperbole.
Also, avoid awkward or affected alliteration.
Do not string a large number of prepositional phrases
together unless you are walking through the valley of the
shadow of death.
Always pick on the the correct idiom.
"Avoid overuse of 'quotation "marks.""
Never use more words than are necessary to get your point
across: be concise.
Awayz check you're spelling. (Your spellchecker would only
pick up one of the two errors here.)
Always be avoided by the passive voice.
Every sentence a verb.
Last but not least, avoid cliches like the plague: seek viable
alternatives.
Source:
http://www.chesapeake.edu/Writingcenter/writegood.html
http://cisw.cla.umn.edu/faculty/responding/self_humorous.html
Copyediting tips:
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Check for inconsistencies in facts, names, and other
elements.
Check spelling.
Check tables, charts, figures for accuracy.
Reorganize written content for clarity.
Improve flow of text.
Edit paragraphs and sentences for clarity and conciseness.
Check headings for consistency of level and presentation.
Check titles against table of contents.
Check for inconsistencies in font, color, size.
Check grammar and punctuation.
Check for errors, omissions, inconsistencies.
Check that text line breaks are appropriate.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
PAGE 6
4. Remember the 4 C’s
The 4 C’s:
• Be concise.
• Be clear.
• Be coherent.
• Be credible.
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Be concise.
Be clear.
Be coherent.
Be credible.
5. Bibliography and Recommended Reading
W eb Style Guide. Patrick J. Lynch and Sarah Horton.
Yale University Press: New Haven, 1999.
Developing Online Content: The Principles of W riting and Editing
for the W eb. Irene Hammerich and Claire Harrison. W iley
Publishing: New York, 2002.
Designing W eb Usability. Jakob Nielsen. New Riders Publishing:
Indianapolis, 2002.
Labyrinths: the Art of Interactive W riting and Design. Domenic
Stansberry. W adsworth Publishing, 1998
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
PAGE 7
Writing for the Web: Tips and Tricks
Quick Reference Sheet
Audience
q What are the needs and concerns of your audience?
q Is your audience local, national, global?
q How computer literate if your audience?
q What is your audience’s primary learning style?
q Does your audience have any special needs that will affect the text and formatting of your site?
• Visual
• Auditory
• Cultural
• Language
Scanability
q Chunk your content.
q Keep sentences short.
q Create appropriate headings and sub-headings.
q Use bullet points for readability.
q Create links for users that are interested in pursuing sub-topics.
q Use active voice.
q Remove emotive language and clichés.
q Make your words your links – no “click here for …”
Copyediting
q Check for inconsistencies in facts, names, and other elements.
q Check spelling.
q Check tables, charts, figures for accuracy.
q Reorganize written content for clarity.
q Improve flow of text.
q Edit paragraphs and sentences for clarity and conciseness.
q Check headings for consistency of level and presentation.
q Check titles against table of contents.
q Check for inconsistencies in font, color, size.
q Check grammar and punctuation.
q Check for errors, omissions, inconsistencies.
q Check that text line breaks are appropriate.
JOINT ADL CO-LABORATORY • WRITING FOR THE WEB
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