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XXX10.1177/0145445511427770Goodwin et al.Behavior Modification
A Pilot Study
Examining the Initial
Effectiveness of a
Brief AcceptanceBased Behavior
Therapy for
Modifying Diet and
Physical Activity Among
Cardiac Patients
Behavior Modification
XX(X) 1–19
© The Author(s) 2011
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0145445511427770
http://bmo.sagepub.com
Christina L. Goodwin1,2, Evan M. Forman1,
James D. Herbert1, Meghan L. Butryn1,
and Gary S. Ledley1
Abstract
Approximately 90% of cardiac events are attributable to a small number of
modifiable behavioral risk factors that, if changed, can greatly decrease morbidity and mortality. However, few at-risk individuals make recommended behavioral changes, including those who receive formal interventions
designed to facilitate healthy behavior. Given evidence for the potential of
specific psychological factors inherent in acceptance-based behavior therapy
(ABBT; that is, intolerance of discomfort, mindfulness, and values clarity)
to impact health behavior change, the authors evaluated the feasibility and
1
Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Ohio State University, Columbus, USA [AQ: 1]
2
Corresponding Author:
Christina L. Goodwin, The Ohio State University, 169 Psychology Building,
1835 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Email: Christina.L.Goodwin@gmail.com
2
Behavior Modification XX(X)
initial effectiveness of an ABBT pilot program designed to increase adherence to behavioral recommendations among cardiac patients. Participants
(N ! 16) were enrolled in four, 90-min group sessions focused on developing
mindfulness and distress tolerance skills, and strengthening commitment to
health-related behavior change. Participants reported high treatment satisfaction and comprehension and made positive changes in diet and physical
activity. This was the first evaluation of an ABBT program aimed at increasing heart-healthy behaviors among cardiac patients.
Keywords
acceptance-based, diet, physical activity, cardiac patients
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the United
States and costs Americans nearly US$276 billion annually in direct and indirect costs. CVD poses great risks in terms of morbidity and mortality; survivors of an acute heart attack have a risk of illness or death approximately
15 times higher than the general population (American Heart Association
[AHA], 2009b; Cobb, Brown, & Davis, 2006). Importantly, the vast majority
of heart disease patients have at least one modifiable physiologic (e.g., obesity,
hypertension, hypercholesteremia) or behavioral (e.g., high-calorie, high-fat,
and high-sodium diet; insufficient physical activity; and smoking) risk factor,
which if changed results in markedly decreased mortality and morbidity
(Cobb et al., 2006; Ornish et al., 1990; Ornish et al., 1998). However, relatively few individuals who have been diagnosed with CVD or experienced an
acute cardiovascular event (e.g., a heart attack) make recommended behavioral changes (Cobb et al., 2006; Dorneleas, 2008).
A number of cardiac lifestyle interventions have been developed in
response to the difficulty in making and maintaining behavioral changes in
diet, physical activity, and smoking. Unfortunately, these interventions tend
to be minimally successful in the long-term modification of these behaviors
(Bennett & Carroll, 1994; Bolman, de Vries, & van Breukelen, 2002;
Dorneleas, Sampson, Gray, Waters, & Thompson, 2000; Hajek, Taylor, &
Mills, 2002; Rigotti, McKool, & Shiffman, 1994). Programs that are more
successful are also more likely to be time and resource intensive (e.g., involving the relocation of patients for long periods of time; Billings, Scherwitz,
Sullivan, & Sparler, 1996; Jiang, Sit, & Wong, 2007; Lisspers et al., 1999;
Pischke, Scherwitz, Weidner, & Ornish, 2008; Sundin et al., 2003). In addition, the majority of interventions limit their focus to a single behavioral target, the most popular being exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation. Yet, most
Goodwin et al.
3
cardiac patients have multiple behavioral risk factors (Cobb et al., 2006);
therefore, even if these single-focus programs are successful (and they are
not for most patients), they are not impacting other critical lifestyle behaviors
that are important in cardiac rehabilitation. In addition, factors such as low
socioeconomic status (SES) increase the likelihood that individuals will not
adhere to healthy lifestyles.
Smoking, obesity, and sedentariness are all more prevalent among lowSES (specifically low educated) individuals, and better health outcomes are
reported for high-SES individuals with numerous health conditions (Cutler &
Lleras-Muney, 2008; Illsley & Baker, 1991). While no single variable can
explain the relationship between SES and health behaviors, it has been suggested that low-SES individuals are less likely to invest in their future health
and are more focused on their present circumstances (Becker & Murphy,
1988; Cutler & Lleras-Muney, 2008).
Psychological Explanations for
Difficulty of Lifestyle Change
On the whole, insufficient attention has been paid to the psychological factors
that make it difficult to achieve and sustain a heart-healthy lifestyle. One
construct that is increasingly invoked to explain maladaptive behavior, including health behavior, is distress tolerance. Distress tolerance, which is closely
related to the construct of psychological acceptance, is defined as the extent
to which individuals fully accept (vs. attempt to suppress or avoid) difficult
internal experiences, that is, thoughts, emotions, physiological sensations, and
urges (Forman & Herbert, 2009; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999). For
example, difficulty giving up smoking and smoking cessation relapse, particularly, has been linked to lower levels of distress tolerance (Brown, Lejuez,
Kahler, & Strong, 2002; Brown, Lejuez, Kahler, Strong, & Zvolensky, 2005).
More recently, it has been proposed that adhering to a low-calorie diet and
sustaining physical activity also requires the ability to psychologically accept
difficult internal experiences such as food cravings, feelings of deprivation,
and physical discomfort (Butryn, Forman, Hoffman, Shaw, & Juarascio,
2011; Falk, Bisogni, & Sobal, 2000; Forman, Butryn, Hoffman, & Herbert,
2009; Forman et al., 2010). Hayes and colleagues (Hayes et al., 1999; Hayes
& Wilson, 1994) have argued that defusion (i.e., the ability to psychologically
step back from thought and feelings and to see them for what they are) and
values clarity (i.e., a clear and present awareness of one’s personal values)
facilitate commitment to desired behaviors in the face of the aversive internal
4
Behavior Modification XX(X)
experiences that they engender. The aforementioned constructs are found
within acceptance-based behavioral treatments (ABBT).
Promise of Acceptance-Based
Health Behavior Interventions
ABBT such as acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl,
& Wilson, 2002; Hayes & Wilson, 1994) focus on maximizing psychological
flexibility, that is, the ability to choose one’s behaviors regardless of the
internal distress they engender. These interventions may therefore be especially well suited to the challenge of health behavior change, including the
adoption and maintenance of heart-healthy lifestyle behaviors. Unlike other
psychological interventions that aim to modify or reduce negatively evaluated thoughts and feelings, ACT promotes mindful acceptance of one’s feelings and thoughts (e.g., discomfort felt while exercising) while engaging in
activities in line with one’s values (e.g., increased physical activity).
Various studies support the connection between these psychological constructs and health behavior change. For example, Lillis and colleagues (2009)
[AQ: 2]reported that change in acceptance-based coping and psychological flexibility mediated the impact of an ACT workshop on weight maintenance among those who had completed a weight loss program. Moreover,
Forman et al. (2009) reported that increases in acceptance-based psychological variables were associated with weight loss after the delivery of an open
trial of ABBT for weight loss. Significant improvements in behavior have
been observed in ABBT interventions for increasing physical activity (Butryn
et al., 2011), increasing medical adherence in diabetes patients (Gregg,
Callaghan, Hayes, & Glenn-Lawson, 2007), fostering adherence to highly
active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV disease (Moitra, Herbert, &
Forman, in press), and for smoking cessation (Gifford et al., 2004).
Collectively, these ABBT studies demonstrate changes in important behaviors by increasing levels of mindfulness and distress tolerance among
participants.
Current Study
Given preliminary evidence that ABBT programs have been shown to
improve diet, physical activity level, and smoking, it seems that an acceptance-based intervention has high potential for improving adherence to hearthealthy living in a cardiac population. However, there are no previous studies
evaluating the ability of ABBT to effect change in a cardiac population. The
Goodwin et al.
5
present pilot study aimed to test the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary
effectiveness of an ABBT program, delivered in a brief four-session intervention, to increase cardiac patients’ adherence to a heart-healthy lifestyle.
In addition, we sought to gather preliminary evidence regarding potential
mechanisms of action of this intervention, including mindfulness, distress
tolerance, and values clarity.
The current study was designed to evaluate the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Participants would report the intervention to be satisfactory.
Hypothesis 2: The intervention would increase levels of mindfulness,
distress tolerance, and values clarity from pre- to postintervention.
Hypothesis 3: The intervention would improve participant adherence
to a heart-healthy lifestyle (increased physical activity; decreased
caloric, fat, and sodium intake).
Hypothesis 4: Change in psychological variables would be associated
with change in outcome variables (caloric, sodium, and fat intake;
physical activity; weight).
Method
Participants
Patients (N ! 16) were recruited from the outpatient cardiac care unit of a
major academic medical center in the Northeastern United States, which
serves a predominately ethnic minority, low-SES population. Patients were
referred by their cardiologists and/or were approached by study staff during
clinic visits. Inclusion criteria reflected high risk for developing coronary
artery disease and included (a) current diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome
(ACS; that is, experienced a myocardial infarction or have unstable angina)
or overweight (body mass index [BMI] "25) with a current diagnosis of
hypertension or diabetes, (b) between the ages of 18 and 75, and (c) fluency
in written and spoken English. Exclusion criteria were legally blind or deaf,
or unable to fully participate in the group due to psychiatric (e.g., schizophrenia, delusions), cognitive (e.g., dementia), or substance abuse–related
impairment.
As shown in Table 1, the majority of participants were African American
women, and a majority carried a diagnosis of hypertension or ACS. Only one
participant reported current cigarette use.
6
Behavior Modification XX(X)
Table 1. Demographic Data
%
Gender
Male
Female
Ethnicity
African American
Asian
Caucasian
Haitian
Hispanic
Employment
Full-time
Part-time
Occasional
Disability/SSI
No income
Retired
Relationship status
Single (no current romantic partner)
Divorced
Widowed
Married/living with partner
Not living with current partner
Cardiac risk factora
Acute coronary syndrome
Diabetes # obesity
Hypertension # obesity
High cholesterol # obesity
31.3
68.8
56.3
0.0
31.3
6.3
6.3
43.8
12.5
0.0
25.0
0.0
18.8
12.5
6.3
12.5
56.3
12.5
62.5
37.5
68.8
37.5
a
Participants may have multiple risk factors. [AQ: 3]
Procedure
Eligible participants provided informed consent and were invited to participate in four, 90-min group therapy sessions. Participants received US$20 for
completing all assessments. The interventionists were graduate students in
clinical psychology and used a four-session intervention manual created by
the authors to increase heart-healthy behaviors, as described below. Each
group consisted of one to five group members and two interventionists.
Goodwin et al.
7
The intervention manual was borrowed from (a) Brownell’s LEARN
[AQ: 4]manual for weight loss (Brownell, 2000), (b) Forman and colleagues’
ABBT intervention for weight loss (Forman et al., 2010), and (c) educational
material from the AHA (2009a). The aim of the intervention was increasing
positive behavior change in diet and physical activity by enhancing psychological acceptance, values clarity, and ongoing commitment to engage in
heart-healthy-related valued behavior even in the face of aversive internal
experiences. The intervention was divided into three components, described
below and outlined in Table 2.
Psychoeducation. Psychoeducation involved teaching cardiac-specific
nutritional, dietary, and physical activity information, and behavioral methods for modifying diet and physical activity levels. Participants were provided with specific behavioral techniques for adhering to a heart-healthy
lifestyle (e.g., time management and assertiveness; brisk walking schedules;
low-calorie, low-fat recipes; cooking methods to decrease calories). Cultural
customization of lifestyle behaviors was considered and discussed as needed
(e.g., modification of traditional foods, caregiver roles in multigenerational
homes). In addition, group problem solving was used on a weekly basis to
address difficulties in attaining assigned heart-healthy goals.
Mindfulness and distress tolerance (willingness). Participants were asked to
discuss previous methods for attaining weight loss and exercise goals. Experiences from their previous attempts to adopt a heart-healthy lifestyle were
used to help participants identify control-based strategies (e.g., distraction
from thoughts, attempts to change feelings about exercising) as ineffective,
to provide them with motivation to try an acceptance-based approach. A
rationale for accepting previously avoided internal experiences was presented
through the use of metaphors and experiential exercises. In addition, participants monitored their weekly goals and their willingness to experience distressing thoughts and feelings related to lifestyle changes. To increase distress
tolerance, participants were encouraged to recognize that distress associated
with physical activity and healthy eating (e.g., physical and mental discomfort,
urges to stop exercising) is normal, and often cannot readily be suppressed or
controlled without producing even more distress. In addition, strategies to
promote defusion (i.e., distancing from unhelpful thoughts, feelings, or
beliefs) were used to promote contact with the present moment. Participants
were taught to use defusion to increase their ability to experience thoughts,
feelings, and sensations in the context of their individual goal-/value-driven
behaviors. Participants were taught that increasing their willingness to experience distressing internal states increases their ability to engage in difficult
behavior change (such as adopting heart-healthy behaviors).
8
Behavior Modification XX(X)
Table 2. Summary of Treatment Components
Session
1
2
3
Behavioral components
Introductions
Problems with living healthily
Heart-healthy living (calories, serving
sizes, fat grams, sodium, physical
activity)
Relationship between goals and
cardiac health
Barriers to being active
How to keep food record
Home assignment
Review of nutritional information and
concepts discussed last week
Review of behavioral home
assignment
Continue nutritional information
Healthy eating out and eating in
Eating and activity cues
Home assignment
Review of home assignment and
concepts discussed last week
Discussion of “How you eat”
Strategies to slow down eating
Home assignment
4
Review of home assignment and
concepts discussed last week
Urge surfing
Lapse and relapse prevention
Closing of the program
ABBT components
Creative hopelessness
Limitations of control
strategies
Acceptance as an alternative to
control
Willingness
Willingness cues
Values and goals
Relating values to ACT-themes
Continued acceptance and
willingness
Defusion to increase
willingness
Mindless eating
Mindful eating strategies
Distress tolerance
Note: ABBT ! acceptance-based behavioral treatments; ACT ! acceptance and commitment
therapy.
Committed action/values and goals. Interventionists helped participants clarify their values and define their goals. Participants listed 10 reasons why they
value living heart-healthily to facilitate a discussion of value-driven behaviors.
Goodwin et al.
9
Potential barriers (psychological and environmental) to reaching individual
goals and living consistently with values were also discussed.
Treatment Fidelity
To increase treatment fidelity and consistency, the intervention followed a
highly structured treatment manual, which included the timing and duration
of each intervention subcomponent. Interventionists were supervised by
licensed clinical psychologists (M.L.B., E.M.F., and J.D.H.) and were
provided with immediate feedback about any potential deviations from the
intended intervention.
Measures
Participants completed all assessments before Session 1 and after Session 4,
with the exception of the acceptability and comprehension questionnaires,
which were completed only at posttreatment. Demographics and a brief
medical history were also completed by participants. In addition, height and
weight were assessed using a stadiometer and a medical-grade scale.
Physical activity and diet. Participants were instructed to track their diet and
physical activity levels using self-report measures. Physical activity was
assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, which measures physical activity across several life domains. The automated selfadministered 24-hr dietary recall (ASA-24) was used to assist patients in
reporting dietary intake on two weekdays and one weekend day. The ASA-24
was designed by the National Cancer Institute and is based on the Automated
Multiple Pass Method, which is reported to result in less food intake underreporting than other methods as well as high validity and reliability (National
Cancer Institute, 2010).The ASA-24 enables self-administered, interactive,
24-hr dietary recalls.
Mindful awareness and psychological acceptance. The Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS; Cardaciotto, Herbert, Forman, Moitra, & Farrow, 2008)
is a self-report measure of mindfulness, consisting of Mindful Awareness and
Psychological Acceptance subscales. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type
scale according to the frequency each item was experienced during the past
week [AQ: 5]. Very good internal consistency has been demonstrated
(awareness subscale α ! .85; acceptance subscale α ! .87). Higher scores
indicate greater mindfulness (Cardaciotto et al., 2008). Physical activity–
specific and food-specific psychological acceptance questionnaires were
also used. The Physical Activity Acceptance and Action Questionnaire
10
Behavior Modification XX(X)
(PA-AAQ) measures the degree to which a person avoids exercise-related
internal experiences and has a Cronbach’s alpha of .79 (Forman et al., 2009).
The Food Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (FAAQ) measures the
degree to which a person avoids food-related internal experiences and has a
Cronbach’s alpha of .68 (Juarascio, Forman, Timko, Butryn, & Goodwin, in
press).[AQ: 6]
Defusion from negative experiences. The Drexel Defusion Scale (DDS) is a
10-item scale that assesses the degree of psychological distance from various
negative thoughts and feelings. Higher scores indicate greater ability to
defuse from internal experiences (Cronbach’s α ! .83; Forman, Herbert, Moitra,
Yoemans, & Geller, 2007).
Values and goals clarity. As existing measures tapped strength of values for
various life domains, and not values clarity, a values and goals clarity measure was created for this study. Participants provided a definition of a “value”
and were asked to respond in writing to the open-ended question, “What are
the values by which you live your life?” Responses (de-identified) were
scored by two interventionists. Responses were coded as 0 (no defined goals/
values or a single-word answer such as “God” or “Retire”), 1 (broad goals
or values, for example, further education), 2 (specific goals or values but also
listed items that were not goals/values), or 3 (well-defined goals or values).
Interrater reliability of this measure was 92.9%.
Treatment satisfaction and comprehensibility. Participants answered the following two satisfaction questions on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ! not at
all, 5 ! very): “How helpful did you find the strategies (e.g., acceptance,
willingness, and defusion) for responding to urges or desires pushing you to
make unhealthy choices regarding diet, physical activity, and smoking?” and
“How satisfied were you with the approach we used to help you make changes
in your diet, physical activity level, and smoking behavior?”. Self-reported
comprehensibility was measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ! very
difficult and 5 ! not at all difficult) rating how difficult they felt it was to
comprehend the constructs of acceptance, mindfulness, willingness, defusion, and values individually. Higher scores indicate less difficulty/greater
comprehension. A posttreatment quiz measured comprehension more objectively. Participants were presented five treatment concepts (acceptance,
mindfulness, willingness, defusion, and values) and asked to explain each of
them in their own words. Responses were graded (blindly) by an interventionist on a 0 (no correct content) to 20 (fully correct response) scale with
specific anchor points (e.g., 10 ! described metaphors used in session without a construct definition).
Goodwin et al.
11
Statistics
Given the pilot nature of the data and the low statistical power, effect sizes1
are reported for all statistics.
Results
Participants
Participant ages ranged from 32 to 73 years (M ! 56.42, SD ! 12.72).
Overall, participants reported an unhealthy lifestyle at baseline, with nontreatment completers reporting less healthy lifestyles; see Table 3 for descriptive
statistics of baseline measures.
Retention, Acceptability, and Comprehension
All analyses are computed for treatment completers (n ! 12). Due to the lack
of posttreatment data for noncompleters (n ! 4) and the small sample size,
treatment completers are defined as having attended all four sessions. Based
on inspection of descriptive data, the four participants who discontinued
treatment had a higher mean BMI, had a less healthy lifestyle, and were less
psychologically minded than those who completed treatment.
Participants judged the program strategies to be highly satisfactory, based
on their high ratings of treatment helpfulness (M ! 4.17, SD ! 1.27) and treatment satisfaction (M ! 4.33, SD ! 1.23) on a 5-point Likert-type scale. On the
self-reported assessment of comprehension, participants rated the concepts of
acceptance (M ! 4.17, SD ! 0.72), willingness (M ! 4.08, SD ! 1.16), mindfulness (M ! 4.42, SD ! 1.16), and defusion (M ! 4.25, SD ! 0.97) to be fairly
easy to comprehend. However, on the objective assessment of comprehension, participants demonstrated variable levels of construct comprehension,
scoring from 58.4% (11.67/20 points) correct on willingness, defusion, and
values to 83.3% (16.67/20 points) correct on mindfulness.
Intervention Effects
Participants made large improvements from pre- to posttreatment in calorie
(d ! 1.03; $523.0 calories/day), fat gram (d ! 1.15; $32.37 g/day), and
sodium intake (d ! 1.63; $1509 mg/day), as well as substantial reductions in
absolute weight and BMI (d ! $0.13; $2.2 kg; $.77 kg/m2), and moderate
12
Behavior Modification XX(X)
Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, Change Scores, and Effect Sizes
Measure
M
Psychological variables (n ! 12)
DDS
Pretreatment
24.58
Posttreatment
26.33
PHLMS (acceptance)
Pretreatment
33.83
Posttreatment
33.00
PHLMS (awareness)
Pretreatment
34.75
Posttreatment
37.75
FAAQ
Pretreatment
47.83
Posttreatment
54.50
PA-AAQ
Pretreatment
25.08
Posttreatment
28.42
Values/goals clarity
Pretreatment
1.85
Posttreatment
2.54
Behavioral Variables (n ! 12)
Calories (kcal)
Pretreatment
1778.21
Posttreatment
1255.21
Fat (grams)
Pretreatment
77.81
Posttreatment
45.44
Sodium (mg)
Pretreatment
3378.24
Posttreatment
1869.24
IPAQ (METS/min per week)
Pretreatment
3946.29
Posttreatment
12397.79
Weight (lbs)
Pretreatment
223.34
Posttreatment
218.48
BMI (kg/m2)
Pretreatment
35.61
Posttreatment
34.87
SD
Mchange
SDchange
p
ES (d)
7.56
7.82
1.75
10.65
.58
0.23
6.41
7.31
$0.83
4.26
.51
$0.12
6.27
7.56
3.00
4.05
.03
0.43
12.65
8.32
6.67
10.92
.06
0.62
5.30
2.68
3.33
5.26
.05
0.80
1.14
0.82
0.44
1.33
.02
0.33
580.02
421.05
$523.00
335.85
.00
1.03
23.05
23.68
$32.37
23.13
.00
1.15
1087.18
729.12
$1509.00
886.78
.00
1.63
7025.97
20899.86
8451.5
22341.33
.22
0.54
39.59
37.80
$4.85
4.64
.00
$0.13
7.84
7.73
$0.74
$0.11
.10
$0.05
Note: ES ! effect size; PHLMS ! Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale; DDS ! Drexel Defusion Scale;
FAAQ ! Food Craving Acceptance and Action Questionnaire; PA-AAQ ! Physical Activity Acceptance and
Action Questionnaire; IPAQ ! International Physical Activity Questionnaire; METS ! metabolic equivalents;
BMI ! body mass index
13
Goodwin et al.
Table 4. Correlation Coefficients of Residualized Change Scores (Pretreatment to
Posttreatment) of Behavioral Variables and Psychological Variables.
Calories
(kcal)
Fat (g)
Sodium
(mg)
IPAQ total
(METS)
Weight
(lbs)
$.18
.18
.41a
.42a
—
$.12
$.38a
.35a
.14
.58*a
—
.09
.00
.29a
.42a
.64*a
—
$.04
$.165
—
$.42a
.09
.15
.78*a
.09
—
$.12
$.14
$.18
$.05
DDS
FAAQ
PHLMS–acceptance
PHLMS–awareness
PA-AAQ
Values/goals clarity
Note: IPAQ ! International Physical Activity Questionnaire; METS ! metabolic equivalents; DDS ! Drexel
Defusion Scale; FAAQ ! Food Craving Acceptance and Action Questionnaire; PHLMS ! Philadelphia
Mindfulness Scale; PA-AAQ ! Physical Activity Acceptance and Action Questionnaire.
a
Medium-large effect sizes.
*p % .05.
increases in physical activity (d ! 0.54; 8451.5 metabolic equivalents
[METS]/day; Table 3).
Mechanism of Action
Comparisons of pre- and posttreatment scores indicated medium-sized, significant (or trending significant) improvements on most psychological measures, including psychological acceptance, awareness, and defusion (Table 3).
Moreover, (residualized) gains in these psychological variables were associated with (residualized) gains in outcome variables (Table 4). Considering
the study’s limited power to detect bivariate associations, the pattern of results
is consistent with our mediation hypotheses.
Discussion
This pilot study evaluated the feasibility, acceptability, and initial effectiveness of implementing ABBT inpatients with, or at high risk for, CVD. The
program was viewed as helpful to participants, was feasible to deliver, and
maintained a moderately high retention rate. Despite the low program intensity (6 hr), analyses revealed moderate to large pretreatment to posttreatment
improvements in patient adherence to a heart-healthy lifestyle (improvements in weight, physical activity, and calorie, saturated fat, and sodium
intake). For example, participants lost an average of 2.2% of their baseline
14
Behavior Modification XX(X)
body weight (0.73%/week), which compares favorably with standard exercisebased cardiac rehabilitation programs, which report a 0% to 2% reduction in
body weight at 3 months (Brochu et al., 2000). Weight loss among participants is consistent with previous research on the impact of diet and physical
activity on weight loss (Donnelly, Jacobsen, Snyder Heelan, Seip, & Smith,
2000; Garrow & Summerbell, 1995). The current study reported large
(42%) reductions in fat gram intake, although not as large as some of the
more time- and resource-intensive interventions such as the Lifestyle Heart
Trial, which achieved an 80% reduction while using a vegetarian diet and a
week-long hotel retreat followed by 4 hr of group meetings twice a week
(Ornish et al., 1998). In support of the theorized mechanisms of action,
increases in nearly all process variables were also observed, and these
changes were associated with improvement in outcome variables. The general acceptance score was essentially unchanged (d ! $0.12). However, as
predicted, food-specific and physical activity–specific acceptance increased
from pre- to postintervention. The intervention (unlike others we and others
have implemented) was short term in nature and specifically targeted foodspecific and physical activity–specific acceptance skills, which could explain
the lack of change in general acceptance.
Although the absence of a control group limits conclusions, the changes in
the very psychological variables targeted by the intervention in combination
with the associations observed between gains in psychological variables and
outcomes support the contention that the intervention (and not another factor)
was responsible for the participants’ health gains.
There are several important limitations to this study. First, as noted, this
was a small pilot investigation that lacked a control group and long-term
assessments. Second, several constructs were collected by self-report, including calorie intake, physical activity, and distress tolerance. Self-reports of
calorie intake and physical activity have only moderate reliability (Jakicic,
Polley, & Wing, 1998), and self-reports of distress tolerance show very low
associations with behavioral measures (e.g., cold-pressor-induced pain;
Schloss & Haaga, 2011).Third, travel, frequent doctor appointments, and
inclement weather impacted participant retention rates. Nevertheless, retention rates were comparable with previous cardiac rehabilitation programs and
other behavioral interventions (Butler, Furber, Phongsavan, Mark, &
Bauman, 2009; Chang, Hendricks, Slawksy, & Locastro, 2004) [AQ: 7].
Fourth, the low literacy observed in this group (evidenced by poor spelling,
poor grammar, inappropriate word usage, and incomplete sentences in openended written questionnaires) may have compromised several aspects of the
intervention, such as comprehension of concepts, written supplementary
Goodwin et al.
15
material, and self-report measures. Finally, therapist adherence and patient
adherence to homework assignments were not captured. Overall, the intervention was feasible and rated as very helpful by participants, and preliminary results support theorized psychological processes (e.g., mindfulness,
defusion) and their role in heart-health behavior change.
The current intervention was the first study to our knowledge to test an
acceptance-based behavioral intervention to increase adherence to hearthealthy behaviors in a cardiac patient population. The intervention was successful at delivering a novel intervention to cardiac patients and increasing
adherence to a heart-healthy lifestyle. Future studies should increase intensity and add active controls to formally address mediational pathways to
adherence.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.[AQ: 8]
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.[AQ: 9]
Note
1. Effect sizes can be calculated using Cohen’s d ! (M1 $ M2)/σpooled or using a formula
that accounts for the correlation between the two time points (Dunlop, Cortina, Vaslow,
& Burke, 1996)[AQ: 10]. We chose the former because it provides more conservative estimates.
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Bios
Christina L. Goodwin, MS, is a doctoral student in clinical psychology at the Ohio
State University. Her research interests include developing interventions to improve
cardiovascular health and promote healthy behaviors.
Evan M. Forman, PhD, is an associate professor of psychology at Drexel University
where he is the director of the doctoral program in clinical psychology. His research
interests include the development and evaluation of acceptance-based behavioral
Goodwin et al.
19
interventions for mood, anxiety, and health-related behavior change; mediators of
psychotherapy outcome; and posttraumatic stress disorder.
James D. Herbert, PhD, is professor of psychology and director of the Anxiety
Treatment and Research Program at Drexel University, where he also serves as associate dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. His research interests include cognitive behavior therapy, clinical behavioral analysis, psychological acceptance, and
remote treatment delivery.
Meghan L. Butryn, PhD, is an assistant research professor in the Department of
Psychology at Drexel University. She conducts research on the prevention and treatment of obesity and eating disorders.
Gary S. Ledley, MD, is board certified in cardiovascular disease, internal medicine,
and interventional cardiology. He has been the principle investigator for a number of
National Institutes of Health–funded research studies and has published extensively
in the cardiology field.