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Land Use in the Majjia Valley, Niger, West Africa 1
Peter F. Ffolliott and Roy L. Jemison
2
Abstract.--A reforestation project in the Majjia
Valley, Niger, was undertaken to improve the microclimate,
to reduce water and wind erosion, and to produce fuelwood.
Windbreaks were planted, woodlots were established, and
trees were distributed to the inhabitants. The windbreaks
were effective in reducing wind velocities and, at times,
retained soil moisture. Water consumption by vegetation in
the windbreaks did not affect soil moisture in the agricultural crop rooting zone. Although fuelwood has not been
harvested, agricultural crop yields in the windbreaks were
higher than those in a control.
INTRODUCTION
THE MAJJIA VALLEY
The Republic of Niger is a country in which
two-thirds of the area lies in the Sahara Desert,
and the remaining one-third is a semi-arid strip
of land known as the Sahel. It is in the Sahel
that the majority of people live as sedentary
farmers. The plight of these farmers, along with
the many nomads in the region, was brought to the
attention of the world in 1970-74, when the Sahel
was struck by drought. A lack of water and fodder, attributed to the drought, resulted in a loss
of approximately 50 percent of the livestock, and
forced many people to migrate in search of relief.
The Majjia Valley is situated in the
arrondissements (counties) of Bouza and Birni'n
Konni, Department of Tahoua, in southwestern Niger.
The Majjia Valley extends, more-or-less northeast
to southwest, covering approximately 25,000 hectares of predominantly agricultural land. The
general altitude of the valley is between 300 and
600 meters.
Physiography
The Majjia Valley consists of a plateau,
deeply intersected by wide valleys, which are
often temporarily inundated. The edges of the
plateau form escarpments, on which boulder pavements are found. Extensive slopes and gentle outwash slopes connect the escarpments with the valley
floor.
The Majjia Valley is one of the more important river basins in the Sahelian region of Niger.
However, it is also considered highly populated
for a rural area in West Africa, with nearly 50
people per square kilometer. Intense land use
pressures, the most noted being farming, livestock grazing, and wood gathering, have resulted
in severe degradation by water and wind erosion
and a decrease in available soil moisture and
fertility. In 1974, CARE, in collaboration with
the Government of Niger, initiated a reforestation project, including the planting of windbreaks. The success of the 3,000 hectares in
windbreaks to date is, perhaps, one of the best
examples of good riparian zone management in
West Africa.
Due to a diversity of geologic materials and
soil-forming factors, a variety of soils have developed in the Majjia (Bognetteau-Verlinden 1980).
Many of these soils are characterized by relatively high fertility, a situation that is exceptional
to this region of Africa. Soils derived from
schist or limestone materials are particularly
fertile. Alluvial deposits, with very sandy soils
in the river beds, occur in the valley itself.
Vegetation
According to the Yangambi classification, the
Majjia Valley lies in the tree savanna zone of West
Africa (FAO 1975, as cited by Bognetteau-Verlinden
1980). Among the more important woody species in
the tree savanna of the Majjia are Combretum spp.,
Guiera senegalensis, Acacia spp., Bauhinia reticulata, Anogeissus leio~, Ziziphus_ mauri~
Poupartia birrea, and Ficus gnaphalocarpa. However, due to the population pressures and subsequent
1
Paper presented at the North American
Riparian Conference on Riparian Ecosystems and
Their Management: Reconciling Conflicting Uses.
[Tucs~on, Arizona, April 16-18, 1985].
Peter F. Ffolliott is Professor of Watershed
Management and Roy L. Jemison is Research Assistant, School of Renewable Natural Resources, College of Agriculture, University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona 85721.
470
demands for fuelwood, agricultural land, and
grazing land, very little of the natural vegetation remains.
intercropped with millet (Bognetteau-Verlinden
1980). Cotton and some peanuts are grown as cash
crops during the rainy season. The need for productive agricultural land is so great that almost
no fallow land is found. Although the soils are
relatively fertile to start with, ~he continued
use of traditional farming methods (involving the
application of no artificial fertilizer and only a
limited amount of manure from the grazing animals)
is resulting in decreased productivity.
Today, only a few scattered trees protect the
landscape from severe water and wiud erosion. As
a result, agricultural crop and livestock forage
productivity has greatly declined, due in large
part to decreased soil fertility and reduced suil
moisture retention capacity.
In the dry season, village gardening is undertaken on areas where groundwater is avaiJ abJ.e.
Tomatoes, lettuce, and tobacco are grown !or local
consumption; onions are produced, mostly as a cash
crop.
Climate
Located in the Southern Sahel Zone of Niger,
but in the central part of the "true Sahel," the
climate of the Majjia Valley is characterized by
two clearly distinguishable seasons: a rainy
season of 4 months (June through September), and
a dry season of 8 months (October through May).
Most of the rain, which averages less than 500
millimeters a year, falls during intense thunderstorms, causing severe water erosion. Rainfall
maximums occur in August.
Many of the lands in the Majjia are used for
extensive grazing of cattle, sheep, and goats, as
well as donkeys, camels, and horses. Grazing of
domestic livestock is also allowed on agricultural
lands during the dry season (Bogne~teau-Verlinden
1980). In general, the level of grazing in the
Majjia Valley is too intensive for the carrying
capacity of the land.
The mean annual temperature is approximately
28°C, with a minimum mean monthly temperature of
25°C in January and a maximum mean monthly temperature of nearly 35°C in May. Relative humidities
are low, particularly in the dry season when
values are less than 20 percent. It has been estimated that potential evaporation exceeds 3 meters
a year (Bognetteau-Verlinden 1980).
Niger is located in that part of West Africa
affected by the northeastern trade winds and the
southwestern monsoon, the latter being a carrier
of rain. Hot, dry winds of relatively high velocities often carry large amounts of dust, especially during the dry winter months (November through
April). With little vegetative cover, the erosive
power of these winds is significant.
People
The population of the Majjia consists, for
the most part, of Haussa farmers, who live in
villages along the valley floor. On the lower
slopes, villages of the Bouzou people, sedentary
cattle-breeders, are found. Also, some Fulani,
who are essentially semi-sedentary nomads, live in
the area. As mentioned above, the population density in the Majjia Valley, including the lower
slopes, is over 50 inhabitants per square kilometer
and is increasing.
During the dry season, a large portion of the
younger male Haussa population leaves the Majjia
for seasonal work. However, a large portion of
the population remains on-site throughout the year,
surviving as best they can until the rains arrive.
All of the land belongs to the central government, but traditionally, the inhabitants are responsible for the free distribution of agricultural
land among the villagers. Once obtained, the
rights to work the land are heritable, although the
land can be leased or sold with the village chief
as a witness.
Through a reforestation project, the forestry
service in Niger is attempting to reclaim as much
land as possible to improve the microclimate of the
area, to protect the area against water and wind
erosion, and to produce needed fuelwood supplies.
The reclamation activities include planting of
windbreaks, establishing village woodlots, distributing trees (free of charge) for live fencing, and
creating small private woodlots and planting shade
trees. Concurrently, the forestry service is attempting to protect the remaining natural vegetation through educational work and protective
activities. Hore details of the "Majjia Valley
Reforestration Project" are presented below.
Erosion
Water and wind erosion in the Majjia Valley is
severe. In fact, this area is one of the most
threatened in West Africa, with an estimated soil
loss of over 2,000 tons per square kilometer a year
(Delwaulle 1973, as cited by Bognetteau-Verlinden
1980). This high erosion rate is easily understood
through a review of prevailing climatic patterns
and land use practices in the area.
As mentioned above, the Majjia is characterized by a rainy season with intense storms, a prolonged dry season with continuous winds in a
direction parallel to the valley, and physiographic
features that cause low permeability and high runoff. At the same time, a high population is exerting pressures on the land, causing a general deterioration of the vegetative cover and, therefore,
a high susceptibility to water and wind erosion.
Land Use
The Majjia Valley, including the temporarily
inundated area, is an important agricultural area.
Important crops are millet, sorghum, and niebe,
the latter being a protein-rich bean that is
471
In large part, it was because of the severe water
and wind erosion problems, along with an attempt
to stabilize the livelihood of the rural families,
that the "Majjia Valley Reforestation Project" was
initiated.
plants a year, although it will expand in the
future.
Seeds are collected from locally grown trees,
planted in polythene bags, and grown in the nurseries for a period of 4 to 7 months. In addition
to neem, limited numbers of Acacia seyal, Acacia
scorpioides, and Prosopis juliflora seedlings are
produced.
MAJJIA VALLEY REFORESTATION PROJECT
In 1974, the forestry service in Niger and
CARE entered into an agreement to undertake a
forestry project to counter the severe effects of
water and wind erosion and declining agricultural
productivity. Originally funded by CARE, the
project has also received support from the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID),
through a matching grant (Bognetteau-Verlinden
1980). The project area encompasses about 6,000
hectares of the Majjia Valley, approximately onehalf of which is currently protected by windbreaks.
Planting Methods
For the windbreaks, the lines of trees were
planted in holes (40 x 40 centimeters wide, 60
centimeters deep) dug by the v~llagers. In the
initial years of the project, the trees were
planted in a 4 x 4 meter rectangular spacing pattern. Subsequently, a 4 x 4 meter triangular
spacing was adopted (Bognetteau-Verlinden 1980).
The trees were planted by the nursery workers,
again with the assistance of the villagers, after
the first or second heavy rain of the season, usually in July. Following planting, no additional
watering of the trees was done.
The "Majjia Valley Reforestation Project"
actually began in 1975, with the planting of 13
kilometers of windbreaks in double rows of neem
(Azadirachta indica) trees, planted 4 meters
apart. Today~years later, the main activity
of the project remains the planting of windbreaks;
over 400 kilometers, along parallel corridors,
have been planted. Other components of the project include free distribution of tree seedlings,
riverbank protection, and the establishment of
village and private woodlots.
Planting of the village woodlots was done by
the forestry service, in a 3 x 3 meter spacing.
Land required for these plantations was selected
by the forestry service, in consultation with the
inhabitants.
For the other components of the reforestation
project, trees were freely distributed to or collected by the villagers, during the rainy season.
In general, the villagers cared for the tree plantings themselves, withadvice from the forestry service.
Goals of the Project
In essence, the two major goals of the
"Majjia Valley Reforestation Project" are to:
1.
2.
stabilize, and if possible, increase the
agricultural income of rural families in
the Majjia through tree planting activities, and protect agricultural lands
from erosion and crops from the detrimental influences of desiccating winds;
and
Protection and Maintenance
During the initial two or three years after
planting, the trees were protected against grazing
by domestic livestock and bush fires. For the windbreaks, this protection was achieved by guardians,
who removed the grazing animals (BognetteauVerlinden 1980). The guardians were frequently
assisted by the farmers in the wet season. This
system worked fairly well, and enclosure of the
windbreaks was not needed. After three years, the
trees were large enough to resist the browsing of
livestock.
improve the ecological balance of the
area, stimulate conservation efforts,
and improve the environmental situation
through protection of endangered natural
resources by providing tree seedlings
for planting on agricultural lands, in
village and private woodlots, and in
private compounds.
Farmers, who previously did not need to clean
their fields because the weeds and crop residues
were eaten by the livestock, found it necessary to
clean their fields by prescribed burning. However,
close control of the fires was requisite to avoid
damaging the young trees.
Tree Nurseries
A key to the success of the "Majjia Valley
Reforestation Project" is the operation of nurseries which, upon request, supply the necessary
planting stock for the project activities. Until
1983, two nurseries produced 30,000 tree seedlings
a year. Recently, a third nursery was opened,
located about midway between the original nurseries (Bognetteau-Verlinden 1980). The current
production level of this third nursery is 15,000
The village woodlots were fenced with chicken
wire for the initial few years of establishment.
After this, the commonly planted Prosopis juliflora
formed live fencing, which provided sufficient
protection for the growing trees.
The distributed trees were protected against
grazing by livestock with traditional means of
472
individual protection, including thorny branches,
millet stalks or grass mats, woven branches, and
poles with chicken wire.
theoretical height of the millet crop, were
reduced to between 40 and 70 percent of the "free"
wind velocity. At this height, the maximum reduction in wind velocities was recorded at 1-H to the
leeward of the windbreaks.
During the initial two years of establishment,
the windbreak lines were cleared to avoid competition of weeds. This clearing was carried out by
the farmers and guardians during the rainy season;
as the agricultural fields extended, in general
into the windbreak lines, the farmers simply applied the same weeding techniques here as in their
fields (Bognetteau-Verlinden 1980).
In general, wind erosion was greatly reduced
by the windbreak system, although direct measurement was not made. From on-site observations, it
appeared that the overall effectiveness of the
windbreak system in reducing wind velocities, and
consequently, wind erosion could be improved by
creating a higher density of vegetation near the
ground in the lines of windbreaks.
The village woodlots were maintained by the
forestry service and the farmers, primarily
through the cutting down of weeds in the initial
two years after planting. The freely distributed
trees were maintained (weeding and, if necessary,
pruning) by the individual villagers.
Available soil moisture ~n the windbreak
system was greater than that on an adjacent "control" during periods of high water supply. With
a low water supply, available soil moisture in the
windbreaks was less than that on the "control,"
although better plant growth was observed in the
windbreak system. Water consumption by the vegetation in the windbreaks did not seem to affect the
amount of available soil moisture in the most important rooting zone of the millet crop.
Harvesting
Through 1984, harvesting of wood products has
not taken place in the windbreaks or in the other
kinds of plantations created by components of the
reforestation project. However, based on the
results of an intensive evaluation of the "Majjia
Valley Reforestation Project," which is currently
underway, it is conceivable that limited harvesting may be prescribed in the future.
Agricultural crop yields, primarily millet,
inside the windbreak system were nearly 130 percent of those on the "control," ranging from 150
percent at a distance of 5-H leeward to the windbreaks at 110 percent at a distance of 16-H. Of
course, no millet production was possible underneath the neem trees once the canopy was closed.
Nevertheless, correcting for the loss in production underneath the trees, overall production of
the millet reached 125 percent of that measured
on the "control" site.
PRELIMINARY EVALUATION
Quite possibly, the most important component
of the reforestation project is the system of
windbreak plantings. Therefore, a preliminary
evaluation of the windbreak system was undertaken
in 1979-80 to determine the influence of the
windbreaks on:
1.
reducing wind velocities;
2.
increasing available soil moisture for
plant growth; and
3.
in~reasing
The results of this preliminary evaluation
were encouraging. However, it was recommended
that, before definitive conclusions on the impacts
of windbreaks are drawn, and before widespread
replications of the "Majjia Valley Reforestation
Program" can be promoted, more detailed research
and subsequent evaluation are required. Therefore, an intensive evaluation study, jointly undertaken by CARE and USAID, was formulated in 1984
(CARE 1984).
agricultural crop yields.
Details of the measurement techniques employed in the preliminary evaluation have been
outlined in the evaluation report and, therefore,
will not be described in this paper (BognetteauVerlinden 1980). Instead, a brief summary of the
major conclusions is presented in the following
paragraphs.
A principle "benefit" of this detailed evaluation study will be a better understanding of the
interactions among people, trees, and agricultural
crop production under a windbreak system, an important agroforestry system. Additionally, it will
serve to assist the Government of Niger in more
effectively utilizing those resources that are
designed for reforestation interventions. It
should also help to broaden the base of reliable
information needed by developmental planners in
the West African Sahel.
Wind velocities inside the windbreak system,
measured at 1 meter above the ground, were decreased to approximately 45 to 80 percent of the
"free" wind velocity. This height was considered
high enough to disregard the surface roughness
factors, but low enough to indicate the erosive
force of the winds. The maximum reduction in the
wind velocities occurred at 5-H to the leeward of
the windbreaks, a distance of 5 times the average
height of the trees in the windbreaks.
SUMMARY
When a drought in 1970-74 caused a 50 percent
loss of the livestock and forced migration of the
sedentary farmers in the Hajj ia Valley, a reforestation project was undertaken by the forestry service in Niger, in conjunction with CARE and USAID.
The objectives were to improve the microclimate of
Wind velocities at 2.5 meters above the
ground, a height selected to represent the
473
of the millet. Additionally, agricultural crop
yields were 125 percent of those in the control.
the area, to protect against water and wind
erosion, and to produce fuelwood. To accomplish
these, windbreaks were planted, village and private woodlots were established, and trees were
distributed (at no charge) to the inhabitants to
plant for live fencing and to provide shade.
Newly established nurseries grew seedlings (from
locally collected seeds) for the plantings.
Before this reforestation project can be
replicated in other riparian zones in the Sahelian
region, more research and evaluation are necessary
to better understand the interactions among
people, trees, and agricultural crops in windbreak systems.
Although no harvesting of fuelwood has taken
place, the windbreaks proved to be effective.
Wind velocities were reduced significantly at both
1 meter and 2.5 meters (the theoretical height of
millet) above the ground, with maximum wind reduction 5-H and 1-H, respectively, to the leeward
sides of the windbreaks. It was speculated that
higher density vegetation near the ground would
be more effective in reducing wind erosion.
LITERATURE CITED
Bognetteau-Verlinden, Els. 1980. Study on impact
of windbreaks in Majjia Valley, Niger. CARE,
81 p., Niamey, Niger.
CARE. 1984. Proposal for an evaluation study of
CARE's Majjia Valley Windbreak Project. CARE,
55 p., New York, New York.
Delwaulle, J. C. 1973. Resultats de six ans
d'observations sur l'erosion au Niger. Bois
et Forets des Tropiques, No. 150, 132 p.
FAO. 1975. Methods de plantation forestiere dans
les savanes Africaines. FAO Collection: Mise
en Valeaur des Forets, 113 p., Rome, Italy.
Available soil moisture was greater in the
windbreak than on the control when water supplies
were high, however, the opposite was found when
water supplies were low. Water consumption by
vegetation in the windbreaks did not affect available soil moisture in the important rooting zone
474