\‘,L/
I
_--.
Manuals and &ides
i
9
’;cor
PHI
STEPS AND TOOLS
TOWARDS
INTEGRATED COASTAL AREA MANAGEMENT
--x.
.
%
.
’ Wehavebecome
masters
of
technical
discovery
andinnovation.
Wemustnowsetourselves
to becoming
masters
of social/institutional
discovery
andinnovation
’
PhuaSukKaPhap
lfremer
UNESCO2001
The designationsemployed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expressionof
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Intergovernmental OceanographicCommissionof UNESCO,concerning the legal status of any state, territory, city or area, or their authorities, or concerningthe delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries. The views expressedin this document do not necessarilyrepresent the views of the
Intergovernmental OceanographicCommissionof UNESCO.
Forbibliographicpurposesthis documentshouldbe citedasfollows :
Henocque,Y. and Denis,J. (editors)
A Methodological Guide: Stepsand ToolsTowards Integrated CoastalArea Management
IOCManuals and GuidesNo 42. UNESCO2001
Publishedin 2001
By the United Nations Educational,Scientificand Cultural Organization
7, Placede Fontenoy,75700 Paris
Printed in AQUALOG’sWorkshops
UNESCO2001
Printed in France
Thisguide was compiledand edited by :
Jacques Denis and Yves Henocque, of lfremer
with the participation of the following contributors :
Martine Antona, CIRAD-Tera,TA 60115,Av. J. F.Breton, 34398 - Montpellier Cedex5
Tel : 04.67.59.37.07,Fax: 04.67.59,38,27,E-mail: antona@cirad.fr
Julian Barbiere,COI-UNESCO,
1, rue Miollis, 75732 ParisCedex15
Tel : 01.45.68.40.45,Fax: 01.45.68.58.12,E-mail: j,barbiere&unesco.org
Paul Barusseau’,Laboratoire de sedimentologie marine, Universitede Perpignan, 52 avenue de Villeneuve,
66860 Perpignan Cedex,Tel : 04-68-66-20-57,e-mail : brs@univ-perp,fr.
Louis Brigand2,IUEM,TechnopoleBrest Iroise,29280 Plouzane,
Tel : 02-98-49-86-87,e-mail : louis.brigand@univ-brestfr
Gilbert David, IRD,BP5045, 34032 Montpelliercedex 1,
Tel : 04-67-63-69-81,fax : 04-67-63-87-78,e-mail : david@mpl-ird.fr
Olivier Dedieu : CEPEL,Facultede Droit, 39 rue de I’llniversite, 34060 Montpellier Cedex
Tel : 04 67 61 54 60, fax : 04 67 61 54 82, e-mail : dedieu@sc.univ-montpl.fr
JacquesDenis : IFREMER,
laboratoire cotier, centre de Toulon La Seyne,BP330 83507 La Seynesur Mer Cedex,
Tel : 04-94-30-48-20,fax : 04-94-06-55-29,e-mail : jacques.denis@ifremer.fr
Wile Grignon-Logerot, Ministere de I’Equipement, des transports et du Logement, La Grande Arche, 92055
La DefenseCedex,
Tel : 01-40-81-94-86,fax : 01-40-81-82-92,e-mail : cecile.grignon-logerot@equipement.gouv.fr
YvesHenocque3: IFREMER,laboratoire cbtier, centre de Toulon La Seyne,BP330 83507 La Seynesur Mer Cedex,
Tel : 04-94-30-49-07,fax : 04-94-06-55-29,e-mail : yves.henocque@ifremer.fr
Bernard Kalaora : Conservatoiredu Littoral et des RivagesLacustres,36, quai d’Austerlitz, 75013- Paris.
Tel : 01-44-06-89-00,Fax: 01-45-83-60-45,e-mail : cel.paris@wanadoo.fr
Marc Lointier : IRD,Maison de la teledetection, 500 rue JFBreton,34093Montpellier Cedex
Tel : 04 67 54 87 03, fax : 04 67 54 87 00, e-mail : lointier@teledetection.fr
Under the IOCFrenchNational Committee and
FrenchCommitteesof /HP,IGCPand MAB programmes
Supported by the UNESCOFrenchCommissionand
The FrenchMinistry of foreign Affairs
‘FrenchNationalCommitteefor the InternationalGeologicalCorrelatedProgramme(I.G.C.P.)
‘FrenchNationalCommitteefor the Manand BiosphereProgramme(M.A.B.)
IFrenchNationalCommitteefor the IntergovernmentalOceanographic
Commission
(I.O.C.)
4FrenchNationalCommitteefor the InternationalHydrologicalProgramme(I.H.P.)
CoverillustratedbyJacques
Denis,ta Seyne,France
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5
PREFACE
6
WORKMETHOD
7
INTRODUCTION
8
PHILOSOPHY
8
APPROACH
9
HOWTHEICZMPROCESS
UNFOLDS
PHASE
I : PRELIMINARY
IDENTIFICATION
13
13
Step0: ICZMprocess
initialization
conditions
13
Step1: Feasibilityofthe
implementation
ofanICZMprocess
19
PHASE
II : PREPARATION
25
Step2: Socio-environmental evaluation
25
Step3: Desirable
andpossible
outcomes
33
Step4: Elaboration
ofthemanagement
plan
41
PHASE
III : IMPLEMENTATION
46
Step5: lnstitutionalization
46
Step6: fnforcementofthe managementplan
50
Step7: Evaluationetadjustment
54
ACRONYMS
58
EXPANDED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
59
GLOSSARY
61
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Wewould like to conveyour sinceregratitudeto the following contributors:
Organizations
which repliedto our questionnaire:
l
Le Part National de Port-Cros(fort-00s National Park),
l
La Cellule d’Environnement Littoral et marin (CELM)(The Coastaland Marine EnvironmentalCell),
l
Le SyndicatIntercommunalde I’Aire Toulonnaise(SIAT)(ToulonArea Inter-Municipalities Corporation),
l
CREOCEAN
Engineering consultancy,Montpellier branch.
Peoplewho took part in validatingthis manual:
l
GuirecQueffeulou, SIAT,Direction du Contrat de Baie de la rade de Toulon, Toulon
l
FrancoisMahoux, CELM,Toulon,
l
Luc Hardy,CEPRALMAR,
Montpellier,
l
Pierre Boissery,Agence de I’Eau RMC,MissionLittoral, Marseille,
l
Nathalie Beaulieu,Centre International D’agriculture Tropicale(CIAT),Montpellier,
. Philippe Deboudt, Universitede Lille I, UFRgeographie, Villeneuve d’Ascq,
l
Marine Musson,Conservatoiredu Littoral, Rochefort sur mer,
l
Catherine Gabrie,WWF,Marseille,
l
Andre Dauphin& Universitede Nice Sophia-Antipolis,departement Geographie, Nice,
And thosewho helpedwith the rephrasingand correctspelling:
l
Danielle L’Hostis,IFREMER
CoastalLaboratory Assistant,Toulon
l
ChristopheValia-Kollery,ScienceCouncellor,UNESCOFrenchNational Commission
‘I ‘^‘,,,,:~~~~,.,)q!‘:i‘:i,‘,“:‘,,’:,.:~.
I ,,: :1
q:‘*,&?
:‘“)
,~,, ,,, jl
,:.z~,i, ,1 20,; ,I I*$ i* ,(/,
,, i’fr:
:~: ,, r( ,,/,/ ,, ,I, !J
/
PREFACE
It is a necessity,not a truism, to say that coastal areas are the placeswhere demograpl&, ~o~~~~~; and
environmental pressuresreach their maximum.The spaceis already subject to conflicts of use ~~~~~~~~~~n~
such as fishing, fish-farming, industry, shipping, and recreation. In addition, all the
will canvarge
there : changes in sea level, climatic changes,etc. The sustainablede
‘,&“, j”.
depends
uponthe way in which the use of the coastalareasis approached, not only
~~..~
also Governmentsand international organizations. Hence the need to advice t
‘,’
’
~~~~~~ of the coastal milieu, whoever they may be.
This was the concern uppermost in our minds when we at the French National Corn
t~~g~~~r~rnental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) decided to support the publication of
Integrated
CoastalArea Management (ICAM).The first volume published by the IOCdescribedthe
of~~M, The secondvolume describesthe ICAMprocessin greater detail, citing examplesof the proc~~~~~~~~~,
from the experienceof the contributors to the guide.
The work that went into the publication of both volumesof the “Guide” is remarkable in many re~~~~,~o
beginwith, the feedback isfrom a variety of experiences.Moreover,it isthe product of inter-disciplina~~~~~~~~
involving specialistsfrom all the Frenchagenciescompetent in the field. Lastly,it representsthe cooper$F of
the national tommittees of UNESCO’s
main scientific programmes(IOC,IHP MAB, IGCP): a cooperatioti@&is
exemplaryas concernsother subjectsrelated to sustainabledevelopment.
I’
It is my personal hope that the methodology outlined in this Guide will reach far beyond the gro
wrote it. Ideally, it will enable usersto elaborate further, more specificguides, and will help set up local
especiallyin developing nations, The first volume of the Guide was so successfulthat the second allo
hopes.This is only a beginning, not an end.
Indeed,this is a beginning which highlights the role of UNESCO’s
coastalprogrammeswith the IOC,in pa&cular the one entitled “Integrated CoastalArea Management” (ICAM) and the coastal module of the “Glob&
OceanObservingSystem”(GOOS).One programme (IOUICAM)is a meansof studying tools for integrated coastal management, to which the Guide is a fundamental contribution. The other is concerned with operational
implementation of monitoring means,the tools for such management.This is the future perspectivewe must all
aim to achieveto make every dimension of modern oceanography operational. Fromthe global outlook to the
local one, the theory must becomea tangible reality for citizensof coastalnations,enabling them to face the challenges of global change.
We owe specialthanks to all the contributors to this Guide, and especiallyits coordinators, YvesHenocque
j * >ati,Jacques Denis,for the quality of the work they have accomplished.Without their personalcommitment, the
‘.,,,, --,,,,,
,‘~~~~~ of their agencies,and that of the Secretariatof the IOC,nothing could have been done.
”(__*‘$
s’:: I’;,~
‘: ,.I_/. ’ f
,.(3 , 1>,,
$~.,<..‘“k:”
,,:
c(;“‘*
‘:)1
,,,,,.”
I ‘,“~
FrancoisGERARD,Presidentof the FrenchNational Committeefor the IOC.
z/*)..:^‘:i.
~: s,,,
11;1:<:*
,-,hZ.
,“‘
,’ ,’/_“l
:..g
‘xi:
‘. .‘,$&
5za:+
,\!,.p<.,
:.s‘*.a
,“,,,;g&~’
,G’I‘!*w
&,
,&+ip>
:I,,,,:
‘:.$
;tr::
‘;&i
‘),.,I,“,
IO
q:,r~#‘!‘~
,,,,
,j ;#I;:6
/’
”
<
‘I’
,,,,,
(,/11,
‘,,I
/’,II,!
;I,i
),
I, ‘_,’
WorkingMethod
- a second analytical phase,intencled to facilitate
the collection and organization of information likely
to add to the contents of the guide. A comparative
analysiswas then undertaken, according to two axes,
one “vertical” and the other “horizontal”. Vertical
analysisconsistedof studying a total of twenty known
or experienced cases of management, sifting them
through a single analytical grid as a meansof comparison The casestudiesthat were processedin this way
contribute to a management protess to varying
degrees, since many of them are not yet entirely
accomplished or finished. Horizontal analysis then
consisted in considering all of the cariestudies according to phase, in such a way as to identify and select
the most relevant elements in each.When this comparative analysiswas completed, the potential content
The working method is thus1the outgrowth of three of the guide was clearly targeted;
basicphases:
- a third formalization phase,designed to arrive at
- an initial framing phase,intended to predefine the a synthesis of the information that would make up
steps in the management process,based on the prin- the guide, structured according to a definitive geneciples of the first guide as well as various representa- ric grid consisting of eight steps.To give the guide the
tive experiencesand examplesof management drawn realistic aspect sought, twelve casestlidies were selecfrom the bibliography. This work enabled us to elabo- ted for their strong points and their aptitude to highrate an analytical template for ICZM,applicable to the light and demonstrate the principles of the managerest of the process;
ment process,
This second volume of a guide to integrated coastal
zone management opens a new dimension by discussing the processesinvolved in a more complete and
dynamic way than the first, To fulfil1 this requirement,
an expanded work group, drawing upon the knowledge of experts in political science,economics,and
sociology, devoted over two years of effort (1999 2001) to its completion, following a disciplined
working method.
A dual principle prevailed in the application of this
method. On one hand, it prescribedan approach structured as a seriesof steps,and on the other, it demanded that real situations be brought to light, emphasizing casestudiesof experiencewith or analysisof coastal management,
/’
Comparativeanalysisby
At the end of the last phase,a validation workshop was organized, in order to draw upon the experiencesof ICZM
professionalsand managersof coastal zones.
INTRODUCTION
’ Environmental
management
is not a question
of humans’relationshipto nature;instead,it is a
questionof humanrelationson thesubjectof nature.’
lacquesWeber
Philosophy
Although integrated managementof coastalzoneshas
been the subject of a large number of studies and
publications, the electronic Forum CSllUNESCO
launched two yearsago, entitled “Wise Practicesfor sustainable human development in coastal zones”, pointed
out how many obstacles to the implementation of
these integrated management meansstill remain. it is
difficult to draw conclusionsfrom sucha broad array of
new experiments.Nevertheless,the experiencescontributed by the over 5,000 participants in this forum
demonstrate that gradually, a global trend is emerging, expressing a genuine appropriation of the
concept of sustainable development, the foundation
for integrated managementof coastalzones.
and social framework structuring the environmental
fate of human activities.The ICZMoperator will thus
find him or herself at the junction of severalworlds :
scientific, economic, political, ecological, and cultural,
“subject to continual tension and mandating a
commitment to a pluridisciplinary, mediated
approach” (Kalaora, 2000). His or her task will consist
of working towards the sustainable management of
coastal zones by applying procedures designed to
remove the barriers between representations, practices, and uses,ultimately yielding a consensualpolicy
on the fate of the ecosystem.In this process,the operator is a player in the rationalization of the resourcepopulation-environment-development system. He or
she contributes in a pragmatic way to harmonizing
Of the many definitions of Integrated coastal zone
public policy and making uses compatible with each
management (ICZM),we find the following one most
other. Fromthis point where ecological,economic,and
accurate: “A continuous and dynamicprocessby which
socio-political interests converge with social aspiradecisionsare made for the sustainable use, developtions, the ICZMoperator must simultaneouslyplay the
ment, and protection of coastal and marine areas and
roles of host and strategist, by drafting reports which
resources” (Cicin-Sain,Knecht, 1998). In other words,
the goal of this processisto emphasize“proper use” of present complex information clearly, by helping to
the many opportunities the coastal zone offers to any resolveconflicts, by elaborating, running, and evalua“enlightened” person, Integrated management of ting interdisciplinary communications and education
coastalzonestherefore appearsto be the most appro- programs,and by facilitating public participation,
priate tool for the sustaineddevelopment of this ecosocial system,becauseit reconcilesdevelopment with The foregoing list, although not exhaustive, shows
the good ecological health of the resources,and links how complex implementation of the integrated management of coastalzonescan be. It must be understood
environmental, social,and economic issues.
first and foremost as a collective dynamic process
Oncea goal hasbeen defined, it soon becomesobvious (figure 1) which must be coordinated using a plurithat the field of action is always already limited to disciplinary, multi-tool approach, according to a nonsome degree by the political, institutional, economic, linear time scale.
Localcommunities
I
Press
I
I
Scientists
I
1
fiqure 1 : Thep/averson the field
Typeof approach
As a supplement to the first methodological guide on
sections of the preceding guide. The field covered
ICZMpublished by the IOC-UNESCO
(1997),which was
herein is much greater because it expressly incorpo-
chiefly devoted to the elaboration of information
rates the socio-economicalapproach, This figure is a
systems,this second volume is intended to serve as a
meansof comparing this volume of the guide with the
guide to the various agents involved in setting policy
first one, which focused much more tlosely on setting
for ICZM (scientists,staff, managers, etc.) by setting
up an information system,whilst Guide 2 approaches
forth the phasesinvolved in ICZMplanning.
the ICZMprocessas a whole.
Figure 2 shows how the major phasesand stepsof the
ICZM process unfold and indicates references to
1 GUIDE21
/ GUIDE11
Phase
I : PRELIMINARY
IDENTIFICATION
Step0
lnitializationconditions
for ICZMprocess
Step1
Feasibilityof implementation
of an ICZMprocess
Phase
II : PREPARATION
Step2
I
Socio-environmental
assessment
I
I
Step3
Desirableand possiblescenarios
Step4
cc
Elaborationof the
managementscheme
andal:
Phase
Ill : IMPLEMENTATION
Step5
lnstitutionalization
Fiaure2 : How the ICZMprocessunfolds
Rather than making a vain attempt to be exhaustive, encounters an “ideal situation,” Eachcasepresentsits
we aim to give the reader certain reference points by own particularities, which justify re-clombiningone or
following the pattern outlined below :
several phases or activities in a different order.
- Each phase is initially given a general definition (in Moreover, each example also clearly shows what was
italics). By articulating the main questions, this done as well as what should have been done.
paragraph sumsup the general philosophy.Indeed, it is
important to maintain a global vision of the issueand
powers which provides a context for the action being
undertaken in the same direction as the general
approach.
- At each step, key points set forth in the definition are
returned to in greater detail. Set off in a rectangle, a
few tools and their rules are specified.Thesetools have
been selected for their exploratory capacities : the
more conventional ones, which are presented in full
elsewhere, have deliberately been set aside.
- One or two examples,drawn from casestudies in the
authors’ experience,are usedto illustrate the phaseby
emphasizinga typical detail rather than the whole, The
purpose of this approach is alsoto show that one never
To simplify the presentation, the suggested procedure
is initially outlined in linear termswhich are easier to
grasp. An integrated management ‘of coastal zones
programme implies a political colnmitment to a
territory, i.e. a space,to the people and relationshipsit
hosts both within and with outside elements. The
application of this political commitment necessarily
occurs in stages, in the course of which tasks or
activities are developed and products and outcomes
are obtained.
Eachstep of the processis therefore described in this
guide in terms of tasksto be carried out (figure 3). The
tasksrequire the implementation of v(arioustools. Each
of the tasks is then described in terms of the products
and outcomes it yields.
PHASE
STEP
Casestudy support :
Fiuure3 : Blockdiaaramof the steDsand Dhases
It is important to emphasizethe fact that the processes players, reinforcing the expertise of agents, engaging
engaged by the ICZMapproach are as important asthe in debate with local officials and industrialists,raising
resultsand documentsyielded. Theseprocessescontribute to a new social dynamic by implicating new
the consciousnessof the participants and communicating with the public, etc.
logy and order of these phasescan be changedwithout
even phase III, (figure 4) Sometimes,new data require
the agent to backtrack to preceding steps in order to
sacrificing their dynamic links. In this respect, a chart
modify the content of the analyses.These re-adjust-
depicting “loops” may be a more pertinent illustration
ments attest to the reality of the program and justify
of the various contexts and the evolving reality which
the flexibility of the processwhile ensuring that the
the agent is continually confronting and adapting to
information collective is reliable, and that all the
(figure 4). Existing context and opportunities may
playersconcerned by ICZMare fully mobilized.
Moreover,the reader must rememberthat the chrono-
convincean agent to initiate the processin phase II or
Pioneer
Temporary
pilotgroup
group
~NST~TUTIONALIZATION
Steering
Committee
Coordination
1 structure
Adoptionand
fundina
Institutional
structure
identification
)zdies
IDENTIFICATION
Follow-up
andindicators
J
Existing
information
In-depth
information
Fiaure4 : Interconnectionsand cyclesin the ICZMplanning process(adaptedfrom Salm& Clark2000)
This guide is intended for all ICZM operators, in
developed, emerging, or developing countries. It is
our belief, as the examples we present illustrate,
that although contexts and the sophistication of
the tools available may vary to a great degree, the
implementation process is always basically the
same. As the CSVUNESCOforum on “wise coastal
practices” showed, this process stands only to be
enriched when experiences from a broad spectrum
of different horizons are shared.
Thus, the reader’s task will be to adapt the
approach suggested here, as in other specialist
guides, to come up with activity lines appropriate
to each local situation, As a result, we strongly
recommend that this manual be used within the
framework of training sessions or workshops
dedicated to the integrated management of
coastal zones.
Howthe ICZMprocess
unfolds
PhaseI : PRELIMINARY
lDENTlFlCA~/ON
PHASE
1 : Preliminaryidentification
d Opportunities
andconstrain&
/
J interviews
context
J identification
of the
STEP
0 : hitialization conditionsfor an ICZMprocess
,:,,
Casestudy support :
1,TheThaulagoon
(SeaEnhancement
Scheme,
SMVM),
France
2.Saloum
DeltaBiosphere
Reserve,
Senegal
I-“i;r
,f&qgy
At the outset,an ideaisgeneratedby a pioneergroup,
a threatispointedout bya “whistle-blower”,or a crisis
is observed,Thefate of thr’sidea or initial sparkwill
depend upon the analysisof initial conditions,the
opportunitiesandconstraintswhicharedeterminedby
the overallcontext(political,institutional,economic,
social),without necessarily
drawingupon the concept
of integratedmanagement,
However,it isimportantto
realizethat one of the “givens”of the problemis the
territorial context;that is, an area with spatial and
socialdimensions.
Theanalyticalscalemustbe adapted
to encompass
all the aspectsof thesiteor regionwhere
the projectis to be startedand implemented.In some
cases,the nationallevelwill automaticallybe involved;
in others,the provincialor regionalscalewill havea
greaterimpacton the site and the issueconcerned.In
the evaluationof the overallcontext,the operators
shouldbe able to producean initial identificationof
the varioustypesof problems,their .socialframework
(groupsof players)andeconomicinterest,accordingto
the variouscomponentsof the coastalzone system.
Determiningthe answersto these questionsyields
referencepointsby pointing out the key indicatorsto
be developedmorefully in laterphases.
13
Society
Population _I:sII
I
Legislationan4 i $
institutional i: 2: \pzxi-l
,A”
mechi
.
\
/
factors to be consideredat Step0
The “Eureka!” that sparksthe pioneer
group
The purpose of such an analysisis to make sure first
and foremost that each player or group of playershas
a congruent representation of the problem (or
The eventsleading up to the processmayvary,but they problems).Indeed, it is more than likely that there will
usually involve a small group of individuals,regardless be discord and conflict between the various represenof their identity and legitimacy.Where a crisisor risk tations of what constitutes a “natural resource” and
situation is involved, sociologists call them “whistle- the threats that loom for such an entity. From the
blowers” : that is, “non-official people or groups, with outset, the definition of these areas, their identificalittle legitimacy, or, on the contrary, individuals who tion as natural resourcesor reserves(ex : the status of
are related to official agencieswho step out of their the mangroveswamp),the protection zone for coastal
official role to sound an alarm, either on an individual and marine resources,etc. are all liable to be the
or on a collective basis, and according to unusual subject of controversy.Opinion may diverge asto their
procedures” (Kalaora, 1998).
representation and definition, whether one is a useror
The matter at hand may thus arise from the gradual a non-user,a resident or a non-resident,a local person
evolution of a certain situation (for example,the impact or a visitor,
of tourist development promoted a few years earlier), Any pioneer group which starts without making sure
In other cases,it may be the result of an emergency there is at least some congruence between the social
situation (the disastereffects of coastalerosion after a representations of the various players is doomed to
storm). In either case, it is important to analyze the fail. Fromthe beginning, it is important for the pioneer
overall context in order to evaluate all the forces and group to set aside time for discussionabout concepts,
elements(near and far) acting upon the situation, Box terms, and ideas which are bound to have different
meaningsfor different people.
one refersto the relation between spaceand issues.
14
Box 1 : Spaceandissues
Theterritory maynot be a pre-existingentity : it is meaningfulsimplyin termsof the type of issuesat stake.We have
beenableto identifythree typesof situationslikelyto be at the origin of an ICZMprocess:
- In a specificterritory : sharedresourcesor useconflictin a well definedzone(geographic,administrative,or in relation
to an ecosystem)
which callfor arbitration and regulationbetweenusers,
- Froman issueto a territory : an environmentalissuehasbeentargeted and identified,but it is unrelatedto a particular geographiczone.Theconfigurationof the network of concernedplayerswill be a meansof definingthe spacewhere
interventionwill occur.
- Froman economicsectorto a territory : the developmentor managementof an economicactivityin one sectorhasa
negativeimpacton well definedspacesor resources.Spatialintegrationis basedupon an economicbranch
The territorial framework : the space
concernedand analyticalscales
This is first and foremost a matter of defining a territorial framework which makes it possible to grasp
the forces present in an analytically useful way, For
example, in the caseof small island states, the entire
island will be taken into consideration, that is the
national situation and its expression at the level of
the main administrative units. In the case of a large
state which may or may not be an island, the scale
will depend on the degree of political decentralization. Should decentralization be very slight, it will be
appropriate to take the national level into consideration. Conversely,if decentralization exists,analysisof
national factors will be lesser in scope : the regional
political framework is likely to be much more crucial
in relation to the site targeted.
Beyond the scalechosen, it will be important in every
case to identify elements from outside the system,
especially any possible impact of the international
market on one resource or another.
ests at stake, and the limitations imposed by this
context. Its purpose is chiefly to draw up a comparative analysis of the main economic activities in order
to identify those which have the most profound
impact on society and the environment. This will
help define the problems at stake, as well as the
sectors where anthropogenic consequences are the
most crucial, It is not sufficient to llist and describe
economic activities.
In general, regardless of the territorial framework
chosen, a number of facts pre-exist but are not
necessarily relevant from an operational viewpoint.
When we define a population structure, we usually
do so in terms of population density (the number of
inhabitants per surface unit), although population
pressure (the number of inhabitants per cultivated
surface unit) may turn out to be a much more significant indicator.
In this demographic and economic context, the
prevailing characteristics are not lirnited to the job
market alone. A whole spectrum of social questions
related to poverty, inequality, salary scales, labor
conflicts, community mobilizations, the education
Society,population,economicactivities
The task at this step is to specify the general context
system, and even women’s role ill society. These
factors will influence representations and attitudes
in which the problems identified occur. An initial,
about the environment. They underpin the degree of
succinct approach aims to identify the causes that
sensitivity to the threats existing for the biosphere
underlie the problems, the main players and inter-
and the natural resources.
The type of central government systemwill also have
tion), and non-regulatory tools (taxation, subsidiza-
an influence : is this a free market economy or a
tion, voluntary agreement, national information
state-run one; is the systemhighly centralized or not;
system,scientific research,etc.).
what sort of regulations are in effect, and so on. The
Property-ownership statutes and land-use planning
type of press (the role and status of the media) and
are often at loggerheads with the application of
the accessibility of information for different social
sectorial or environmental policies. It is thus a matter
classesare also part of the assessmentof opportuni-
of identifying these points of contention, which are
ties and constraints for the elaboration and applica-
often due to horizontal coordination problems
tion of any possible ICZMprocess.
(between institutions at the same level of govern-
It is reasonable to specify that the depth of such an
mental hierarchy). Vertical coordination (between
assessmentmust always be adapted as a function of
institutions descending from national to local) may
the opinion it elicits from the other participants in
also be a problem. At the end of the chain, it would
this initial phase, It may not be necessaryto explore
be appropriate to analyze the effective role of local
the entire economic, social, and political context of a
authorities in the implementation of public policy,
project. Whether it depends upon the scope of the
their degree of control over their territory’s
project, the level of development of the local
resources, especially in coastal areas. Likewise, the
thought and rhetoric on the subject, as well as the
ways in which local players participate in decision-
level of internal and external demand (prior expe-
making processes(traditional organizations, commu-
rience of one of the pioneer-group members,known
nity groups, businesses,NGOs, etc.) are also relevant.
prerequisites of the investors and supervisors,etc.).
An analysisof the economic and social situation thus
is not independent of sectorial, territorial, and envi-
Legislationand institutional mechanisms
ronmental policies developed at various echelons.
Despite its economic and ecological importance, the
coastal zone, located where land and sea meet, is
usually ignored by law as such, Only rarely does legis-
Publicpolicies: sectorial,environmental,
land-usemanagement,etc
elements which should be taken into consideration,
Sectorial activities and the conflicts that may result
From the sea to the land, through such intermediate
from them depend chiefly upon the sectorial policies
zones as the beaches or mangrove swamps, legal
implemented (or not) by specialized government
regimes overlap and replace one another, and tradi-
agencies and m ministries, in a space (the coastal
tional practices. Usually,there are several ministries
zone) which is still almost always subject to the tradi-
piloting sectorial policies with regard to the sea
tional legal distinction between land and sea, and
(fishing, transportation, water-quality control, etc.)
fragmentation which varies according to sector.Thus,
and with regard to the land (city planning, public
it is necessaryto study the sectorial policies, the insti-
works, agriculture, energy, etc,). It is therefore essen-
tutions involved, and the tools which are used to
tial to inventory and analyze not only all the existing
implement them. Of these last, we should make a
legislation, but also the institutional mechanisms
distinction between regulatory and legislative tools
which implement policy, from the national level
(prohibitionslauthorizations,
down to the local one.
monitoring,
inspec-
lation institute a form of total integration of all the
~X~~~/e 1 : An institutional mechanismwhich is explained by competition between activities in one space:
The SeaEnhancementScheme(SAM/) for the Thau lagoon
Thecontext:
TheThaulagoonis a saltwaterlagoonlocatedon the westernpart of the FrenchMediterraneancoast.It is surrounded
by severalmunicipalitiesand is part of the Languedoc-Roussillon
Region,which coversthe entire westernhalf of the
FrenchMediterraneancoast,from the RhbneRiverto the Spanishborder.
Sincethe 196Os,
the populationin this zonehasincreasedsharply,especiallyon the edgesof the lagoonwhich havebeen
built up at a great rate.Theproportionof unemployedpopulationisalsohigh.
Thesoutheasternand southernshoresof the sea-lakewere developedfor coastaltourism,one of the g(Dals
soughtby the
nationalgovernmentin the 1970sand 80s(Interministerialprogramfor the developmentof the Languedoc-Roussillon
coast).Thispolicyfundedthe constructionof marinasand other amenitiesfor touristsin and aroundthe mainlocalcity,
S&e.AlthoughS&e’sshippingindustryisin decline,it still hasa strongindustrialpotential,andthe city hasa largeindustrial zone.It is alsothe biggestfishingport on the FrenchMediterraneancoast(largeand smallcraft).
The lagoon’snorthern and northwesternbordersconsistof a lessdenselybuilt-up residentialarea, characterizedby
economicactivitieslike fishing (declining)and seafoodfarming (steadilyrising),wine-growing (which has received
EuropeanUnionincentivesto concentrateon qualityratherthan quantity),andtourismand leisureactivities,which have
a high developmentpotentialand will createincreasinglyimportantuserconflicts.
In France,the centralgovernmentin Parishasalwayshad a pre-emptivepoweroverthe coastline,which isseenasa strategic zone.It hasthus beenentitled to full jurisdictionoverthe DPM(or PublicMaritimeDomain),which is boundedon
the oceanside by the low-tide line at,neap tide. The managementof most of the activitiescarrieclout in this zone
(fishing,seafoodfarming,harbor infrastructure,shipping,and pleasureboating)hastraditionallybeenthe State’sbusiness.Within this framework,two typesof policyexistsideby side: sectorialpolicies(industrialand shippinginfrastructure, seafoodfarming,fishing,and the environment)and the land-usedevelopmentpolicieswhich were enacteduntil
the decentralizationlaw was passedin 1982.Sincethen, the power of localauthoritieshasincreasinglybeenasserted,
especiallyin relationto the developmentof the tourist and fishingindustries.However,it would not be appropriateto
saythere isany leadershipcomparableto that plied by the centralgovernment.
Illustrationof the ICZMapproach:
Beginningin the mid-1980s,the Stateadoptedasgoalsthe settlementof the conflictualcoexistenceof variousactivities
aroundThaulagoon,the applicationof the 1986CoastalLaw,and the assertionof the State’sleadershiprole in coastalzone matters.
As a result,the schemechosenfor the managementof Thaulagoonand its activitieswasthe SMVM(SeaEnhancement
Scheme),a multisectorial-typemasterplan institutedby the 1986CoastalLaw.The only pilot legallypossiblefor sucha
plan isthe State(throughthe Prefectand MaritimeServices).
Step0 waslimitedto reflectingupon the enforcementof
the coastallaw and the arbitration of the manyconflictsasto useslegitimizedby the State: conflictbetweenpleasure
boatingand seafoodfarming,urban pollution and pond water quality,etc.
Source: Dedieu,2000
fXa/llp/e
2 : Elaboration of an integrated management plan for the Saloum Delta Biosphere
Reserve (Senegal)
Thecontext:
TheSaloumDeltaestuaryand mangroveswamp(Senegal)is madeup of three systems: island,maritime,and continental. Havingbecomein large part (180.000hectares)a BiosphereReserve,
this territory is inhabitedby a populationof
200,000,although its influenceconcernsa populationsixtimeshigher.Although it is classifiedasa protectedarea,the
activitiespracticedthere (oyster-farming,agriculture,herding,arboriculture,and forestry)and the way they are managed are exertingincreasingpressureon the biota,threateningits integrity.In the early199Os,
a group of scientists,aware
of the impasse,decidedto take action.
Illustrationof the ICZMapproach:
In this case,the pioneergroup is a scientificteam from CheikhAnta Diop Universityin Dakar,with the supportof the
UNESCO
EcologicalSciences
Divisionand MAB,which playedthe following role :
- synthesisof impacts,constraintsand solutionhypotheses,
- formulationof integratedmanagementand actionstrategiesorientedtowardsthe recoveryand protectionof damaged ecosystems
(mangroveswamps,tannes),the improvementof the way naturalresourcesare used,and the reinforcement of the population’sinstitutional,technical,and financial capacities,
- definition of implementationmechanisms
and follow-up.
In the field of legislationand regulation,the group emphasizedthe existenceof an abundantbody of decrees,ordinances,and codeswhich regulatethe propertyrightsof villageand communityspacesand the managementof fishing
rights. Becausethey interfere with customarypractices,thesetexts are often poorly adaptedand disregarded.Local
communitieswere hardly ever associatedwith drafting these regulations,especiallywith regard to natural resource
management.Furthermore,the lackof personneland funding isan obstacleto the institutionsin chargeof enforcingthe
provisions,Lastly,a numberof activities(wood harvesting,salt extraction,and the extractionof shellsfrom sambaquis)
are entirelyoutsidethe law.
Thesewell-aimedobservationsmadeby a pioneergroup remainedat the stageof a messageof warning.Thenormative
recommendations
to whichthe work gaverisewere neverapplied- like earliernormativerecommendations
(laws,etc.).
Institutionalsupportwill clearlybe necessary.
Source: Diopet al., 1998
PHASE
1 : Preliminaryidentification
Products
Tasks
ti definitionof the zoneto b
Tools
studied
d evaluation
of publicti inventory
andassessment
(
policyeffectiveness
studiesandprojects
I ti thematicworkshops
d identification
of interest
ti a participative
or
groups
concerted
methodfor
4 evaluation
of political
identifyingthe project
determinationlmobilizatior
4 communication
,I Thematic
maps
d Bibliographic
dataasto factualXIU
d “Cause/problem/effect”
trees
d Feasibility
report:technical
summary.
andanalysis
Outcomes
ti constiution
of a taskforce
I
d prioritization
of the problems
ti spreadof information
(theproducts) I
to obtainplayerapproval
Step1 : Feasibilityof implementationof an
ICZMprocess
Casestudy support
:
3,Reunion
Island
Natural
Reserve
4.TheC&ed’opale,France
’
Oncetheconditions
(bothpositive
andnegative)rela- form of economic,environmental,ar7dland-useplans.
ted to the overallcontexthavebeenmadeexplicit,it is This fact-finding report must be more than just a
important to specifywhat the contextcoverslocally. simplejuxtapositionof knowledgeand facts.It must
Thiswill help define the geographicallimits of the striveto elucidatethe causalsystemwhichwill makeit
zoneor siteconcerned
by theproject.Thegroupwhich possibleto reachthe rootsof the issuesidentified(the
carriesout the tasksinvolvedin this step maybe the problem tree). Thepurposeof this report shouldbe
available
same as the pioneer group, but not necessarily. both to makean inventoryof the resources
Because
it mustrepresenta numberof interests(insti- (human,institutional,and financial)and to evaluate
tutional, disciplinary,geographic),it may be an the level of political determinationto implementan
embryonicform of the steeringcommittee.Thistask ICZMprocessat variousadministrativelevels.TheStep
forcewill haveto supervisethe elaborationof a fact- 1 feasibilityreportshouldrepeatedlybe submittedto
finding report (on environmentaland socio-economic all the playersinvolvedfor validatiorlin the courseof
factors existing in the zone), the main issues,the workshopsor meetings.
playersconcerned,and the possiblesolutions,in the
19
political will
11’~
factors to be consideredat Per, 1
Definition of the area being studied for
an ICZMproposal,and constitution of a
task force
remains flexible as a function of the problem concerned. It is important to note that in any case, these
boundaries are indicative, and that it is vital to take a
number of outside influences into account, as well as
Despite its dependence on the overall context, the any need that may arisefor policy coordination mechalocal context has specific political, institutional nismsfor dealing with neighboring areas.
(community groups, decentralized administrations, Geographic definition of the area goes hand in hand
traditional authorities), socio-economic,and environ- with the appointment of a task force which is suffimental characteristics.The goal is to highlight all the ciently representative of concerned local players and
elements or factors which contributed to the selection institutions. At the point in the process,it is approof the area which is the subject of the feasibility study. priate to take steps to provide for the recognition of
The local context will define the geographic bounda- the task force by local and national authorities, If the
ries of the area concerned. These boundaries will be task force is truly representative, it will usually form
drawn according to two horizontal axes : along the the core of the steering commissionwhich will be
coastline, with perpendicular lines indicating the formed later.
upstream boundary in the watershed and the lower
of researchundertakenand
one toward the sea. As a general rule, this definition Assessment
will rest on three main considerations: administrative projectsunderway
boundaries,ecosystemboundaries,and the boundaries This should not be a systematiccatalogue of informawithin which the issue(s)occur. Often the definition tion (which will be necessaryin the next step). Instead,
arises from a compromise between these limits, or it should lay the groundwork by gathering references
20
to studies, their final outcome (environmental, sectorial, social, economic),their form (descriptiveor prospective studies), and the main issuesand stakes they
identify. In this regard, it is important not to omit to
classifythe kinds of studies which have been or are
being carried out by public agencies,or, further, the
developing countries for long-term development
projectsset up by lending organizations. It is important
to identify the types of follow-up which have been or
are being conducted (environmental assessments,
impact studies, monitoring) and the economic sectors
involved. It is also important to indicate whether the
findings of these studies are accessibleto the public,
perhaps through subsequent popularization and
outreach efforts (citizens’ lectures,forums, community
groups, socio-professionalgroups, NGOs,etc.).
This planning evaluation will pay particular attention
to assessingthe coordination of various planning
measuresset up by government at scalesthat are not
always congruent. It is important to become familiar
with the impact of these various types of planning on
the area under consideration, Regardless of their
degree of application, plans or schemesare the most
prominent policy implementation instruments available. As a result, they are vital to any ICZM process,
which aims to improve rather than replace traditional
planning practices.
joint analysisin the courseof meetingswith these very
groups of players,
Existingsectorial,land-use,and environmentalplans
As a rule, there is little coordination between developmental sectorswhen management plans are drafted. Land-use development and local zoning usually
rule out the environment, Becausedifferent administrations supervise these processesand the scales of
intervention also differ, it is important to be well
apprised of the impact of the various types of planning on the area under consideration, Regardlessof
their degree of enforcement, plans or programs are
the prime implementation tool for policies, and are
thus vital to any ICZMinitiative. The goal of the ICZM
is to improve upon rather than replace traditional
forms of planning.
Assessment
of politicalwill andspheresof
influenceof the playersinvolved
A broad range of political support based on the motivations of the decision-makersis fundamental to drive
any ICZM processwith a chance of succeeding.As a
result, it is primordial for any local IKZM initiative to
seeksupport from national authorities, by creating the
appropriate links. An evaluation of me political forces
Identification of the main issues and involvedshould alsoexamineany potential or ongoing
processof player coordination : institutions (governplayersinvolved
mental or otherwise), social groups, etc., may work
It is essentialto underpin the list of the issuesidentified together to discussand define goals collectively.This
with a reasonedhierarchization basedon observation, concept, which is currently commonly called “govereven if this hierarchization may be changed at later nance”, will be the heart of the ICZMprocess(see box
phasesin the diagnostic and validation of the feasibi- 2). Depending on original contractsfor the grouping of
lity report, This identification may also be based on administrative territories (example : watershed
preliminary surveys submitted to selected individual contract), “governance” “refers to all of the instituplayersor groups of players.The main body of the data tions, networks, directives, regulations, standards,
collected can be supplemented by maps, even cursory norms, political and social practices,public and private
ones, as a means of identifying where the various playerswho contribute to the stability of a societyand
groups of actors are clustered geographically. In a a political regime, its orientation, and its capacity to
subsequent phase,the management-plan preparation guide, to supply services,and ensure its legitimacy.”
phase, we shall return to the use of these maps for a (Stoker,1998).
Box2 : Fiveproposals
for an approachto the theoryof governance
(Stoker,1998)
1. Governance
solicitscontributionsfrom a rangeof institutionsand playerswhich are not all governmentorganizations.
2. Wheregovernanceisworking,the boundariesand dutiesare not asclearasin the field of socialand economicaction.
3. Governanceexpresses
the interdependencebetweenpowerand institutionsassociatedin a collectiveaction.
4. Governancesolicitscontributionsfrom networksof autonomousplayers.
5. Governanceis basedon the principlethat it is possibleto take actionwithout relyingon the poweror authorityof the
state.The role of the stateisto usenew techniquesand tools to steerand supportthe collectiveaction.
Inventoryof availableresources
Feasibility involves being realistic in the assessment
of the goals and scope the project will target. Even
with additional outside resources, it is advisable to
adjust the size of the project as a function of the
resources which are readily available, rather than
long-term promises. The term “resources” covers
both human and financial means. The purpose of
making an inventory of resources is to see where
efforts should be focused to mobilize these means.
&amp/e
Often, they are used poorly, if at all, especially in the
caseof human resources,
ICZMprojectfeasibility report
The decision-maker will pay the most attention to
the recommendations in the feasibility
study,
becausethese are supposed to give him/her the keys
to the best approach. Thus, these recommendations
should be summed up clearly in a report presented
separately from the technical assessment..
3 : Creation d’une reserve naturelle sur le littoral recifal de I’ile de la Reunion
Thecontext:
Of the 208km of coastlinebelongingto Reunionisland,coralformationsand the beachesassociatedwith them account
for only 25 linear kilometers.Theseare all barrier reefswith a well developedboating channel,locallydescribedas a
lagoon,Anthropogenicpressureon the entire areaisquite high,especiallynearthe municipalityof SaintGilles,which is
the island’smain resortarea.The numberof vacationersfrom abroadusingthe beachis growing steadily(500,000visitors in 2000).Thefirst efforts madeat protectingthe Reunioneselagoondate backto 1976,when a Prefecturaldecree
strictlyregulatedunderwaterhunting and shellfishgathering.Forlackof a widespreadconsensus,
theselawswere rarely
enforced.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess
Frompioneergroupto successive
taskforces
Localcitizens’groups,mostnotablythe NGO“Vie Oceane”,with the supportof scientificcircles,were the drivingforce
in encouraginggovernmentalpowersto reinforcethe protectionof the reef environment.In 1992,a new Prefectural
decreebannedall fishingexceptpole fishingfrom the lagoonareas.In 1997,after a seriesof studiesand a long institutional coordinationprocess,a non-profitorganizationcalled“Part Marin” wasestablishedby the regionto managethe
entire reef environmentasa fishingreserve,and to promoteits protectionin relationto usersother than fishermen.In
2002,the entire Reunionlagoonareashouldbe classifiedasa naturalreservebythe state.Thislegalstatusis irreversible,
and, accordingto the authorities,shouldmakeit possibleto applyan integratedmanagementprocessto all of the island’scoralreefs.
22
From1994to 1998,regionalgovernmentdroveenvironmentalaction,by funding a feasibilitystudyand then creating
the Part Marin associationand granting it operating resources.Departmentaland central governmentare secondary
players.Municipalcouncilmenare largelyenvironmentallyawaredue to a seriesof meetingssponsorledby the steering
committee,and they finally joined the managementprocess.In subsequentyears(1999-2001),
the State,through the
DIRENoffice,took the reinsof the process.It was encouragedto do so by the IFRECOR,
the FrenchInitiativefor Coral
ReefProtection,which is part of an internationalstructure,the InternationalCoralReefInitiative(ICRI).Another distinctive feature is the growing protestof the lagoon’s“informal fishermen”,who feel excludedfrom the decision-making
process,and refuseto servethe role of scapegoatsin the issueof pressureon the lagoon.
The coordinationstructureof the projectedreservewill probablybe the current staff of the “Part Marin” association.
However,its statusas a non-profit organizationwill probablybe exchangedfor one as a corporationwith public and
privatestakeholders.
Thedifficultyof coordinatingplanningstructuresandschemes
Thecomplexinstitutionalinterplaybetweenfive mainagencies: the Prefectand RegionalEnvironmentalOffice(hereinafter referredto asDIRENrepresentingthe centralstate),aswell asregional,localdepartmental,and municipalauthoritieshinderedthe applicationof the ICZMprocess.Theconsiderablesizeof Reunionesemunicipalitiesdoesnot encourage mayorsto engagein intermunicipalcoordinationor the applicationof guidelinesand directivesset forth by the
Stateon the subjectof zoning or conservation.Generallyspeaking,the relationshipsbetweenthesefour playersare
characterizedmoreby concernsfor independencethan by a will to coordinateinstitutionalinitiatives.
Nevertheless,
sevenmunicipalitiesconsentedto join the association“Part Marin”, thus establishingde facto geographic
borders.The ReunionPart Marin is part of the structureof the SeaValueEnhancementScheme(SMVM)which, along
with the ReunionDevelopmentScheme(Schemad’Amenagementde la Reunion,SAR),hasdrafted policyguidelinesfor
the next IO-15years.TheSARconsistsof a report completewith mapsand graphswhich point out the generaldestination of the territory of the region: the mapsare drawnto a scaleof 1 :lOO,OOO.
TheSARand SMVMhavebeenvalidated
asguidesfor developmentand zoning.In other words,all other city planningdocuments,zoningregulations,and developmentprojectsmustcomplywith the guidelinesthey established.Currently,however,the municipal-level
government
refusesto changeits zoning regulationsto complywith thoseof the SAR.TheICZMprocessunderwayisthus markedby
its inabilityto solicitinput from municipalauthoritiesfor the elaborationof its regionalplanningscheme.
TheICZMprocesscannotbecomean ongoingeffort until it isvalidatedby the playersin the field, in particularthe municipalitiesand their citizens,TheStatehastried to avoidthe problemby legitimizingthe processon thlenationallevelby
creatinga natural reserve,but this is no guaranteeof success.
bWYIp/e 4 : The C6te d’0pale (Nord-Pas-de-Calais, France) : how a corporate instrument was created as a means of defining an ICZM strategy, or the story of the Syndicat Mixte de la Cbte d’0pale.
Thecontext:
Thecoastalareaconcernedextendsover 150linear kilometers,from the easternEnglishChannelto the North Sea(4%
of the Frenchseaboard).Thisgeographicsectoris characterizedby a high populationdensitywhich iistypicalof northwestern Europeancountries.Mean density is 319 inhabitantsper squarekilometer,i.e. three times higher than the
averagenationwide(103inhabitantsper km2),and clearlyhigherthan the averageFrenchcoastaldensity(260per km?);
however,it isclosedensityfiguresfor Belgium(328peopleper km?)and the Netherlands(377per km’?).Thishigh population concentrationleadsto heavyconsumptionof space,especiallyalong the coast: harbor and shippingfacilities,
growth of variousharbor cities(Dunkerque,Calais,Boulogne-sur-Mer),
tourist facilities,the Eurotunnelterminal,international highways(the Al6 linking it to the Netherlandsand Belgiumis called“the Estuaryhighway”). Moreover,the
Pas-de-Calais
straitwhichseparatesthe North Seafrom the easternChannelisthe world’sbusiestshippinglane(700ships
cruiseit daily,i.e. 18%of the entire world shippingtraffic).
In parallel,a high populardemandfor naturalreserveshasresultedin the developmentof a numberof conservationpolicies.As an example,nearlyhalf of the coastlinein our studywas alreadybeing studiedor had beencategorizedas a
“natural” space,under a wide varietyof statutes.Indeed,the coastalfringe of the easternChannelis rife with regulations, measures,
contracts,and nationaland internationalconventionswhich protectthe habitat.At least73 protection
measures
with variousextentswerecounted.MostwereconcentratednearCapeGris-Nezandthe northernshoresof the
bayof Authie and the mouth of the Canche.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess:
Thisshoreline,which hasbeendenselyinhabitedfor centuries,a numberof entitiesplayedpioneeringrolesin setting
public natural-resourcepreservationpolicy.For example,the Nord-Pas-de-Calais
Regionled the way in 1978when it
empoweredan agency(EspaceNature1Regional- RegionalNaturalSpace)to manageand enhancethe region’snatural
heritage.As for the General(departmental)Councils,they were instrumentalin setting asidefunds to purchaseand
managenatural sites.Theyworked closelywith the Conservatoire
de I’EspaceLittoral et desRivagesLacustres(CELRL
Coastaland LakeshoreConservationAgency),providingsignificantlogisticand financialsupport,in particularfor the
managementof its lands.Indeed,nearly30%of the coastlinebetweenthe Belgianborderand the Baiede Sommeisthe
propertyof the CELRL,
i.e.a percentagethree timeshigherthan the nationalaveragein France.Thisinitiativeand experiencewerefactorsin the EuropeanUnion’s1996decisionto selectthe Cbted’0pale asone of thirty-fivelocaland regional projectsasmodelsof integratedmanagementof coastalzonesin Europe.
Theintegratedcoastal-zoneland-useprocesswasinstitutionalizedwithin the frameworkof the publicand privatecorporation SyndicatMixtede la Coted’0pale (SMCO)by 1996.Theterritory coveredby the SMCOextendsfrom the Belgian
borderto the SommeRiver.It includesfour geographiczones,two departments,and 243 municipalities,for a total of
nearly800,000inhabitants.TheSMCOwasinstrumentalin enablingthe C&e d’0pale to federateand unify its projects,
Fromthe outset,it operatedon a principleof “subsidiarity”,whichenablesit to respectand associatethe playersandthe
variouscommunitiesit serves.The SMCOsucceededin makingup for the lack of coherencebetweenthe activitiesof
variousentities,and, through coordinationand complementarity,defining a long-term,developmentstrategywhich
reachesbeyondFrenchborders.
TheC&e d’0pale projecttook shapeasa charterwhich wasdraftedfor the developmentof the coastalregion,Its duty
isto associatethe four governmentallevelsinvolvedin the elaborationof proposalsconcerningthe coastalzone(municipality,department,region,and State),and it appearsin all localmanagementprograms.TheSMCO’sapproachis also
part of an effort to obtain a modificationof nationallegislationto providefor the managementof seaand land space
within the frameworkof a singleapproach.Thedefinition of the Coted’0pale enhancementschemewould guarantee
and perpetuatethe integratedcoastal-zoneland-useand developmentstrategyin this territory.
Source: Excerptfrom the guide “Rationaliser/es connaissances
pour prherver durablementle patrimoinenature/littoral”, in
Dauvin,co/l.fatrimoinesNature/s,Muskm Nationald’HistoireNature//e,to bepublishedin 2002
PhaseII: PREPARATKIN
PHASE
2 : Preparation
PfOdUCfS
Tasks
d settingupa steering
committee
ti datacollection
andanalys
4 construction
of an
information
system
I/ identification
organizatior
andmanagement
method
J microactionsasmodels
d reporton andapprovalof
evaluation
:I
Tools
(I databaseand
geomatics
(remote
detectionand
geographic
information
systems)
ti surveys
ti impactstudies
(I conflict-resolution
techniques
d modelsandpairings
,i,‘I-
STEP
2 : Socio-environmental
Assessment
# environmental
atlas
v territorialmaps
d impactmatrices
ti projectfiles(microactions)
fl socio-environmental
evaluation
report
r’ communication
products
for
informingthe public(broadcas&
workshops,
brochures,
etc.)
r “+#
Outcomes
ti zero-state
diagnosis
andfounda&
for follow-upsystem
ti mobilization
of players
ti awareness
of whatisat stake
,,
‘I
Casestudy support :
5.Thereefsof Mauritius
6,Environmental
evaluation
intheComoros
I,, ‘?*‘*1&q1
:~~:~,~~~
Theenvironmentalevaluationcoversthe “zero-state”
situationand diagnostic.Thegoal of this step is not
necessarily
to producean in-depth,detaileddiagnostic,
which might involve too much work. Instead,an
overallassessment
of the currentstateof the site will
suffice,focusingon the threeor four mainissuesidentified in the previousstepof the process.Itspurposeis
to go beyond simple sectorialapproachesand to
broachthe transversal
problemsof terfitorialorganization. Thedata collectedwill help build a Geographic
Information Systemvia the processand indicators
describedin the IOC-UNESCO
manualno36(1997).It is
superfluousto rehashinformationalreadycollectedin
the form of inventoriesand studies.On the contrary
the informationcontainedin thesereportsshouldbe
presentedto the users.Communication
is one of the
key elementsof this phase,whichincludesthe report
on the environmentalassessment,
slated to be the
subject of discussions
will all the playersand the
25
sourceswhichprovideddata for the elaborationof the
evaluation.Likewise,the purposeof this phaseis also
to make explicitbasicfacts,which too often remain
obscure,about the players.How doeseachgroup of
playersrelate to the environmen
ta/ problemsdiagnosed?Is eachgroup apt to participatein the improvementof the environmentalsituationsobserved?What
are the dominantand secondaryactivities,and how
aretheyorganized?Thisisa matterIofidentifyinghow
playersoperate: existingor potentialconflicts,existing
or latent conflicts, potential fOfWi for resistanceor
change.In additionto thesteeringcommittee,thistask
requiresa technicalstaff capableof handlingthe data,
constructingan operationaland appropriateinformation managementsystem(G/S,but also grids and
manual maps, etc.), doing documentaryresearch,
conductinginterviewswith leadersandusers,anddrafting the diagnosticin a clearand readableform.
Characterization
q$$
jJ@
thenatural
s
Factorsto be consideredat Steo2
Fromthe taskforceto the empowerment
of a temporarysteeringcommittee
support staff. Indeed, the environmental technicians
should be seen as partners in the processrather than
suppliers of a service.The quality of this relationship
To superviseand accomplishtasks that will be crucial will be decisive in the way the processlater unfolds.
to the rest of the process,at this point it is essential The steering committee is legitimated when the
to reinforce and empower the step-one committee, socio-environmental evaluation is validated by the
giving it the status of a temporary steering commit- usersand players involved.
tee whose composition may change until the plan is
actually being implemented. At this stage, the
Characterizationof the natural environcommittee may be made up of “qualification
commissions” (Gorgeu et al,, 1997), which will focus ment and its managementtypes
on broad issues such as Poverty, Wealth, Risks, As a function of the stakes identified during the
Handicaps,Transformation, Projects, etc. The idea is previous phase,the information to be gathered is not
to promote a spatial approach which integrates data only environmental, in the ecological sense of the
and analysescarried out earlier byprofessional tech- term. It may also concern all aspects of the populanical staff people (technical specifications, written tion’s heritage : that is, whatever is related to local
and cartographic reports, staff meetings, drafting of culture, lifestyle, institutions, socio-economic activireports, etc). With this goal in mind, and in order for ties, customs,practices,the local history, architecture,
the committee to assume its role as the body over- and so on.
seeing the entire process, the steering committee Generally, there is far less pre-existing information
must include at least one member of the technical available about the players themselves. Usually, it is
26
advisable to collect this data via an approach incorporating interviews and surveys.The purpose of the
questionnaire is to survey the activities of the main
groups of players concerned, their management
styles, open or potential conflicts, and their vision of
the problems. This data will be used to analyze the
trends underway in both time and space, since the
trends will go a long way towards explaining the
state of the environment and vice-versa.To expand
the approach, it is also important to find out what
community servicesare available to the population
(housing, sanitation, et(,). This work is directly rela-
ted to social observation tools which understand the
social scene as an interplay of different groups and
interests, where different rationales and priorities
are in conflict, When this information is fed into the
diagnosis process,it will be easier to create a context
lending itself to consensus.This could be the foundation for real “social engineering” (a set of prescriptive and instrumental practices which aim to shed
light on the social players’ aptitude to adapt, resist,
or innovate in responseto environmental problems).
Box3 : Questionsto useasguidelineswhendraftingthe territory’ssocio-environmental
questionnaire
:
1. How isthe territory positioned?How do the playersrepresentit ?
2. What isthe territory’simage?Fromthe outside?And the inside?
3, How structuredisthe localeconomy?(verylittle, fragmented,partitioned,dense,networked,etc.)
4. What activitiesand jobs alreadyexist?
5. Are localproductscompetitive?Are marketsfor them accessible?
6. How can playerscooperate?How canterritoriescooperate?
7. Are informationtechnologiespresent?Dothey havean impact?
8. How are the humanpotential and localskillsexploited?
9. Haveall developmentopportunitiesbeenexploredand madeprofitable?
IO.What localdynamicsare usedto consolidateactivitiesand jobs
Il. What localdynamicsare availableto sustaininitiativesand projects?
12.Hasthere beenany localexperimentationwith hybridizationof resources(public,private,collective,community,indi/idual)in order to generatenew activities?
13.Are the territory’sactivitiescompatiblewith sustainedlocaldevelopment?
14.Towhat degreeare the playersmobilizedin termsof the project?
Excerpted
andadaptedfromthe guide ” Construireun projet de territoire,du diagnosticaux stratbgies“, in Ciorgeu,1997,
At this point, we must decide what information will
be relevant to the rest of the ICZMprocess.The information must be narrowed down to describe goals
and issuesaccurately, yet broad enough to contain
the keys to understanding the social and territorial
systems present. At this point, it may be useful to
commissionsome specialized studies, if necessary(cf.
Box 4). The information may be organized in a functional information system : a broad spectrum is available, going from simple statistical tables or synthetic
diagrams to elaborate data bases,which will be georeferenced if possible (Geographic Information
Systems).Descriptive models of ecosystemsmay even
be necessary(cf. box 5).
The second objective is to make it possible to report
this information in a way that it is accessibleand
comprehensible to the players concerned. Example 5
is a model of a simplified report on an environmental evaluation
Box4 : TheEnvironmental
ImpactAssessment,
an exampleof a tool
EnvironmentalImpactAssessment
(EIA)are undertakenon a point-by-pointbasisto measurethe impactof a specific
projector program.Butthe approachandtechniquesusedare relatedto thoseneededto draft an environmentalevaluation in the ICZMplanningcycle.It maythus be usefulto draw upon the way they are organized(specificto eachcountry) while ignoring some of the formal aspectsnecessitatedby their regulatory nature (cf. guides cited in the
Bibliography).
The EnvironmentalImpactAssessment
(EIA)hasbecomea fundamentalregulatorytool for environmentalpolicy.Based
on the EnvironmentalAssessment
approach,it hasbecomenormalpracticein mostcountriesaroundthe world. In some
countries,legislationhasgone sofar asto covernot only the EnvironmentalImpactAssessment
relatedto landdevelop
ment,but also“StrategicEnvironmental
Assessment”
(SEA)for evaluatingpoliciesand programsin other fields.However,
the latter are asyet lessprevalent.
Theoretically,the field coveredby the EIAand the SEAis quite broad,but in practiceit is often limitedto the aspectsof
a projectwhich havea direct impacton the biosphere.Ideally,if broadly interpreted,an environmentalimpactstudy
would includeimpactson the community,on health,risks,and evencost-effectiveness
analyses.
Asthe table belowshows,
it canbe beneficialto combinean EIAwith an SEAwhen a multi-scaleplanningsystem,going from the nationallevelto
the localone, is involved..
Combining
Environmental
ImpactStudiesandStrategicImpactStudiesin a muhscalelanddevelop.
mentsystem(FromLee& George,
2000)
Government
level
National/
Federal
Territorial
land-usepolicy
(SEA)
Nationalland-use
scheme
Categoryof actionandtypeof assessment
(in brackets)
Sectorialandmulti-sectoral
actions
Policies
(SEA) Plans(SEA) Programs
(SEA) Projects
(EIA)
Planfor
National
Transportation+ a national
highwaynetwor?
Policy
Highway
construction
program
.+
Construction
of onesection
of highway
-c
National
Economic
Development
Policy
RegionI State
Regionalland-use
scheme
1
Sub-regional
land-use
scheme
1
Local
Localland-useplan
Strategic
Regional
Development
Plan
\
Sub-regional
Investment
Program
\
Local
works
project
Box5 : Models
Although muchhasbeenwritten about models,there are asyet veryfew modelsavailablefor simulatingcause-effectresponsechains.In an interdisciplinarycontext, mono- or bi-disciplinarymodels(physics/biology,
economy/ecology)
shouldbe designedand useas analytical,exploratory,and communications
tools, compatiblewith the useof GISand
expertsystems.At the currentstateof research,quantified,global,interdisciplinarymodelizationisstill a horizonrather
than an operationaloption for managementendeavors.More modestapproaches,which resortto qualitativemodels,
systemiccharts,sharedinformation-gatheringand codingprocedures,accountabilityframeworksand specializedmodels
with limited interdisciplinarityare better adaptedto the currentneedsof managersand planners.
Pre-zoning: divisionof the territory into
geographicalunits
The diagnostic and report processis the proof of the
functionality of the territorial units selected for the
approach to the problems, Negotiation will make it
evident whether these territorial units should be
defined by their boundaries and contents as conceptualized by the players. When they are laid over a
map of what is at stake in the territory, this spatial
qualification approach will make it possibleto list the
key orientations as goals specific to each of the
management units, This type of zoning (which has
nothing to do with zoning for land use) contributes
to the gradual construction of the management plan
: each unit is considered as a territory for which a
specific action plan will be defined, in the form of a
development scheme,an inter-community contract, a
territorial agreement, or any other form of local
planning tool. This approach is described in detail in
the IOC-UNESCOmanual no 36, as well as in the
UNESCOguide no38 on drafting maps of sensitivity
and vulnerability.
Micro-projectsor ICZMpracticalexercises
During the validation of the diagnostic, it is important for the committee to identify and agree upon
actual activities in the field. Theseshould be practical
exercises in ICZM or small actions which remedy a
well-defined problem (restoration of a levee, house-
hold waste collection, improvement of mining practices, developing a beach, etc.) which can be completed in a small amount of time and at little cost, Such
micro-projects, which should be implemented
quickly, serve to mobilize and train personnel. They
must thus be carried out according to the same
procedures as large projects (goals, procedure, schedule, follow-up committee, financilng plan) with the
local communities involved.
Validationof the diagnostic
Problems will be prioritized on ,the basis of the
diagnosis report and its validation, It is thus essential
to present the diagnosis and its chief conclusions
clearly within the framework of various meetings or
perhaps a validation workshop, Maps and cross-referenced graphs are the best mediurn for this type of
presentation (cf, Example 5). Suggestionsfor modification, comments, and other reactions must be accurately transcribed with a view to modifying or readjusting the conclusionsof the diagnosis as a consequence. The finalization and approval of the diagnosiswill be crucial to sustaining support in subsequent
phases,by obligation of coherence,.
kW7/J/e
5 : An illustration of the diagnosis of players’ expectations and representations -the case
of integrated management of the reefs of southeastern Mauritius Island
Thecontext:
Thisprojectcorresponds
to a pilot ICZMprojectcarriedout within the frameworkof the RegionalEnvironmentalProgram
of the IndianOceanCommission
(1995-2000).
Thezoneconcerned(Mahebourg)is characterizedby fairly stablepopulation-densityfigures.However,a varietyof activities(textileand sugarindustries,fishing,sandquarrying,tourism)were
causingconflictsamongusers,and all havean impacton the qualityof the lagoonand reef.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess: howthe diagnosiswascarriedout
Oneof the specialgoalsof the diagnosisprogramwasto gain knowledgeof the socialmotivations,reasons,processes,
and strategieswhich were resultingin suchnegativeand unsustainablemanagementresultsfor the biosphere.Indeed,
everyeffort to modifyusagepatternsand improvethe managementof the areawill fail unlessthe logicof the prevailing systemisnot broughtto light, from the viewpointof both knowledgeand playerawarenessof the prevailingsystem.
Sixexploratoryvisitsto the areawerethus necessary,
targetingthe mainplayersin the population(sandquarriers,fishermen,villagers,the sugargrower/refiner,hotel manager,and the natureconservationNGO).In the courseof thesevisits,
a samplegroup of thirty peoplewere identified.Theywere willing to be interviewedsubsequently,
giving interviews
lasting2 to 3 hours.Thesettingswherethe variousmeetingstook placewere alwaysmeaningful.Likewise,the content
of their discoursewasquite significant: the solemnityof someof thesemeetingswasappropriateto the emotionalplea
the messageconveyed.Fishermen,
sandquarriers,and villagersall referredto a “Creolediscomfort”,without namingit
explicitly.
Theysawthe presenceof observersworking on an official projectasan opportunityto addressthe institutionsdirectly
with their grievancesconcerningtheir daily lives,their family and professionalproblems.Their senseof injusticewas
expressedin variousways: by providingproof of one’sprofessionalism,
of the usefulness
of one’swork, by pointing out
the know-how involved,the age-oldquality of the trade, the “pride one feelsat being an assetto regionaldevelopment,” etc. Isolationwasput forth asthe resultof “a deliberatepoliticalorientationwhich leadsto the exclusionof an
entire villageand doesnot take the community’smaterialand socialneedsinto account.”Althoughthesefeelingsmay
havebeenexaggeratedslightlyfor the benefit of “foreign” experts,the feedbackwasvaluablein that it put the integrativeapproachinto perspective,in relationto a givensituation.
The observersalsolearnedfrom theseencountersthat the principaleconomicoperatorsin the region were organized
accordingto a strict hierarchy.Everyoneknowsthe rulesof the game,and the playersin eachsectorexert exclusive
controlovera predefinedareawhichexcludesall thosefrom outside.Thishighlyeffectivemanagementarrangementhas
seriousconsequences,
becauseany disruptionof the systemis perceivedasa lossof equilibrium.Consideringthe advantagesof stabilityand comfortwhich resultfrom sucha well-definedand respectedsystem,with clearregulatorylaws,
effectivefinancialcircuits,and territory recognizedas beingtheir own, the operator hasno reasonto turn to an integrated managementmodelwhich would bring in playersfrom outsidethe sector.Environmentalmediationwill consist
in graduallyintegratingthe strategiesof sectorsand the heterogeneousviewpointof the playerswho dependon the
samebiota. In the absenceof an organizednegotiationprocessasa meansof arrivingat a consensualdeterminationon
the part of the playersto reachthe ICZMgoals,the processwill grind to a halt and the socio-environmental
evaluation
will be forgotten, Thiswasthe casein Mauritius,wherethe limitationsidentifiedin the diagnosticwere neverresolved.
Example6 :
A socio-environmental evaluation in the Comoro Islands
Thecontext:
The socio-environmentalevaluation carried out in the ComorosIslandswithin the framework:of the Regional
EnvironmentalProgramof the Indian OceanCommission(1995-2000)was one of the most succe:ssfuI.
The territory
suggestedfor an ICZMinterventioninvolvedthe entire islandof LaGrandeComore.Thegoal wasto identifythe natural ecosystems
and areaswhich were fragile or subjectto useconflicts,and to identify localmanagementinitiatives.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess: Executionandpresentationof an evaluation
Thediagnosticprocessinvolvedthe useof “problemtrees” and a cohort of heavystudies.A localthematicteam carried
out the diagnostic,receivingtraining in the processto qualify them for continuedparticipationin the ICZM,after the
completionof this operation,Thisteam set up a localofficeon the basisof well identifiedskills,
To presentthe findingsof the diagnostic,a simplifiedsummarywasdrafted in order to makethe informationasaccessibleaspossibleto the players(cf.the figure below).Followinga validationworkshopattendedby someof the respondentsto the study,a decisionwas madeto emphasizesupportfor initiativeswhich had alreadybeen identified (waste
collection,pollution),to limit damageto the mostthreatenedzones(reefs,beaches),and to promotethe visibilityof the
actionsundertakenasa meansof raisingthe awarenessof the entire population,
fXMIp/e
5 : Presentation of the Comoros coastal zone environmental assessment (An EUIPRE-IOCproject)
COASTAL
AREAS
CHIEF
ACTIVITIES
1
TYPES
OF
PRESSURE
PROBLEMS
IDENTIFIED
Dredgingandquarrying 1
Tourism
Urbanization
Transportation
Encroachment
Resource
mining
Wastedeposit
Coastalfishing
PoachingUrbanization
Transportation
Wastedeposit
Resource
mining
Retreatof beaches
Declinein marinebiodiversity
Coastalerosion
Ecosystem
degradation
Public-health
problems
Threatto coastalfishing
Lossof potentialtouristbusiness
r
Housing
Transportation
infrastructure
Encroachment
Wastedeposit
Resource
minina
Development
of temporary
housing
Liquidandsolidpollution
Public-health
problems
Highdemandfor wood,for buildinqandfuel
Agriculturefor subsistence
andsale
Pasturing
Urbanization
Lumbering
(woodfor fuel/
woodfor building)
Encroachment
Wastedeposit
Encroachment
Resource
mining
Pressure
on landin villagers’
reserves
Property-ownership
conflicts
Erosion
Sedimentation
of reef
Waterscarcity
Forestdegradation
Watershed
erosion
DIAGNOSTIC
Stronglocalregulationof
access
- depending
ondemand
for
materials
- Localrightsnotvalidated
by
theState
. Activitiesregulatedselectivelybyenhanced
valueas
touristattractions
. Veryweak(absence
of enforcement)
. Presence
of localrulesfor
access
to the areaand
regulatingtechniques
. Localrightsnot validatedby
the State
. Existingbut unenforced
legalframework
. Regulationviathe players’
multiplepurposes
Veryweak(absence
of
enforcement)
Thecoastandoffshorezone:
the onlyavailablewastedepositareas
. Presence
of a traditional
land-attributionprocedure
. Absence
of waste-treatment
or sanitationinfrastructure
. Presence
of localwastemanagement
efforts(neighborhoodgroups)
. Flexibilityof the agro-sylvopastoralsystem
. Dependence
on international marketsfor exportcrops
(Ylang-Ylang)
. Players’
multipleactivities
. Unenforced
city-planning
rulesfor housingconstruction
Lackof control
Complexlandproperty
legislation
. Forestq State-owned
domainopento the public
. Localappropriationand
regulationbyyear-round
residentcommunities
. Recentadoptionof a Forest
Code(unenforced)
PHASE
2 : Preparation
v issueI scenario
grids
d economic
assessments
ti publicdeclaration
(officialization
of
thescenario
chosen
Tasks
d institutionalization
of the
steeringcommittee
fl initialization
of a negotial
platform
ti identification
of desirable
scenarios
/arbitrationof choices
and
agreement
on possible
scenarios
ti socialandeconomic
Outcomes
1,sharedlongtermvision
fl alternative
scenarios
ti consensual
choiceof goalsand
STEP
3 : Desirableand possiblescenarios
I
1
Casestudy support:
7,Saint-Cyprien
Beach,
France
8.Grand
AnseBay,Seychelles
Thisstep is interdependentupon the precedingone,
and in somesituations,maybe conductedat the same
time.A discussion
about “what is going on” and what
problemsarepresentleadsto a discussion
of how the
future shouldbe. Thisinvolvesthe useof communication, negotiation,and mediationtechniques,developed by socialengineeringand “resourcemediation”
(Mermet,7992; Weber,1996) act asa frameworkfor
linking different collectiveor individual representationsof the sameterritory.It is importantto carryout
this mediationphasein a pragmaticway, adapting
scenario-constructive
or prospectivetechniquesto the
realityof the terrainand the people: it is advisableto
ensurethat a real debatetakesplace,involvingthe
intentionsand choicesof variousgroupsof players
(“validation”)on their own landratherthan elaborate
sophisticatedscenarioson the expert level. Clear,
simplechartsof strategicchoicescalI be submittedto
the communitiesinvolved by interface teams or
commissions.
Thesechartscan be excellentteaching
tools,leadingto level-headedeconomicplanningand
the most realisticchoicesof vocarionand strategy
possible
33
lnitialization of a
dialogue between“”
Factorsto be consideredat Per, 3
How to structurethe steeringcommittee
In the wake of step 2, it may now be useful to change
the orientation of the steering committee. Instead of
“qualification commissions”, they will be “recommendation commissions” (Gorgeu, 1997) focusing on
a few key issues which were identified previously
(land-use management, tourist development, water
management, erosion prevention, etc.). It is important to note that the way the steering committee
“labels” its commissions, their establishment and
their stated purpose determines future orientations,
To ensure that reflection takes place about the issues
institutionalized through these commissionsin this
way, it is the duty of the steering committee to
engage the players concerned in the ICZM in a
processdesigned to reach a consensus,This processis
included in step 3..
lnitialization of an approachto consensus
important issuesand differences in opinion of the
players involved to an agreement concerning individual and collective measuresprescribed as a means
of solving the problems which were identified. The
goals of this consensus, mediation, or negotiation
approach are to facilitate joint action on the part of
institutional and sectorial players, and to go deeper
into specific issuesas they emerge in the course of
negotiation, to identify acceptable scenarios,and to
convince the players to commit resourcesfor implementation
Negotiation is usually presented as a multi-phase
process(cf. box). Instituting an ICZMprocessamounts
to elaborating a collective action plan. it is thus
important to define the contours of the project and
the collective. We feel it is useful to present a plan
for carrying out a coordinated approach as formalized by J. Weber (1996).
One of the most delicate phases in the ICZM process
consists in going from an observation of the most
34
Box6 : Negotiationasa three-phase
process
Assoonasnegotiationreachesa certainlevelof complexityand duration,it canbe dividedinto a seriesof phaseswhich
are characterizedby differenttypesof reasoning.
Thus,the pre-negotiationphaseconsistsof pointing out the obstaclesto the negotiation itself. It shouldconcludeby
leadingthe partiesto acceptthe principleof discussionand the rulesthat will governthat discussion.
Thesecondphaseaimsto establishan agreement“formula” by reachingconsensus
about the definition of the problem
to be solved,the guiding principles,the pointsof contention,the possiblepackages: in short,the global configuration
of the agreement,
Thethird phaseconsistsof ironing out the details: that is,fine-tuningan equilibriumfollowing a discussionof eachof
the pointsup for negotiation,Manysuchencounters,especiallythe internationalones,simultaneously
follow two parallel courses: an “official” one basedon the implementationof formal procedures,and an informalone which providesa
forum for muchmoreopen discussionin whichthe role of individualsthemselvesisessential
(Basedon Faureet al.,1998).
At the outset, the entire coordination approach
assumesthat an initial situation has been established, that the players are clearly informed of the
conflicts which oppose them to others, and that the
welfare of all of them depends on solving the issue
(J. Weber, 1996). In addition to integrating players
directly involved in the process, it is important to
draw in those who are absent from the process at
this point (cf, box),
If the discussion forums are structured around a
unifying theme (the official purpose of the ICZM),
backed up by the environmental assessment,a coherent result can be expected. Based on the environmental assessment (current state of the
area/diagnostic), and assuming that the trends
observed will continue, the players are encouraged
to discusswhat they see as the most probable evolution of ecosystemsin relation to their own activity
and situation, This will lead to the production of a
“perception chart”. The players will then discussthe
social, economic, and environmental acceptability of
an indefinite extension of the trends observed. The
fact that these trends will inconvenience everyone
anchors the entire approach. It creates the initial
situation from which the rest of the process can
unfold.
The mediation approach requires people with listening skills who can report on the opinions expressed : They must also have the ability to point out
the valid aspects of each viewpoint during negotiation.
Box7 : Coordination
commissions
or workshops
Although plannersoften dreadthe organizationof suchlargepublicmeetings,they are wrong. On the contrary,they
shouldbe designedasopportunities(1)which giveriseto mutualsocializationof the perspectives
for sustainabledevelopmentwhich are the basisof the ICZMapproach.Thus,the commissions
shouldbe set up with this goal in view,First
and foremost,they mustbe drivenby somesort of inner dynamic- whosepotential efficiencywill be increasedif the
discussionleadersare recognizedaslegitimatespokesmenfor the issuein question,dynamicenoughto devotethemselvesto this duty,and highly integratedin the pilot structurewhich hasassumedthe task of intercommission
coordination.Secondly,thought about the compositionof the commissions
is altogetherworthwhile. Theircompositionwill
be meaninglessunlessit respectsthe two factsbelow :
- The commissionmustbe representativeof the field concernedThisprimaryrequirementis not alwayseasyto fulfill,
Certainplayersmayrefuseto participatein this sort of mediationalthoughtheir agreementis crucial.In other cases,
certainsegmentsof societylackrepresentativestructuresdespitethe fact that they play a preponderantrole on the
coastalarea(recreationalbeachusers,poachers,and gatherersof shrimp,crabs,andshellfish,for example).It shouldbe
noted that the oppositesituationcanalsoposea problem: a numberof different playersmaypositionthemselvesas
representatives
of a sector(tourismor the environment,for example).In this case,it will be necessary
to screencandidatesfor representation(moreor lessstrictly).
- Althoughthe commissionmustfulfil1the abovementionedrequirement,if it is limitedto that alone,it will reproduce
a mono-sectorialdynamic.Discussionbasedon a familiar field may be mucheasierto structure,but it will not be
meaningfuland productiveunlessplayersfrom other sectorsare integratedinto the commission.
Theirtaskwill consist
in confrontingtheir issuesand valueswith thoseof the field in question.Toachievethis purpose,it isadvisableto step
up this dynamicby promoting multi-commission
participationon the part of the players,though the number of
membersof eachcommission
shouldbe kept low enoughto makediscussionpossible.
1)Thesteeringcommitteeisanothersuchopportunity.Socializationmayalsobe a productof the communicationpolicythesecommissions
adopt.
Mid-term scenarios validated by
the players
The construction of mid-term scenariosis a meansof
considering the various ways of reaching long-term
goals. This is the step which calls upon input from
On the basis of a common refusal of consequences scientific experts, especially economists, as a means
that a prolongation of current trends might have, it of comparing the feasibility of the scenariosdevelobecomes possible for the different actors to discuss ped by the players (rather than by the “specialists”
what elements would make up a desirable, long- alone). By introducing the scientific evaluation of
term future, tong-term planning is a means of
scenarios,in the form of feasibility studies (especially
overcoming conflict and arriving at a shared vision
in institutional, legal, and economic terms), these
much more easily. The appropriation of long-term
scenarios can be fine-tuned until the players (and
goals “precedes and authorizes the definition of
therefore the decision-makers) agree that they
management procedures in the middle and short
comply with their own long-term plans, Their choice
term” (Weber, 1996).
will then be based upon the best cost/value compro-
The shared vision may not necessarilybe applied in a
mise.Thanksto the scenarios,the desirable future (or
uniform way to the whole of the area involved, but
long-term vision) becomesa possible future.
may be interpreted differently depending on prevailing characteristics,attitudes, values, and purposes in
each territory. The spatial analysiswhich was part of
the previous step (state of the environmentldiagnostic) is indispensable in this respect,
36
Box 8 : How canan ecosystem
be priced?
Environmentaleconomicsmakesa distinctionbetweenthree typesof ecosystemvalue: usevalue,non-usevalue,and
existence(or heritage)value.
Usevalueitselfis dividedinto two components,directand indirect:
- Directusevaluemeasures
the currentadvantagesdrawnfrom usingpart or all of the ecosystem.
Activitieswhich remove
resources(fishing,seafoodharvest,fish farming,etc.)or consumethem (recreationalor researchactivities,etc.) belong
to this category.Obviouslyusedoesnot involvethe destructionof the asset,Privategoodsand servicesdrawn from the
useof the ecosystem(fishing,etc.)are usuallymarket-related.Recreationalactivities(leisureactivities,.
sportfishing)are
collectiveuseservicessuppliedby the ecosystem.
Conventionaleconomicanalysismethodsare applied‘to determinetheir
value: substitutionvalue(the costof producingfish in a hatcheryasa meansof quantifyingthe valueof naturallyproduced fish), marginalproductivity(contributionto an economicactivity,such as the pasturingof ca,ttlein a wetland
meadow),and lastly,opportunitycost.
- Indirectusevalueisattributedto the regulatoryfunctions(ecologicalfunctions)of an ecosystem.
Thesefunctionsqualify
asvaluesonly if they havean influenceon the presentor future useof at leastone player.Thisis thlecasewhen these
functionshavea direct influenceon economicpursuits: when dunesprotectagainsterosion,when foliage absorbsCO2
and thus helpsregulatethe climate,when wetlandsfilter runoff or act as a buffer zone,the nurseryfunction of the
mangrove,etc.,belongto this category.Thereisno directmarketvaluefor theseservices.
Themethodsusedto pricethem
concernthe costsavoidedby the fact that thesefunctionsare operating(flood prevention,etc.)combinedwith the funds
the communityiswilling to makeavailableor maintainthesefunctions,and the amountindividualsare willing to spend
to haveaccessto them (beaches,scenery,etc.). Thisdeterminestheir valueto the community.
- Non-usevaluerefersto future or asyet unknownusepossibilities.It evaluatesthe willingnessof groupsof individuals
(or the community)to payto preservethe possibilityof engagingin thesefuture usesof the ecosystem
or itscomponents.
Forthis reason,it isalsocalled“option value”andcouldbethought of asan insuranceon future usesof the asset,regardlessof currentuses.Anothervirtual option valuerefersto the possibilityof discoveringnew speciesor new usagesonce
technicalinnovationsappear(marinebiotechnologies).
- The existenceor heritagevaluemeasuresthe maximumwillingnessto pay in order to preservethe ecosystemand its
quality,to whichthe individualsare attached,regardlessof its currentusesand evenif there is no suchthing asa useor
one in the foreseeablefuture. Maintainingbiodiversity,or the culturaland symbolicvalueof remarkablespeciesor sites
are relatedto this type of value.It is dividedinto two categories: legacyvalue,or the valueattributed to the ability to
transmita naturalheritageto posterity,and the existencevalueitself,which isthe valuedrawnfrom the existenceof the
site or space,which couldbe associatedwith its preservationvalue.Thesevaluesare calculatedon the basisof a contingent evaluationmethod,which createsa fictitious marketfor the asset,In addition to technicalbias problems,this
methodhasbeen criticizeddue to its scope: who shouldbe questionedabout the existencevalueof a whale or of a
ColoradoRivercanyon?Cancurrentgenerationspresumeto speakfor posterity?
Dueto all the uncertaintiesinvolvedin calculatingthesevalues,do they havea significantrole to playasan aid to decision-making?Indeed,controversyconcernstheir role in the decision-making
process.Theymayillustratevariousoptions
(development,conservation,etc.)alreadyidentified,by supplyinga comparativeassessment
of theseoptions.In this case,
they becomeelementsin the negotiationaroundtheseoptions.Onthe other hand,when they are usedupstreamof the
decisionto identify the possiblechoicesby reinforcingthe quality/costanalysis,they must be handledwith extreme
caution,becausethev maybe usedto comparenon-comparablevalues.
Goalsand strategiesof short- and midterm implementation
The choice of a scenario leads to a choice of goals
and short- and mid-term implementation strategies.
The point is not to choose a rigid scenario; instead,
the scenario should be flexible enough to be adapted
spatially or temporally, depending on changes in the
context.
The task of the steering committee, or any mediating
committee acting under its aegis, will be to stimulate
discussionsand choices,keeping a record of the chief
short and mid-term objectives desired by the community and the trail (strategy) for reaching them. Each
objective should be matched with an implementation
strategy which specifies players (contracts, institutional coordination etc.), resources (additional studies,
collaboration, etc.) and a choice of tools. Options
may be evaluated according to a variety of methods,
but there are obstacles’to using conventional evaluation techniques, because it is so difficult to place a
monetary value on the environmental costsor advantages of whatever measuresare taken,
The use of maps will make it possible to visualize the
future aims for the territory or territories, as well as
emphasizing the major spatial intentions (vocations),
the intensity of the efforts required for sites deemed
strategic or major, and to report on the desired modification dynamics.
At this stage, it should be possible to validate both
the approval of the environmental assessment,the
vision and realistic goals of the change. This validation would probably be formalized as an official
public document addressedto the local and national
authorities (see example 8),
Example
7 : Intensification of development and erosion of the beach at Saint-Cyprien on the
French Mediterranean coast
Thecontext:
In 1963,when the FrenchRivierawassaturatedand hugewavesof touristswere going to Spainor Italy in searchof sea
and sun,the Frenchgovernmentdecidedto developthe tourist potentialof the Languedoc-Roussillon
region.TheRacine
Mission,a federalgovernmenteffort for tourist development,supervisedoversevenyearsof planningfor the development of seasideresortslike Capd’Agde,Port Leucate,and Port-Barcar&.Sincethen, moreinfrastructurehascontinually
beenneededfor the ever-increasing
tourist pressure.Suchisthe caseof the municipalityof Saint-Cyprien,
which,in 1969,
openedthe FrenchMediterraneanCoast’ssecondbiggestmarina(2600berths).Nevertheless,
intensificationof development aggravatedcoastlineerosionphenomena.
Since1996,an associationfor the preservationof St.Cyprienbeachhasbeenworking to alert the community(shopkeepersand other users)to the dangerthat the beachmaydisappear,andthat housingmaybe damaged.Theyhavelobbied
municipalauthoritieson the subject.Basedon a studyfor a protectionplan for the St.Cyprienseaboard,the beachwas
dividedinto two geographicunitsaccordingto different Pressure/State/Impact
criteria.
Illustration: scenarios
established
in the absence
of coordination
In responseto a communitydesireto savethe beach(for a varietyof reasons),the scenariosimaginedessentiallydeal
with physicaland regulatoryconsiderations.
Thisis becauseregulatorycoherenceismostlikelyto attract investmentfrom
nationaland regionalgovernment(departmentaland regionalcouncils).A shortterm plan hasbeenadoptedto artificiallysandthe beacheverysummer,althoughthe quality and availabilityof sedimentarymaterialrequiresdredgingat
sea.The midtermcoastaldevelopmentplan alsorequeststhat all the playerscometo an agreementwith localauthorities (both municipaland decentralizedfederaloffices).Theseofficialsmustengagein a long regulatoryprocedurebefore
the workscanstart, No socialor economicevaluationof the scenariostook place,despitethe fact that economicconsiderationsare uppermostin the argumentsof variousplayers.
Thiscaseshowshow the ICZMprocessis often viewedasa seriesof technicalinterventionsratherthan a choiceof solutions negotiatedby all the playerswho, in this case,are accustomed
to systematicStateintervention,Moreover,sincethe
problemis not exclusiveto the municipalityof St.Cyprien,it would be wisefor town authoritiesto approachother municipalcouncilsin the area,to seeka broadenedactionplan applicableto the entire department.
kW?lp/e
8 ,’ Management
plan for the Grand-Anse Special Reserve, Seychelles
Thecontext:
Since1970,the Seychelleshavedevelopeda network of natural land reservescovering40% of the territory (about
20,000hectares).However,none of these reservesincludesthe coastalzone. Marine reservescovera surfacearea of
23,000ha. The Statehasdelegatedmanagementof thesespacesto a para-publicagency,the Marine ParkAuthority.
But the extent and dispersionof the network makestheir inspectionand monitoringespeciallydifficult. Moreover,the
Seychelles,
with a population of some75,000inhabitants,haveinvestedin the developmentof tourist infrastructure
which would makeit possibleto accommodate130,070visitorsper year in 143hotels(1997figures).Thisexclusivetype
of tourismis basedon a demandfor “natural wonders”and helpsto enhancethe economicvalueof protectedreserves.
However,it is alsoa heavyconsumerof water - a rare resource- and produceswaste,both solid and liquid.
Grand-Anse(Isleof Mahe)correspondsto the ICZMpilot zone defined by commonagreementin 1997,betweenthe
Governmentof the Seychelles
andthe IndianOceanCommission
RegionalEnvironmentalProgram.It isa relativelysmall
area(68 ha),where a diversityof milieusand useshasbeen preserved.Theecosystemis variedin a site which doesnot
containany hotel infrastructure,although it supportsa varietyof other economicactivities,Localinhabitants,city-dwellers,and touristsare all site users.
After a player-identificationphase(surveys)and a period of negotiation about the fate of this natural site, various
scenarioswere elaborated.Thecruxof the problemconsideredwasthe maintenanceand managementof the quality
of natural milieuswhich contribute to the islands’attractivenessas a tourist destination.In this case,Grand-Anseis
also a site with a number of usesand part of the Seychelloisheritage.The scenariothat would result if a natural
reservewas createdat Grand-Ansehad to be madeexplicit accordingto the valuesattributed to the site by various
players.Theworkshopresultedin consensus
on a long-termvisionof the site,officiallysealedby a PublicCharterengaging all the players.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess: the Grand-Anse
Charter
ThePublicCharterwasan officialmeansof sealingthe approvalof all the playersin the area.It isworded asfollows :
“The inhabitantsof Grand-Anse,attachedto the naturalsetting in which they liveand awareof the valueof the natu,
ral resourceslocatedat Grand-Anse,of the economicand socialinterestof this environmentfor the presentgeneratron
aswell asfor posterity,statethe following intentions:
1.A will (I)to preserveand improveenvironmentalquality,beingvigilantaboutthe waysin which resources(water,land,
forests,crabs,etc.) are managed,in order to ensurethe long-termviabilityof these resources(II) to keepthe beach,
forest,and mangroveat Grand-Anseclean(Ill) to avoiddestroyingthe dunesby tramplingthem or removingsandfor
other uses.
2. Toreachthesegoals,the peopleof Grand-Anse
wishto createa specialreservewhich includesthe mangrove,the forest
alongthe DaubanRiver,and the beachat Grand-Anse.
3. Thepeopleof Grand-Anserecognizethe legitimacyof the Grand-AnseEnvironmental
Committeeasconcernsthe environmentregardingthe future Grand-AnseReserve.
Thepeoplewill be representedon this Committeeby five members
it shallappoint itselfaswell asthree substitutemembers.
4. TheGrand-AnseEnvironmentalCommitteeis an entity which canarbitrateand negotiateenvironmentaldisputes,Its
purposeisto providelocalcoordinationof activitiesaroundthe siteof the Grand-AnseReservein sucha way asto ensure
the long-termco-viabilityof the naturalresourcesand localeconomicandsocialactivities.Thiscommittee,whichispurely
environmentaland local,hasno politicalgoals.It isan assemblyof the representatives
of the playersinvolvedin the creation of the reserve,and is madeup of ten membersand three substitutes,Thiscommitteeis entrustedwith the task of
seekingthe waysand meansnecessary
to reachthe goalsdesignatedin point I, It promisesto reporton its activitiesregularly,both to localplayersand residentsand relevantstateagencies,in compliancewith the lawsof the Republicof the
Seychelles.
5. The peopleof Grand-Anserequestthat the economicprofitsfrom the eco-tourismactivitiescontributeto localdevelopment(jobs,the creationof additionaleconomicactivities,improvementof the environmentbeyondthe bordersof
the reserve,etc.).
6. Thischartercannotbe modifiedunlessa new workshopopento the entire publicof Grand-Anseis held.
Products
PHASE
2 : Preparation
I/ territorialandthematicmaps
ti evaluationandfollow-upsystems
I/ actionI projectfiles
IQIAJ
ti preparationof the
institutionalframework
d additionalstudies
ti zoning
fl training
*I identificationof actions
andprojects
’
_I
v communication
ti evaluationsand
Outcome5
STEP
4 : Elaborationof the ManagementPlan
ti awareness
of the valueof
ecosystems
ti validationof the management
plan
“.”a,*
-iI
I
Casestudy support
support ::
9,Met-heMaster
Plan,Madagascar
*
Themanagementplan of an integratedapproachto
sustainabledevelopmentmaybe comprisedof several
different dimensions,spatially and thematically.
Dependingon what precededit, it may involve a
masterplan for the developmentof an entire region,
or the management of a resource (water, for
example).In other cases,it maybe a muchmorespecific plan of action,targetinga given issue(example:
managementof the mangroveswamp).
The management-scheme
document to be drafted
shouldcoverthe following mainpoints:
- a definitionof the zoneinvolvedandits specificterritories, based on the results of the environmental
assessment
(biotas,resources,
activities,institutions);
- the top priorities, defined by a consensualagreement,whichwill actasguidelinesfor studyanddiscussionby interconnectingthe variousissueandenabling
the group to approachthem coherently(productof
phase3);
- the main guidelinesfor the drafting of the plan
(nationalllocal, governmen
ta/ hierarchy,adaptation,
spatialimplementation,etc.);
- a presentationof the overallgoal or goalsand its
spatial breakdowndependingon the milieu (river,
wetland,mangroveswamp,lagoon,reef, urbanarea,
etc.)and the territory (territorialu&j;
- locationswhereactionwill be taken,and the prioritized list of actionsselectedfor the snortandmidterm
(about five years),as well as the projectsfor which
outsidefundsmustbe sought;
- the type of follow-up evaluation&tic/~ is planned
and the mainstepsinvolvedin the implementationof
the entire plan;
the institutionalframework(projectmanagementand
follow-upstructure),fundingsource:;,a timetablefor
achievingthe goals,and outreachpolicy.
What matters here is the implementationstrategy,
which must accountfor the way variousscalesand
levels of decision-makingfit toge;!her.it must be
realistic and progressivein its grasp of issuesor
commitments.
Factorsto be consideredat Ster,4.
Roleof the steeringcommittee
ment) and step 3 (desirable and possible scenarios)
resulted in the definition of territorial units with
During this step, the steering committee and its
their own goals and activity plans. The Geographic
subcommittees (commissions)continue to supervise
Information System(GIS)must allow the printing of
the plan elaboration work, which may be carried out
corresponding maps. In this respect, it is important to
by a technical team. Becauseit is the cornerstone of
note that, like the indicators, cartography is a process
the rest of the process, the steering committee’s
which lasts through the different steps. Just as the
specific task is to prepare the institutional structure
indicators do, the maps are an integral part of the
which will be recommended for the plan’s implemeninformation system and thus of the evaluation and
tation and ongoing activities, by integrating them
follow-up process.
into existing or emerging regional and national (and,
if applicable, international) structures, To be viable,
Carryingout specificstudieson top-prioany ICZM project, no matter how local it is, must be
conceived as part of a more global approach, in the rity issues
construction of which it is an element. (“double As the elaboration of the management plan
track” approach, CRC,1999).
proceeds, additional studies may be needed
(analyses,surveys,etc.) to specify the goals. In-depth
Focusingon the division of the areainto studies dealing with top-priority issuesmay also be
undertaken when this step is reached. They will then
geographicalunits
be considered as elements in the implementation
Work initiated during step 2 (environmental assessstrategy nurturing a given objective.
42
Validation
of
the
management
pian
project
The management plan must be acknowledged and
validated by all of the players who participated in
the process, as well as by the partners it is desirable to associate with its implementation and the
decision-makers who will endow the plan with a
legal existence as well as a legitimate one. This
approval process may take place in the form of
public workshops and/or consultations which, in
addition to supplying an approval of the choices
and strategies, will make it possible to specify
mutual commitments and the exact contribution of
each partner (these documents could be annexed
to the manaqement plan). The debate could also
be broadened to a public forum, in the form of
opinion surveys, press kits, radio broadcasts, etc.
Evaluation of the budget, costs, and
impactof the actionsconsidered
For the coherence of the whole, each orientation and
goal identified by the plan must correspond to
operational actions and measures to be taken. A
convenient way of summing up this whole is the
“logical framework”, which is in widespread use
these days for programs and projects. But the logical
framework is insufficient : to remaiin realistic in the
implementation, it is important for t:he actions outlined in the logical framework, whether they are
thematic or territorial, be catalogued on “individual
action files” which may contain the following type of
information :
Box 9 : Implementation
of the management
plan: modelsfor actionfiles
1)Title of the mission.Supervisoryimplementationagency.
2) Briefdescriptionof the correspondingcontextand problem
3) IO-yeargoalstargeted by the action,brieflyexplained
4) Goalsof the actionwithin one,two, or three years,globalor specific,qualitativeand quantitative,expressedassituational conditionsto be reached
5) Descriptionof the action : approachmethod,geographiclocation,content,playersinvolved
6) Projectedbudget
7) Projectedresources(technical,human,and material)
8) Projectedfinancingplan
9) Worksschedule
10)Evaluationsystem: indicatorsof results(quantitativeand qualitative),evaluationmeans
11)Necessary
inter-institutionalcoordination.
Playereducation/training
and training efforts are part of the goal implementa-
Ideally, training should be addressed to all the
players involved, at every different level of governance. The guidelines chosen will determine which
training fields it is appropriate to emphasize.
t’on strategy’
Identificationof projectsto be submitted
to donors
One of the key aspectscontributing to the raising of Becausesome actions will be projects in themselves
awareness of ICZM issuesand the discussionspresen- due to the technological or financial means they
ted by players involves a familiarization with the require (levee construction, highway construction,
concept of “total ecosystem value” and the costs
water-treatment and irrigation plants, etc.), they
engendered by impacts, even though the means of
may be the subject of specific proposals and negotiacalculating these values is still approximate (what
matters here is more the raising of awareness that tions with investors. At that stage, each of these
market value is not the only thing that counts, and actions will become a project in and of itself which
that other values should be considered). Outreach should be treated as such.
Evaluationand follow-up process
bing socio-economic dynamics.
Although they are essential to evaluating change
and adapting to it, the evaluation and follow-up
processesare still in their experimental stages.
As a means of evaluating the performance of a
Program or Project, it is advisableto supplement the
DPSIRindicators with a series of other indicators
referring to the guiding principles of sustainable
The DPSIRindicator system (Driving forces-Pressuredevelopment, i.e. : efficiency, fairness in usage,
State-Impact-Response) is a convenient way of
public participation, the viability of the alternatives
organizing information according to cause-andchosen, and risk prevention measures.
effect relationships applied to resource management. However, its deterministic aspects make it
somewhat lacking as a tool for accurately descriEXafI7p/e 9 ,’ Elaboration of the Coastal Zone Master Plan for the Menabe region, Madagascar
Thecontext:
The Menaberegion was chosenas a pilot ICZMarea within the frameworkof the IndianOceanCommissionRegional
EnvironmentalProgram,sponsoredby the EuropeanUnion(IOC-REPIEU).
Oneof the main reasonswhy this regionwas
selectedisthat it had alreadyset up a RegionalDevelopmentCommittee(RDC)on the basisof localdynamics,encouraged by the WorldBankwithin the frameworkof its policyof assistingthe managementof decentralizedstructures.
After a partial environmentalassessment,
basedchieflyon surveysconductedin 27 coastalvillages,a summary/approval
workshop (September,1997)made it possibleto initiate a coordinationprocesswith all the playersconcerned.The
problemswere prioritizedfor the first time and variousscenarioswere outlined.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess:
The MenabeRDC,with the help of the IOC-REPIEU
(1998),beganto implementselectedmicro-projectsin pilot villages
(fishingequipment,wells,schoolfacilities,and first-aidsupplies).
For the RDC’sstrategicconsiderations(becauseit must assertits role in the decentralizationprocessunderwayin
Madagascar)asmuchasdue to the needfor visibleresultsfor the IOC-REPIEU
program,a decisionwasmadeto elaborate a first draft of a RegionalMasterPlanfor sustainabledevelopmentin Menabe’scoastalzones.Thiselaborationwas
subjectto a certainnumberof conditionsand prerequisites,i.e. : the MasterPlanfits into a dual structure,nationaland
international(the IndianOceanCommission);
its elaborationis basedon a double-trackapproach(fromthe regionalto
the local,andvice-versa);
elaborationwasthe subjectof ongoingnegotiation;the field of applicationextendsto multiple
usesin termsof managementof resources,productionspaces,and coordinationbetweengovernancelevels.
Severalspecificstudieswere carriedout simultaneously
on urgent subjectssuchasthe tax systemor erosionof the coast
at the city of Morondava.The divisionof the area into geographicunits wasfine-tunedon the basisof existingdata
(morequalitativethan quantitative)and the administrativeboundariesof townshipsand municipalities.Landand sea
boundarieswere temporarilyestablishedas being those coveredby the coastalcommunities,to a line 100 meters
offshore.Thesegeographicspecifications
would subsequentlymakeit possibleto deepenenvironmentalimpactstudies
by geographicunit.
Dueto plansto hold a secondsummarizationlvalidation
workshop,it was importantto presentthe CoastalZoneMaster
Planin the mostadvancedand accessible
way possible.It wasto articulatea developmentvisionfor the verylong term,
aswell asgeneraland territorial orientations,aswell as implementationtasks.It wassupplementedby two morefocusedcomponentplans: a Pilot Planfor communityactionand an UrbanPlanningProjectfor Morondava,the maincity,
After the summarizationlapproval
workshopfor thesegeneralplanningframeworks,held two yearsafter the first, the
focuswason narrowingdown the generalstructuresto activitiesprogrammedin time and space,accordingto existing
financial,institutional,and humanresources.Oneof the top-priority issuesdefinedand suggestedfor outsidefunding
waserosionprotectionfor the Morondovacoast,which hasgotten evenworsesince.
PHASE
3 : Implementation
/institutionalstructure
access
to incentive
Outcomes
\
ti formaladoptionof the plan
d Institutional
recognition
of the
territoryanditsmanagement
scheme
‘:6x%
_I
STEP5 : lnstitutionalization
.:
Casestudy support:
10. The Marine Reserveo
Formal adoption of the managementplan is the
outcomeof an approvalprocesswhichbeganin step
1.Because
it wasarrivedat througha processof negotiation and validation,the plan (whateverits name
and form : masterplan or scheme,managementplan,
etc.)actsas a socialcontractinvolvingthe local officialsof a territory or severalterritories,the residents,
and their partners.Although the contractis a local
one, it is integrated into the sustainablenational
developmentstrategyfor coastalzonesand must be
recognizedas such during the institutionalization
stageof implementation.If the territoryisnot too big,
it might evenbe advisableto “ritualize” the moral
commitmentby havingall the localplayerswho are
involvedin the plan and wish to participate in its
implementationsign the document.In signing,part-
ners from outside the area immediatelyconcerned
(higher-levelgovernmentagenciesor officials, the
State,socio-professional
organizations,etc.)recognize
the legitimacyof the area (or territory)and its development project. This is also a matter of making
certainthat the funding sourcesforeseenduring the
elaborationstageare still available.Becauseoutside
financing(investors)is usuallylimited to a period of
fiveyears,it is importantto guaranteesomemeansof
ongoingfinancingby internal fundkg sources.These
maybe matchingfundsfrom the St;jte and/orrevenue
generatedat the local level. In this context, the
follow-upand adaptationin time of the management
plan are alsoexpenseswhich must be evaluatedand
integratedinto the overallbudget.
46
factors to be consideredin step 5.
Formalapprovalof the plan
As we noted above, the plan is the outcome of a
negotiation process which reflects the image and
aspirations of the inhabitants of a given territory,
their society, and their shared natural heritage. It
offers a project for their future, with explicit
alliances and support, Whether it has regulatory
value or not, the plan thus draws its strength from
the act of politics or local government (institutions,
networks, regulations, norms, public and private
usages/players) that it represents, and the public
affirmation of this act. The agreement to which the
parties to the plan are signatory (local players and
authorities) will express
(IV) lastly, their commitment to take action and pool
their resources
Institutional structure
This is a matter of setting up the institutional references which will be needed for the sectorial and
territorial plans, to make the plan operational and
coherent with corresponding national policies and
their implementation instruments (legislative, regulatory, economic, etc.). The steering committee
usually becomesthe core staff, hosted within one or
another institution, The strength of this core staff
residesnot only in the official recognition of its legitimacy and, in some cases,its legali*ty,but especially
(I) common recognition of the territory or territories, in its ability to embody the collective project that the
in terms of their geographic limits and characteris- management plan represents. As such, it has the
authority to remind everyone of his commitments :
tics;
the more debates are expressed publicly, the more
(II) agreement as to the goals and strategies of deve- the weight of the collective opiniorl of the partners
lopment, stated in an overall way and individually,
will matter. This is the crux of local governance when
(II) their recognition of the institutional structure in faced with the threat of power struggles and expensive legal battles,
charge of coordinating and enforcing the plan;
41
Mobilizing funding and incentive
measures
In addition to financing from lending institutions,
which is limited in time, before the implementation
phase begins, it is essential to define the financial
and economic mechanisms which may generate
resources belonging to the programme itself and
thus ensuring its ongoing activities. There are a
number of incentive and non-incentive tools available, such as subsidies, taxes, permits, etc., depending on production areas and uses. In communitymanagement systems,voluntary agreements instituEXaI77pk
ting partnerships sharing a single resource between
several usersfrom the same community may lead to
the mobilization of the “Community Investment
Fund” (Borrini-Feyerabend, 2000). This type of fund
is designed to be re-invested in production activities
which, in turn, will generate wealth for the entire
community and income for those who are directly
involved in the operations. It may be useful to
combine this type of management with partnerships
entered into locally with the private sector (real
estate, fishing, tourism, etc.).
10 : The case of the Sea of lroise Isles Natural Reserve (Northern Brittany, France)
Thecontext:
In 1992,the islesof Bannec,Balanec,and Trielen,in the MoleneArchipelago,were officiallydeclaredto be a natural
reserve.Thiswasthe resultof severalyearsof scientificresearchand localand institutionalcooperation,and sealedthe
archipelago’sfate asan environmentalhaven,Ownershipof the isleshad beenacquiredin 1972by the Finisteredepartmentaladministration,at the proddingof an associationfor the protectionof nature(SEPNB).
It wasa turning point for
the territory which,beforethe 195Os,
had beenprivatelyowned.At that time,they were chieflyusedby seaweed-gathererswho usedthem asa basefor harvestinglaminariain the Seaof Iroise.Thegradualabandonmentof theseisles,for
both economicand humanreasons(laminariais no longercollected)promotedthe acquisitionof the territory aspublic
propertywhichtoday isdevotedto natureconservation,
Asfederal naturalreserves,
theseislesare managedby an agencyappointedby the Prefect.It is in chargeof settingup
a conservationand managementpolicythroughout the territory coveredby the reserve.Thisagencyis the association
“BretagneVivante-SEPNB”,
a non-profit,public-interestorganization.It isassistedbythe Finisteredepartmentalhunters’
associationasconcernsgamemanagement,becausetraditionallythe peopleof the Molenearchipelagohad huntedduck
and rabbit there. Theestablishmentof this reserveis part of a nationalpolicyfor the establishmentof protectedareas.
Theoverallplan for the reserveisthe managementplan.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess: Implementation,institutionalization,and follow-up
of the managementplan
Severalversionsof the managementplan were drafted and submittedto the associationheadsfor approval.Thedefinitiveversionwasadopted by the reserve’sconsultativecommittee.Formalapprovalof the plan wasachievedwhen it
wasadoptedby the NationalCouncilfor the Protectionof Nature(a nationalagencyoperating underthe aegisof the
Ministryof the Environmentand the Ministryfor LandDevelopment,vestedwith the authority to approvethe managementplan).
The managementplan hasbeen implementedwithin the frameworkof time and spaceon the basisof an operational
programand the scheduleassociatedwith it. Operationsplanneddiffer from one isleto the next and from one year
to the next. Plannedand prioritized,theseactionsaffect all aspectsof the life of the reserve(maintenance,scientific
research,publicoutreach,monitoring,follow-up studies,etc.).
The managementplan also providesfor a yearly evaluation,when the activity report is drawn up, which assesses
progressmadeon the variousactionsplanned.Thisisalsoan opportunity to eliminateactionswhich mayhavebecome
obsoletedue to profound changesin managementtechniques.
In 2002,the managementplan comesup for review after five yearsof implementation,At that time, an evaluation
will be made,basedon the goalsset in the managementplan, The evaluationwill be carriedout either by a member
of the associationor an engineeringconsultant,asa meansof recordingand analyzingthe resultsobt,ained.It will give
riseto a specificdocumentwhich will reviewall of the goalsthat had beensetfor the five yearswhkh havejust elapsed.The managementplan will be updatedasa meansof re-orienting managementgoalsasa function of the evolution of the situation and the future plansfor the reserve,
PHASE
3 : Implementation
Products
(I annualreports
d ongoinglog
(I specific
contracts
ti pilotcommittee
operation
d technical
staffoperations
ti mobilizing
resources
d training
d indicator-based
d communication
Outcomes
\
STEP
6 : Applicationof the managementscheme
I/ tangibleaccomplishments
fl practicein inter-institutional
coordination
v practicein localleadership
‘,,$
Casestudy support :
11.Rhone=Mediterraneran-Corsica
Masterplanfor water-resource
management,France
Implementationinvolvesmore than just the accomplishmentof the activitiesset forth in the plan; it also
providesfor the organizationof the meansfor the
transformationof the territoriesas well as the relationshipsbetweenstructuresand people.Thus,it is as
mucha matterof organization asof planningof activities, which the steering committeemust negotiate
with its partnersin orderto formalizethe wayseach
playerconcernedwill participate.In fact,implementation will testthe follow-up/evaluation
system,bringing
about a numberof adjustmentsto that system,based
on theperformanceof eachyearlysectionof activityIn
light of the results obtained (progressmade and
effects produced),combined with new events or
opportunities,it will probably be necessaryto reexamine,andrevise,if needbe,the sectionof activities
whichis to follow
Coordination
I
Factorsto be consideredin step 6.
Roleof the steeringcommittee
Using its recommendation commissions(cf. Step 3),
the steering committee can rely on work teams
which will be organized on the basisof goals and/or
actions planned. The steering committee does not
carry out the plan. Instead, its purpose is political :
to orient and supervise. It must therefore also be
able to rely upon an interdisciplinary technical coordination team, whose tasks and missions must be
defined : management and technical coordination
of the process, action engagement and follow-up,
communication and coordination, carrying out
particular studies, carrying out operations and
works, etc. In the execution phase, the steering
committee will have to devote particular effort to
the modification or creation of training and awareness-raising sessionsfor the partners, institutional
or relational devices, regulatory devices or goodconduct codes, financial devices, and lastly legal
devices. All of the foregoing structures are vital to
the actual execution of the activities planned for in
the management scheme.
Coordinating actions with sectorial or
territorial policies
To make sure that the plan’s actions are coherent
with those undertaken by other agencies in charge of
sectorial or territorial policy, it is important to activate the systemsset up for inter-institutional coordination. This is a meansfor both institutions to gather
information about the evolution of the policies and
their implementation tools (zoning plans, city-planning projects, housing construction, top-priority
investment projects, forest conservation plans,
network of protected marine areas, etc.). At this
point it becomes obvious why it is so important to
plan for corresponding coordination mechanisms,
even when acting at the local level.
Ongoinglog for following-up the execution of the plan
The follow-up/evaluation system, based essentially
(but not only) on a series of DPSIR indicators
(Driving forces - Pressure - State - Impact -
52
Response)and indicators of the performance if the
ICZM system, will feed into the ongoing log for
following-up the actions undertaken.. These
ongoing logs or “management boards” include
standby devices to detect changes or opportunities
as well as evaluation devicesto assessthe effectiveness of actions and make the decisions needed to
adjust or modify the implementation, In addition to
an overall follow-up of the zone, the ongoing log
will make it possible to verify each geographic unit
as a micro-territory with its own sensitivity and
vulnerability factors, It is fundamental for this
follow-up/evaluation system to be operational,
because it is the best tool for maintaining an overall
vision of the activities, without getting lost in
routine daily operational details,
The ongoing log will also include, in a useful form,
budgetary follow-up, because allocation of financial resources for investment and operating costs is
an expression of the effective choices made earlier,
An analytic presentation of expenses and revenue,
goal by goal, will make it possible to compare
EXM7pk
projected budgets with real spending, analyzing
cost overruns (or underruns).
Mobilizing resources
To implement the various activities for each goal
and use all the opportunities for support available,
it is important to negotiate special agreements and
contracts with various partners. Thesecontracts may
include, in addition to the financial commitment to
activity programs, specific commitments to certain
policies and interventions which the partners (local
and State agencies) intend to carry out in the territory concerned, as well as the coordination means
being considered (development plan, purchase of
the areas to be protected, changes in the organization of social services). Any contribution, small or
large, financial or technical, can be useful to the
realization of the plan. Where private agencies are
involved, these contributions may come in various
forms : from a simple letter of commitment to a
point-by-point contract, from a financial donation
to a major grant.
11 : The Rhone-Mediterranean-Corsica Water-Management Plan (SDAGE-RMC),France
Thecontext:
In France,a law passedin 1964concerning“the distributionand supplyof water and the fight againstpollution” introducedthe conceptof managementby watershed.At that time, the Frenchterritory was dividedinto six majorhydrographicwatersheds,and sixWatershedCommitteeswere appointedto planwater policy.Oneof thesewatersheds-the
Rhone-Mediterranean-Corsica
basin- coversall of the French rivers and their tributaries which drain into the
Mediterranean.Thiswatershedcoversall or part of 9 administrativeregionsand 30 departments,and extendsoveran
areaof 130,000km?,i.e. nearly25%of the nationalterritory.Thewatershedactivitiesare characterizedby a numberof
different water usesand the mobilizationof high volume.The 1992WaterQualityLaw set up decentralizedplanning
tools for the implementationof sustainablemanagementof water and aquaticecosystems
known asthe SDAGE
Water
Developmentand ManagementPlans.Theseplanswere actuallydrafted between1992and 1995,in particularfor the
Rhone-Mediterranean-Corsica
watershed.Thiswatershedwasfinally dividedinto ten territories,includingthree with a
coastalfringe.
Illustrationof the ICZMprocess: a management
boardasthe SDAGE
follow-upsystem
In conformitywith the policy guidelinesof its SDAGEWater ManagementPlan,the Rhone-Mediterranean-Corsica
committee,coordinatedby the Rhbne-Mediterranean-Corsica
WaterAgency,decidedto createa systemfor the follow-
up of the implementationof the goals set forth in the planning document.This is the Water ManagementPlan
Managementboard.Thisdevicewasdrafted by the WaterAgencytechnicalstaff(WaterAgency,RegionalEnvironmental
Bureau)with the help of specializedresearchstaff (surfacewater,groundwater,water prices,risks,coas’talwaters,etc.)It
isa meansof pilotingthe water policiescarriedout by variousagencies,guidedby the ten strategicpointselaboratedby
the SDAGE
WatershedPlan: (1)emphasizewater quality(2)purifywater in responseto userequirements(3)considerthe
importanceand vulnerabilityof groundwater(4) improvemanagementprior to investment(5) respectnaturalenvironmentalprocesses
(6) conceivewater managementasa corollaryof land development(7) reinforcelocalwater management boards,etc.
Themanagementboardusesthree typesof indicators: State- Pressure-andResponse,
which are a meansof evaluating
the variousactionsundertakento satisfythe goalsof the SDAGEWater ManagementPlan.Accordingto the ten orientations and the three typesof indicators,the managementboard is divided into 15 moduleswhich break down local
implementationof SDAGEpolicy guidelines(SAGEwatershedplans),the 13 top-priority goals of the SDAGEWater
ManagementPlan(qualityof the waterways,fight againstpollution,eutrophication,toxicpollution,spills,physicalcondition of streambedsand banks,quantitativemanagementof waterways,flooding risks,groundwater,drinking water
supply,wetlands,speciespreservation,the coastline),and finally the networksof measurementand inspection(followup/monitoring).Theindicatorsare set up on the basisof technicalinformationsuppliedby a largenumberof producers.
It isthus an annuallyupdatedcollectiveendeavor(Cornit de BassinRMC,2000).
PHASE
3 : Implementation
d performance
evaluation
J sustainability
evaluation
ti standardindicators
fl multi-criteria
evaluation
STEP
7 : EvaluationandAdjustment
Evaluationisnot an inspection.It isan ongoingprocess
which begins with giving thought to the followup/evaluationsystemwhich is most likely to fit the
goalsandstrategiesset.Therearetwo typesofevaluation : a “self-evaluation’,whichfollowsan operational
pace (annual,as a rule), and “outside evaluation”
whichoccurson a contractualbasis(halfwaythrough
and/orat the end of the contract,andsometimes“expost” - some time after the contractends).Thus,
evaluationis first and foremost“a tool for refiningthe
intelligenceof the action” (Gorgeu,1997)In light of
the resultsof the actionsundertaken,evaluationis a
meansof re-examiningthe goalsandstrategiesimplemented,their chronologicaldevelopment,the complementarynatureof the actionsundertaken,the structural organizationand operating habits, partnership
ti practicein adaptative
management
I.,,L
endeavors,etc. In addition to the periodicaladjustmentsto whichtheygiverise,theplan in its draft form
usuallyhasa predefinedlife expectancy(five to ten
years),at the end of which it must be reviewed.In
changingenvironmental,socio-economic,
and institutional contexts,the relevanceof the goalsmustbe reexamined.Thisdoesnot onlyconsistin changingthem,
but, again,going backto the drawingboard for the
elaborationof a new plan basedon the preceding
steps.At thisstagein the iterationof the ICZMprocess
(the loopingprocessillustratedin the introductionto
this manual),we may considerthat the first cycleof
implementationof the integrated managementof
coastalzoneshasbeencompleted.
Factorsto be consideredin Step 7.
may also rely on opinion surveysand periodic inquiries. Whether the evaluation is internal or external, it
The evaluation of the performance of an ICZM will also rely on a structured questionnaire, many
project or programme will be all the more relevant if examples of which are available in various publicait is based on precise data (environmental, socio- tions (METAPIMAP,1998 ; CRC,1999 ; EC,2000)
economic) initially gathered in the identification and
preparation phases,The second condition (related to Evaluationof sustainability
the first) is the existence of a follow-up/evaluation Sustainability is an outgrowth of project perforsystem, and therefore a set of indicators, which is mance, but goes beyond it. It concerns scales(natiofunctional and in use. When the performance of a nal, international) which exceed the territorial limits
project is discussed,there are a number of “impact” of the project, It is related to ex-post evaluation
criteria that make it possible to qualify the perfor- which is sometimes undertaken by lending institumance. They concern ecosystemsand uses, institu- tions : Are the mechanismswhich were set up strong
tions and policy, and society (quality of life, educa- enough to resist the passageof time and change? A
tion, women’s role, etc.). Where it is appropriate, distinction should be made between financial
quantitative data will be used to evaluate impact : aspects,institutional aspects,and political aspects,all
ecosystems and uses can usually be measured. of which have an impact on sustainability.
However, qualitative data is most often provided, Nevertheless, whereas the ex-post evaluation
although it is difficult to measure (cf. example lo), In conducted by donors can be viewed as a top-down
any case,it is necessaryto have an initial situation to approach, centered on effects clustered according to
use as a reference, as well as an initial strategic activity sectors as evaluated nationally, the sustainaobjective which indicates clearly (and, if possible, in a bility evaluation will pay more attention to the way
quantifiable way) the outcome(s) sought. In this in which costs and advantages (both monetary and
respect, it should be noted that one of the duties of non-monetary) have been distributed between the
the steering committee is to receive “feedback” from various categories of players : local, national, interplayers after the implementation of an ICZM project national, and global. Likewise, the operating condi: grievances, demands for arbitration, or various tions of the institutions and rules set up by the ICZM
other opinions. Likewise, the steering committee will be examined.
Performanceevaluation
55
Box10: Examples
of sustainabilityindicators
rypeof indicators
Parameter
measured
Typeof
approach
Conditionsrequiredto
Indicatorsof
reacha stateof reference
Sustainability ;A+!;e$;under
conditions
Normative
Gapsbetweencurrentlyset
Indicatorsof
normsandeffectiveperforment
ofDegree
goalsof achievedeviationfrom mantes:
a norm
Corrective
Indicatorsof
impact
Cross-referencing
of
narrowlydefinedactions
andgivenecosystems
Ex-ante
Ex-post
Prospective
Corrective
Ex-ante
Ex-post
Hypotheses
Implementation
of scalein relation
Assume
the stateof referenceisdefined Problems
- physicalcriteria
with the measurement
- economic
criteria
of indicators
- socialcriteria
Stillquiteglobal
Ideaof an “optimal”pathto follow up
Example
of applicationI
IEx:the CIFOR
criteriafor sustainable
management
Indicatorsof Sustainable
Development
Assumes
that performances
canbe
measured
anddefined.
of the procedures
Assumes
a compromise
on the Examples
for
Impact
Assessment
(physicalgoals)
goals,to makethemacceptable
Differentpossiblenorms:environmental to all the players:possiblerevi- - of the “GreenDomestic
NationalProduct’
cost,maintenance
of a “naturalcapital” sion
values
supply
Assumes
a conceptual
frameworklinking
actions(pressure),
ecosystems
(state),
Linearcause-effect
outlook
andmanagement
(response).
Example
of the OECD
MR scheme
rarelyapplicableto
Assumes
that environmental
advantages Sectorial;
canbeevaluatedin economic
terms
processes
Indicatorsof
thresholds,
risks
Normof preservation
of
ecosystems
to reachat the
leasteconomic
cost:
Definitionof “criticalnatural capital”
Descriptive
Ex-ante
Assumes
that environmental
damagecan
Evaluationenvironmental/economical
UB
beevaluatedin economic
terms
Usefulexanteto selectpolicy. “value”,opportunitycost
Israrelyusedto evaluatepolicy.
Environmental
Stateindicators(no
measurement
of deviation).
Startinganothercycle
A second planning cycle is thus begun. It will enable
planners to consider new contexts and developAs time passes, local environmental and socioments, as well as approach more complex problems,
economic conditions change, as do national and
strengthened by the experience they have already
international ones. We are becoming increasingly
acquired in the ICZM approach. The evolution of
aware of how many external factors can have an
people’s attitudes (behaviour) and the way they see
impact on a territory and its fate, Thus, it is necesand act upon their own environment is a complex
sary, based on the progress and the deficiencies of
process which evolves over the long term (20 or 30
the management plan which was implemented, to
years and more). Thus, several generations of the
circle back to the initial steps : identification (O-l) jCZM cycle are necessary
and preparation (2-3-4). This will give rise to a new
management plan or project,
Exam/I/e
12 : Main positive impacts identified within the framework of the ICZM European
demonstration programme
were then
Thirty-ninesiteswere selectedin Europeas a demonstrationof the ICZMapproach.Their projectsupervisors
interviewedto determinewhat they sawasthe mainpositiveimpactsof the ICZMapproach,following implementation.
After severalyearsof operation,it is interestingto note that the mostobservableeffectsare generallyqualitative.They
are usuallyrelatedto improvementsin the decision-making
processwhich resultedin morecoherentplanningpractices,
Thequantifiablecriteria,in termsof sectorialactivityand improvementof the quality of the milieus,are only beginning
to emergeat this point,
PositiveICZMimpacts
Totalnumberal j % of mentions
Nb
%
(I)
(2)
84,6
82,1
82,1
74,4
71,8
66,7
61,5
56,4
51,3
46,1
Reducedtravel costs
33
32
32
29
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
16
16
16
11
5
Total number of positive impactsmentioned
344
Improved
decision-making
Improved
understanding
betweenpartners
Improved
publicawareness
Consensuson priorities
Sustainabletourist activity
Coherentterritorial planning
Strongercommunity identity
Educationalinitiatives
Habitat restoration
Improvedquality of life
More sustainablefishing activity
Pollution reduction
Landscapeimprovement
Lower environmentalvulnerability
Reducederosionand flooding
4,O
41,o
41,o
41,o
28,2
12,8
I
55,1
I
Meanimpact
score
Chief
benefits
(3)
I,84
I,41
I,81
I,83
2,00
I,85
2,04
I,91
2,05
I,89
2,31
2,25
I,94
2,19
2,40
3,00
(4)
9
17
8
5
1
9
4
5
2
1
2
2,04
3
1
I
67
Source: EuropeanICZMSurvey,2000.Notes: (1) Totalnumberof mentionsin 39 ICZMprojects;(2) % of mentionsin the39;
(3JAverageimportanceattributed to eachfactor where I= very positive impact,2 q positive impact,3 = no impact,4 = negative impact,5 = very negativeimpact. Thelower the score,the morepositive the impact, (4) Numberof im,pactsrated 1 (very
positive).
ACRONYMS
CELM: Celluled’Environnement
LittoralMarin- ICZM: IntegratedCoastalZoneManagement
Seacoast
Environment
Cell
IFRECOR
: InitiativeFranCaise
pour lesR&ifs
CELRL
: Conservatoire
de I’Espace
Littoralet des Coraliens(FrenchCoralReefInitiative)
Rivages
Lacustres
- LakeandSeaShore
MAB: ManAnd Biosphere
Conservancy
Agency
METAPlMAP
: MediterraneanEnvironmental
CN=COI
: ComiteNationalFranFais
pourIa
Commission
Oceanographique
lntergouvernementale
- FrenchNational
Committeefor the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic
Commission
CEPRALMAR
: Centred/Etudeset de
PromotiondesActivitiesLagunaires
et Maritimes
CIAT: Centerfor the StudyandPromotionof
MaritimeandLagoonActivities
CRC: CoastalResourceCentre
CRD: ComiteRegionalde Developpement
(RegionalDevelopment
Committee)
andTechnical
Assistance
Programme
I
Mediterranean
ActionPlan
POS: Pland’occupationdesSols(localland-use
plan)
PRE-COIIUE
: Programme
Regional
Environnement
- Commission
de I’OceanlndienI
UnionEuropeenne
(IOUEU- PRE: IndianOcean
Commission/
EuropeanUnion- Regional
Environmental
Programme)
SAR: Schemad’AmenagementRegional
(RegionalDevelopment
Plan)
DIREN
: DirectionRegionalede I’Environnement SDAGE=RMC
: SchemaDirecteur
(RegionalEnvironmental
Agency)
Response
d’Amenagement
et de GestiondesEaux- Rhone
Mediterranee-Corse
(Watershed
Development
and
WaterQualityMasterPlan- RhoneMediterranean-Corsica)
EC: EuropeanCommission
EHESS
: EcoledesHautesEtudesen Sciences
SEA: StrategicEnvironmentalAssessment
SEPNB
: SocietepourI’Etudeet la Protectionde
DPM: DomainePublicMaritime
DPSIR
: DrivingforcesPressure
StateImpact
Sociales
EIA: EnvironmentalImpactStudy
EIS: Etuded’lmpactStrategique- Strategic
ImpactStudy- SIS
GIS: GeographicInformationSystem
GOOS
: GlobalOceanObserving
System
ICAM: IntegratedCoastalAreaManagement
ICRI: InternationalCoralReefsInitiative
la Natureen Bretagne(Societyfor the Studyand
Protectionof Naturein Brittany)
SIAT: SyndicatIntercommunalde I’Aire
Toulonnaise
(GreaterToulonAreaIntermunicipal
Corporation)
SMCO: SyndicatMixtede la Coted’0paleCbted’opalePublicandPrivatePartnership
SMVM: Schemade MiseenValeurde la Mer
(SeaEnhancement
MasterPlan)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Generalreferencesto ICZM:
- BabinD., BertrandA., WeberJ., Antona M, :
PatrimonialMediation and ManagementSubsidiarity:
Managing Pluralismfor SustainableForestryand Rural
Development.In Proceedingsof an International
Workshopon Pluralismand SustainableForestryand
RuralDevelopment,Rome,9-12 December1997.
- BardeJP. : Economicet Politiquede I’environnement
Ed.PUF,2emeedition, Paris1992.
logique. SerieMethodeset Instrumentspour la gestion
du cyclede projet. Fevrier1993,
- EuropeanCommission: EuropeanSpatialDevelopment
Perspective.TowardsBalancedand Sustainable
Developmentof the Territory of the EuropeanUnion.
EuropeanCommission,May 1999.
- EuropeanCommission: Planningand Management
Processes
: Sectoraland Territorial Cooperation,Final
Report,March 1999.
- Bioret J., CibienF.,Genot C.,LecomteJ.C.: A guide to
- FaureG.O.,Mermet L.,TouzardH., Dupont C, :
BiospereReserveManagement: A Methodologyapplied Connaitreet pratiquer la gestion- La nelgociationto FrenchBiosphereReserves,MAB Digest19, UNESCO, Situationset problematiques.Ed.Nathan, 1998,
Paris,1998.
- GorgeuY,,JenkinsC ,, GentilA. : La chartede territoire
- Borrini-FeyerabendG., FarvarM.T.,Nguinguiri J.C.,
- Unedemarchepour un projet de developpement
NdangangVA, : Co-managementof Natural Resources:
durable.La DocumentationFrancaise,1997.
Organising,Negotiating and Learning-by-doing.GTZ
and IUCN,KasparekVerlag,Heidelberg(Germany),2000. - GustavsonK., Huber R.M.,RuitenbeekJ. : Integrated
- Bioret, F.Cibien,C,Genot,I. C. Lecomte,J. : A guide to CoastalZone Managementof Coral Reefs: Decision
Support Modeling. Ed.The World Bank,2000.
BiosphereReserveManagement: a Methodology
applied to french BiospheresReserves,MAB Digest 19,
UNESCO,
Paris,1998.
- BunceL.,TownsleyR, PomeroyR.,PollnacR. :
SocioeconomicManualfor CoralReefManagement,
GlobalCoral ReefMonitoring Network, Ed,Australian
Institute of Marine Science,2000.
- BurbridgeRR.: The guiding principlesfor a European
ICZMstrategy.Towardsa EuropeanStrategyfor ICZM,
Brussels,1999.
- Cicin-SainB., KnechtR.W.: Integrated Coastaland
OceanManagement- Conceptsand Practices.
Ed.IslandPress,1998.
- CoastalResourcesCenter: A Manualfor Assessing
Progressin CoastalManagement- The Common
Methodologyfor Learning.CoastalManagementReport
# 2211,CRC,The Universityof RhodeIsland,
January1999.
- Cohende LaraM., Dron D. : EvaluationPconomiqueet
environnementdanslesdecisionspubliques.Ed.La
DocumentationFrangaise,Collectiondes rapports
officiels,1997
- Commissiondes CommunautesEuropeennes: Manuel
Gestiondu Cyclede Projet- Approcheintegree et cadre
- HenocqueY. : Bilandu contrat GREEN-0(1996-2000)L’expertiseinternationale et regionaleaidservicede la
gestion integree deszonesc&i&es danslesetats
membresde la Commissionde I’Oceanlndien (COI),
Juin 2000.
- IFEN: Amenagementdu territoire et environnement.
Politiqueset indicateurs.IFEN-DATAR,
juillet 2000.
- KalaoraB. : Au-dela de la nature I’environnementL’observationsocialede I’environnement.
Ed.L’Harmattan,Collection” Environnement“, 1998.
- KalaoraB., CharlesL. : Interventionsociologiqueet
developpementdurable : le casde la gelstionintegree
deszonescotieres.Nature Scienceset Societe,
vol 8 n”2, 2000.
- Le Moigne J.L.: Latheorie du systemegeneral.Theorie
de la modelisation.Ed,PUF,Paris,1984.
- LeeN., GeorgeC. : EnvironmentalAssessmentin
Developingand TranstionalCountries.Principles,
Methodsand Tractice.Ed.John Wiley & SonsLtd., 2000.
- Mermet L. : Strategiespour la gestion de I’environnement - La nature commejeu de societe? Ed.
L’Harmattan,Collection’ Environnement“, 1992.
- METAPlMAP
: Assessment
of IntegratedCoastalArea
ManagementInitiativesin the Mediterranean:
Experiences
from METAPand MAP(1988-1996),1998.
- PNUElPAMlPAP
: Cadreconceptuelet directivespour la
gestionintegreedu littoral et desbassinsfluviaux.Split,
Programmed’ActionsPrioritaires,1999.
- PrieurM,, GhezaliM, : Legislationsnationalesrelatives
a I’amenagementet a la gestion deszonescbtieresen
Mediterraneeet propositionsde lignesdirectrices.
UNEPIMAPIPAP,
Split, octobre 2000.
- SalmVR., ClarkJR., SiirilaE.: Marineand Coastal
ProtectedAreas.Aguide for Plannersand Managers,
Third Edition,IUCNMarineProgrammeI USAID,2000.
- TaherSra’iriM. : Determinismeet applicationsde la
recherchesystemiquepour I’etude de I’elevagelaitier,
Le Courrierde I’Environnementde I’INRA,N”42,
Fevrier2001
- UNEPlBluePlan: ta prospectiveterritoriale en
Mediterraneeet I’approchepar acteurs.MAPTechnical
ReportsSeriesN”127,2000.
- UNEPlPAP
: Formulationand Implementationof CAMP
Projects,OperationalManual.Athens- Split, 1999.
- UNESCO: Guidemethodologiqued’aide a la gestion
integree deszones&i&es, IOC,Manualsand Guides
n”36, 1997.
- UNESCO: Guidemethodologiquepour I’elaboration
de cartesde vulnerabilitedeszonescbtieresde I’Ocean
Indien. IOC,Manuelset guidesn”38, 2000.
- Weber1, : Conservation,developpementet coordination : peut-on gerer biologiquementle social? Colloque
PanafricainGestionCommunautairedes ressourcesnaturellesrenouvelableset developpementdurable, Harare,
24-27juin 1996.
- Antona M., Delmas-FerreM., HenocqueY.,Rajaonson
H.,TodiarivoP. : Contribution a la finalisationdu plan
de developpementdurable d’une zone cotiere de la
region COI: Applicationa la zone cotiere du Menabe,
Madagascar.RapportGREEN-01,
PRE-COIIUE,
Octobre 1999.
- AugustaveJ.C.,KalaoraB. : ta gestion integree des
zonescbtieres.Questionsde sociologic.Applicationa
I’operation pilote de la zone sud-estde I’ile Maurice.
RapportGREEN-01,
PRE-COIIUE,
Mars 1998.
- Comitede BassinRMC: Tableaude bord du SDAGE
Rhone-Mediterranee-Corse
- Panoramique2000,Ed.
Agencede I’EauRMC,2001,
- DauvinJ.-C.,BellanG., Bellan-SantiniD., BeurierJ.-P,,
Deboudt P, DesroyN,, DewarumezJ.-M;,GhezaliM.,
GuillaumontB., MesnardA.-H.,Meur-FerretC.,Petit C.,
Pouille X., RuzM,H.,VidementL. : Rationnaliser/es
connaissances
pour preserverdurablementle patrimoine
nature/ littoral, COILPatrimoinesNaturels,Museum
National d’HistoireNaturelle,a paraitre en 2002.
- Dedieu0. : LeSMVMdu bassinde Thauet safacade
maritime: I’apprentissaged’un amenagementpartenarial et concertedu littoral. In ValarieP.,La
Consommationd’espaceen zone littorale languedocienne: representationset systemesd’action. Rapport
CNRSIIFREMER,
Mars2000,pp. 104-142,
- Diop ES., Sall M.M., SorvA.A., SoumareA., Diouf P.S.
et al. : Contribution a I’elaborationdu plan de gestion
integree de la Reservede Biospheredu delta du Saloum
(Senegal).UCAD-UNESCO
I DivisiondesSciences
EcologiquesI MAB,Dakar,1998.
- EuropeanCommission: An Assessment
of the SocioEconomicCosts& Benefitsof IntegratedCoastalZone
Management,FinalReport,November2000.
- GuizolP.,Stirling I. : Operation pilote de GrandAnse,
- White A.T.,Cruz-TrinidadA. : The Valuesof Philippine Mahe,Seychelles.Missionspreparatoiresa la structuraCoastalResources: Why Protectionand Management
tion d’un comitede pilotage et a la propositiond’un
are Critical.CoastalResourceManagementProject,Cebu plan de gestion.RapportGREEN-01,
PRE-COIIUE,
City,Philippines,96p. 1998.
Fevrier1998.
Specificreferencesto casestudies:
- Antona M., ChaboudC.,HenocqueY.,Moizo B.,
RazafindrabeM., WeberJ. : Restitutiondesp&audits
nationauxet consolidationdeselementsregionaux.
RapportGREEN-01,
PRE-COIIUE,
Fevrier1997.
- Le BerreI. : Reservede Biospherede la Mer d’lroise,
Cartesde synthese.CG29/Geosystemes/MABUNESCOlMinistPre
de I’Environnement,1997.
- RafecasN. : Etudedu casreel de Saint-Cyprien.
Rapportde DEAnon publie. CN-COI,23p, 2000.
GLOSSARY
0IntegratedCoastalZoneManagement
: 0 Ghomatique: “The
A dynamic processinvolving governments and societies, sciences and decision-makers, and public and
private interests, aimed at protecting and developing
coastal systems and resources. The goal of this
process is to optimize long-term choices which
emphasize resourcesand their reasonable and rational use.
9Territory : An area, the
people, and the relationships they maintain mutually and with the
outside world
0 Logicalframework : A tool
developed in
the 1970s and used by various foreign-aid agencies
ever since. It consists of an exercise coupled with an
analytic method, as well as a means of formalizing
the results of the exercise. It results in a logical and
systematic presentation of the objectives of a
project or program, which may have an influence on
its sucess. The main results of the process are
summarized as a matrix which describes in a logical
way the goals, the results (outcomes) expected, the
resources applied, and the costs, the hypotheses for
success,and the indicators, It is important to note
that this exercise must be applied throughout the
process, in an ongoing way. It would be wrong to
believe that the logical framework could be completed at the beginning. Its completion and correction
are an ongoing, gradual process.The logical framework could also be considered as a foundation for
the elaboration of other tools, in particular the
detailed budget, the attribution of tasks and duties,
the indicator system, the execution schedule, and a
follow-up plan.
study of the management and processing of data referring to spatial
parameters, which draws upon the sciences and
technology related to their acquisition, storage,
processing, and diffusion. The term “geomatics” is
used to designate a set of such disciplines as cartography, topography, photographic surveying,
remote sensing, statistics, and data Iprocessing.The
GIS (Geographic Information System) is a tributary
of geomatics as a data base with a spatial reference.” (Excerpted from the “Multilingual Land
Thesaurus”, published by the FAO).
* Governance: Refers to all of the institutions,
networks, directives, regulations, standards,
norms, political and social practices, public and
private players who contribute to the stability of a
society and a political regime, its orientation, and
its capacity to guide, to supply services,and ensure
its legitimacy.
e Social engitleeritlg : This concept refers to
skills and practices which are much broader than
those of the sociologist or the anthropologist : it is
a case of “applied” social science. The “social engineer” is not usually expected to understand how
social systemsoperate; instead, he or she should be
able to arrive at an effective implementation of the
procedures and devices for collective action in
favor of the management of fragile environmental
resources, as related to the values and interests
specific to the social groups at hand (enhancement
of grass-roots initiatives, cooperative approach,
governance, etc.). Based on a social and ecological
diagnostic of an environmental situation, the social
eExternalities: “Costs or drawbacks that the engineer should be able to persuade the commuactivity of one economic player imposes on nity to change the state of ecosystems and
another, in the absence of any financial compensa- resources at stake, making it more sustainable. By
tion or merchant exchange. An external cost is thus creating cultural and cognitive frarneworks encouan uncompensated social cost : that is, it is imposed raging these changes, the social engineer should
on a third party, outside of any voluntary transac- help in finding a way to transmit the resource to
posterity, near and far.
tion.” (Barde, 1992).
CASE
STUDIES
Example 1
l
l
l
l
l
Example
2 : $bo;;;ion
Example
3 : Creation of a natural reservein a Reunion Islandcoral lagoon
Example
4 : The CQted’0pale (Nord-Pas-de-Calais,
France): how a corporate instrument was created as
a meansof defining an ICZMstrategy
Example
5 : the caseof integrated managementof the reefs of southeasternMauritius Island
Example 6
l
l
l
l
Example
Example 8
Example
l
of an integrated management plan for the SaloumDelta BiosphereReserve,
: A socio-environmentalevaluation in the Comoroslslandss
7 : Intensification of development and erosion of the beach at Saint-Cyprien,
FrenchMediterranean coast
: Management plan for the Grand-AnseSpecialReserve,Seychelles
9 : Elaboration of the CoastalZone Master Planfor the Menabe region, Madagascar
. ExampleIO
l
: The SeaEnhancementScheme(SMVM)for Thau lagoon and its coastalfringe
: The caseof the Seaof lroise IslesNatural Reserve,Northern Brittany, France
Example11 : Rhone-Mediterranean-CorsicaWater-ManagementMaster Plan
Example12
: Main positive impactsidentified within the framework of the ICZMEuropeandemonstration programme
BOXES
1
: Spaceand Issues
BOX
2
: Five proposals for an approach to the theory of governance (Stoker, 1998)
9
BOX
3
: Questions to use as guidelines when drafting the territory’s socio-environmental questionnaire :
l
BOX
4
: The Environmental Impact Study, an example of a tool
l
BOX
5
: Models
l
BOX
l
l
l
l
BOX 6
BOX
7
BOX 8
l
BOX
l
BOX
9
10
: Negotiation as a three-phase process
: Coordination workshops, seminars,commissions
: How can an ecosystembe priced?
: Implementation of a management plan : Exampleof an action file
: Examplesof sustainability indicators
IOCMANUALSAND
GUIDES
N”
Title
1 rev,2
Guide to IGOSSData Archives and Exchange(BATHYand TESAC).1993. 27 pp. (English, French,
Spanish, Russian)
2
3 rev.3
International Catalogue of Ocean Data Station. 1976. (Out of stock)
Guide to Operational Procedures for the Collection and Exchan e of JCOMM Oceanographic
Data. Third RevisedEdition, 1999. 38 pp, (English, French, Spanisa , Russian)
Guide to Oceanographic and Marine Meteorological Instruments and Observing Practices.
1975. 54 pp. (Englrsh)
Guide for Establishing a National Oceanographic Data Centre, 1997. 42 pp, (English)
Wave Reporting Procedures for Tide Observers in the Tsunami Warning System. 1968. 30 pp,
(English)
Guide to Operational Procedures for the IGOSSPilot Project on Marine Pollution (Petroleum)
Monitoring. 1976. 50 pp. (French, Spanish)
(Superseded by IOC Manuals and Guides No. 16)
4
5 rev.
6 rev.
7
8
9 rev.
Manual on International Oceanographic Data Exchange. (Fifth Edition). 1991. 82 pp, (French,
Spanish, Russian)
9 AnnexI (Supersededby IOC Manuals and Guides No. 17)
9 AnnexII Guide for Responsible National Oceanographic Data Centres, 1982. 29 pp, (English, French,
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Spanish, Russian)
(Superseded by IOC Manuals and Guides No. 16)
The Determination of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Sediments. 1982. 38 pp, (French, Spanish,
Russian)
Chemical Methods for Use in Marine Environment Monitoring. 1983. 53 pp. (English)
Manual for Monitoring Oil and DissolvedlDis ersed Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Marine Waters
and on Beaches.1984. 35 pp, (English, Frenc , Spanish, Russian)
Manual on Sea-LevelMeasurements and Interpretation. 1985.83 pp, (English, French, Spanish,
Russian)
Operational Procedures for Sampling the Sea-SurfaceMicrolayer, 1985. 15 pp, (English)
Marine Environmental Data Information Referral Catalogue. Third Edition,, 1993. 157 pp,
(Composite English/French/Spanish/Russian)
A
GF3 : A General Formatting Systemfor Geo-referenced Data
Vol. 1 : Introductory Guide to the GF3 Formatting System. 1993. 35 pp, (English, French,
Spanish, Russian)
Vol. 2 : Technical Description of the GF3 Format and Code Tables. 1987. 111 pp, (English,
French, Spanish, Russian)
Vol. 4 : User Guide to the GF3-ProcSoftware. 1989. 23 pp. (English, French, Spanish, Russian)
Vol. 5 : Reference Manual for the GF3-ProcSoftware. 1992. 67 pp, (English, French, Spanish,
Russian)
Vol. 6 : Quick Reference Sheets for GF3 and GF3-Proc.1989. 22 pp, (English, French, Spanish,
Russian)
User Guide for the Exchange of Measured Wave Data. 1987. 81 pp, (English, French, Spanish,
Russian)
N"
Title
19
Guide to IGOSSSpecialized Oceanographic Centres (SOCs). 1988. 17 pp. (English, French,
Spanish, Russian)
20
Guide to Drifting Data Buoys. 1988. 71 pp. (English, French, Spanish, Russian)
21
(Superseded
by IOCManualsand GuidesNo. 25)
22
GTSPPReal-time Quality Control Manual, 1990. 122 pp, (English)
23
Marine Information Centre Development : An Introductory Manual. 1991. 32 pp. (English,
French, Spanish, Russian)
24
Guide to Satellite Remote Sensing of the Marine Environment. 1992. 178 pp. (English)
25
Standard and Reference Materials for Marine Science.RevisedEdition. 1993. 577 pp. (English)
26
Manual of Quality Control Procedures for Validation of Oceanographic Data. 1993. 436 pp,
(English)
27
Chlorinated Biphenyls in Open Ocean Waters : Sampling, Extraction, Clean-up and Instrumental
Determination. 1993. 36 pp, (English)
28
Nutrient Analysis in Tropical Marine Waters. 1993. 24 pp# (English)
29
Protocols for the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS)Core Measurements. 1994. 178 pp .
(English)
30
MIM Publication Series :
Vol. 1 : Report on Diagnostic Procedures and a Definition of Minimum Requirements for
Providing Information Serviceson a National and/or Regional Level. 1994. 6 pp, (English)
Vol. 2 : Information Networking : The Development of National or Regional Scientific
Information Exchange. 1994. 22 pp, (English)
Vol. 3 : Standard Directory Record Structure for Organizations, Individuals and their Research
Interests. 1994. 33 pp, (English)
31
HAB Publication Series :
Vol. 1 : Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning. 1995. 18 pp. (English)
33
Ocean0 raphic Survey Techniques and Living Resources Assessment Methods. 1996. 34 pp,
(English3
Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. 1995. (English)
34
Environmental Design and Analysis in Marine Environmental Sampling. 1996. 86 pp, (English)
35
IUGGllOCTime Pro’ect. Numerical Method of Tsunami Simulation with the Leap-Frog Scheme.
1997. 122 pp. (EngIish)
36
Methodological Guide to Integrated management of coastal zones, 1997.47 pp, (French,English)
37
Post-TsunamiSurvey Field Guide. First Edition. 1998, 61 pp. (English, French, Spanish, Russian)
38
Guidelines for Vulnerability Mapping of Coastal areas in the Indian Ocean. 2000. 40 pp,
(French, English)
39
Improved Global Bathymetry; Final Report of SCORWorking Group 107. (under preparation)
40
Guidelines for the Study of Shoreline Change in the Western Indian Ocean Region. 2000.73 pp.
(English)
32
41
IOCINCWIO Identification Guide Book to Potentially Harmful Marine Microalgae. (under
preparation)
t
mer
,