Early National Period
United States 1
John Adams
• In 1797, Adams takes control of a deeply
divided nation
• Adams was brilliant, austere, stubborn and
self-important
• Disliked by even those who respected his
national service.
John Adam’s Administration
1796-1800
• Beset with problems
– Had to follow Washington
– Deep political divisions
– Nation being dragged into war in Europe
• Issue of Neutral rights
XYZ Affair
• Attempts to resolve European affairs
• Adams sends diplomatic team to France to
renegotiate old alliance with France
• French officials demand a bribe before
negotiating
• Adams upset
– Makes French demands public
• Poisons Franco-American relations
• Quasi-war breaks out on seas with France
Alien & Sedition Acts
• Greatest Crisis of Adams’ administration
• Confronted by growing critics
– Some being immigrant pamphleteers
– Federalist move to silence
– Passes new naturalization law extended from
5 to 14 years the time to become a citizen
• Alien Act—allowed deportation of
“dangerous” aliens
Alien and Sedition Act (cont.)
• Sedition Act—authorized prosecution of
almost all public assembly and
publications critical of the government
• Acts drew immediate criticism
• 18 individuals were charged under
Sedition Act—10 were convicted
• Fails to silence critics
– Republicans make it a focal point of
discussion
Election of 1800
• Alien and Sedition Acts shaped debate
• Republicans used “liberty” as a key phrase
in debate
– Effectively rally their electorate, Federalists
were much less effective
• Jefferson wins election
• Adam’s acceptance of defeat establishes
vital precedent of a peaceful transition of
power
Jefferson Presidency
• 1st president to begin term in new city of
Washington
• Jefferson hoped to dismantle as much of the
Federalist system as possible
– During 8 years:
•
•
•
•
Reduced # of gov. employees
Slashed the army and navy
Abolished all taxes but tariffs
Paid off the national debt
• Sought to prevent U.S. from becoming a
centralized state (anti-British sentiments)
Marbury vs. Madison
• Unable to completely end national authority
• Never trusted an unelected judiciary
– Believed the dominance of local self-government
• John Marshall—strong believer in national
supremacy
• Issue of midnight justices
• Established court’s power to review laws of
congress and the states
Louisiana Purchase
• Jefferson forced to compromise
– Believed that federal government was limited to
powers outlined in the constitution
• U.S. long concerned about access to New
Orleans—essential for western farmers
– Feared French intervention in commerce
– Sent envoys to France to offer to buy city
– Napoleon offers entire Louisiana Territory for 15
million
Louisiana Purchase
• Doubles size of nation
• French presence on Western frontier
ended
• Jefferson admits that he exceeded the
constitution
– Believed benefits exceeded problems
– Believed he was ensuring the agricultural
character of America
Lewis and Clark
• Within a year, Jefferson dispatches an
expedition to explore newly acquired lands
• Meriweather Lewis and William Clark
• Objective was scientific and commercial
– Discover potential of the region
– Trade with Indians
– Find water route to the Pacific
• Helped to strengthen idea that America
destined to reach Pacific.
Foreign Entanglements
• Despite relative isolation, U.S. still
influenced by European affairs
– European wars impacted farmers, merchants,
artisans
• Jefferson hoped to avoid foreign problems
• However, realities forced him to expand
military at time of he was limiting power of
national government
Barbary Pirates
• Preying on shipping in the Mediterranean
and Atlantic
– Receiving tribute from a number of countries,
including the U.S.
– Pasha of Tripoli increases demands—U.S.
refuses—undeclared war breaks out
– Jefferson sent warships to Tripoli.
– Stephen Decatur
– U.S. pays $60,000 for hostages
Franco-British War
• Resumes in 1803
– U.S. trade jeopardized
• Each side declares a blockade, seeks to
deny trade with America
• British resumed practice of impressment
• USS Chesapeake
Embargo
• To Jefferson, Freedom of trade was critical
– Farmers need access to markets
• As colonial leaders had done previously, he
decides to use trade as a weapon
• 1807—Enacts embargo-ban on all American
vessels sailing to foreign ports
– Constitutional basis—power to regulate trade
– Failed—few Americans willing to make necessary
sacrifices
– Amazing exercise of federal power
• U.S. trade drops 80%
Impact
• Very little effect on Britain and France
• Devastated American economy
– New England merchants
– Southern and Western Farmers
• Jefferson repeals Embargo in 1809, just
before term expired
Madison Administration
• Primary focus was dealing with situation
regarding Britain and France
• Madison was a great theorist
– Author of constitution
– Weak and indecisive leader
War situation
• When he takes office, attacks get serious
• Competing blockades
• Tries to replace Embargo with Non-Intercourse
Act(1809)
– Freed merchants to trade with anyone except British
and French
• Macon’s Bill #2 (1810)
– Whoever drops restricts, US would re-impose on
other
• Madison administration was desperate
War Direction
• By 1811, appears that the policies of
Jefferson and Madison have failed
• US looks powerless to great powers
– Two choices
• Submit to indignities or go to war
War Hawks
• Submission was unacceptable to group of
young congressmen elected in 1811.
– Henry Clay of Kentucky
– John C. Calhoun of South Carolina
• New generation of politicians
– Nationalist but looked at international markets
– New style of agrarian-commercialism
Regional Divisions
• Northeast—generally opposes war
– Can run the blockade, make big profits
• South and West—hurt by blockades—no
consistent markets
– Support war—save national honor, progress
War
• Both British and France obnoxious
– Unable to fight both
• Special reasons to fight British
– Canada
• Supporting Indian unrest in Northwest
– Florida
• Also supporting Indian unrest/haven for runaway
slaves
– Impressment of sailors
Spring 1812
• Madison out of options—”painted self into
a corner”
• Declaration of war passes a divided
congress
– Two days before, British had repealed all
trade restrictions—coercion had worked
– Essentially a war of Republicans from the
South and West
War of 1812
• Disaster
• Fortunately, British were pre-occupied with
Napoleon
• Weak leadership in Washington and in the
field
Canadian Invasion
• Grand plans in West quickly dissolve into
a series of defeats
– Surrender of Detroit
– Major losses on the Niagara Frontier
• Queenston Heights
• Niagara Falls
Naval War
• British able to control the seas
– American victories—small and isolated
– American do control the Lake Erie
• Force British to abandon Detroit
National Divisions
• Much of weakness result of divisions
– Southerners—little interest in Canada
– Northerners—Little interest in Florida
– New England—opposed to whole war
• Unwilling to provide troops
• Unwilling to make loans
British Offensive
• By 1814, British able to shift focus to America
– Series of attacks
• Washington, Baltimore
• South from Canada
• Mississippi Delta
– Initial success, then hit stalemate
• Agree to Treaty of Ghent—restored the status
quo
– Didn’t mention neutral rights, impressments
– US escaped without territorial loss
Hartford Convention
• Meeting of New England representatives
to discuss actions of federal government
during the war
• Some advocate secession
• Many want changes to constitution to
address regional issues
• Appear very unpatriotic
• Destroys Federalist Party
Era of Good Feeling
• By end of War of 1812, Federalist Party
had collapsed
• Period of few political divisions
• Republicans increasingly retreating from
philosophy of state’s rights
– National Bank
– Protective Tariff
– Federally supported internal improvements
American System
• Program pushed by Henry Clay
• Encouraged government leadership in
economic development
– High protective tariff—20% increase
• Establish economic self-sufficiency
– Established 2nd Bank of the United States
– Wanted to establish major transportation
Projects
• Little success
• National Road—Only major project
James Monroe
• Hand-picked successor to Monroe
• Experienced, but unimaginative leader
• National harmony—went out of war to
avoid controversy
• Wanted to end sectional and economic
differences--fails
Missouri Issue
• Bitter controversy over admission of Missouri
into union
• 1817—applied for statehood as a slave state
• 1st state carved out of Louisiana Territory
– Implications for future
– Brings out northern resentments
• Southern control of presidency
• 3/5 compromise
• Tallmadge Amendment
Compromise
• Petition by Maine to enter union offered
way out
• Feb 1820—Missouri Compromise
– Missouri—slave state
– Maine—Free state
– Prohibited slavery north of southern border of
Missouri
• Sectional crisis resolved
– Foreshadows future problems
Foreign policy
• Nationalism spread to foreign affairs
• Independence movements in Latin
America
– Afraid Spain might seek to reclaim
• Worried about Russian interests in Oregon
region
• Threats push US closer to Great Britain
– Also wants independent America
Monroe Doctrine
• British Foreign Minister George Canning
– Proposes joint statement
– Monroe supports
• Sec. of State J.Q. Adams wants different
direction
– Believes US should go alone
• 1823—Monroe Doctrine
– Opposes further colonization in Western
Hemisphere
– Any attempt to extend political systems to W.H.
– In return, US will stay out of European affairs
• Little initial impact—US unable to enforce
John Quincy Adams
• Able leader—well qualified
• Not a politician
• Election of 1824
– 4 way race—settled in House of Representatives
– Corrupt Bargain—Henry Clay
• Adams faced with a hostile congress
• Main issue—Tariff
– 1828—Protective tariff passed to help get Jackson
elected
Election of 1828
• Jackson vs. Adams
– 1st modern campaign
– Jackson supporters use electioneering techniques
• Huge public rallies, torchlight parades, barbeques
– Heavy mudslinging
• Jackson’s wife accused of bigamy
• Jackson’s edge—viewed a man of the people
• Anti-intellectualism is powerful force in American
politics
Jackson
• Turns out to be one of the most forceful
and dominating American presidents
– Strong-willed, intolerant of opposition,
unforgiving of an insult
– Frontier background made his tough and
resourceful but also inflexible.
Spoils System
• Makes extensive use
– Appoints supporters to federal jobs
– 1st president to acknowledge use and view it
as acceptable
• Problem—some very questionable
appointments—old friends and political
supporters