Rationalization of the Commercial
Afforestation Program on the Western
Shores of Lake St. Lucia for Nature and
Wilderness Conservation, KwaZulu-Natal
Province, South Africa
William R. Bainbridge
Abstract—The purpose of this paper is to describe a recent initiative to rationalize the commercial afforestation program on the
Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia. This initiative is believed to have
considerable potential benefits for the conservation of Lake St.
Lucia: to bring about a significant addition of conservation-worthy
land to the St. Lucia Wetland World Heritage Site, to make important contributions to the conservation of the unique natural communities of the area, and to promote tourism in a portion of the St. Lucia
system not previously available to the public. Overall, this is
expected to create employment opportunities in one of the poorer
parts of the country, stimulate the local economy, and benefit local
communities in other ways. Commercial afforestation, combined
with tourism (and ecotourism), will continue in portions of the
system that are most suitable for these uses, but in a manner
compatible with its World Heritage Site status. From a wilderness
conservation viewpoint, it will add a protective internal buffer to the
southeastern portions of the park, isolating the lake and terrestrial
wildernesses from disturbance from the developed areas along the
principal road and rail access routes to the west of the park.
Historical Perspectives ___________
Lake St. Lucia, in the northeastern portion of KwaZuluNatal Province, is the largest natural water body in South
Africa. It has an international reputation because of its
historical background, its considerable natural beauty and
tourism appeal, and its significant natural resources, many
of which have considerable scientific value.
These were among the considerations that led to the
appointment of the St. Lucia Commission of Enquiry in
1964. The Commission was instructed to investigate alleged
threats to the survival of plant and animal life of the lake,
and factors causing high salinity levels in drought years,
which at times were higher than that of the sea. The salinity
regime is the principal physical factor that determines what
species, and hence ecosystem states, that may occur in the
system at any stage. The Commission was instructed to
recommend a solution that would best suit the lake and
surrounding agriculture, forestry, and domestic and commercial water needs in the total catchment area (Commission of Enquiry, Lake St. Lucia 1966; Taylor 1991).
The recommendations of the Commission were comprehensive and far reaching. Important recommendations included:
• The phasing out of plantations that had been established
in the immediate vicinity of the lake, and consolidation
of this land with other areas to increase the extent of the
protected area surrounding Lake St. Lucia.
• Placement of the lake and the expanded protected area
under a single management authority.
Unfortunately, these recommendations were largely ignored by the apartheid government of the day. The threats
to the lake were in fact intensified in the early 1990s by the
same government (Bainbridge 1993/4), when a proposal to
implement dune mining in the coastal dune cordon on the
Eastern Shores of the lake was given serious consideration
(Tinley 1985). It was anticipated that this form of strip
mining had the potential to cause significant negative impacts on freshwater flows into the lake. However, this threat
was averted by concerted public opposition from local and
international environmentalists (Bainbridge 1993/4; Brooks
and others 1993; Dominy 1992; Leon and others 1993).
An important additional benefit of this campaign to prevent dune mining was the decision by the government to
remove 5,600 ha (13,840 acres) of manmade forests from the
Eastern Shores, which was in itself a noteworthy achievement for the environmental movement. However, this decision did not at that time affect any of the plantations on the
Western Shores, despite the negative impacts on this sensitive environment.
Importance of the St. Lucia Wetland
World Heritage Site ______________
William R Bainbridge is an Environmental Consultant and a Director of
the Wilderness Action Group of South Africa, 314 Alexandra Road.,
Pietermaritzburg 3201, South Africa. E-mail wrbainbr@iafrica.com
Importance for Nature Conservation
In: Watson, Alan; Sproull, Janet, comps. 2003. Science and stewardship
to protect and sustain wilderness values: Seventh World Wilderness Congress symposium; 2001 November 2–8; Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Proc.
RMRS-P-27. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Lake St. Lucia is the estuary on the Mkuze River, but it
also receives water from a number of other smaller rivers
and streams. Although these are all relatively small rivers
by African standards, St. Lucia is one of the largest, if not the
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Rationalization of the Commercial Afforestation Program on the Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia...
largest, estuarine system on the African Continent. The lake
is located in the Maputaland Coastal Plain at the southernmost extremity of the Mozambique Coastal Plain, which lies
along the east coast of Africa between Somalia in the north
and Zululand in the northeastern corner of KwaZulu-Natal
Province in South Africa. Lake St. Lucia and its associated
terrestrial, wetland, and marine environments have long
been regarded as having major importance for nature conservation and tourism, and calls made for its protection
(Bruton and Cooper 1980; Delagorgue 1990; Ellis 1975;
Frost 1990; Taylor 1991). These are now protected in the
most important coastal protected area in the country, known
as the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, with an area of just
under 290,000 ha (716,600 acres).
The importance of this area has been recognized for over
a century. International recognition of the importance of the
area was accorded when the area was included in two
Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar
Convention in 1975 (Jackson 1992a), and admitted to the
World Heritage Site (WHS) list in 1999—the first South
African site to be accorded this prestigious status (KwaZuluNatal Nature Conservation Service 1999).
A complete description of the importance of the area for
nature conservation is provided in its nomination proposal
for WHS satus (KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service 1999). Among the many important attributes that
should receive mention is the role of the lake as a breeding
ground and nursery for marine organisms.
Wildernesses of the Park
There has long been appreciation that extensive portions
of the park remain substantially unmodified by technological man, and still retain the near-pristine condition that
pertained when the park was occupied by early huntergatherer people, well into the twentieth century. This is one
of the last remaining coastal areas to survive with its
wilderness character still largely intact, which is one of the
reasons why the park was awarded WHS status (Bainbridge
2001).
A high proportion of the park has been zoned as wilderness
by administrative arrangement for several decades, but
these zones have been revised as part of the management
plan for the WHS (LSDI 2000; Bainbridge and others 2000).
Included in the wilderness zones are an extensive area of the
eastern portion of the lake itself and a large area of land in
the central portion of the park, together with adjacent
marine sanctuary areas in both the central part of the park
and in the north (fig. 1).
These are the only remaining coastal wildernesses in the
country. It is envisaged that these wilderness zones will be
entrenched in law, in terms of recent legislation. Although
not yet afforded legal protection as wilderness areas per se,
they enjoy secure legal protection in terms of several statutes, including the World Heritage Convention Act of 1999.
The St. Lucia wildernesses are nevertheless vulnerable to
disturbance from several quarters, especially from development in the western peripheries of the park. This explains
the importance of the land-use rationalization exercise on
the Western Shores.
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Afforestation on the Western
Shores ________________________
Extent of Western Shores Plantations
As noted above, the program to establish commercial
timber plantations on State land on the Eastern and Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia was initiated by the (then)
Department of Forestry nearly 50 years ago. There has been
persistent public opposition to this program from the outset,
since environmentalists were aware of the potential harmful impacts on the wetland systems and the lake itself.
However, the environmental movement at that stage was
not well organized, and this official arm of government
remained impassive, so the program was continued and
expanded. By the start of the present millennium, the total
extent of the manmade forests on the Western Shores was
approximately 23,700 ha (58,560 acres) (Zaloumis and others 1999).
Indications of the Impacts of the Western
Shores Plantations on Freshwater
Supplies to Lake St. Lucia
Typically, the lake has a highly variable salinity regime.
During extensive periods of low rainfall, sea water moves
into the system, and salinity levels may be as high as 90
parts per thousand. In wet seasons, the freshwater inputs
from streamflow and seepage result in almost total flushing
of the salt. These changes are accompanied by enormous and
changing biodiversity. However, while halophylic species
are able to retreat to the sea in times of low salinity, and are
able to recolonize the lake when conditions favorable to them
are re-established, survival options for freshwater species
under hypersaline conditions are more restricted. Plants
may recolonize the lake from the feeder rivers and swamps.
Animals, however, are entirely dependent on refugia maintained in sites with adequate, permanent freshwater inputs.
A high proportion of the water in the lake system is
derived from ground-water seepage and rainfall. From the
above, it is obvious that in times of drought, the importance
of freshwater inputs assumes critical proportions (KwaZuluNatal Nature Conservation Service 1999; Taylor 1991, 1998).
Tinley (1971) considered the ground-water seepage to be
critically important for maintaining salinity at acceptable
levels in periods of drought. Jackson (1992b) estimated that
the desiccating effect of the plantations on the Western
Shores has reduced dry season flow of freshwater from the
Mpate River (the catchment of which is entirely contained in
the Western Shores) by as much as 45 percent.
Decision to Privatize the Plantations of the
Western Shores
The South African government has, in recent years, developed a policy to privatize a number of State assets, including
the extensive timber plantations of the South African Forestry Company Ltd. (SAFCOL), which succeeded the previous Department of Forestry. Private forestry companies
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Rationalization of the Commercial Afforestation Program on the Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia...
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Figure 1—Western Shores afforestation, St. Lucia area.
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Rationalization of the Commercial Afforestation Program on the Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia...
were invited to submit tenders for various components of the
national timber plantation system. A private company,
Siyaqhubeka Ltd., with both forestry and ecotourism interests, was accepted as the preferred bidder for the Western
Shores plantation.
Study to Rationalize Portions of the
Western Shores Plantation________
Initial Study and Zoning Proposals
At about the same time, the government established the
Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative (LSDI), an arm of
the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, to
develop a new access route between northeastern KwaZuluNatal and Mozambique, and to promote economic development in this previously economically deprived area. Promotion of tourism was selected as one means of stimulating the
local economy and creating jobs, and it was decided that
development of the new World Heritage Site should form a
part of this program. LSDI was also given responsibility for
the establishment of a Park Authority in terms of the WHS
Act, with responsibility for the development of an Integrated
Development Plan for the park, which incorporates a tourism development plan (LSDI 2000).
Following the announcement to privatize the plantations
of the Western Shores, LSDI was instructed by the government to commission a study to investigate the plantations.
This study showed that certain portions of the plantations,
especially those in the western extremity of the plantation
area away from the park, were well suited for commercial
afforestation and were not causing significant impacts to the
park itself. In contrast, other portions in the immediate
peripheries of the park were of similar character to the St.
Lucia Wetland WHS in that they contained areas of conservation-worthy natural communities and wetlands, and also
contained plantations that had been established on hydromorphic soils. In addition, as might be expected by virtue of
its proximity to the park, the area was considered to have
significant potential for tourism (Zaloumis and others 1999).
The study proposed a zoning system for the area to be
privatized included two primary zones:
• A Commercial Afforestation Zone, comprising areas
suited for commercial afforestation.
• A Natural Zone, comprising areas of conservation-worthy natural communities and incorrectly sited plantations capable of rehabilitation back to a near-natural
state, for consolidation with the park.
These proposals had the effect of reducing the extent of the
plantations offered out to tender by approximately onethird, but were nevertheless found to be acceptable by both
the government and the preferred bidder. Acceptance by the
latter was subject to the proviso that the area of plantation
remaining should be economically viable. It was also based
on the stated policy of the company to adhere to the principles and criteria for sustainable forestry set by the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) (FSC 1999). Inclusion of
the proposed Natural Zone might have prejudiced their FSC
accreditation (Bainbridge and others 2000).
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The government subsequently instructed the parties to
negotiate on the most acceptable means of delineating the
two zones, with the aim of retaining plantations on nonsensitive sites and with the least possible impact on their
economic viability; and selecting a consolidated natural
area, as above, to be incorporated into the protected area as
part of the WHS, and restored to its natural state by removal
of the plantations present and implementation of a rehabilitation program (Zaloumis and Brummer 2001).
Delineation of a Boundary to Separate the
Zones
A technical team comprising professional representatives
of the principal stakeholders was appointed to provide
delineation criteria for a boundary to separate the two zones.
The recommended criteria included the presence of important natural communities, water source areas, and wetlands
for the Natural Zone, and the presence of soils most suitable
for afforestation for the Commercial Afforestation Zone. A
reconnaissance study was implemented to identify broad
groupings of these. The study suggested that a boundary
following natural features would best satisfy these aims. A
standard rectilinear artificial boundary proved unsuitable
to separate the complex mosaic patterns of natural communities. The solution adopted was to site a natural boundary
separating broad soils groupings (essentially the interface
between dryland soils and wetland or hydromorphic soils),
by use of soil augurs, as described in the Procedure for the
Identification and Delineation of Wetland and Riparian
Habitats (Land-Use and Wetland /Riparian Habitat Working Group 2001). The intention was to site the boundary on
an alignment suitable for construction of a permanent road
track, following the principles for establishment of valley
bottom cutoff roads.
Conclusions ____________________
This curvilinear natural boundary has provided a satisfactory solution to separation of the two zones, and has been
delineated over a distance of 158 km (98 miles) throughout
the entire length of the Western Shores. It has been fixed by
Geographic Positioning System points, and will be registered as the cadastral boundary for excision of the area for
permanent inclusion within the park.
Summary of the Principal Achievements
of the Initiative
The principal achievements of this planning exercise are:
• The South African government has decided to excise an
area (fig. 2) of approximately 9,000 ha (22,240 acres), which
is to be restored back to a near-natural condition and
consolidated with the park. A time schedule of 5 years has
been set for the removal of 2,000 to 3,000 ha (4,940 to 7,140
acres) of timber in this area and completion of the restoration program. This area contains important natural communities, water source areas, and wetlands, which will add
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Figure 2—Natural areas in relation to wilderness areas, St. Lucia Wetland World Heritage Site.
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•
•
•
•
•
Rationalization of the Commercial Afforestation Program on the Western Shores of Lake St. Lucia...
significantly to the biodiversity resources presently conserved in the park. The area is expected to form part of the
St. Lucia Wetland World Heritage Site, following completion of the restoration operations.
The change in land use is also expected to benefit the
WHS by improvement of crucial freshwater supplies
into the lake following removal of the timber plantations, and by the provision of access for tourists for the
first time to the western portions of the lake.
The changes will also benefit the wilderness areas (fig. 1),
since it will form an additional buffer within the park, to
protect the wildernesses from development in the western peripheries of the park.
The remaining plantations, with a total area of about
15,000 ha (37,000 acres), are considered to form an
economically viable enterprise, and will constitute a
sustainable land use in the peripheries of the park.
The proposals conform to the requirements for the
establishment of a Biosphere Reserve.
The exercise will make important contributions to both
the national and local economies, and provide a significant number of permanent jobs.
Acknowledgments ______________
I wish to acknowledge the role of the Lubombo Spatial
Initiative in funding and coordinating this study, and for
permission to quote from its reports. I also wish to acknowledge with thanks the contributions made by my colleagues
Andrew Zaloumis, Roger Collinson, Andrew Blackmore,
Peter Gardiner, and Keith Snyman, who made major contributions to the study.
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