'IMMIGRANT' FORAGE KOCHIA
COMPETITION WITH HALOGETON
FOLLOWING VARIOUS SEEDING
TECHNIQUES
Richard Stevens
E. Durant McArthur
ABSTRACT
Williams 1977), absence of poisonous attributes (Williams
1979), rapid and high seed production (Mogahaddam
1978; Prikhod'ko and Prikhod'ko 1977; Plummer and
others 1970), and natural spread, especially on disturbed
sites (McArthur and others 1974). Additional characteristics observed are high degree of germination (Allen and
others 1986; Weller and others 1979; Young and others
1981), rapid loss of seed viability if not stored with less
than 7 percent moisture and in cool conditions (Jorgensen
and Davis 1983), long life (USDA 1961), winter semievergreenness, high protein content in all seasons (Britton
and Sneva 1977; Davis 1979; Davis and Welch 1983), palatability of selected accessions to livestock, big game, and
rabbits (Balyan 1972; Davis and Welch 1983; Nemati 1977;
Otsyina and others 1983; Stevens and VanEpps 1983),
use by upland game birds as food and cover, host to insects
(Moore and others 1982), and compatibility with other perennials and competition toward annuals. A superior selection, 'Immigrant,' was released to the commercial market
for seed production in 1985 (Stevens and others 1985).
'Immigrant' forage kochia has demonstrated its ability to
compete well with other species in areas where adapted.
When seeded into established grass, forb, and shrub communities, 'Immigrant' has demonstrated the unique ability
to fill in interspaces between established perennials and not
compete with them. Forage kochia has been successfully
seeded into Wyoming big (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis), basin big (A tridentata ssp. tridentata), and
black (A nova) sagebrush, pinyon (Pinus edulis)-juniper
(Juniperus osteosperma), rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia), black
greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) (fig. 2), fourwing
saltbush (A canescens), and perennial grass communities
(Stevens and others 1985).
Halogeton (Halogeton glomerata) is an exotic poisonous
annual that has been in the Western United States since
about 1930 (Dayton 1951; Frischknecht 1967). This annual
is widely adapted to the salt desert shrub and sagebrush
grass communities. Within these communities it is especially adapted to disturbed areas including burns, overgrazed ranges, dry lake beds, abandoned farms, and areas
oflow-vigor native plant cover. Seeds germinate in early
spring (Cook and Stoddard 1953); however, growth does not
take place until midsummer when summer storm moisture
is utilized (Eckert 1954; ARS 1968). Abundant seed (up to
2,000 lb/acre) is produced most years; seed can lay dormant
in the soil for up to 10 years (E~kert 1954).
'Immigrant' forage kochia (Kochia prostrata) competition with halogeton (Halogeton glomerata) was evaluated
in two experiments. In one, forage kochia was seeded into
a community dominated by halogeton employing five different seedbed preparation techniques. Late fall seeding
was superior to spring seeding. Significantly more forage
kochia plants established when the soil was disturbed at
seeding. As numbers of forage kochia plants and cover
value increased, number of halogeton plants and cover
decreased. Seven years following seeding, halogeton has
essentially been replaced. Four other perennials and five
annuals also contribute to the community makeup.
In the second experiment, halogeton and forage kochia
seedling emergence, development, and competition were
observed 5 and 6 years_ after establishing forage kochia in
a salt desert shrub community supporting high numbers of
halogeton plants. Seedlings of both species emerge in early
March. After emergence, forage kochia continues to grow,
but halogeton remains in the two-leaf stage. By the time
(mid-May) halogeton resumes growth, forage. kochia plants
have an apparent competitive advantage.
INTRODUCTION
Forage kochia (Kochia prostrata) (fig. 1) is a low perennial chenopod shrub that has been seeded on range and
pasture lands in Eurasia at least since 1932 (Larin 1976).
It has been tested in the Western United States for over
20 years and shows promise of becoming an important
forage producer and soil stabilizer on arid game and livestock ranges (Stevens and others 1985).
Some important characteristics exhibited by this shrub
are: fairly high salt and drought tolerance (Balyan 1972;
Francois 1976; Larin 1956; Moghaddam 1976, 1978), extensive root system (Larin 1956; Prinianishnikov 1976),
adaptability to cool and hot climates (Balyan 1972),
low oxalate levels (Britton and Sneva 1977; Davis 1979;
Paper presented at the Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub DieOff, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management, Las Vegas, NV,
April 5-7, 1989.
Richard Stevens is Research Biologist and Project Leader, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Station, Ephraim, UT
84627. E. Durant McArthur is Principal Research Geneticist and Project
Leader, Intermountain Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, UT 84606.
175
This file was created by scanning the printed publication.
Errors identified by the software have been corrected;
however, some errors may remain.
Figure 1-Forage kochia, growing with one winterfat.
Figure 2-Forage kochia growing with black greasewood.
Halogeton is poisonous to sheep and cattle (ARS 1968).
Animal losses are less where forage from other species is
available and eaten in combination with halogeton. It
has been observed that forage kochia will invade into a
number of annual communities such as halogeton, cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), and bur buttercup (Ranunculus
testiculatus) (McArthur and others 1974; Stevens and
VanEpps 1984). However, it has not been determined
if or how forage kochia can be seeded directly into stands
of halogeton. Previous work (Stevens and others 1985)
has shown that forage kochia established better from surface and near-surface seeding than from deeper seedings.
This study was established to determine the feasibility of
seeding forage kochia directly into halogeton and to determine the effectiveness of various seeding techniques on
seedling establishment.
METHODS AND STUDY SITES
Two studies were conducted. In the first, forage kochia
seeding trials were conducted in a halogeton community
along a highway (US 89) construction corridor 5 miles
(8 km) north of Salina, UT, at an elevation of 1,569 m
(5,150 ft), with average annual precipitation of25 em
(10 inches). The site was formerly a shadscale area.
Approximately 4 m (12ft) of top and subsoil had been
176
removed from the site, exposing a cobbley clay conglomerate. Halogeton invaded the site the year following disturbance; by the third year (1981) the area was completely
dominated by halogeton (440 plants per m 2, 1 to 7 em
[2 to 8 inches] tall).
'Immigrant' forage kochia seed (1981 seed with 85 percent purity and 51 percent germination) was broadcast
seeded December 8, 1981, and March 11, 1982, into the
halogeton stand. Within 10 days following the December 8
seeding, snow fell. The storm was preceded by considerable
wind.
Seed was hand broadcast evenly over two 7.5-m2 plots
at 8.2lblacre for each of the following seedbed preparation
treatments: (1) control, no soil disturbance and no seed;
(2) broadcasting seed onto undisturbed soil; (3) disturbing
the soil and broadcasting seed onto it; (4) disturbing the
soil, broadcasting the seed, followed by additional soil disturbances; and (5) broadcasting seed and then disturbing
the soil.
Soil disturbance consisted of dragging a straight-toothed
harrow over the plot once. This treatment broke off or uprooted most halogeton plants and disturbed the soil to a
depth of approximately 2.5 em (1 inch). At the time of
treatment, halogeton plants were mature and seed was
shattering. Considerable amounts of halogeton seed in
the disturbed plots were observed to be covered with soil.
Soil at the time of seeding was crusted and dry.
Very few forage kochia seedlings from the March 1982
seeding emerged and established. Therefore, these plots
were not evaluated. Within each December 8 plot, four
1-m2 (1.1-yd2 ) subplots were randomly located and marked.
Because of the large number ofhalogeton and forage kochia
seedlings the first year, four microplots, 11s-m2 (1.09-ft2 ),
were randomly placed within each 1-m2 (1.1-yd2 ) subplot.
Forage kochia and halogeton seedlings were counted within
each microplot June 24, 1982. On August 22, 1985, and
August 29, 1988, forage kochia and halogeton plants were
counted and percent live plant cover of each species was
estimated within each 1-m2 (1.1-yd2) subplot. Data were
analyzed with SAS analysis of variance procedures (SAS
1988).
In the second study, forage kochia and halogeton seedling emergence and development were observed at a site
5 miles (8 km) west of Ephraim, UT, in a black greasewood,
shadscale-halogeton area. 'Immigrant' forage kochia had
been established from transplants 5 years earlier (1979).
Seedling emergence and development of forage kochia
and halogeton were recorded every 7 to 14 days between
February 15 and May 15 for 2 years (1984, 1985). Periodic
observations were made throughout summer months. Individual seedlings of each species not competing with each
other were randomly identified and followed throughout
the observation periods.
STUDY ONE RESULTS
control plots. By 1985, there was a significant difference
in number of forage kochia plants with the least (21m2)
in the control; next highest densities were in the plots
seeded on top of the undisturbed soil (191m2 ), followed
by all the disturbed soil seeded plots ( x= 361m2 ). By 1988
(table 1) the control and seeding on undisturbed soil plots
had significantly fewer plants (x =161m2) than the seeded
plots that had soil disturbance (x = 781m2 ). The disturbed
plots still had roughened soil surfaces, even through 1988.
The control and undisturbed plots had rather smooth,
crusted surfaces. Seed of forage kochia was produced
every year. Forage kochia seed is wind dispersed and
will collect in depressions, like those in the disturbed
plots.
The first year following seeding, halogeton numbers
were similar among all treatments with an average of
4371m2 (table 2). Four years following seeding there was
an average of 54 halogeton plants per m 2 in the seeded
plots and significantly more (i = 173) in the control. After
7 years seeded plots averaged four halogeton plants per
m 2 and the control plot 17 plants per m 2 •
Table 1-Number of forage kochia plants (m 2 ) in five seedbed
preparation treatments. Seeded DecemberS, 19S1,
into a halogeton community
1988
2SA
11A
40A
27A
23A
28
19A8
3SA
2SA
41A
118
228
SSA
66A
S1A
268
268
53A
1
Control
Seeded2
Disturbed3-seeded 2
Distu rbed 3-seeded 2-disturbed3
Seeded2 -disturbe&
4
Average all treatments
1Numbers
in each column (except average} followed by the same letter are
not significantly different (P< 0.05}.
2Sroadcast, 8.21blacre.
3Qnce over with straight-toothed harrow.
"Numbers in row followed by the same letter are not significantly different
(P< 0.05}.
Table 2-Number of halogeton plants (m 2) in areas seeded with
forage kochia with five seedbed preparation treatments.
Forage kochia was seeded into halogeton community
December S, 19S1
1982
Year
1985
1988
43SA
469A
361A
442A
474A
173A
558
608
458
558
17A
SA
SA
OA
OA
778
15C
Treatment
Control
Seeded2
Disturbed 3-seeded 2
Disturbed 3-seeded 2 -disturbed3
Seeded2 -disturbe&
Average all treatments
In the seedling year (1982), number of forage kochia
plants per m 2 among all treatments was not significantly
different (table 1), including the control where kochia was
not seeded, but seedlings were present. With considerable
wind occurring following seeding, it is assumed that some
forage kochia seeds that were not covered blew onto the
Year
1985
1982
Treatment
1Numbers
1
4
437A
in each column (except average} followed by the same letter are
not significantly different (P< 0.05}.
2Sroadcast, 8.21b/acre.
3Qnce over with straight-toothed harrow.
"Numbers in row followed by the same letter are not significantly different
(P< 0.05}.
177
Percent cover of forage kochia and halogeton also
changed with the time (table 3). In 1985, 3 years following
seeding, there was significantly less forage kochia cover
(1.3 percent) in the control plot than there was in all the
seeded plots combined (x = 23.4 percent). By 1986 (fig. 3),
little change had occurred with 2.6 percent in the control
and 24.1 percent in the seeded plots. Halogeton cover
A
3 years following seeding was greatest (17.4 percent)
where forage kochia was not directly seeded and significantly less ( x = 7.4 percent) in all the seeded plots. Halogeton cover decreased to 10 percent in the control and
0.4 percent in the seeded plots by 1988. This corresponds
to similar losses in numbers of halogeton plants and increases in number of forage kochia plants (tables 1 and 2).
. . . .,._
~_
8
Figure 3-Halogeton-dominated study area (A) prior to seeding (1981)
forage kochia and same area (B), seven growing seasons later (1988)
being dominated by forage kochia.
178
can be successfully seeded into stands of weedy annuals
like halogeton with good success. Forage kochia does best
when seeded onto a disturbed soil surface.
Because forage kochia and halogeton have early germination and emergence characteristics, fall seedings are
preferred. Forage kochia, a perennial with superior early
spring-growing seedlings, has the ability to dominate the
summer-growing annual halogeton. Forage kochia can
become the dominant species in a halogeton community,
resulting in increased-quality, year-long forage production,
increased permanent ground cover, and reduced animal
poisoning potential.
Table 3-Percent live cover of forage kochia and halogeton
where forage kochia had been seeded with five
seedbed preparation treatments into a halogeton
community December 9, 1981
Forage kochla
Treatment
Control
Seeded2
Disturbed 3-seeded 2
Disturbed 3-seeded 2-disturbed3
Seeded2 -disturbe&
Control
Halogeton
1985
1988
1985
1988
1 1.38
14.5A8
19.1A
31.1A
28.8A
2.60
11.9C
22.68
24.88
37.4A
17.4A
7.58
5.68
10.68
5.68
10.1A
1.18
0.18
0.08
0.08
1.38
2.68
17.4A
10.0A
23.4A
24.1A
7.48
0.48
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All seeded
treatments, average2
Research was facilitated by Federal Funds for Wildlife
Restoration, Pittman-Robertson Project W-82-R study 5,
and the Intermountain Research Station, Forest Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
1Numbers
followed by the same letter are not significantly different at
(P < 0.05) in each column. Numbers below the double line constitute a
separate comparison.
2Sroadcast, 8.2 lb/acre.
30nce over with straight-toothed harrow.
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Stevens, R.; Jorgensen, K. R. 1986. Addition of Kochia
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Table 4-Seedling emergence and development of halogeton
and forage kochia over 2 years in a shadscale-black
greasewood-halogeton community west of Ephraim, UT
Date
Forage kochla
March 12 to 16
Seedlings emerge
(as early as Feb. 28)
4-to-6-leaf stage
April 11 to 13
6-to-8-leaf stage
April20 to 24
12-to-14-leaf stage
May 1 to 7
14-to-18-leaf stage
May 10 to 15
2.5 em (1 inch) tall
Halogeton
Seedlings emerge
2-leaf stage
2-leaf stage
2-leaf stage
4-to-8-leaf stage
1.3 em (1/2 inch) tall
STUDY TWO RESULTS
Most seedlings of both forage kochia and halogeton
emerged as soon as the snow melted (late February to early
March). A few seedlings, however, were present when the
snow melted, indicating germination and emergence under
snow. Night-time frosts continued through May 20. Frost
did not appear to have detrimental effects on seedlings of
either species. When forage kochia emerged it kept growing (table 4), while seedlings of halogeton remained in the
two-leaf stage until mid-May. By the time (May 10) halogeton began to grpw again and produce additional leaves,
forage kochia seedlings were well developed, twice as tall
as the halogeton, and had three to five times more leaves.
Seedlings of both forage kochia and halogeton did not grow
much from early June to the onset of summer storms (midJuly to September), when both species once again put on
growth.
CONCLUSIONS
Poisonous annual halogeton has invaded hundreds of
thousands of acres in the Intermountain West. Livestock
losses from halogeton poisoning can be reduced if other
forage species are available on rangeland. Forage kochia
179
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180