Among Animals
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Citation
Ritvo, Harriet. “Among Animals.” Environment and History 20,
no. 4 (November 1, 2014): 491–498.
As Published
http://dx.doi.org/10.3197/096734014X14091313617208
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White Horse Press
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Wed May 25 20:56:11 EDT 2016
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http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/96224
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AMONGANIMALS
HarrietRitvo
M.I.T.HistoryFaculty
Email:ritvo@mit.edu
ABSTRACT
Thetendencytoseehumansasspecialandseparateinfluencesevenpracticeslike
scientifictaxonomywhichexplicitlyplacethemamongotheranimals.Theanimal‐
relatedscholarshipthathasemergedthroughoutthehumanitiesandsocialsciences
oftenrevealsanalogoustensions.Animaltopicshavesimilarlyinspiredhistorians,
includingenvironmentalhistorians,buthistoricalperspectiveshavebecome
somewhatmarginalisedwithinthefieldlabeled‘animalstudies’.
KEYWORDS
animals,animalstudies,humanexceptionalism,anthropomorphism
Weseemtobeaveryspecialkindofanimal.Atleast,thatiswhatweincessantlytell
ourselves.Wesayitexplicitlywhenwecelebrateourintelligenceandtechnology
andlinguisticproficiency.Andwesayitimplicitlyinthecategoriesweusetomake
senseoftheworldaroundus.Mostobviously,ourself‐positioningwithinsystemsof
scientificclassificationhastendedtoobscuretheextentofourclosenesstoother
apes,sometimesevenwhileacknowledgingthatweareoneofthem.ThusLinnaeus
inventedtheorderPrimatesandputusintoit,placingthegenusHomoalongside
Simia(apesandmonkeys),Lemur(prosimians)andVespertilio(bats).1Thisled
somefellownaturaliststorejecthissystemoutright,onthegroundsofoffended
vanityor‘therepugnancewefeeltoplacethemonkeyattheheadofthebrute
creation,andthustoassociatehim...withman’.2Othersexpressedtheirdissent
taxonomicallybydividingtheprimatesintotwomaincategories:Quadrumana,
whichaccommodatedallthemonkeysand(other)apes,andBimana,occupied
solelybyhumans.Formuchofthetwentiethcentury,thefamilyHominidaeincluded
onlyhumansandaustralopithecines,whiletheotherapesweresequesteredinthe
now‐obsoletefamilyPongidae.Inrecentyears,asHominidaehasbeenexpandedto
includechimpanzees,gorillasandorangutans,newlayersofdiscrimination–
subfamilyHomininaeandtribeHominini–havealsobeenintroduced.
Perhapslessobviously,thestandardgeologictimescalethatmeasuresthehistoryof
theearthreflectsperceptionssimilartothosethatproducedthecategoryBimana.
Thatis,thecurrentepoch,labeledtheRecentortheHolocene,ismuchshorterthan
anyoftheotherCenozoicepochs(merethousandsofyearslongsofar,ratherthan
millions)anditsonsetwasnotmarkedbychangesonthescalethatmarkedthe
onsetoftheparallelchronologicaldivisions.Instead,itcoincideswiththe
beginningsofhumanagriculture;withoutthisprolepticreferencetoourfuture
impact,itcouldbeunderstoodsimplyaspartofthelatestPleistoceneinterglacial.
ThestillshorterAnthropoceneiscurrentlymorecontroversial,butifevenafraction
1CarolusLinnaeus,SystemaNaturae:RegnumAnimale(1758;London:BritishMuseum(Natural
History),1956)p.18.
2ThomasPennant,HistoryofQuadrupeds(London:B.andJ.White,1793)p.iv;WilliamWood,
Zoography;ortheBeautiesofNatureDisplayed(London:CadellandDavies,1807)p.xvii.
2
ofthepredictedanthropogenicchangesinearthsystemsactuallytranspire,itwill,
unfortunately,turnouttobemorepersuasivelygrounded.
Butevenourimpressivecapacityforenvironmentaltransformationmaynotsetus
soveryfarapartfromotherlifeforms.Manyorganisms,whetheraslargeas
elephantsorassmallaslocustsorfungi,canhavedevastatingimpactsonparticular
ecosystems.And,giventime,smallerorganismscancausestillmoremassive
alterations.Theevolutionoftheearth'satmosphereinitscurrentform,containing
plentyofoxygenforanimalslikeustobreathe,isnormallyrecountedasastoryof
progress,withahappyending:theearliestatmospherewasinhospitabletosuchlife,
untiltheemergenceofblue‐greenalgae(cyanobacteria)that,through
photosynthesis,slowlyproducedtheairthatsustainsus.Itcanalso,however,be
castastragedy,sinceitresultedintheextinctionofmostoftheanaerobiclifethat
hadflourishedpreviously,includingmostofthecyanobacteriathemselves.PhilPlait
(alsoknownas‘TheBadAstronomer’)hasrecentlydescribeditas‘anapocalypse
thatwasliterallyglobalinscale,andoneofthemostdeadlydisastersinEarth's
history’.3Thiswasthefirstofthemassextinctionsthatourplanethaswitnessed,
andperhapstheonlyonebeforethepresentthatwascausedwhenthedominant
organismstransformedtheirenvironmentsoradicallythattheycouldnolonger
thriveinit.
*****
3PhilPlait,‘PoisonedPlanet’,28Jul.2014(accessed4Aug.2014).IamgratefultoWilliamCrononfor
drawingthisposttomyattention.
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2014/07/28/the_great_oxygenation_event_the_earth_
s_first_mass_extinction.html
3
Ifresistancetotheprimateorderhasnotcompletelydisappearedinthecenturies
sinceLinnaeus,ithassignificantlydiminished.Butthereluctancetounderstand
ourselvesasanimalsamonganimalsthattroubledmanynaturalistsinthe
eighteenthandnineteenthcenturieshasfoundobliqueexpressioninmodern
scholarship.Thusanimalshavealwaysbeenpartoftheenvironment,however
environmenthasbeenunderstood,buttheyhavenotalwaysloomedlarge(orbeen
thefocusofseparateattention)amongtheconcernsofenvironmentalhistorians.
Buttheyareloominglargerandoverthepastfewdecadestheyhaveattracted
increasingattention.4ThisincreasecanbedocumentedinthepagesofEnvironment
andHistory,amongotherplaces.Asurveyofitstablesofcontentsrevealsnoarticles
focusedonanimalsinitsfirstfouryears,whileinthelastdecademostvolumeshave
includedtwoorthree.5Theprogrammesofnational,regional,andglobal
environmentalhistoryconferencesshowasimilargrowthofinterest.TheAmerican
SocietyforEnvironmentalHistorynowdesignatesanimalsasoneofitsmajor
categories,sothat,iflogisticallypossible,panelsdealingwithsuchtopicsarenot
scheduledincompetitionwitheachother.Notallofthisgrowthininterestreflects
increasedornewlyunclosetedzoophily(thoughthisissurelyafactor–most
scholarswhochoosetowriteaboutanimalsdolikethem).Itcanbeatleastpartially
explainedinternally,aspartofanincreasinginclinationonthepartof
environmentalhistorianstoexaminethecomponentsoftheenvironment(plants,
4SeeHarrietRitvo,‘AnimalPlanet’,EnvironmentalHistory9(2004):204–220,foranoverview.
5Thisroughcountincludesarticlesthatmentionedanimals,animalproductsoranimal‐related
activitiesinthetitle.SomeofthesearticleshavebeencollectedinSarahJohnson(comp.)Animals,
ThemesinEnvironmentalHistoryVol.4(Cambridge:TheWhiteHorsePress,2014).
4
microbes,soil,rocksandair,aswellascreatures),toseetheenvironmentasa
Gestaltorlandscape,ortoexplorewaysthattheenvironmenthasbeenunderstood,
appreciatedorregulatedasanabstractorasawhole.
Buttheanimalturninenvironmentalhistoryalsoreflectsatrendthatextends
throughoutthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,whereattentiontootherspecieshad
beensimilarlysparse.Manydisciplinaryandsubdisciplinaryorganisationsnow
featurepanelsdevotedtoanimal‐relatedtopicsattheirannualmeetings,andsome
supportaffinitygroupsthatarelessephemeral;articlesonanimalrelatedtopics
haveappearedmorefrequentlyintheirjournals,astheyhaveinEnvironmentand
History.Thestandardreificationsofsuchacademicattentionhavealsoproliferated:
bookseries,collegeclasses,textbooks,workshopsandanthologies.The
multidisciplinaryrubricofanimalstudieshasemergedtojuxtaposeand
institutionalisethisdispersedscholarship,althoughwithmixedsuccess.Thepanels
atannualdisciplinarymeetingsare,unsurprisingly,largelypopulatedbymembers
ofthesponsoringorganisation,whethertheyareanthropologists,geographers,
literaryscholars,sociologistsorhistorians.Similarly,anumberofpressesnow
publishscholarshiponanimal‐relatedtopicsbyhumanistsandsocialscientists,but
theirlistsarefarfrominterchangeable:thusColumbiaUniversityPressemphasises
philosophyandlaw,theRodopiPressfeaturescriticalanimalstudies,theUniversity
ofMinnesotaPressinclinestoliteraryandculturaltheoryandtheJohnsHopkins
UniversityPress6focusesonhistory.
6Fulldisclosure:IamtheeditoroftheJohnsHopkinsseries.
5
Boththisdivergenceandtheemergenceof‘animalstudies’offeradditionalevidence
ofthelivelinessofanimalrelatedscholarship.Theyalsoprovideinformationabout
theevolvingrelationofthehistoryofanimalstoanimalstudies.Inparticularthey
indicatetheextenttowhich,evenashistoricalscholarshipinthisarea,
environmentalorotherwise,hasflourished,ithasbecomeperipheraltoanimal
studies,despitehavingsimilaroriginstoriesandparallelsubsequenttrajectories.
Bothhaverootsinthepoliticalandculturalsensibilitiesofthe1960sand1970s,
distilledinPeterSinger'sinfluentialAnimalLiberation,whosetitleclearlyconnected
theexperienceofanimalswiththatofoppressedhumans.7Andbothinitiallyshared
outsiderstatuswithinthecommunity(orcommunities)ofhumanistsandsocial
scientists.Butasthevolumeofscholarshipdevotedtootheranimalshasincreased,
meresharedinterestinsuchtopicshasbecomelesspowerfulasabindingforce.
Perhapsitisonlynaturalthat,asmoreandmorecolleaguescametosharetheir
interests,scholarsgravitatedtothosewhoalsosharedtheirdisciplinarylanguage
andmethods.Thusworkwithinanimalstudieshastendedtoreplicatethe
disciplinarydivisionsandoppositionsofthelargeracademicworld.Oritmay
simplybethat‘studies’inpracticeislesscapaciousthanitisinprinciple.Inmany
fieldsthatsharethatlabel,literaryandculturalstudiestendstoprovidethe
dominantordefaultapproach.‘Interdisciplinary’maybedefinedrelatively
narrowly,torefertotheincorporationofmaterialthatisconventionallythe
provinceofanotherdiscipline,ratherthanthedeploymentorappreciationof
7PeterSinger,AnimalLiberation:TowardsanEndtoMan’sInhumanitytoAnimals(NewYork:
HarperCollins,1975).
6
alternativemethods.Totakeapracticalexamplethatislesstrivialthanitmay
appear,thecitationformrequiredbymanyinterdisciplinaryjournalsdoesnot
readilyaccommodatetheuseofevidencethatisrequiredbyhistorical
argumentation.Moresubstantively,anthologiesdesignedfortheuniversityreading
listsinanimalstudiesclassestendtoincluderelativelyfewhistoricalcontributions.8
ThelargestanimalstudieseventisthetriennialMindingAnimalsconference.Atthe
mostrecentone,heldinUtrechtin2012,themarginalpositionofhistorywasvery
striking.Themeetingwaslarge,livelyandfullofinterest,lastingfourdaysand
attractingmorethan500participantsfrommanypartsoftheworld.Thelistof
plenaryspeakerswascorrespondinglyrobust.Itincludedonenovelist,onelawyer,
oneanimalactivist,onesociologist,onespecialistinanimalbehavior,onepolitical
theorist,sixphilosophersandonehistorian.Theletterofinvitationmadeitclear
thattheorganisersunderstoodhistoricalscholarshipaspartofthebackgroundof
animalstudies,notaspartoftheforeground:
Wewouldlikeyoutodiscussthehuman–animalrelationshipfromabroad
historicalperspective.Wewouldlikeyoutoputsomeinterestingfactsabout
thecurrenthuman–animalrelationshipinahistoricalperspective.For
instance,inrelationtodevelopmentsinthefieldsofpoliticsandtechnology.9
88See,forexample,GarryMarvinandSusanMcHugh(eds)RoutledgeHandbookofHuman‐Animal
Studies(London:Routledge,2014);LindaKalofandAmyFitzgeralde(eds)TheAnimalsReader:The
EssentialClassicandContemporaryWritings(Oxford:Berg,2007);CliftonP.Flynn(ed.)Social
Creatures:AHumanandAnimalStudiesReader(Brooklyn:LanternBooks,2008);andArnoldArluke
andClintonSanders(eds)BetweentheSpecies:ReadingsinHuman‐AnimalRelations(Boston:Pearson
Education,2009).
9Personalcommunication3May2011.
7
Thedisciplinarydistributionofthenumerouspanelsmirroredthatoftheplenaries.
Mostofthepresentationssharedakindofabstractness,discussinganimalsin
generalorinprincipleorinimagination.Thus,despitetheactivistagendaof
MindingAnimals–accordingtoitswebsite,it‘workstofurtherthedevelopmentof
animalstudiesinternationallyandtohelpestablishlegalandmoralprotectionsfor
allnonhumananimals’10–scholarlyattentiontoactualanimalswasrelatively
sparse.11
Itispossibletounderstandthismarginalisationofhistoricalscholarshipasan
implicitcritiquesincethequalitythatIhavejustcalledas‘abstractness’could,at
leastinmanyinstances,alsobeexpressedastheexplicitfocusontheory.Itisalso
possibletounderstanditlesstendentiouslyasjustanotherexampleofthe
compartmentalisationthatcharacterisesmuchofacademia.And,ineithercase,it
mightnotmakemuchdifferencetohistoriansastheycultivatetheirowngardens;
asMaosaid,‘letahundredflowersblossom.’But,asthehistoryofanimalshas
divergedfromthemainstreamofanimalstudies(orhasbeensidelined),ithas
continuedtoengageasimilarsetofunderlyingquestions–anengagementthat,
whetherexplicitorimplicit,accountsformuchofthenoveltyofcurrenthistorical
workonanimals.Afterall,animalshavefrequentlyfiguredinhistorians'research
ontopicsfromNeolithichunting,toearlydomestication,toagricultural
improvement,tothehistoryofscience.Inmanycases,theirremainshavebeen(and
continuetobe)interpretedasproxiesforirretrievablehumanevidence;for
10MindingAnimalswebsite,accessed9Aug.2014.mindinganimals.com
11Non‐scholarlyattention,ontheotherhand,wasabundant,fromthevegan/vegetariancateringto
therangeofcauses
8
exampleonestudyusedancienthorsebonesandridingparaphernaliatosupportan
argumentabouttheemergenceoftheIndo‐Europeanlanguages.12Eventheir
sufferinghasmostoftenbeenstudiedinthecontextofchanginghumanethicaland
politicalsensibilities.
Incontrasttothistraditionaluseofanimalevidence,muchrecentworkinanimal
historyattemptstotaketheexperienceandinterestsofothercreaturesinto
account,alongwiththoseofpeople.Ofcoursethisiseasiersaid(althoughvery
frequentlysaid)thandone,especiallyforhistorians,since,challengingasthis
problemiswithregardtothepresent,itismuchmoresowithregardtothepast.
Mostanimalscommunicatewithoutrecoursetohumanlanguage,andevenpeople
whoknowindividualanimalswellcanhavetroubleunderstandingthem.Agreat
dealoftheevidenceaboutthenatureandexperienceofhistoricalanimalscomes
fromthetestimonyofthepeoplewhoobservedthem,interactedwiththemand
exploitedthem,andmostoftherestcomesfrombones,skinsandotherphysical
remains.(Thereisalsoafairamountoftestimonyfrompeoplewhomostly
imaginedthem,butthis,evenmorethanotherapparentlyanimal‐relatedevidence,
primarilyoffersinformationaboutpeople.Forexample,itishardtobelievethatthe
elephantJumboactuallyfelttheloyalBritishsentimentsthatwerewidelyattributed
tohimwhentheZoologicalSocietyofLondonsoldhimtotheAmericanimpresario
P.T.Barnum.)
12DavidW.Anthony,TheHorse,theWheel,andLanguage:HowBronze‐AgeRidersfromtheEurasian
SteppesShapedtheModernWorld(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007).
9
Attemptstomakeroomforanimalsbydisplacingpeoplemuststrugglewiththe
distortionanddiminutionthatinevitablyaccompaniessuchfiltering.ThusRobert
Delort,whohighlightedthisagendainthetitleofhis1984studyLesanimauxont
unehistoire,producedaspecies‐by‐speciesaccountthatdidnotfulfilhisambition
‘toprivilegetheanimal,andnotthehistoryofmen’.13Muchmorerecently,inLe
Pointdevueanimal:Uneautreversiondel'histoire,EricBarataysimilarlyproposed
‘todetachhistoryfromananthropocentricvision’.14Hisfascinatingstudy
foregroundsthehistoricalroleofanimalsandattemptstoacknowledgeboththeir
responsestothesituationsinwhichpeoplehaveplacedthemand,whenpossible,
theirresistancetohumancompulsionsandconstraints.But,forhumanswritingfor
humans,someversionofanthropocentrismisdifficulttoavoid.Storiesliketheone
thatE.C.PieloutellsinAftertheIceAge:TheReturnofLifetoGlaciatedNorth
Americamaycomeclosertoavoidinganthropocentrism,buttheyarestoriesfrom
whichpeopleare(mostly)absent.15
Thestrongerversionofthisagenda–theclaimtogiveotheranimalsavoice–isstill
moreproblematic,requiringagreaterleapofbothempathyandimagination.Like
manymoregeneralattemptstoretrievethehistoricalsignificanceofanimals,it
assumesananalogybetweentheexperiencesofmembersofotherspeciesandthose
ofmembersofdisadvantagedhumangroups.Thatanalogyisnotcompletely
13RobertDelort,Lesanimauxontunehistoire(Paris:ĖditionsduSeuil,1984)p.12.
14ĖricBaratay,LePointdevueanimal:Uneautreversiondel'histoire(Paris:EĖditionsduSeuil,
2012)p.12.
15E.C.Pielou,AftertheIceAge:TheReturnofLifetoGlaciatedNorthAmerica(Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress,1991).
10
encouraging,however.Therearenumerousexamplesofsimilarlywell‐intentioned
ventriloquismonbehalfofotherpeoplebut,whenpreviouslysilencedpeoplegain
theirvoices,theyoftensaysomethingverydifferent(andnotthankyou).Noteven
chimpanzeesorparrotsarelikelytohavethechancetocorrecttheirself‐appointed
humanrepresentatives,butitmightbemorerespectfultoacknowledgetheir
inscrutability.
Someofthesedifficultiesareinherentintheterm‘animal’itself,whichreferstoa
categorywithoutclearboundaries.Thisessaybeganwiththeresistancethatmany
humanshavefelttoincludingthemselvesinthatcategoryand,althoughIfeelno
suchresistance,myuneasyalternationbetween‘otheranimals’and‘animals’inthis
discussion,mostlyongroundsofeuphony,suggeststhattosomeextenttheproblem
isembeddedinthelanguageitself.Asimilartensionsurroundstheterm
‘anthropomorphic’,whicheliminatesthepossibilityofeasyslippagebetween
humansandmembersofotherspecies.Thatis,callingsomethingorsomeone
anthropomorphicisseldommeantasacompliment,andthisnegativeconnotation
assumesthattheclaimthathumansandnon‐humansshareperceptions,behaviors,
andsoforth,isinherentlynaive,sentimentalorotherwisemisguided.Butlikeother
assumptions,sometimesitisrightandsometimesitiswrong.Representationslike
EdwinLandseer’sTheNobleBeast,16whichforegroundsastagaccompaniedbya
doeandfawn,ortheAkeleydioramasintheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory,17
16http://www.wikigallery.org/wiki/painting_201281/Sir‐Edwin‐Henry‐Landseer/The‐Noble‐Beast
(Accessed9Aug.2014)
17http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent‐exhibitions/mammal‐halls/akeley‐hall‐of‐african‐
mammals/black‐rhinoceros(Accessed9August2014)
11
whichshowanimalslikerhinocerosesandgiraffesinsimilarlyimprobablenuclear
familygroups,clearlydeservethiscritique.Butitishardtosaythesameofthe
manyportraitsandphotographsthatportraypetsandchildrenaspartofthesame
socialgroup.Todescribethatimpliedrelationshipasanthropomorphicistoerector
resurrectabarrierthatmaynothavebeenperceivedbyanyoftheindividuals
involved.Thustheterm‘anthropomorphism’inherentlyprivilegestheproblematic
human–animalbinary.
Andif,withregardtohumans,‘animal’canseemtooconstrained,inothercontexts
itcanseemtooexpansive.Biologically,itincludescoralsandstarfishaswellas
gorillasandleopards,creaturesthatseemsodifferentthattheuseoftheblanket
term‘animal’tocoverthemallbringsthetermintoquestionyetagain.Thusthe
eliminationofboundarythatseparateshumansfromanimalsseemstorequirethe
establishmentofanotherorothers,althoughthelocationofreplacementboundaries
isequallyproblematic.Ifnoobviousgapcanbediscernedbetweenmostkindsof
animalandthosekindsmostsimilartothem,largegapsemergewhenvery
dissimilaranimalsarejuxtaposed.Theclaimthatpeoplearelikecatsorbeaversor
hippopotami(thattheybelonginthesamegeneralcategorywiththosekindsof
creatures)isnotthesameastheclaimthattheyarelikejellyfishorfleasorworms.
*****
Fortunately,thedifficultiesinvolvedinwritinganimalsintoenvironmentalhistory
havenotpreventedenvironmentalhistoriansfromdoingit.Recentworkhasbeen
imaginativeandvaried,ascanbeillustratedbymentioningafewofmanypossible
12
examples.AlanMikhail'sTheAnimalinOttomanEgyptusestheexperienceof
animalsasawaytoexaminemajortransitionsinEgyptianhistory,including
modernisationandurbanisation.18InTheNatureoftheBeastsIanJaredMiller
recountsthehistoryoftheTokyoZoointhecontextJapan’schangingrelationship
withboththenaturalworldandtheworldofhumanpolitics.19RidingHighby
SandraSwartexaminesaninterspeciesrelationship–betweenhumansandhorses–
thathadmajorenvironmentalimpactinSouthAfrica.20AndMarkBarrow'sNature's
Ghostschroniclesthedawningconsciousnessthatevenabundantwildspeciesmight
beendangeredinnineteenth‐centuryAmericaandtheconsequenteffortsto
preservethem.21Suchthoughtfulworkoftenincorporatesanelegiacstrain,since,
fromtheirperspective,thehistoryofourrelationshiptootheranimals,atmost
timesandinmostplaces,hasnotbeenhappy.Butfromthenarrowerhuman
academicperspectiveofenvironmentalhistory,thingsarelookingup.
18AlanMikhail,TheAnimalinOttomanEgypt(NewYork:Oxford,2014).
19IanJaredMiller,TheNatureoftheBeasts:EmpireandExhibitionattheTokyoImperialZoo
(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2013).
20SandraSwart,RidingHigh:Horses,Humans,andHistoryinSouthAfrica(Johannesburg:Wits
UniversityPress,2010).
21MarkV.Barrow,Jr.,Nature'sGhosts:ConfrontingExtinctionfromtheAgeofJeffersontotheAgeof
Ecology(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2009).
13