I-SERVICE TEACHER PROFESSIOAL
DEVELOPMET PACKAGE (ITPD) I
EGLISH AT SECODARY STAGE
Department of Education in Languages
ational Council of Educational Research and Training
Sri Aurobindo Marg, ew Delhi 110016
0
COTETS
1.
English language education at the secondary stage
1
2.
Reading for meaning
16
3.
Listening and speaking for language learning
32
4.
Vocabulary in context
58
5.
Grammar in context
71
6.
Writing for language learning
79
7.
Literature in language classroom
93
8.
Language assessment at secondary stage
105
9.
Project work for language learning
118
10.
Growing as a professional: Continuous professional
128
development of teachers
Some useful sources for English language teachers
140
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Why this Package?
THIS PACAKGE is aimed at familiarizing teacher trainers and teachers with the
current developments and emerging trends in language education and language
pedagogy in the Indian context.
Based on the ideas of National Curriculum
Framework - 2005, the package brings to you the ways and means of making our
language classrooms, particularly English language classrooms, more effective and
conducive for the learners to learn the language. This package brings in aspects,
which a teacher should know in order to provide meaningful experiences for
learners in their attempt to learn the English language. Each module provides the
key concepts, case studies of teacher practices and ideas to read and reflect
on; further, activities, space for reflection on activities are given in an
interactive mode, thus making it user-friendly.
It is expected that users of this package would adopt a multi-pronged approach
during the training as well as for individual use. Trainers may encourage teachers
to do the activities and also supplement with other resources / further activities. A
thorough reading of the package both by trainers and teachers will help in
developing a perspective on language learning. It would be effective if the
activities and tasks suggested are carried out in pairs, groups and so on. Similarly
the reading of the package in groups will help for a critical understanding of ideas,
issues and problems on language education and English language teaching-learning
in schools.
We invite suggestions and comments for further improvement of this package.
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In-service Teacher Professional Development (ITPD)
Package in English Secondary Stage
Materials Development Team
Member – coordinator
R. Meganathan
Assistant Professor of English
Nodal Officer, RMSA
Department of Education in Languages
NCERT, New Delhi -16
Members
Atanu Bhattacharya
Associate Professor of English
Centre for English Studies
School of Language, Literature and Culture Studies
Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat
B.P. Bhardwaj
Professor of Education
Department of Teacher Education
NCERT, New Delhi -16
Kirti Kapur
Associate Professor of English
Department of Education in Languages
NCERT, New Delhi -16
Kusum Sharma
Principal
District Institute of Education and Training
Rohini, New Delhi
Manoj Kumar Mishra
Professor of English
North East Regional Institute of Education (NERIE)
3
Shillong, Meghalaya
Meenakshi Khar
Assistant Professor of English
Department of Education in Languages
NCERT, New Delhi -16
Prema Raghavan
Associate Professor of English
Regional Institute of Education
NCERT, Mysore, Karnataka
Nidhi Tiwari
Associate Professor of English
Regional Institute of Education
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Saryug Yadav
Associate Professor of English
Regional Institute of Education
Ajmer, Rajasthan
Varada Mohan Nikalje
Assistant Professor of English
Department of Education in Languages
NCERT, New Delhi –16
We acknowledge the contributions of Prof. B.K. Tripathi, Joint Director, NCERT,
Prof. Ranjana Arora and Dr. Sharad Sinha of the RMSA Project Cell, Prof.
Chandra Sadyat, Head, Department of Education in Languages, NCERT for their
academic and other support for conducting the various workshops to bring this
package into shape.
We also acknowledge the contributions of RMSA personnel from the states across
the country for sparing their time in participating in our workshops and sharing
ideas and experiences through e-mails and through other correspondence. It is your
contribution, which has made it possible for us to visualize the contextualisation of
the materials by the users.
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1. English Language Education at the Secondary Stage
1.1.
Language Learning: Some Reflections
We all know that language is a means of communication and most of our communication takes
place through a language. Not only that, it is also a medium through which most of our
knowledge is acquired. What is a language? It is said that language is a system which, to a great
extent, structures the reality around us.
Every human is capable of learning at least one
language. It is natural for anyone to learn as many languages as possible, if given opportunity
and need.
A child of three or four years is able to use his/her mother tongue very well and enter
into a conversation with anyone on the subject known to him / her. This ‘language instinct’
(Pinker, 1994), we can believe, happens effortlessly. So learning is a natural human activity. But
when it comes to learning a foreign language in our classrooms, we face hurdles and
apprehensions. Why do we face these problems? Let us list the reasons for the problems we face.
Some are listed here, you may add some more and complete it.
Activity 1
• Our learners do not have any prior exposure to English language.
• There are not many resources for the teachers to teach well.
• English language proficiency of teachers is of varying degree.
• _______________________________________________________________.
• _______________________________________________________________.
• _______________________________________________________________.
• _______________________________________________________________.
Do you think the above problems can be addressed in our classrooms?
This introductory module brings to you some important considerations for quality teachinglearning of English at the secondary stage of schooling and the emerging trends for an effective
language classroom.
1
1.2.
Objectives
This module attempts
1. to help teachers understand the nature of language and learning a language as a second
language.
2. to acquaint the teachers with the recent trends in language education, particularly second
language education, objectives of language education and the ideas of NCF-2005.
3. to sensitize teachers about whole language perspective using various strategies to
language teaching.
4. to familiarize the teachers with the idea of multilingualism and use it as a strategy for
learning of languages in schools.
Countries like India have many languages and one can find multi-lingual speakers in a typical
Indian classroom. Children come equipped with their mother tongue to school and learn the
language of state/school and then they also learn a foreign language like English which in most
Indian situations is a second language. As language teachers we need to understand and reflect
on how language learning takes place and what the conditions for learning a second language in
our classroom contexts are. Before we proceed let us ask ourselves some questions.
Activity 2
1. Can you remember how you learnt your mother tongue? Can you recall specific
details/situations?
2. What do you think is the difference between the two--learning a mother tongue and a
second language? Are the stages of learning the same?
3. Can we use the languages of learners in the teaching- learning of English?
ow discuss in groups the above-mentioned questions and share the ideas with the whole group.
Language acquisition involves processes of scientific enquiry such as observation of data,
classification and categorization, hypothesis formation and its verification. In order to fully
appreciate the role of language in education we must begin to develop a holistic perspective on
language. We need to examine it in a multi-dimensional space giving due importance to its
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structural, literary, sociological, cultural, psychological and aesthetic aspects. A language
teacher, more so a second language teacher has to develop a perspective on the nature of
language, its interface with other aspects of life and society, how learning takes place, how we
can support the learner in his/her attempt to learn the language. It should be possible to use the
languages available in the classroom not only for the enhancement of above cognitive abilities
but also for increasing language proficiency and sensitivity.
1.3.
English Language Situation
When our learners reach the secondary stage, i.e. class IX they have undergone at least six to
eight years of learning English as a language. They have been exposed to English language and
they can read and write and are expected to speak the language well. However, this is not always
the case. There are situations where our students find it difficult to use the language well, be it
reading, writing or speaking. Let us stop for a minute and reflect on how we teachers can help
our learners to use English in the everyday teaching-learning. Let us now see how a teacher like
you does this in her English language classroom.
Teacher Practice 1
Mrs. Usha Rani is a teacher of English in the Government High School in Nasirpur in Uttar
Pradesh. She supports her learners speak the English language by making them use the language
for day-to-day purposes. She uses and asks her students to use formulaic usages, like
May I come in?
How are you?
Can I borrow your pen?
May I go to toilet?
What is the price of your bag?
Would you mind switching off the light?
I beg your pardon.
Keep quiet.
She has also made all her learners write the names of the objects and things available in the
classroom and in the school in English and Hindi. The names of the objects like, door, window,
table, black board, roof, water pot, etc. These are written in full sentences like, This is a door.
These are windows and so on. She says, “This will help my learners know the meaning of the
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These are windows and so on. She says, “This will help my learners know the meaning of the
language chunks i.e. words and phrase as a whole, like “May I go to the toilet?’. Here the
learners understand the meaning first that it is a request to go to the toilet, rather than knowing
the grammatical rules. Once meaning is known the grammatical understanding can develop on its
own.”
For the second activity of writing the names of things and objects in English, she says,
“This helps the learners in noticing the language visible.”
What does the above practice by the teacher suggest? Why does she believe that she has to create
an environment where the English language is seen and noticed by learners? Learners need to
use the language in meaningful contexts in order to learn the language well. This can be said as,
‘LEARI%G TO DO IT, BY DOI%G IT’.
One cannot learn swimming without getting into
water and trying to swim. Language learning has to provide opportunities for the learners to use
as they notice and get exposed to new language. In the above teacher practice, the teacher knows
very well that the learners may not know the structure and functions of the individual words they
are using, but they know the meaning of them. The purpose is communication in a context.
During the processes of using such phrases and sentences (we can call them as ‘language
chunks’) the learners learn the language subconsciously without any anxiety and they start using
them spontaneously in their conversations.
This ‘input rich environment’ where the language
is seen, noticed and used by the learners helps them learn the language and the proficiency in the
language also increases.
It is not enough to just provide language rich input in the classroom, it is also necessary for the
learners to interact with their peers and the teachers and use the language for purposes more than
what has been given to them during the input time. Pedagogues like Krashen (1985), Long
(1981, 1996), Swain (1985, 1995) and Prabhu (1987) provided some insights to understand how
we can support our learners learn a second language well by providing opportunities to use the
language.
Input hypothesis (Krashen, 1985): Natural second language learners often go through a “silent
period” when they listen and respond, but do not actually produce language themselves.
Nonetheless they develop knowledge of the language which can later serve as a basis for their
own production. Input received leads to learning or acquisition occurring through processing
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“comprehensible input,” from the learner’s next natural developmental stage, i.e. language
production, including oral or written practice in class.
Interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996): Input is essential, but not sufficient. Learners need to
interact with their peers in order to manipulate the language input noticed or received in the
input.
Interaction hypothesis argues that this is most likely to occur in situations of social
interaction. These provide opportunities for the negotiation of meaning, requests for clarification,
and comprehension checks. As a result, it is more likely that the input will be tuned to the current
level of competence of the individual learner and thus become “intake” which is available for
learning. Classroom interaction tasks like pair work, group word, role plays, etc. are most likely
to lead to the negotiation of meaning.
Output hypothesis (Swain, 1985): The need to speak or write makes a learner pay attention to
aspects of grammar which they would not need for comprehension purposes alone and thus
makes them notice gaps in their knowledge. It gives them opportunities to make hypotheses
about how the grammatical system works and (when meanings are negotiated) they get feedback
about whether these hypotheses are correct. Furthermore, from a cognitive skill-learning
perspective, output helps to automate the cognitive plans that underlie language production.
Scaffolding hypothesis (Vygotsky, 1978): In the interaction hypothesis, social interaction plays
a mediating role: it facilitates the provision of input, which in turn triggers acquisition. In
“scaffolding hypothesis,” social interaction provides the substantive means by which learning
occurs. The hypothesis is based on socio-cultural theory, which goes back to the work of
Vygotsky in the 1930s and holds that social interaction is the most important stimulus for all
learning. Two central concepts are “scaffolding” and the “zone of proximal development.”
“Scaffolding” refers to the way in which, with support from others, learners can reach levels of
achievement which they would be unable to reach independently. This support often comes from
teacher, parents; learners themselves may also provide it for each other. The “zone of proximal
development” is the domain of performance that a learner cannot yet achieve independently but
is capable of achieving with the help of scaffolding.
Activity 3
Based on the above discussion say whether the following statements are true or false and why.
5
•
•
Language learning is not content learning.
Learners need exposure to language to learn or acquire it well.
•
Learners need not begin to use the language immediately.
•
Given opportunity, children can learn many languages with ease.
•
While teaching-learning of a second language, the focus should be on meaning rather
than form.
Comprehensible input
Learners need exposure to lots of meaningful and understandable language.
Research findings
Comprehensible input refers to meaningful oral and written language slightly above
the learners’ current level of mastery. Such input allows for the acquisition of
grammar and vocabulary, which, in turn, makes exposure to additional input more
comprehensible. Mere exposure to language is insufficient. Learners must take
notice of key features in order for comprehensible input to be beneficial. Although
such input is necessary, it is sufficient, as discussed in the next section on
opportunities for interaction.
In the classroom
Several classroom-teaching strategies derive from the idea of comprehensible input:
•
•
•
•
•
Teachers should expose their students to listening and reading material that are
somewhat above their current language proficiency levels.
Students should be asked to understand the material, not merely to reproduce it.
Teachers should focus the students’ attention on key grammar and vocabulary
items.
Students should be asked to guess the meaning of the input based on their prior
knowledge of the topic, and on other known words and concepts within the text.
Teachers should try to create situations within and outside the classroom that
expose students to sources of comprehensible input.
(Ellis, R. 1988; Krashen, S. 1982; Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. 1999;)
1.4. Language Education in %ational Curriculum Framework (%CF) – 2005
National Curriculum Framework-2005 recommends a more holistic perspective on language
proficiency and the need to support the learner with authentic contexts so that they can connect
with their experience and life. Aspects of language should not be seen as discreet skills (like
listening, speaking, reading and writing). After all, when we are speaking, we are also
6
simultaneously listening and when we are writing, we are also reading in a variety of ways. And
then there are many situations (e.g. friends reading a play together and taking notes for its
production) in which all the skills in conjunction with a variety of other cognitive abilities. NCF
- 2005 defines the objectives of language teaching-learning holistically as
1.4.1. The Objectives of Language Teaching
a) The competence to understand what they hear: They should be skilled at listening and
understanding in a non-linear fashion by making connections and drawing inferences.
b) Ability to read with comprehension: They should be able to construct meaning by
drawing inferences and relating the text with their previous knowledge. They must also
develop the confidence of reading the text with a critical eye and posing questions while
reading.
c) Effortless expression: They should be able to employ their communicative skills in a
variety of situations and they must be able to engage in a discussion in a logical,
analytical and creative manner.
d) Coherent writing: The learner should develop the confidence to express their thoughts
effortlessly and in an organized manner. They should be able to use writing for a variety
of purposes and in a variety of situations ranging from informal to very formal. This is
possible only if the learners’ writings are seen as a process and not as a product. Children
tend to improve their own output when they are given sufficient freedom and time to edit
what they have written. Language teachers are encouraged to look at errors as stages in
the process of learning.
e) Creativity: In a language classroom, a student should get ample space to develop her
imagination and creativity. Classroom ethos and teacher-student relationship build
confidence in the latter to use her creativity in text transaction and activities
uninhibitedly.
f) Sensitivity: Language classroom and texts have a lot of scope to make students sensitive
towards their surroundings, their neighbors, and their nation.
It has now become increasingly clear that every possible effort should be made to bring the
classroom setting, howsoever formal, as close to natural language learning situations as
possible.
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1.4.2. Mother Tongue first
National Curriculum Framework (NCF) - 2005 states that the mother tongue as a medium of
instruction can eliminate the linguistic and cultural gaps caused by the difference between school
language and home language especially at the primary level. In this context, we define mother
tongue(s) as language(s) of home, street, neighbourhood, peer group and kinship networks;
regional language(s) as language(s) widely spoken in the state.
Education in the mother tongues will facilitate richer classroom transaction, greater participation
of learners, and yield better learning outcomes. All efforts must be made to provide adequate
facilities for this purpose. A positive attitude towards mother tongue education must be ensured
from all quarters, so that learners do not hesitate to opt for the medium which they are
comfortable. ‘Two years of mother tongue medium in the initial stages immensely aids the
child’s acquiring better linguistic proficiency both in the mother tongue and second language. ’
Mother tongue facilitates better cognitive growth, fosters healthier interpersonal communication
skills and promotes conceptual clarity.
Primary education is to a great extent language
education. Human beings have enormous capacities to learn languages, particularly when they
are young. English at the conversational level may be introduced in the primary school.
Primary education should be bilingual. Successive stages of bilingualism are expected to build
up to an integrated multilingualism. The first task of the school is to relate the home language to
the school language. Thereafter, one or more languages are to be integrated so that one can move
into other languages without losing the first. This would result in the maintenance of all
languages complementing one another.
Multilingualism
•
Multilingualism is constitutive of the Indian identity.
•
Multilingualism is a natural phenomenon which relates positively to cognitive
flexibility and scholastic achievement.
•
Several recent studies have effectively demonstrated the positive relationship
of bilingualism with cognitive growth and scholastic achievement.
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•
There
is
a
highly positive relationship between bilingualism, cognitive
flexibility and scholastic achievement. Bilingual children not
only have
control over several different languages but are also academically more
creative and socially more tolerant.
•
The wide range of linguistic skills that they control equips them to negotiate
different social situations more efficiently. There is also substantial evidence
to show that bilingual children excel in divergent thinking.
•
Now that we also know of the positive relationship between multilingualism,
cognitive growth and educational achievement, there is every need to promote
multilingual education in schools.
Activity 4
In groups of four reflect on the two statements from Position Paper Teaching of English
(NCERT- 2005)
•
English Language teaching does not stand-alone. It needs to find its place along with
other Indian languages. English language plays an important role in relation to other
subjects.
•
The aim of English Language teaching is the creation of multilinguals, who can enrich
all our languages; this had been an abiding national vision. The multilingual perspective
also addresses concerns of language and culture, and the pedagogical principle of
moving from the known to the unknown.
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Constructivism: Learner as Constructor of Knowledge
Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build
new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This view of learning
sharply contrasts with one in which learning is the passive transmission of
information from one individual to another, a view in which reception, not
construction, is key.
Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues
around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. The purpose of
learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize
the "right" answers.
Constructivism is a theory about learning, not a description of teaching.
Teaching cannot
be viewed
as
the transmission of knowledge from
enlightened to unenlightened.
Constructivist teachers are facilitators who encourage learners to reflect,
analyze and interpret in the process of knowledge construction.
They provide multiple representations of reality.
Multiple
representations
avoid
oversimplification
and
represent
the
complexity of the real world.
They emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction.
They emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract
instruction out of context.
Learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning
instead of predetermined sequences of instruction are used.
Thoughtful reflection on experience is encouraged.
They "enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction."
There is support for “collaborative construction of knowledge through social
negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition."
Learners construct knowledge for themselves.
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Each learner individually constructs meaning as he or she learns.
Learners are given more latitude in becoming effective problem solvers,
identifying and evaluating problems as well as deciphering ways in which to
transfer their learning to their problems.
Educational thinkers and philosophers, Vygotksy and Piaget are pioneers in
the idea of constructivism.
(Based on the ideas of NCF - 2005 and various other sources)
1.5.
Tasks for language learning
In spite of concentrated efforts by language pedagogues and curriculum designers to design
syllabus and teaching-learning materials process based, we still see much of the materials in
English language teaching and classroom operations tend to be ‘form based’ where the PresentPractice-Produce (PPP) model is still very popular.
The form-based approaches analyse the
language into an inventory of forms, which can then be presented to the learner and practised as
a series of discrete items. There is an assumption that there is a direct relationship between
‘input’ and ‘intake’ that what is presented can be mastered directly and will as a result of that
master, become part of learner’s usable repertoire. (Dave Willis and Jane Willis, 2001). As we
have pointed out somewhere in this package, language learning does not take place very
consciously all the time. So it is almost not possible to say that all the ‘input’ one receives will be
taken in (intake) and mastery of that item takes place. Task based language learning, in contrast
to form-based approaches, involved the specification not of a sequence of language item, but of a
sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language. (Dave Willis and Jane
Willis, 2001). Communicative task is defined as ‘piece of classroom work which involves
learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while
their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form’ (Nunan, 1993). J. Willis
(1996) wants to define a task as an activity ‘where the target language is used by the learner for
a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome’. So a task in language is seen
as bring out about an outcome through exchange of meanings. One obvious outcome is the
exchange of information in spoken or written form.
Let us now see a task for class IX or X.
This is an extrapolative activity taken from a class X English language textbook.
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1.5.1. Writing Task
Conduct the following survey with in groups of four.
Step I: You and your friends have to conduct a survey about how they feel at their home. With
your friends develop some questions about home for the survey.
Step II: Change the questions into a ‘yes’ ‘no’ and ‘don’t know’ and conduct the survey. The
questionnaire may look like the one given below.
A Home is a place where
•
You feel secure and happy
•
You can be alone
•
You can keep all your things
•
You can bring up a family
•
You can invite friends / relatives
•
You can make a noise if you want to
•
You can do whatever you like
•
You are at peace
•
You can look after your parents
•
You receive and give love
Yes
No
Don’t know
Step III: Collect information. Contact people in the school / your locality and put these questions
to them. Tick-mark (X) their answer in the relevant columns.
Step IV: Analyse the result in the group asking
•
How many people think that a home is a place where they feel secure and happy?
•
How many people think that a home isn’t a place where they feel secure and happy?
•
How many people don’t know about it?
Step V: Present a brief oral report on the result of your survey before writing the final report. Use
phrases such as the following
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•
Most people think that ………
•
Few people think that…..
•
Hardly anyone thinks that …….
•
o one thinks that……….
The above task enables learners to initiate, manipulate, use and reuse, modify and correct
language in an uncontrolled way. Learners are guided, not simply given to carry out activities.
The focus is on ‘use’ of language not on the form as learners are enabled to use the language.
Prabhu (1987) and Stern (1992) identify three broad task types: information gap, reasoning gap
and problem-solving.
These include: (i) Give and follow instructions; (ii) gather and exchange
information; (iii) solve problems; (iv) give informal talks in the classroom; (v) take part in role
play and drama activities.
Thus task would enable learners to use the language in natural
situations and contexts.
Some activities/tasks students could do moving beyond the textbook
Maintaining their diary every day. They may write in a notebook giving
date and time. Teacher may help at the initial stage.
A two minutes speech by students (in turns) everyday to the whole class
on the topic of relevance to the time and students. Reading out some
headlines followed by a bit of information about the headlines in the
assembly or in classroom.
Interviewing classmates about their eating habits or favourite actor/person
and writing a report.
Playing the game of dumb charades (one acts, others tell the class in
English)
Watching a play / an episode of a serial on TV and tell the class or write
the summary of the same in English.
Story telling with emotion- whole class story reading and choral reading.
Playing roles in context / real life situations.
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1.6.
To Sum Up
Let’s now sum up what we have discussed in the first module
Language is learnt as a whole, in natural settings and in a holistic manner
Expose the learners to listening and reading materials/text (somewhat above their current
language proficiency level).
Language learning is meaningful when the rules of the language are learnt not so
consciously.
Students should be asked to understand the material, not merely reproduce it.
Ask your students to guess the meaning of the text (input) based on their prior knowledge
of the topic /idea, and on the other hand, words and concepts within the text.
Connect the classroom with their daily life.
Encourage your students to work in pairs and small groups, with the teacher serving as a
facilitator, helping the child.
Employ activities in which students have to solve problems and each child contributes
information, ideas and language structures.
Design tasks related to students’ needs and interests so as to motivate them and sustain
their interest.
References
Ellis, R. (1988). Classroom Second-language development. London, Printice Hall
Long, M. (1981). Input, Interaction and second language acquisition. In Winits, H. (ed.)
ative
Language and Foreign Language Acquisition, Annals of the ew York
Academy of
Sciences. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, pp. 259-78
Long. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acqisition. In
Ritchie, W. A. and Bhatia, T.K. (eds.) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 413-68
NCERT. (2005). ational Curriculum Framework – 2005.
NCERT. (2005) .Teaching of English: Position Paper of the ational Focus Groups
Nunan, D. (1993), Introducing Dourse Analysis. Penguin Press.
Pinker. (1994. The Language Instinct. Penguin.
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Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence:Some roles of comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its development. In Gass, S. and Madden, C., Input in
Language Acquisition, Rowley, M.A.: Newbury House, pp235–253
Second
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Willis, J. (1996). A Flexible Framework for task-based introduction in Willis, J. and Willis, D.
(Eds.). Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Macmillan Heinemann.
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2. Reading for Meaning
2.1.
Introduction
Before we begin, let’s read about Shyam and Manjul and reflect.
Shyam is in Class IX commerce stream. He reads English text by joining letters. He
always reads aloud his textbook and claims that he can read well.
Manjul, is a Class VII student. He reads English text fluently. He takes pride in himself
when he reads English text in front of the teacher and classmates. He reads aloud and does
not take care of punctuation marks which make his read-aloud sessions uninteresting. This
sounds uninteresting, creates difficulty in comprehension and Manjul does not know about
what he has read.
Activity 1
Do you call Syam and Manjul good readers? If not what is the problem with their reading? Can
you state the reasons?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Also consider the following. In both the cases, the common factors are:
•
Students read-aloud their textbooks in school.
•
Till Class IX some of them read by joining letters.
•
They read or made an effort to read the text but without creating any meaning out of it.
It is a common practice in schools that students decode the text. They are not encouraged to
comprehend and create meaning and this is the reason why skills of reading and using strategies
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for reading for meaning are not developed. This module explores ways and means to enable our
learners to read for meaning with some theoretical consideration and activities.
2.2.
•
•
•
•
•
Objectives
To acquaint teachers with the concept of reading for meaning.
To strengthen their knowledge of various skills/ sub-skills associated with reading.
To familiarise teachers with the approaches to and process of developing reading skill
among the students.
To develop insight into how to develop activities on reading.
To discuss how to go about assessment during teaching-learning reading.
2.3.
What is Reading?
We have discussed that reading is not just decoding, it is an attempt to create meaning. Let’s now
understand what reading is and how one can be a good reader. Read the following points and
reflect on them:
•
Learning to read does not require the memorization of letter names, or phonic rules, or a
large vocabulary.
•
This is in fact taken care of in the course of learning to read.
•
Learners will not be able to make sense of phonic rules without experiences of reading.
•
Learners should not fully depend on doing exercises, drills and activities for developing
skills of reading, because these tasks, if not relevantly designed, distract and perhaps
discourage learners from reading texts.
It is a common classroom practice that learners learn to read the way their teachers instruct them
to do. Evaluation and Board Examinations also determine the reading outcomes. Most learners at
secondary stage read English texts as instructed by the teachers. This is a common practice in
schools that teachers narrate the text, translate it in regional language and give them answers of
questions. They do this to ‘qualify them’ for examination and for next class. When we asked
some learners at secondary stage about their reading difficulties, surprisingly they had no
17
problem with the textbook because teachers translated it for them and sometimes give them
meanings of ‘difficult words’. And they do not know how to use a dictionary.
The field of ‘Reading’ has been strongly influenced by scientific researches and these researches
have paved the way for bringing in revolutionary changes, techniques and methods of teaching
reading to learners in the classrooms. Another advantage of developing scientific understanding
of the concept of reading has been that pre-existing, naive, common sense notions and outmoded
beliefs have been discarded by the linguists.
Read and Reflect
Here are some points that emerged out of research and practices on reading. Read with your
friend and reflect on them
It is important to understand that
 Reading should make as much sense as listening. Understanding the text sometimes
requires going beyond the text.
 Reading is equated to constructing a meaning and meanings are not always similar.
 At secondary stage reader is not dependent upon identification of word for
‘Understanding’.
 There might be a stage in the process of Reading in which the readers employ meaning to
assist in the identification of individual words.
 Reading would become a laborious task if the reader blindly makes effort to identify one
word after another with no prior insights.
 Linguists have also found that reading cannot be achieved step wise or in a structured
manner. The reader’s eyes may rest on one or all the words but brain responds to words
in meaningful clusters.
 Slow reading is not efficient reading because it puts unnecessary load on the memory
bank and leads to confusion.
 Just as learners’ perceive spoken language by paying attention to meaning not the sounds
of the words similarly independent learners always try to bring meaning to print and pay
least attention to individual words and their meanings. This brings our focus to the
importance of the context in which the words carry messages.
2.4. Text and the Reader
We are always curious to know what happens when readers engage with written texts - when
the print is flashing in front of our eyes or the accompanying illustrations catches our attention
or a voice reads aloud to us, interpreting the words on the page. What is going on during these
18
'reading moment'? Are we just 'comprehending' the text, working out exactly what it 'means',
and if so, how do we account for the different effects the same piece of writing has on different
readers? Why does a particular story or a poem move one reader to tears but leave another
totally unmoved? Presumably, the same 'meaning' has been 'comprehended' by both readers
as they both read the same words, so what has made the difference? As adults we recognize
these reading differences, though we may never have given much thought to why they occur.
In the course of a day all of us read a great deal. Much of this reading happens without any
conscious decision being taken by us to engage in it. The bill boards pass by us as we drive to
work as do the shop names and window displays we read the road signs to Mathura or Delhi
without thinking about them. The scribbled shopping list or reminder on the kitchen calendar
are not thought of as reading only those who cannot read realize the power contained in all this
'environment print'. For the great majority of adults, the same realization only occurs when we
are faced with totally alien script unless you can read Japanese the words mean nothing to you
because the symbols bear no resemblance to our alphabet.
Reading is an interactive and constructive process. The interaction between readers and the
text allows readers to construct their meaning according to their acquired knowledge and
experiences. It is because individuals construct their own world-view as they grow and come into
contact with their surroundings. Therefore each student’s interaction with a particular text differs
and that each student constructs meanings that are uniquely persona.
The meaning is embedded in the text. And it is represented through symbols (letters, words)
and in the forms of paragraphs, sentences, etc. The Reader uses his skills of reading (strategies)
to reach the encoded meaning. These skills of reading are developed if
•
Learners have good exposure to print and other media of reading.
•
Learners have been given opportunities of reading independently and in groups.
•
Learners have the freedom to express their opinions about the text in the classroom.
•
There is a focus during the classroom translations on comprehending the text in other
disciplines like – Science, Mathematics, Social Science, etc
19
2.5. Sub-skills involved in reading
A skilled reader uses, following strategies for understanding the text:
•
Recognizing vocabulary, picking out key words.
•
Deducing the meaning from familiar lexical items.
•
Understanding the background and foreground of the information.
•
Understanding and ability to determine the conceptual meaning of the text.
•
Understanding the communicative value (function) of sentences and utterances.
•
Recognition of literary devices used in the text.
•
Understanding cohesions between parts of a text through grammatical cohesion devices.
•
Ability to determine the writer’s purpose, intent and point of view.
•
Analysing text by gathering information available beyond the text.
Teacher Practice
Ms. Meenakumari teaches in a government high school in Churu, Rajasthan. She encourages
learners to read in groups and discuss. Let’s looks at how she does it so.
She brought a one-page story from an English magazine published the week before. She
divided them into groups of four and there were about nine groups in total. She supplied each
group the story and asked them to read aloud in the group by taking turns. Each one in the
group read out a paragraph and passed on the next person. This went on about ten minutes.
She asked them some questions about the story of the text. She asked them to do it again,
with the condition that was ‘each would read a different part of the text this time’. Students
read by taking turns. As they were reading, the teacher went around and students asked
meaning of some word for which she asked them to discuss in the group and find out.
When they finished the second time reading aloud, she wrote some question on the
blackboard and asked them to attempt to answer in their group. The groups started answering
and they had to read some parts of the text again many times. When they completed, she
asked each group to answer one question. She then asked them to read the text again
20
asked each group to answer one question. She then asked them to read the text again
individually and silently which they did. She now gave meanings of some words which occur
in the text and asked them to find the words.
Activity 2
You have read the teacher practice in the box above. Could you please reflect on the following
points based on the teacher practice above?
i.
How many times did the teacher ask them to read the story?
ii.
She formed groups and asked them to read. Is that correct?
iii.
Is reading an interactive activity?
iv.
She did not read loud even once. Is that correct?
v.
How do you do a reading lesson in your classroom?
2.6. Process of Reading
Skilled readers need not to
•
perceive and decode letters in order to read words.
•
understand the meaning of all the words in order to understand the meaning of text.
•
take longer time to read a lengthy text.
The reader doesn’t gather meaning of a text by merely ‘reading it’. Comprehension of a text
doesn’t depend only on understanding (decoding) the words of a text. Even early readers can
read without necessarily being able to identify and decode single letters. The time a text will
take to be read depends on the coherence and number of ‘sense units’ in the text. These
‘sense units’ are easier to understand than isolated words because ‘sense units’ are
contextualised. Skilled readers search for meaning and make attempts to understand the text
21
in terms of its overall sense. Student’s interactions with a particular text differ and each
constructed meaning is unique in itself.
Skimming, Scanning and Summarizing
Skimming is used to obtain gist or overall sense of a text. For skimming, a text is read
more slowly and in more detail.
Scanning is a fast reading technique used to look for specific information in a text.
Summarizing refers to the technique of shortening a longer text. It is employed to extract
the main points in order to make a decision, and then give opinion or draw conclusions.
Read and Reflect
•
According to Goodman (1967) reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in
which readers develop hypotheses about the reading text, and reader rather than text is
the basis of the reading process. The cognitive view of reading which is based on the
‘top-down’ model is exactly in concordance with this view.
•
Rumelhart (1977) described that ‘building blocks of cognition’ are necessary for
interpreting sensory data by retrieving information from memory. Rumelhart explained
that these blocks of cognition as ‘Schemata’. According to Rumelhart (1977), if our
schemata are incomplete and do not contain understanding of incoming data from the text
we will have problems processing and understanding the text.
2.7. The Top-down model of reading
•
Emphasizes that prior knowledge and experiences as important for meaning making.
•
That comprehension begins in the mind of the reader, who already has some ideas about
the meaning of the text.
•
That reader proceeds from whole to part.
•
Holistic view of reading which involves active participation of the reader.
Therefore cognitively based views of reading comprehension lays stress on the interactive nature
of reading and the constructive nature of comprehensions.
22
2.8. The M etacognitive view of Reading
In simple terms, metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. A
skilled reader attempts the following strategies for calling out meaning from the text:
• Indentifies the purpose of reading.
• Indentifies the form/type of text.
• Recalls general characteristics of the form or type of the text.
2.9. Importance of context in Reading
Reading is process in which readers comprehend, interpret and respond to text according to
what they already know. Skilled readers bring in their personal expectations about what they
are reading. Based on their personal expectations they predict and test their predictions as they
read. As a result they become skilled in constructing meaning by exploring relationships
between what is within the text and what they already know.
Read and Reflect
In a quite literal sense, learning to read is like learning the spoken language. No one can
explain to infants what essential features and conventions of speech should be learned.
They learn to speak without any strain of difficulty provided they are given opportunities
to speak so that they can make use of their innate learning abilities and are ‘supported’ in
using and understanding language. And in the same way children will try to understand
written language by being involved in its use, in situations where it makes sense to them
and they can generate and test hypotheses.
On the other hand, one of the beautiful things about written and spoken language is that it
increasingly provides learning assistance to the learners. Good authors have always been
contributing to learner’s language skills. It is through reading independently readers learn to
predict meaning.
23
In order, that learners develop skills of constructing meaning, learners should have exposure to
language through different sources. We would suggest Reading newspaper, is the most
convenient and affordable way of learning to read with comprehension. It develops skill of
reflection and critical thinking. In classroom engagement with newspaper reading might be a
huge challenge for the learners because learners have no opportunities of engaging with
language. Textbooks are sacred and methods of evaluation are ultimate determiners of learners’
capabilities.
The important issues in this process are
•
Learners can locate the context of the written text.
•
Learners have developed their store house of knowledge.
•
Learners can relate to the text.
•
Learners employ their prior knowledge which is there in the form of non-visual
information, to construct meaning.
•
Learners are aware of other sources (dictionary, thesaurus, internet, library, etc) for
overcoming various challenges which the text poses.
•
Learners’ hypothesis is regarded important by the teacher.
a. What are context clues?
Context has a powerful effect on students’ comprehension of words and sentences.
Context
clues are the syntactic (structural) and semantic (meaning) clues that help a reader to identify an
unknown or difficult word. They are the “hints” about the meaning while reading.
Syntactic clues relate to the sentence structure or grammar of the English language. For example,
in the sentence, I can ride a ____, the syntax, or the way the sentence is structured, indicates that
the missing word must be a noun. It would not be structurally correct to say, I can ride a jumping
(sic). That sentence does not “sound right”.
Semantic clues relate to the accumulated meaning of the sentence. In the previous example, I
24
can ride a ____, the syntax required the word to be a noun. However, it cannot be just any noun.
Semantics narrows the possible word choices to those nouns that would fit with the meaning of
the sentence. It would not “make sense” to say, I can ride a tangerine. The semantics or meaning
of the sentence dictates that the missing word must be something that one can ride. Context
clues are useful in a number of ways. Readers use context clues to:
• Help them confirm the pronunciation of a word they are trying to decode.
• Resolve ambiguity and arrive at the correct pronunciation of multiple meaning words (e.g. lead
a parade versus a lead pipe).
• Determine a possible meaning of an unknown word.
• Accelerate their reading rate.
Although context clues play an important role in effective reading, research also confirms that
the use of context clues is limited for purposes of word learning. The use of context alone will
rarely lead to the identification of an exact word. It will narrow the possibilities; however, the
reader must orchestrate or cross-check, the use of the visual, graphophonic information about the
word (phonics/decoding strategy), the structure of the sentence (syntax), and the meaning of the
sentence (semantics) to determine the exact word in a text.
b. Teach students how to use context clues
Teachers model the use of context clues when reading and help to guide students to use them as
they read. Using prompts such as, “Does that sound right?” to focus a reader’s attention on
structural errors and “Does that make sense?” to focus a reader’s attention on meaning errors,
helps students become aware of the importance of context to reading. Effective reading
instruction addresses the appropriate use of context clues. Research has shown that skilled
readers are able to quickly and effortlessly identify words based on their letter composition and
they use context clues to confirm or clarify. Poor readers over-rely on context. It is important to
teach students to coordinate and cross-check their use of graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic
clues to read effectively.
25
c. Question stems that build the use of context clues
The following question stems can be used in small-group or independent reading settings to
prompt student’s thinking about the use of context clues. When a student encounters a problem
with an unknown word while reading, the teacher may use one of the following prompts:
•
“You said ___, does that make sense?”
•
“You said ___, does that sound right?”
•
“It could be ___, but look at ___.”
•
“Can the rest of the sentence help you?”
•
“Try that again and think about what would make sense.”
•
“Try that again and think about what would sound right.”
•
“How did you know it was ___?”
•
“Try that again.”
d. Comprehension
Comprehension
is
critically
important
to
the
development
of reading
skills
Reading
comprehension is the area which forms the foundation of academic learning and lifelong learning
as well. Comprehension in reading a text is described as an active process which involves word
knowledge (vocabulary), understanding of context, thinking and reasoning. The process of
comprehension draws inferences from the words and expressions that the writer uses to
communicate information, ideas and viewpoints.
e. Building comprehension strategies of learners
Comprehension can very well be enhanced by building on students’ background knowledge for
example by holding group discussion before reading. While teaching-learning a combination of
26
different strategies can be used for effective text comprehension. These combinations can be as
follows:
•
Co-operative or group learning;
•
Graphic organizers e.g. flow charts, word webs, tree diagrams etc;
•
Posing questions and finding answers involving students;
•
Discussion on story structure;
•
Reading the essence of story.
•
Summarising the text;
•
Finding possibilities of relating the text to contemporary situations. Making use of newspaper material, films documentaries, etc.
•
Focusing on vocabulary, specific terminologies etc in the text;
•
Highlighting graphphonic cues which are based on sound-symbol correspondences that
help readers decode and comprehend a text;
•
Semantic cues which are hints based on meaning are important in comprehension;
•
Syntactic cues, also known as grammatical cues help the reader in comprehending the
text;
f. The importance of non-visual information
Learning to read is not a matter of learners relying upon instructions. What is important is that
learners make sense and meaning of the written language. Teachers who have the objective of
developing learners into independent readers make efficient uses of non-visual information.
Though this cannot be explicitly taught yet can be very well demonstrated to learners.
Individuals/Learners are quite capable of solving problems posed by written text provided they
have opportunities to generate and test their hypothesis.
27
Read and Reflect
Introspective Reading Teacher
It is important for a teacher to revisit her/his own experiences of reading in order to understand
the process of reading and value of enhancing skills of reading among learners.
•
Reading books gives intellectual pleasure and enhances sense of aesthetics.
•
Reading widens the horizon of knowledge.
•
All reading is making-meaning through a critical approach of reading a text.
•
Reading different games introduces the reader to a variety of ways of writing, and
purposes of writers in writing.
•
Reading enhances creative and imaginative skills of the readers.
•
Reader recognises the voice of the writer and its value.
•
Reading connects the reader to past and develops the perception of looking at life in a
continuum.
•
Reading (silently) gives time and develops skills/habit of reflecting.
•
Reading creates space for self appraisal self reflection and gradually helps in building a
perspective of this universe.
•
Reading gives opportunities of understanding abstract thoughts of the writer.
It is a relevant and powerful print medium of teaching/learning language skills. However there
are other possibilities present in different forms of print medium.
2.10. Reading to develop social awareness and critical thinking
Here are some reading materials that could help our learners to develop awareness on social,
political issues and to critically examine them. These kinds of reading texts act as inputs for
28
critical pedagogy where the teacher can initiate debates on such issues in groups. The source
materials for these texts are very common and easily available like newspapers and popular
magazine.
•
Reading newspapers and magazines.
•
Reading advertisements in newspapers magazines and pamphlets about local information
for example for grocery or dry cleaner shop in your neighbourhood.
•
Reading legal documents/judgements.
•
Reading documents about government policies and decisions for example – Right to
Education, Right to Information.
•
Reading about parliamentary debates and proceedings on issues of national concern, for
example debate on Food Security Bill or FDI.
•
Reading case studies of prominent historical figures, achievers, etc.
•
Reading about sports events. Sports personalities, films and film personalities.
•
Reading articles/Reports on climate change, environment and gender issues, other social
concerns, and scientific discoveries.
•
Reading about marginalised sections of society. Teacher and learners should collect,
analyse and discuss information collaboratively. There is also a possibility of involving
teachers from concerned disciplines like Social Sciences. Interdisciplinary projects can
also be developed on specific issues.
2.11. Visual Reading
Reading books or other forms of print material is common and practiced in schools. The focus of
developing reading skills is a serious concern. Surveys have estimated that 56% of children read
without comprehension. Existing classroom practices focuses only on decoding. Whereas
researches have shown that readers should have ample opportunities of reading through multiple
media in order to develop the skills of reading. Books form an important aspect of reading
29
activities. Visual medium has equal potential of developing reading skills among learners. Young
learners who make attempts to read the print are found to be well-versed in reading pictures. The
possibility of exploring visual medium for enhancing reading skills of learners at high school be
taken seriously. Teachers can give visual reading activity with some connected text as given in
the figure.
This is a painting from Ajanta Caves. The
Ajanta Caves are located in Aurangabad
district of Maharashtra, India and are about
30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments
which date from the 2nd century BCE to
about 480 or 650 CE. The caves include
paintings and sculptures described by the
government Archaeological Survey of India
as "the finest surviving examples of Indian
art, particularly painting", which are
masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, with
figures of the Buddha and depictions of the
Jataka tales. The caves were built in two
phases starting around the 2nd century BCE,
with the second group of caves built around
400–650 CE according to older accounts, or
all in a brief period of 460 to 480 according
to the recent proposals of Walter M. Spink.
The site is a protected monument in the care
of the Archaeological Survey of India,[5] and
since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Accessed from Wikipedia on 27 January, 2014
Figure 1
•
Art and literature imitate life. There is connectivity in Art, literature and life. Hence
learners relate to it easily.
30
•
Visual medium gives unique pleasure to the viewers.
•
Visual medium provides opportunities to the learner of comprehension and developing a
world view.
Visual medium also holds potential possibilities of enhancing reading skills among learners at all
stages of teaching/learning. It is a common perception among teachers that films, paintings,
portraits, sculptures cannot be considered as material for developing skills of reading.
It is commonly understood that print in the form of textbooks is the most appropriate medium of
teaching/learning to read. Films, plays, theatre have important role in promoting critical
pedagogy. Similarly paintings, sculptures and artifact also provide opportunities for reading and
developing critical thinking among learners.
2.12. Assessment of Reading
It is important and possible for teachers as well as learners to be aware of their reading
capabilities and their performance in reading related tasks. We know assessment of reading is a
major concern for teachers and learners. It is expected of the teachers who are far sighted and
proficient in language that ways of assessment should be transparent and understandable to
learners.
The methods of language assessment at secondary stage should not be focus on
labelling or categorising learners. Learners should be made aware of their merits and demerits in
reading. This could be done in terms of descriptors indicating their capabilities and potentialities
for improvement.
At the secondary stage there is a transition from developing Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills (BICS) to Cognitively Advanced Language Proficiency (CALP). Language teachers
ensure that this transition is complete and smooth. The task and assignments for reading should
have a variety of texts and genre which enable our learners to read not only informative text, but
also text with abstract ideas to become a proficient reader.
31
3. Listening and Speaking for Language Learning
Part I Listening
3.1.
Introduction
Listening is the first and foremost component and skill in learning a language. Listening provides
the aural input that serves as the basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in
spoken communication. Listening is the receptive use of language, and since the aim is to
understand speech, the focus is on meaning rather than language (Cameron, 2001). Listening is
the ability to identify and understand what others are saying (Saricoban, 1999). Listening
changes spoken language into input (it is the first stage of learning a new language). Contrary to
the old belief that listening is a passive exercise and the listener simply recognizes and decodes
sounds; listeners play an active role and perceive sounds by using internal articulation rules to
decode speech (Crystal, 1997).
3.2.
Objectives
1. To highlight the importance of learning the skills of listening and speaking in language
learning.
2. To familiarise teachers with various strategies involved in listening and speaking and to
enable learners to learn and use them in contexts.
3. To enable teachers to develop listening and speaking activities for promoting English
language learning.
4. To evolve strategies to assess listening and as part of language learning.
First part of the module discusses Listening and the second part deals with speaking.
Activity 1
What do you do when you listen to radio news or television news? Could you please list what
you do when you listen to news on radio or on television?
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
32
You may have listened to the English news on radio or television. Is there any difference
between listening to the news in your language and in English? What is the difference?
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Listening involves a process. One has to ready oneself before listening, be attentive while
listening and process the information and language you receive and understand to get the
meaning. Let’s see the processes.
3.3.
Listening Processes
3.3.1. Bottom-up
In order to understand listening processes, we have to understand how spoken discourse is
different from a written one and what problems it poses for listeners. Since spoken discourse is
usually instantaneous, a listener has to process it immediately as he has no chance to listen to it
again. Two different kinds of processes are involved in understanding spoken discourse. These
are bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing uses the incoming input as the
basis for understanding the message. Comprehension begins with the data received, and
analysed. Listeners hear and analyze sounds, words, clauses, sentences, texts to understand the
meaning of what he listens to. Comprehension is viewed as a process of decoding. A listener’s
lexical and grammatical competence in a language provides the basis for bottom-up processing.
The input is scanned for familiar words, and grammatical knowledge is used to understand the
relationship between elements of sentences (Clark and Clark 1977). Bottom-up strategies are,
thus, text based; the listener concentrates on the language in the message (combination of
sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning). Bottom-up strategies include:
•
Listening for specific details.
•
Recognizing cognates.
•
Recognizing word-order patterns.
33
Here is an example
Suppose a teacher tells the following to the class: “The person I met yesterday in the market told
me that he lived in a village which was not very far from the office he worked in.” We have to
break this sentence into different components. This breaking of a sentence into different
components is called chunking. This sentence will have the following chunks:
The person
I met in the market
Yesterday
Told me
He lives in a village
Office not very far from the village
The listener would reorganize the chunks:
I went to the market yesterday.
I met a person there.
They talked.
He told that he lived in a village.
He worked in the office.
His village is not very far from the office.
A listener would remember the chunks and not the form or the sequence in which it was said and
heard. His knowledge of grammar helps him in identifying the chunks; the speaker also assists
him in this process through intonation and pausing.
3.3.2. What does listener need?
Learners need a large vocabulary and a good working knowledge of sentence structure to be able
to process texts bottom-up. The following exercise may develop bottom-up processing:
Retain input while it is being processed
Recognize word and clause divisions
Recognize key words and the order in which they were used
Recognize key transitions in a discourse
Recognize grammatical relations between key elements in sentences
Recognize the time reference
34
Use stress and intonation to identify word and sentence functions
3.3.3. Classroom activities
Traditional classroom listening activities focus primarily on bottom-up processing; Exercises that
require bottom-up processing are dictation, cloze listening, use of multiple choice question,
identifying positive and negative statements etc. These require close and detailed recognition and
processing of the input. These are based on the assumption that everything the listener needs to
understand is contained in the input.
3.4. Top-down Processing
Top-down strategies are listener-based; the listener is provided background knowledge of the
topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. The approach is based on the
assumption that background knowledge is required to understand the meaning of a message. This
background knowledge raises expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and
anticipate what will come next.
Bottom-up processing goes from language to meaning; top-down processing goes from meaning
to language. Background knowledge may take several forms. It may be previous knowledge
about the topic of discourse, it may be situational or contextual knowledge, or it may be
knowledge in the form of “schemata”.
Top-down strategies include:
•
Listening for the main idea
•
Predicting
•
Drawing inferences
•
Summarizing
a. Examples to understand Top-down processing
Suppose the Principal of a school tells her students about the visit of a dignitary to the school the
next day. She says, “A very important person is going to visit the school tomorrow.” The
35
moment students hear the sentence many questions crop up in their minds. Some of them may be
as follows:
a. Who is coming?
b. Is the person he or she?
c. Why is that person coming?
d. Why is he considered very important?
e. What will he do at the school?
f.
Will he interact with students?
g. Will he meet teachers only?
h. How long will he stay?
i.
When is he going to reach?
j.
Will they have to stand near the gate to welcome him?
Students will listen attentively for answers to their queries. Their questions will help them
understand Principal’s briefing about the visit.
Suppose a student tells her friend that her mother will go to the passport office tomorrow.
The sentence activates a schema for “go to the passport office”. This schema will be organized as
follows:
Setting: (the passport office)
Participants: (passport officers, staff members, students’ mother)
Goals: (to apply either for a new passport or the renewal of an old one)
Procedures: (filling in the form, meeting authorities)
Outcomes: (getting the passport within the stipulated period)
When both the friends meet the day after tomorrow the one asks the other: “What
happened?” the other simply says: “Done”
Since both the speaker and the hearer share an understanding of the “going to the passport office
schema” they do not need the details of the visit. A minimum amount of information is given to
enable the other to understand what happened.
The prior knowledge that a person has about things, concepts, people and events is used when he
hears anything specific. Comprehension, thus proceeds from the top down. The actual discourse
heard is used to confirm expectations and organize the details.
36
3.4.1. What does a listener do?
Use key words to construct the schema of a discourse
Infer the setting for a text
Infer the role of the participants and their goals
Infer causes or effects
Infer unstated details of a situation
Anticipate questions related to the topic or situation
3.4.2. Activities Involved in developing Top-down listening skills
Students generate questions they expect to hear and listen to see if they are answered.
Students generate a list of things they already know about a topic and would like to learn
more about them. They then listen and compare.
Students read a speaker’s part in a conversation, predict the other speaker’s part, (if he
has to listen to two speakers one after the other in a sequence). They listen and compare.
Students read a list of key points to be covered in a talk, then listen to see which ones
were mentioned.
Students listen to the part of a story, imagine the rest of it, then listen and compare.
Students read news headlines, guess what might have happened, then listen to the news
items and compare.
Principles of Bottom-up and Top-down Processing
Bottom-up (Focus on Words and Phrases)
Top-down (Focus on Overall M eaning)
1. Importance is given to individual
linguistic components of discourse.
1. Importance is given to speaker's
purpose and the topic of the discourse.
2. Comprehension is considered as a process
of decoding messages moving from
phonemes to words, phrases, clauses and
other grammatical elements to sentences.
2. Comprehension is considered as a
process of activating listener's
background information and
schemata (i.e. prior knowledge about
the context and the topic) for
an understanding of the message.
3. ["Schemata" is defined as "plans about
the overall structure of events and the
relationships between them" that are
stored in the listener's long-term
memory (Richards, 1990)].
37
Activities
Activities
1. Identify sounds or lexical items
according to their linguistic functions.
2. Use phonological cues to distinguish
between positive and negative
sentences or statements and questions.
3. Activities are designed to help learners
develop their phonological, lexical,
and grammatical knowledge.
4. These activities are often used for
learning pronunciation
1. Identify speaker's objectives and
purpose or the main idea of discourse.
2. Use schemata to infer the contextual
information from what one listens to.
3. Activities are designed to help learners
develop their pragmatic and discourse
knowledge.
4. These activities are used for improving
communicative skills; the focus is on
meaning and not form.
3.5. Listening Purposes: Interactional and Transactional Purposes
Interactional and transactional functions are the two language communicative functions required
for effective classroom participation (Brown and Yule, 1983). Learners use interactional
language to interact with others including their teachers and transactional language to develop
new skills and construct new knowledge.
Interactional Purposes
Transactional Purposes
1. Importance is given to harmonious
communication in social contexts.
2. Since this is used to interact with
others this includes greetings,
discussion, etc.
3. This does not require careful attention
to details and facts.
1. The emphasis is on conveying
information; this is basically message
oriented.
2. This includes listening to lectures, taking
notes, practicing dictations and cloze
exercises that require understanding of
details.
3. Transactional language is explicit, clear,
and coherent in order to help listener
understand the meaning of the message.
3.6. Listening Strategies
The pre-listening phase prepares students for both top-down and bottom-up processing through
activities
involving activating prior
knowledge,
making predictions,
and
reviewing key
vocabulary. The while-listening phase focuses on comprehension through exercises which
require selective listening, gist listening, sequencing etc. The post-listening phase typically
involves a response to comprehension and may require students to give opinions about a topic.
38
Activity
Step 1
Pre-listening activity
Students working in groups predict the possible words and phrases that they might
hear.
They write
down their predictions. They may review vocabulary,
grammatical structures, look at picture, maps, etc, read something relevant.
Step 2
First listening
As they listen to the text, they tick those words or phrases that they have predicted
correctly. They also write down the new information they hear.
Step 3
Discussion
They listen for the gist. They discuss and compare what they have understood so
far and explain how they arrive at the understanding. They identify the parts that
they could not understand.
Step 4
Second listening
Students listen to those parts that they had not understood and make notes of any
new information they hear.
Step 5
Discussion
The teacher leads a discussion to confirm comprehension. The whole class
participates in the discussion.
There is a difference between input (what the learner hears) and intake (that part of the input that
the learner notices). It is argued that intake is the basis for language development. There is a link
between noticing features of the input, and their emergence in the speech of the listener later
(Schmidt & Frota 1986). The listener notices the features of the input and later uses them while
speaking. The process is called restructuring, complexification and producing stretched output
(Van Patten, 1993). Learners take part in activities, try out and experiment in using the newly
noticed language forms while speaking and writing. Noticing is a part of the process by which
learners incorporate new words and structures into their own speech and writing.
Activities for Listening as Acquisition
i.
Noticing activities
ii. Restructuring activities
39
Noticing activities involve returning to the listening texts that served as the basis for
comprehension activities and using them as the basis for language awareness. For example
students can listen again to a recording in order to:
•
Identify differences between what they hear and a printed version of the text.
•
Complete a cloze version of the text.
•
Check off from a list, expressions that occurred in the text.
Restructuring activities are oral or written tasks that involve productive use of selected items
from the listening text. Such activities could include:
•
In the case of conversational texts, pair reading of the tape scripts.
•
Written sentence-completion tasks requiring use of expressions and other linguistic items
that occurred in the texts.
•
Dialogue practice based on dialogues that incorporate items from the text .
•
Role plays in which students are required to use key language from the texts.
Teachers’ Role
They plan, monitor, and evaluate learners’ listening.
•
They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best in a particular situation.
They need to fix a smart objective for any listening activity.
•
They monitor students’ comprehension and the effectiveness of the selected strategies.
•
They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their listening comprehension
goals and whether the combination of listening strategies selected was an effective one.
•
Teachers need to remember that complete recall of all the information in an aural text is
an unrealistic expectation.
•
Teachers
may
construct
the
listening
activity
around
a
contextualized
task.
Contextualized listening activities give the listener an idea of the type of information to
expect and how to go about while listening.
•
Teachers may define the activity’s instructional goal and type of response.
•
Teachers need to check the level of difficulty of the listening text.
Teachers may use pre-listening activities to prepare students for what they are going to hear:
40
•
Help students identify the listening goal and key words and phrases to listen for.
•
Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of the text.
•
Provide students with the background knowledge necessary for their comprehension of
the listening passage or activate the existing knowledge that the students possess.
•
Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage.
•
Make students aware of the type of text they will be listening to, the role they will play,
and the purpose(s) for which they will be listening.
•
Help them in visualizing the sequences in which the information may be presented.
•
Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for background reading or
class discussion activities.
They should build up students’ confidence by helping them listen better, rather than by testing
their listening abilities. Students must be given clear instructions about how to achieve it. They
must build their confidence by giving them tasks that are achievable and texts that are
comprehensible. When they use audio material they must be prepared to respond to students’
needs and listening speed.
The other roles teachers has to play are of prompter and feedback organizer, When students
have listened to a recording for comprehension purpose, they can be prompted to listen to it
again in order to notice a variety of language and spoken features When students complete the
task, there should be a feedback session to check that they have completed it successfully. They
may compare their answers in groups. Individuals or groups, depending on their levels, may be
asked to answer. Teachers must be supportive while listening to the feedback. They must
encourage and sustain them. Match while-listening activities to the instructional goal, the
listening purpose, and students' proficiency level.
•
Teachers may keep writing to a minimum during listening.
The primary goal is
comprehension, not production.
•
Use questions to focus students' attention on the elements of the text crucial to
comprehension of the whole. Before the listening activity begins, students may review
questions they will answer orally or in writing after listening.
Listening for the answers
will help students recognize the crucial parts of the message. Use predicting to encourage
41
students to monitor their comprehension as they listen. Do a predicting activity before
listening, and remind students to review what they are hearing to see if it makes sense in
the context of their prior knowledge and what they already know of the topic or events of
the passage. Give immediate feedback whenever possible. Encourage students to examine
how or why their responses were incorrect.
3.7. What do listeners do while listening?
3.7.1. Decide the purpose for listening
Procure background knowledge of the topic, if required, in order to predict or anticipate the
content. Identify appropriate listening strategies. Review the vocabulary list, and any information
you have about the content of the tape/video you are going to hear or see. Identify the kind of the
programme (news, documentary, interview, drama) you are going to hear or see. Make a list of
predictions about the content. Decide how to divide content into sections for intensive
listening/viewing.
3.7.2. Listen
•
Listen to the parts of the message (input) that are relevant to the identified purpose and
ignore the rest. This selectivity enables them to focus on specific items in the input and
reduces the amount of information they do not need at the moment. They may verify
predictions and note the key words they understand and answer the worksheet questions
related to the section. If they don't have a worksheet, they may write a short summary of
the section.
•
Select top-down and bottom-up strategies that are appropriate to the listening task and
use them flexibly and interactively. Students' comprehension improves and their
confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-up strategies simultaneously to
construct meaning.
42
3.7.3. Monitor
1.
They need to check their comprehension while listening and when the listening task is
over. Monitoring comprehension helps them find out how they fared and detect what they
missed. They may, thus, use alternative strategies to decipher the meaning of the text they
listen. They need to reflect on these questions:
2.
Does it fit with the predictions they made?
3.
Does the summary for each section make sense in relation to the other sections?
3.7.4. Evaluate
They need to evaluate their listening comprehension progress. They may also evaluate whether
the strategies they had used were correct or not. They may modify them in the light of their
assessment.
Ur (1996) argues that a pre-decided listening purpose enables the listener to listen selectively for
significant information. If they learn a bit about what they are going to hear and what they are
asked to do they feel motivated. Since learners are active during the listening, And not simply
waiting until the end to do something, keeps them busy and helps prevent boredom.
3.8. Extensive and Intensive Listening
Learners need to listen to many and not only their teachers. This will not only improve their
listening skills, but help them cultivate good speaking habits as well.
3.8.1. Extensive listening beyond the classroom
The teacher encourages learners to choose for themselves what they would like to listen to. They
need not listen to what they choose in the classroom. They may listen at home, while journeying
from one place to another or any place of their choice.
Sources
They may collect materials for extensive listening from different sources. These include course
book CDs or tapes, materials downloaded from a range of sources, listening to English language
broadcasts online, or ‘listen again’ on websites such as www.bbc.co.uk/radio. Teachers should
tell learners not to worry if they don’t understand each and every word they hear. They would
learn a lot without being aware of it (Quinn, 2000).
43
Encourage Extensive Listening
•
They may be encouraged to listen at home if they want to.
•
Encourage them to share with others the ones they have enjoyed the most.
•
Encourage them to maintain a record of their responses to what they have heard in
whatever way they would like to. They can also summarise the contents of what they
hear. They may be encouraged to share with their class the ones they did not like.
3.8.2. Intensive Listening
In the Classroom teachers may use audio material on tape, CD or hard disk when they want their
students to practice listening skills in the classroom. They need to ensure that everyone can hear
nicely. Listening in the classroom may create problems in big classrooms with poor acoustics.
The purpose will be defeated in such a situation. Another problem with recorded material in the
classroom is that everyone has to listen at the same speed, a speed dictated by the recording, not
by the listeners. Teachers should keep in mind the listening speed of listeners.
How Many Times?
We need to know the number of times we have to play the audio tracks that we ask learners to
listen to. Since in real life, discourse is rarely replayed, we must encourage students to get as
much information as they can from a single hearing (Penney Ur, 1996). Since extracting general
or specific information from one listening is an important skill, learners need to be trained, to
listen effectively.
Intensive listening: ‘live’ listening
Teachers may invite members from the local community, who are achievers, to the class to talk
to students. They will have face-to-face interactions while listening. They can thus practice
listening repair strategies, if they need to develop the skill efficiently (Field 2000).
Students can also, by their expressions and body language indicates, if the speaker is going too
slowly or too fast.
Live listening can take the following forms:
•
Read aloud: The teacher may read aloud to a class. Even students from the same class
may be asked to do so.
•
Story-telling: Teachers, students from the class or community members may be invited to
tell stories which provide excellent listening material. Students can be asked to predict
44
what is coming next, describe people in the story or comment on it in some other way.
They may also be asked to retell the story they have heard.
•
Interviews: Live interview is a very motivating listening activity. Students may be asked
to frame questions. Listening for answers they themselves have asked for will make them
enthusiastic. Strangers may be invited to the class and interviewed.
•
Conservations: Teachers may invite colleagues to come to the class and hold
conservations with them on topics that concern and interest students. They will watch the
interaction as well as listen to it.
Some Tasks for Listening
i. Interviewing Strangers
Activity: Live listening
Skills: Predicting, Listening for Specific Information, and Detail
The teacher may invite select persons to the class to talk to students or be interviewed by them.
The teacher briefs the visitor about students’ language level, but does not tell students what the
visitor is. Students working in groups, would try to guess as much as they can about the visitor
and based on what they think, they write questions that they wish to ask.
The visitor is now interviewed with the questions students have written. As the interview
proceeds, the teacher encourages them to seek clarification wherever required. He/she will also
prompt students to ask supplementary questions.
During the interview students make notes. When the stranger leaves, they may exchange and
share their notes, write a short biographical piece about the person or discuss the interview with
their teacher.
ii. Storytelling
Activity: Listening to a story
Skills: Listening for gist, Listening for language study, Analysing language
The teacher may give them a list of words and phrases that they would hear and ask them to use
a dictionary or the Internet, or their friends for their meaning and then listen to the audio track in
which a person narrates a story. They may be asked to tick words and phrases they have heard.
After comparing answers with their classmates, they may listen again in order to see if they can
summarise the story. They may work in groups as well. They may be asked to do a cloze
exercise on the audio script. Written passages with missing words and phrases may be given.
45
They may be asked to fill the missing words first and then listen to the track again to check their
answers. They may also be asked to analyse the language and the style of the speaker.
iii. Watching Films
Activity: Observant
Skills: Watching/Listening for detail
They may watch a film. They may be asked to give as much information as they can about what
they have seen. Question and answer session may follow.
When students finish writing the answers, they may compare them with others to see whether
they all agree. They can watch it again to see what they had missed. Watching films will help
them have insights both about language and behaviour.
iv. Receiving M essages
Activity: Taking messages
Skills: Predicting, Listening for specific information
Teachers may record their own tapes with the help of colleagues and other competent speakers of
the language. They will, thus, have the freedom to create material which is relevant to their
students’ particular needs. Students may be asked to hear telephonic conversations and predict
about the caller and the persons called, the messages left. Students may be told that they are
going to hear phone conversations in which the callers leave messages for people who are not at
home. They may be asked to write the messages which the receiver leaves for persons
concerned. When they have written messages they may be asked to compare their versions with
each other to see if they have written the same thing. They listen to the tape again to clarify their
doubts, if any.
v. Showing Pictures
Activity: Placing events in a sequence
Skills: Predicting, Listening for gist
Students may be shown a few pictures first and asked to explain them. They may also work in
groups. They are told that they are going to listen to a recording and that they should put the
pictures in the correct chronological order which are not in the order they would hear.
They check their answers with each other and then, if necessary, listen again, to ensure that they
have the sequence correct.
46
The teacher may ask them to listen again to discover words, phrases and expressions that
fascinate them.
vi. Extract from a Lesson
Activity: Word-game listening
Skills: Listening for specific information, and detail
Students listen to the text that the teacher reads aloud. The activity will engage students with the
text in an interactive way. The students are divided into two teams. They are given a list of
words. They are told that they should choose one of the words, but make sure that no one sitting
next to them has chosen the same word. They must check the meaning of the word if they do not
know it before the activity begins. Students are asked to stand up. They may not sit down until
they have heard their word. The teacher starts reading an extract from the text. They will sit
down only when they hear the word they have chosen. The teacher goes on reading. They will
listen with considerable interest for their words. The teacher can now read the text again for
students to hear. For specific information the teacher may ask them at the end of the reading
session.
vii. Songs
Songs can be one of the most enjoyable ways to practice and develop listening skills. Songs
make students active participants in the listening activity. Demirel (2004) argues that the most
effective way to teach listening comprehension, pronunciation, and dictation is through teaching
songs. According to Cullen (1998, 1999), songs are significant teaching tools in teaching English
as a Second Language. Songs provide opportunities for repetition and practice. This repetition
accompanied by physical actions, helps learning and in turn leads to familiarity so that children
feel comfortable with the language. Schoepp (2001) argues why songs should be used in the
classroom:
1. Affective reasons: A positive attitude and environment enhance language learning.
Songs are enjoyable and contribute to a supportive, non-threatening setting which makes
learners confident and active.
2. Cognitive reasons: Songs contribute to fluency and the automatic use of meaningful
language structures.
3. Linguistic reasons: Songs also provide exposure to a wide variety of the authentic
language students will eventually face in non-academic settings.
47
viii. Listening games
Dictation can be used as an interactive activity and a listening game to improve students’
proficiency.
ix. Dicto-composition
•
The teacher reads an extract from a lesson.
•
Students listen and write down the chunks of the text.
•
They would reorganize the chunks.
•
The teacher may ask them to sum up their understanding of the text either orally or by
penning them.
•
This can also be played as a game by dividing the class into groups.
a. Mutual Dictation
A text of one page or 20 sentences story or any text is given to each pair of students. In one text
the odd sentences (sentence 1,3,5,7,…) are missing and in the other even sentences (sentences
2,4,6,8,..) are missing. First student in each pair will read out sentence 1 to his / her partner and
the partner will write down in the space for the first sentence. Then s/he will read the second
sentence to the partner s/he will write in the space in his story. Then the first student will read
and the partner will write and this goes on till the story is completed. This helps to promote
reading, listening, speaking, and writing.
b. Group Dictation
•
Students work in groups. A text is divided into two parts.
•
Groups reads the portions of the text allotted to them one after the other.
•
Both the groups take the dictation while it is being read.
•
The teacher may ask them to read aloud what they have written.
•
He may also ask them to sum up their understanding, of the text either orally or by
penning them.
•
This can also be played as a game by dividing the class into groups.
48
c. Listening for Word Stress
Students listen for word stress as a marker of the information focus of a sentence. Students
listen to questions that have two possible information focuses and use stress to identify the
appropriate focus.
d. Identifying Key Words
Students develop the ability to identify key words in a given sentence and write them in the
order they hear them.
e. Other Activities
•
True-false comprehension
•
Sequencing
•
Cloze Exercises
There are many other activities which a teacher may explore and use them as and when required.
They may innovate as well.
3.9. Sum Up
•
Listening was once considered as the mastery of discrete skills or micro-skills, such as
recognizing reduced forms of words, recognizing cohesive devices in texts, and
identifying key words in a text. These skills formed the focus of teaching, but views
regarding its nature, changed, and we now talk of bottom-up and top-down processing
and the role of prior knowledge and schema in comprehension. Listening is now seen as
an interpretive process.
•
We now talk of listener as an active participant in listening, employing strategies to
facilitate, monitor, and evaluate his or her listening.
•
Since listening provide much of the input and data to learners, listening facilitates second
language learning.
•
Learners have to be taught how to use both bottom-up and top-down processes in arriving
at an understanding of messages.
•
The spoken language (words, syntax, expressions used by speakers) are temporary
carriers of meaning. Once meaning has been deciphered, we don’t need the message
unless there are problems in understanding it.
•
Teaching listening strategies can help make learners more effective listeners.
49
•
In day-to-day communication, the listener concentrates on speaker's meaning and not his
language. The focus shifts to language only when meaning is not clear.
•
Language Education is a process in which students should be encouraged to contribute
physically, emotionally, and intellectually. This type of learning environment is best
achieved when the teacher creates a safe, non-threatening context within which learners
can play with language.
Part II Speaking
3.10.
Introduction
Like listening speaking is another intuitively most important skill (Ur, 1996, 2013).
It is a
productive skill in the oral mode. Speaking involves (i) pronunciation of the distinctive sounds of
a language clearly enough so that people can distinguish them, (ii) use stress and rhythmic
patterns, and intonation patterns of the language clearly enough so that people can understand
what is said, (iii) use the correct forms of words (including changes in the tense, case, or gender),
(iv) put words together in correct (word) order, (v) use vocabulary appropriately, (vi) use the
register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation and the relationship to the
conversation partner, (vii)
make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as
subject, verb, object, by whatever means the language uses (viii) make the main ideas stand out
from supporting ideas or information, and (ix) make the discourse hang together so that people
can follow what is being said.
3.11.
Goals of teaching speaking skills
Our speaking activities in the classroom should focus on enabling the learners to use language in
authentic / real life situations. The major goals of teaching speaking should be
… to promote communicative efficiency.
… make the students themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest.
….support students should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty
pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary and to observe the social and cultural rules that
apply in each communication situation.
50
…..To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, teachers can use a
balanced activities approach that combines language input, structural output and
communicative output.
Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages and
the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need to begin
producing language themselves. Language input is of 2 types—(i) content oriented and (ii)
form oriented.
Content oriented input focuses on information (whether it is a simple weather
report or an extended lecture on academic topic). It may also include
descriptions of learning strategies and examples of their use.
• Form oriented input focuses on the ways of using the language – guidance
from the teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar
(linguistic competence); appropriate things to say in specific contexts
(discourse competence); expectations for rate of speech, pause-length, turntaking and other social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic competence),
and explicit instruction in phrases to use to ask for clarification and repair
miscommunication (strategic competence).
• In the presentation part of a lesson, a teacher combines content-oriented and
form-oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target
language depends on students’ listening proficiency and also on the situation.
Structured output focuses on correct form. In structured output students may have option
•
for responses, but all of the options require them to use the specific form or structure that the
teacher has just introduced.
Structured output is designed to make students comfortable producing
specific language items recently introduced, sometimes in combination
with previously learned items.
• Textbook exercises also often make good structured output practice
activities.
In communicative output the students’ main purpose is to complete a task, such as
•
obtaining information, developing a travel plan, or creating a video. To complete the task,
students may use the language that the teacher has just presented, but they also may draw on
any other vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies that they know.
•
•
In communicative output activities, the criterion of success is whether the learner
gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it
interferes with the message.
In everyday communication, spoken exchanges take place because there is some
sort of information gap between the participants.
51
Communicative output activities involve a similar real information gap. In order
to complete the task, students must reduce or eliminate the information gap. In
these activities, language is a tool. Not an end in itself.
In a balanced activities approach, the teacher uses a variety of activities from these different
•
categories of input and output. Learners benefit from this variety; it is more motivating, and it is
also more likely to result in effective language learning.
Students are not proficient in speaking due to the fact that the speaking is not taught
properly and there are not much opportunities to speak in English in schools (in nonEnglish medium schools) and outside the school. Speaking activities usually consists of
language practice activities (discussions, information-gap activities, etc.) or is used to
practice a specific grammar point. Real interaction patterns are not taught.
3.12.
Teaching Speaking
Most of our classroom time is spent in teaching-learning of reading text, writing, grammar and
other activities. Speaking is not given its due in our classroom, particularly in non-English
medium schools which are huge in number. There also complaints that there are not enough
speaking activities in the textbooks. What to do in such situations? Teachers need to create
opportunities for learners to use language and speak in English through real life situation/tasks
that compel learners to speak in English. The input learners receive to speak should be drawn
from their real life experiences so that they can supply their idea and generate language to speak.
Though this is not easy in classes where there is lack English language environment, we need to
develop activities and tasks in order to enable children to speak in English. Let’s read how a
teacher does in her classroom
Teacher Practice
Ekta is an English language teacher in Belgaum. In one of her classes she conducted a speaking
activity in the following way.
She divided the class into groups of four and supplied a set of pictures in sequence. There were
eight pictures in a story sequence. Each one in the group has to describe one picture by taking
turns. Once the four pictures are described and learners continue to describe the rest. Initially
the teacher asked each group to take five minutes to study the picture and talk about it in
English and in their mother tongue. She went around and there were some queries which she
52
English and in their mother tongue. She went around and there were some queries which she
answered.
When they finished, she now asked them to describe the picture in the group in English. She set
10 to 12 minutes time for the activity. She went around and observed them speaking. Some
groups had problems which she attended to. One group asked whether they had to do in past
tense or in present tense. Another group asked whether they can supply names to the characters.
She told them they can do whatever way they wanted.
Once they completed their description of the pictures, she now asked them, “How was the
picture and their description?” She now asked the groups to describe the picture, but this time
each one will have to describe different picture. So she changed their places.
described the pictures in sequence.
They again
This time they had understood the story sequence and
described the pictures much better way.
The teacher then picked up one student from each group and asked them to describe the pictures
in sequence while the whole class was listening to them.
She now asked them to write the
description of the picture in their note books individually as they described. They took some
time to write. She asked them to exchange the descriptions written by each learner. Once they
have completed, she now asked them to write the description of all the pictures in a story form.
Students started writing the whole description and the bell went off. She told them to do it as
homework.
3.13.
Speaking activities in the classroom
Here are some exemplar speaking activities.
i.
Looks at the following pair of pictures. There are six differences in them. With
your partner find the differences between the pictures. You may use the following
phrases.
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Picture A has ……..while the picture B....
The man in picture A is wearing ……………. But in picture B…..
There is no ……. in A but it is there in B.
ii.
This is a role play activity which involves many skills integrated. Teacher has to
give instructions well before and set a time limit. She has to be a prompter /
initiator, helper and assessor and so on.
Role Play
The government proposes to set up a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in your area. This will have
long term as well as short term impact on people and land of your area. Some people welcome
54
the building of SEZ and some oppose it. Here is a group of people involved or affected by the
building of SEZ. They discuss in a meeting. The people involved are: 1. The District Collector;
2. SEZ (corporate) owner; 3. Town/village councillor; 4. Farmer who loses the land; 5. A
housewife, and 6. A young entrepreneur. Now assume and play the roles.
1. The District Collector
You are concerned about as there is lot of opposition to establishment of SEZ. You want SEZ to
be built as economic activities will improve. But at the same time you don’t want any problem in
your administrative area. You may use the following sentences/phrases.
I feel that the building of SEZ would help all of us. People will get jobs and we can open
shops
I am also worried......... (farmers)
The government will do ........... (compensate land)
It is better to have SEZ as there is water shortage.......
SEZ will not ............ (take away all land)
More jobs........
2. SEZ Corporate r
You purpose is to convince people to accept the SEZ and build the same without any trouble.
I strongly feel that SEZ will improve the economic condition of people.
Accordingly to our company’s policy we will ..............
More and more jobs (to be created)
We offer better prices for your land..
There is no...... SEZ will help.....
3. The Councillor
Though you oppose the building of the SEZ, you have to act in a balanced way to convince both
the corporate company and the people of your area. You may use the following sentences /
phrases
I understand that the establishment of SEZ has both advantageous and disadvantageous.
I feel we should accept the developments.......
SEZ will boost up economic growth.
I also understand that our farmers will lose their lands.
We have to take a decision...
I would like you to…
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4. Farmer who loses the land
You fell that your land are snatched away and you will not have land to cultivate. You oppose
the establishment of SEZ
We strongly oppose..........
Our lands are occupied......
Where will we go.....
How will people eat, if I do not cultivate?
5. Housewife
You feel that establishment of SEZ will make your work easier. Vegetables and other
commodities will be beneficial for all. You may the following sentences and phrases.
I strongly feel that SEZ will make our life better.
We can buy everything under one roof.
We can get fresh vegetables.
6. Young Entrepreneur
You feel that the malls in the special economic zones (SEZ) would help you to become a
business tycoon. You support the corporate building the mall. You may use the following words
/ phrases.
I would support the mall because...
I would like to tell...
I completely disagree with...
I agree with the corporate....
Speaking involves
Speaking involves three areas of knowledge:
1. M echanics (pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary): using the right words in the right
order with the correct pronunciation.
2. Functions (transaction and interaction): knowing when clarity of message is essential
(transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not required
(interaction/relationship building).
3. Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses between
speakers, relative roles of participants): understanding how to take into account who is
speaking to whom, in what circumstances, about what and for what reason.
4. Body language: Body language (gesture, posture, rise and fall of voice) is as important as
the verbal utterances. Body language adds to the meaning of the spoken word.
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3.14.
Assessment of Speaking
While the children are engaged in speaking activities, you can make observations on their
pronunciation of sounds/words; whether they use correct/appropriate forms of words in context
or not; how they make sentences; whether their speech is coherent and comprehensible or not;
whether they actively participate in conversations or not, etc. You can either keep a mental
record or maintain a diary of each child’s strengths and weaknesses in speaking skill. This will
provide feedback to you as well as to the students.
Learners should be made aware that they are being assessed continuously while they are
involved in speaking or any other activity. We should not assess without the knowledge of the
learners. Feedback by the teachers and by peers will help them know their specific problem and
to improve.
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4. Vocabulary in Context
“Learning vocabulary is one of the most important elements, without which neither
comprehension nor production of language is possible.”
4.1.
Laufer (1997)
Introduction
Learning vocabulary is central in production and comprehension tasks in a second/foreign
language. A direct link has been observed between vocabulary knowledge and language skills. It
is viewed as a central component of verbal comprehension since vocabulary learning is a
precondition for speaking and understanding a language (Miller, 1978). Comprehension
development cannot be understood without a critical examination of the role played by
vocabulary knowledge. Given that students’ success in school and beyond depends in great
measure upon their ability to read with comprehension, there is an urgency to create learning
situations that equip students with the skills and strategies necessary for lifelong vocabulary
development. This module on teaching of vocabulary brings you some reflections on how to
teach words in context and strategies and activities for teaching-learning vocabulary.
The
objectives of this module include
4.2.
Objectives
1. To introduce the basic concepts about vocabulary learning to teachers and stress the need
for teaching vocabulary in a context.
2. To provide the teachers with different strategies for enhancing learners vocabulary and to
promote language learning
3. To familiarise the teachers with activities that promote vocabulary learning in and outside
our classrooms.
4.3. Why vocabulary for learning a language?
Broadly defined, vocabulary is knowledge of words and word meanings. However, vocabulary is
more complex than this definition suggests. First, words come in two forms: Oral and Written.
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Oral vocabulary includes those words that we recognise and use in listening and speaking.
Written or print vocabulary includes those words that we recognise and use in reading and
writing. Second, word knowledge also comes in two forms: Receptive and Productive.
Receptive vocabulary includes words that we recognise when we hear or see (read) them.
Productive vocabulary includes words that we use when we speak or write. Receptive vocabulary
is typically larger than productive vocabulary, and may include many words to which we assign
some meaning, even if we don’t know their full definitions and connotations ‒ or ever use them
ourselves as we speak and write to know what the word sounds like?
Third, word usage comes in two forms: Active and Passive vocabulary. When we use words in
different contexts and understand its usages it means we have learned the word and it has
become a part of our active vocabulary. Passive vocabulary refers to those words which we
recognize when encountered, in a text for example, but which cannot be easily produced in
speech or writing.
In most of English language classes, it has been observed that new words are introduced in
isolation as an activity ‘words and meanings’. In some cases, meanings are given in their mother
tongue. Students are supposed to rote memorize these words with their meanings without
learning their usage or contextual meaning. Therefore, new words that are introduced remain part
of their passive vocabulary. They are able to recognize the word/words when encountered, but
cannot be easily produced in speech or writing as active vocabulary. If learners are able to use
words in different contexts and understand its usage, it means they have learned the word and it
has become part of their active vocabulary.
Introducing words in context is important because:
(i) words may mean differently in isolation (ii) words keep their company and add meaning (like
phrasal verbs and idioms and phrases) (iii) words have connotative and denotative meaning. The
following sections will discuss these in detail.
Activity 1
With your partner or individually think about the following:
1. Is learning words, i.e. vocabulary learning a language?
2. How many words I know in my mother tongue?
3. Can I count the words I know in English?
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4. Is it right to call a new word as ‘difficult word’? Is the word new or difficult?
4.4. Why Teach Vocabulary?
Vocabulary development in mother tongue happens quite naturally as a child is surrounded with
innumerable words at home. Developing vocabulary in second language therefore requires
natural contexts and examples as well. If words are presented as isolated elements, they are
quickly forgotten. Isolated words do not present a linguistic reality, as the meaning of the word
in most cases is partly defined by the context (Beheydt, 1987). Teaching children to use and
improve their use of English is to improve their range of words, the flexibility and
appropriateness with which they use them. Vocabulary usually grows and evolves with age and
helps in acquisition of knowledge.
The objectives of teaching vocabulary are:
•
•
•
•
•
to understand the meaning of words
to develop active and passive vocabulary
to develop vocabulary through activities
to understand how to develop activities to teach vocabulary
to be able to use words in different contexts
4.5. Knowing a word involves
• how it is pronounced and spelled.
• its grammatical category (N, V, Adj, etc).
• how, where and when it is used.
• its denotative meaning/core meaning.
• its connotative meaning.
• its syntactic behaviour.
• the associations it forms.
• the limitations there are to its use.
• how frequently it occurs in spoken and written languages.
• its root form, and what affixes/suffixes it can take.
Vocabulary includes single words, parts of words, compound words, fixed phrases and idiomatic
expressions (e.g., make up one’s mind, kick the bucket).
What happens when one memorises without understanding?
Shyam has memorized fifty words and thirty phrases by heart. His English teacher has all praise
for him. She selects Shyam for a speech, to be delivered on the occasion of Independence Day.
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Shyam memorises the speech and gets ready to face the audience on that auspicious day. But
somehow, he forgets one line and some words in between. And the whole speech got messy.
Activity 1
Could you recall memorizing words and phrases when you were in school? Had it helped you in
improving your proficiency?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Where did Shyam and his English teacher go wrong?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Read and Reflect
•
How do second language learners acquire vocabulary?
•
What factors affect vocabulary learning/ acquisition?
•
How can we expose learners to vocabulary?
•
What type of activities can we develop for the teaching of vocabulary?
Vocabulary is important as it helps in understanding spoken as well as written texts. Once
learners are exposed to a variety of word meanings and associations they are able to use words in
a variety of situations. It has also been observed that repetition of words in texts also improves
retention of words by students.
4.6. Key Concepts
When we learn a new word or a phrase we make sense of the word or phrase by its
pronunciation, spelling, its grammatical function and so on. Let’s see what the key points related
a word.
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i. Pronunciation and spelling
What a word sounds like and what it looks like.
ii. Grammar
A word may have an unpredictable change of form in certain grammatical contexts. E.g.,
irregular past form of a word (fight: fought), transitive or intransitive; irregular plural
forms (mouse: mice); adjectives or verbs together with their following prepositions
(remind someone of, responsible for).
iii. Collocation
We often combine words in certain ways to form a new meaning.
For example: heavy rain, a strong wind, make a mistake, etc.
iv. Aspects of meaning
•
Denotation—what a word refers to in the real world.
•
Connotation—associations or positive or negative feelings a word might evoke.
Whether a particular word is the appropriate one to use in a certain context or not.
E.g. weep and cry are almost synonymous but weep is more formal, tends to be used
in writing more than in speech, and is in general much less common.
•
Meaning relationships—how the meaning of one word relates to meaning of others.
o Synonyms—two words that have the same sense; e.g., conceal and hide,
stubborn and obstinate, etc.
o Antonyms—two words that differ only in the value for a single semantic
feature; e.g., dead : alive, hot : cold, etc.
o Hyponyms—words that serve as specific examples of a general concept (e.g.,
dog, lion, rat are animal).
o Co-hyponyms or co-ordinates—other words that are the same kind of thing
(e.g., red, green, blue are co-ordinates).
o Superordinates—general concepts that ‘cover’ specific items (e.g., animal is
the superordinate of dog, lion, rat).
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v. Word formation
•
Derivation—addition of a derivational affix, changing the syntactic category
of the word to which it is attached (nation national, warmwarmth,
simple simply, etc.).
•
Compound—creating a new word by combining two free morphemes (roots);
e.g., blackboard, suitcase, tea-cup, sunrise, toothbrush, etc.
•
Clipped form—shortened form of a pre-existing word/morpheme; e.g., lab <
laboratory, fridge < refrigerator, etc.
•
Blend—combination of parts of two pre-existing words; e.g., smog < smoke
+ fog, brunch < breakfast + lunch, etc.
•
Acronym—word formed from the first letter(s) of each word in a phrase; e.g.,
ASA < ational Aeronautics and Space Administration, RADAR, etc.
•
Abbreviation—a word formed from the names of the first letters of the
prominent syllables of a word; e.g., TV < television.
•
Back formation—word formed by removing what is mistaken for an affix
(e.g., pea < pease, edit < editor, burgle < burglar, etc.).
•
Folk etymology—formation of a word by substituting a common native form
for an exotic (often foreign) form; e.g., cockroach < Spanish cucuracha ‘wood
louse’.
•
Proper name—formation of a word from a proper name; e.g., sandwich <
(Earl of ) Sandwich, hamburger < Hamburg.
•
Zero derivation or category extension—extension of a word from one
syntactic category to another; e.g., man (Noun) man (Verb), chair
(Noun) chair(Verb), etc.
vi. Content/open-class words (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs) vs. Function/closed-class
words (Articles, Prepositions, Pronouns, Determiners)
•
Sight words/vocabulary: a set of the most common words that young students need
to be able to recognise quickly as they see them in print. Examples (in English) : the,
of, and, a, to, in, that, I, it, was, is, he, for, you, on, with, but, they, his, have, not, this,
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are, from, one, all, there, her, were, which, if, me, can, some, know, time, only, yes,
because, how, first, say, before, day, again, want, always, look, why, etc.
•
Denotation refers to the literal meaning or the "dictionary definition "of a word. For
example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of
its denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous
reptiles, having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and
temperate regions."
•
Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a
certain word or the emotional or cultural suggestions related to that word. The
connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings. The
connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger. Examples of denotation
and connotation:
The words home, house, residence and dwelling all have the same denotation, but the
connotation of each word is very different.
Denotation: Where a person lives at any given time.
Connotation:
Home
: cozy, loving, comfortable
House
: the actual building or structure
Residence : cold, no feeling
Dwelling : primitive or basic surroundings
Incidental learning
Learning vocabulary as a by-product of doing other things such as reading or
listening.
Teachers are supposed to provide opportunities for extensive reading and
listening.
Explicit instruction
•
Depends on identifying specific vocabulary-acquisition targets for learners.
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•
Involves diagnosing the words learners need to know, presenting words for the
first time, elaborating word knowledge, and developing fluency.
•
Words have to be taught directly.
Extensive reading
Can give a reliable source of ‘comprehensible input’.
Can provide multiple exposure to instructed words, exposure to words in
meaningful contexts, rich and varied information about each word.
Independent strategy development
Involves
practicing,
guessing from context
and
training learners to use
dictionaries.
4.7. Learning Vocabulary
Learning vocabulary is the key to language learning. It is important to develop vocabulary as it
helps in understanding spoken as well as written texts. It is important for the teacher to
understand how vocabulary is learned and the factors that play a role in vocabulary development.
It is useful for the teacher to be aware of the variety of methods that can be used to enhance
vocabulary because
it
helps develop reading comprehension and expression. Learning
vocabulary will help students
•
with reading comprehension.
•
enhance their written expression.
•
connect better with the world around them. E.g.: print media, technology, etc.
•
understand the use of vocabulary in context.
When a new word is discovered by students in their texts or in real-life, they find it difficult. This
is because new words are like strangers and unless they are properly introduced students may
feel hesitant.
Thus, we must introduce vocabulary through contexts that will enable them to
remember both the word and its usage/context. This will enhance the confidence and competence
of students in vocabulary learning.
Vocabulary, you will agree, is generally a matter of remembering, unlike learning grammar,
which is a system based mainly on rules. Students do not usually remember a new item to
65
memory after the first encounter. Rather, it requires a process that takes place over time. This
process can be subdivided into five steps:
•
Encountering new words
•
Getting the word form
•
Getting the word meaning
•
Consolidating word form and meaning in memory
•
Using the word
Learning vocabulary, thus, involves adding words (size or breadth of lexical knowledge)
to the lexical store through the labelling and packaging tasks, and expanding the knowledge of
the lexical items (depth of lexical knowledge) via network-building. Meara (1996) states that
breadth is the basic component in constructing the notion of lexical competence: the ability to
recognise and use the words of a language in the way that a speaker of that language uses them.
4.8. Introducing new words
A number of techniques can be used to introduce/teach new words to learners. Some of them are:
•
showing a picture/object/illustration
•
act/mime
•
examples – give another word (hyponyms)
•
giving synonyms
•
giving antonyms
•
explaining through context
•
introducing associated ideas or collocations
•
using dictionaries
A few activities are given below:
Activity 1– Word 3etworks (Semantic maps)
Write a single word in the centre of the board, and ask learners to brain storm all the words they
can think of which are connected with the central word. Every word that is suggested is written
on the board with a line connecting it to the original word. Let us take the word Travel.
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packing
Travel
reservations
luggage
Activity 2 – Words we know
Give a text to your learners, ask them to underline the words that they know and put it under the
heading ‘active vocabulary’ and put the words that they have come across earlier but are not very
sure of the meaning, under the heading ‘passive vocabulary’. Now ask them to:
i) guess the meaning of the new words,
ii) use these words in contexts to bring home the meaning.
Activity 3 – Word Formation
•
Use of prefix
-
im
Possible
-
impossible
Practical
-
impractical
Make a list of the words that have ‘im’ as a prefix.
Other prefixes are:
ante, auto, inter, miss, per, pre, re, sub
Use suffixes to forms new words
Suffixes to make adjectives from nouns: -ed, -ful, -al, -less
blur
point
beauty
-
blurred
pointed
beautiful
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use
useful
accident
accidental
operation
operational
care
careless
Suffixes to make nouns from adjectives: -ity, -ness
stupid
-
stupidity
careless
-
carelessness
Suffixes to make nouns from verbs: -age, -er, -ee, -or
waste
-
wastage
pay
-
payee
advise
-
adviser
coordinate
-
coordinator
Activity 4 – Collocation
Which adjectives in box A can you combine with nouns in box B?
Error! Reference source
Boxnot
A found.
Now complete the sentence with the adjectives from the boxes given above.
close
1. _________ is a ____________ sleeper.
serious
2. _________ is a _____________ worker.
hard
3. Mohanhigh
has (will have) ____________ salary.
________ doesn’t think they have a __________ foreign accent when they speak English.
4. _________ has had a __________ illness in their life.
5. _________ has recently had a ___________ disappointment.
6. _________ has a _______________ friend of a different nationality.
Read and Reflect
Points to ponder over
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0
Build a large sight vocabulary.
0
Integrate new words with old.
0
Provide numerous encounters with a word.
0
Promote a deep level of processing.
0
Make new words “real” by connecting them to the student’s world in some way.
0
Encourage independent learning strategies.
0
Diagnose which of the most frequent words learners need to study.
0
Provide opportunities for elaborating word knowledge.
0
Provide opportunities for developing fluency with known vocabulary.
0
Examine different types of dictionaries, and teach students how to use them.
4.9. To Sum Up
While teaching vocabulary, we should always keep in mind that all concepts/ideas don’t get
lexicalised in a language (i.e., there don’t exist words for each object, idea or concept), and that
words do not have fixed meaning but several layers of meaning. Thus, learning vocabulary does
not only mean just memorising one or some meanings of a word, it also means using the word
appropriately in a certain situation. In different situations the same word will show different
meanings. Frequency, attention, practice and revision are important for teaching vocabulary.
Language Opportunities
Classroom activities should allow students to use natural and meaningful language
with their classmates.
Research findings
Learners need opportunities to practice language with one another. Conversations are
important since they require attentiveness and involvement on the part of learners. By
conversing, they can practice adapting vocabulary and grammar to a particular
situation and making their own contributions to the conversation comprehensible.
The best conversations for such learning exchange real information, ideas and feelings
among the participants. By engaging in such activities, learners have opportunities try
to make themselves understood. They receive immediate feedback as to whether they
were successful and where alternative language is needed. As they engage in such
exchanges, learners also receive additional comprehensible input, which further aids
language acquisition.
69
language acquisition.
In the classroom
Several classroom-teaching strategies derive from these research findings:
Teachers should go beyond simple language drills to create opportunities for
meaningful interaction in the classroom by suing activities in which students
employ natural language examples in real language situations.
• Students should be encouraged to work in pairs or small groups, with the teacher
serving as an occasionally helpful observer rather than a controlling force.
• Teachers should employ activities in which students have to solve problems in
which each party must contribute information that others do not posses and which
challenge students’ minds.
• When feasible, the tasks should relate to students’ needs and interests so as to
motivate them.
• Teachers should usually avoid intervening in these activities while they are
occurring, but should provide feedback after they conclude.
References
•
Doughty, C & Pica T. (1986). ‘Information gap’ tasks; do they facilitate second
language acquisition? TESOL quarterly (Alexandria, VA) No. 20 p. 305-25.
Ellis, R. (1990). Instructed language acquisition. London, Blackwell.
Long, M & Porter, P (1985). Group work. Interlanguage tasks and second language
acquisition. TESOL quarterly. Alexandria, VA No 19 p. 207-27.
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5. Grammar in Context
5.1. Introduction
The moment we hear the word "grammar", we think of a fixed set of word forms and rules of
usage. We associate "good" grammar with the appropriate forms of the language, such as those
used in writing and in formal oral presentations. Language teachers often focus on grammar as a
set of forms and rules and teach grammar by explaining the forms and rules and then drilling
students on them. This results in bored, disinterested students who can produce correct forms on
exercises and tests, but consistently make errors when they try to use the language in context.
Before we discuss the need for teaching grammar in a context in second language, and the
strategies for teaching grammar in context, let’s look at the major findings of the researches
on grammar in classroom:
Read and Reflect
Grammar learning is not language learning.
Examining irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the
target language is not language teaching, but rather is “language appreciation” or
linguistics.
• Many aspects of grammar do not need to be taught as they are already present in the
learners’ mind and need instead to be activated.
• Conscious explanation of the L2 grammar is seen as beneficial in some circumstances,
as is raising of language awareness.
Activity 1
•
•
Could you recall how grammar was taught when you were in school?
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Do you think that was the right way of teaching-learning grammar?
71
5.2. Objectives
•
•
•
To acquaint teachers with various approaches to grammar and the need for teaching
grammar in context.
To help teachers reflect on various ways of teaching grammar.
To enable them to plan a grammar lesson as an integrated activity in classroom.
Grammar is very often presented out of context. Students are given isolated sentences, which
they are expected to internalize through exercises involving repetition, manipulation and
grammatical transformation. These exercises provide students with structures and rules of
grammar which do not take into account students' contexts. Unless students are provided
opportunities to explore grammatical structures in context, they may not be able to use the
language for communication. This is important because students need to understand the
systematic relationships that exist between form, meaning, and use. As teachers, we need to help
students see that effective communication involves achieving harmony between functional
interpretation and formal appropriacy (Halliday, 1985) by giving them tasks that show the
relationship between grammatical items and the discourse contexts in which they occur. In real
life communication beyond the classroom, grammar and context are often so closely related that
appropriate grammatical choices can only be made with reference to the context and purpose of
the communication.
5.3. Why Grammar and which Grammar?
Teachers often wonder how much grammar to teach or whether to teach grammar at all. We need
to understand the difference between language learning and language acquisition that children
acquire their first language without overt grammar instruction, we expect students to learn their
second language the same way. Students will absorb grammar rules as they hear, read, and use
the language in communication and also while doing activities. Their understanding of what
grammar is and how it works in the language is to be presented in context. When grammar is
presented in context to the students it helps acquire the language more efficiently. It also
provides grammar teaching and learning into the larger context of teaching students to use the
72
language.
The objective of grammar teaching is to enable students to carry out their
communication purposes. This goal has three implications:
•
Grammar in context connects grammar points with real life communication contexts.
•
Students do not need to master every aspect of each grammar point, only those that are
relevant to the immediate communication task.
•
Error correction is not always the teacher’s first responsibility. Errors can be rectified
with practice.
You may teach the grammar point in the target language or the students' first language or both.
The goal is to facilitate understanding. Present grammar points in written and oral ways to
address the needs of students with different learning styles. An important part of grammar
instruction is providing examples. You need to plan the examples carefully around two basic
principles:
•
Be sure the examples are accurate and appropriate. They must present the language
appropriately, be culturally appropriate for the setting in which they are used, and be to
the point of the lesson.
•
Use the examples as teaching tools. Connect it with the development of listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
•
Focus examples on a particular theme or topic so that students have more contact with
specific information and vocabulary.
•
Use the examples to develop language skills.
We need to present grammar forms and structures in relation to meaning and use for the specific
communication tasks that students need to complete.
You need to be careful not to focus on error correction because that will be detrimental to
communication and also the confidence of the learners. You need to let students know when they
are making errors so that they can work on improving. You also need to build students'
confidence in their ability to use the language by focusing on the content of their communication
rather than the grammatical form. Therefore, stress is more on meaning making rather than
73
learning the forms of grammar. Errors are actually learning areas. This is where they need help/
focus.
When students are doing structured output activities that focus on development of new
•
language skills, use error correction to guide them.
When students are engaged in communicative activities, correct errors only if they
•
interfere with comprehensibility. Respond using correct forms, but without stressing
them.
Here is an example:
Student: I buy a new book yesterday!
Teacher: You bought a new book? That's great! What is the title of the book?
What are some of the errors that students make while using second language.
(i) These are grammatical errors (ii) Mistake in selection of appropriate language / vocabulary
Students often struggle by the disconnect between knowing the rules of grammar and being able
to use those rules automatically in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Therefore, there is a
need to introduce grammar in context.
Teaching students how the language works and giving them opportunities to compare it with
other languages they know allows them to draw on critical thinking and analytical skills. These
processes can support the development of language.
•
•
•
•
•
In the classroom
The following procedures may be followed in the classroom
Present the grammar form (item) in natural discourse, explaining how the form
is made, any irregular forms, and any spelling or pronunciation issues.
Provide numerous examples of natural language in which the form can be
studied and provide any contextual information on how to use the form
appropriately.
Make sure students can recognise the form and its functions, before asking the
student to produce the form.
Provide activities that allow students to use the form in natural communicative
ways, not just in simple drills.
If errors occur, provide meaningful feedback on what forms should be used
and why, but remember it often takes time for students to master a form
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and why, but remember it often takes time for students to master a form
completely
(Cele-Murcia, 1991; Celce_Murcia & Larsen Freeman, 1999; Williams, 1995)
Adopted from Teaching Additional Languages by Elliot L. Judd, Lihua Tan and
Herbert J. Walbert. Educational Practices Series – 6. International Academy of
Education. International Bureau of Education.
http:/www.curtinedu.au/curtin/dept/smec/iae
Activity 2
Take a textbook you and your students use in your school and choose a grammar activity or
exercise. Examine it with the following questions:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
What is the grammatical aspect dealt with in the exercise?
Whether the exercise is given in isolated sentences or in a paragraph.
What is the learner asked to do in the exercise? Is it a pair, group or individual
activity?
What kind of exercise is it? Is the exercise a gap filling, fill in the blanks, match
the item, converting a sentence into some other form or word formation?
Is it possible to have more than one answer as solution to the exercise? Is there are
problems solving nature in the exercise?
Does it give chance for the learners to think about the language aspect and
discover?
5.4. Strategies for Teaching Grammar
Provide plentiful, appropriate language input.
It is evident that students develop the use of language on the basis of the input they receive. This
input will help students to understand the relationships among form, meaning, and use of a
specific grammar rule. This would help them use the grammar rule in a variety of contexts.
Activity: Ask the learners to select a newspaper item and any chapter of their History book. Ask
them to find out which tense has been used. What type of sentences has been used? What
happens to learners in these types of activities? Are the learners able to think about language i.e.
Knowledge About Languages (KAL). Since the learners understand the meaning of the text and
then think about the grammatical feature, grammar is learnt implicitly. Awareness of these
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features allows students to understand the forms and structures they will encounter in a given
communication task.
Read and Reflect
Remember
•
Students do not develop the ability to use grammar correctly in oral and written
interactions by doing mechanical drills, because these drills separate form from meaning
and use.
•
Communicative drills encourage students to connect form, meaning, and use because
multiple correct responses are possible. In communicative drills, students respond to a
prompt using the grammar point under consideration, but providing their own content.
For example, to practice questions and answers in the past tense in English, teacher and
students can ask and answer questions about activities the previous evening. The drill is
communicative because none of the content is set in advance:
Teacher: Did you go to the market yesterday?
Student 1: No, I didn’t. I went to the movie. (to Student 2): Did you read chapter 3?
Student 2: Yes, I read chapter 3, but I didn’t understand it. (to Student 3): Did you understand
chapter 3?
Student 3: I didn’t read chapter 3. I went to the movie with Student 1.
5.5. Developing Grammar Activities
See the following activity:
Students plan to travel will need to understand public address announcements in airports and
train stations. Instructors can use audio taped simulations to provide input; teach the grammatical
forms that typically occur in such announcements; and then have students practice by asking and
answering questions about what was announced.
•
Meaningful practice can help students develop understanding of the working of rules of
grammar because they require students to make form-meaning correlations. Their
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resemblance to real communication is limited by the fact that they have only one correct
answer.
Communicative practice requires students to be aware of the relationships among form,
•
meaning, and use. In communicative drills, students test and develop their ability to use
language to convey ideas and information.
Grammar task that compel learners to think about language and notice the underlying rules.
i.
Reordering jumbled words into meaningful sentence.
ii.
Rearranging jumbled sentences into a coherent paragraph.
iii.
Cloze tasks.
iv.
Editing a passage with errors.
v.
Supplying the missing words.
5.6. Assessment
Just as mechanical drills do not teach students the language, mechanical test questions do not
assess their ability to use it in authentic ways. In order to provide assessment of students’
grammar proficiency, an evaluation must reflect real-life uses of grammar in context. This means
that the activity must have a purpose other than assessment and require students to demonstrate
their level of grammar proficiency by completing some task.
To develop authentic assessment activities, begin with the types of tasks that students will
actually need to do using the language. Assessment can then take the form of communicative
practices and communicative activities like those used in the teaching process.
For example, the activity based on audiotapes of public address announcements can be converted
into an assessment by having students respond orally or in writing to questions about a similar
tape. In this type of assessment, the instructor uses a checklist or rubric to evaluate the learners’
understanding and/or use of grammar in context.
Mechanical tests do serve one purpose: They motivate students to memorize. They can therefore
serve as prompts to encourage memorization of irregular forms and vocabulary items. Because
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they test only memory capacity, not language ability, they are best used as quizzes and given
relatively little weight in evaluating student performance and progress.
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6. Writing for Language Learning
6.1.
Introduction
A language has different modes of communication. Writing is one of them. Writing can be
self-initiated, that is, we write to someone, or it could be initiated by others, when we
respond to someone else’s writing. Teachers need to make students aware that a piece of
writing is an attempt to communicate something. When we communicate in writing we not
only communicate simple ideas and information we communicate complex and abstract
ideas. Writing needs to have a communicative purpose, strategies to maintain contact with
the reader, a certain pattern of organization, as well as a coherent and connected pattern of
texts. Underlying all this are certain ways of grammatically and logically organizing texts.
This module present how a teacher can enable our learners learn to write well for various
purposes.
6.2.
Objectives
•
To help teachers understand the importance of the skills of writing in learning a
language.
•
To initiate teachers to understand the processes and strategies involved in writing.
•
To help teachers to design and develop different activities on writing.
•
To help teachers to understand how writing can be assessed.
Read and Reflect
In pairs, agree or disagree with the following. Give reasons for your
agreements or disagreements.
1. Writing is something done by academics and experts.
2. Writing is very difficult.
3. Writing is very time-consuming.
4. Writing helps to reinforce the grammatical structures.
5. Writing is repeating what others have written.
6. Writing lets children think critically.
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6.3.
What are the important aspects in writing?
In many schools, the general trend is to treat writing as repetition of sentences or one time
end product. Is that way of writing? It is important to understand that the production of
isolated sentences is not writing. Repetition of some grammatical structures or vocabulary
patterns is something that writing needs to go beyond. Then what is writing? What does it
involve writing a good piece? Let’s read the following and reflect. Reinforcement of the
following ideas for writing can be useful
•
Writing involves communication with a reader and like any other forms of
communication, therefore needs to be organized accordingly.
•
Writing is not speaking; the way we speak is not the way we write. This is because
spoken communication is like ‘thinking on the run’. In speaking, you need to think
and speak simultaneously. Writing, on the other hand, does not involve the same
skills required for speaking.
•
Writing generally indicates very clearly what the subject or theme of the piece is.
•
Writing can also take the form of recorded experience, for example in
autobiographies or diaries.
•
Writing requires certain knowledge of conventions of written English.
Teacher Practice
Ramakabilan is a teacher in Mangad in Karnataka. He makes his learners write by
connecting their life experiences. Here is what he did in his writing class.
He first asked students, “What did you have for your breakfast today?” Many replies
came. Some said, “Idli and chatni sir” Some said, “Bread and omlette, sir” and some
others said, “I had parantha, sir”. He then asked, “You said you had parantha for
your breakfast. Didn’t you? Could you please say how the parantha is made?” The
students stared saying, “I have to ask my mother sir” Some other students said, “I
know sir. First we have to make atta and then…” Now the teacher said, “Wait. What
we do now is in group we discuss some eating item how to make it and note down the
steps how to make and then discuss.” All students agreed.
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He now divided the class into groups of four and asked them to discuss one food item
they like and also how to make it. He gave them two minutes to choose the item and
then each group was given seven minutes to discuss and jot down the points of how
to make the item, steps involved in make it. He went around the class, looked at what
they were noting down and clarified the doubts and question they asked. When
students appeared completing the task of jotting down, he said, “Have you noted?
Time up”
He now asked them to read out. One group said, “We have chosen chappati. The
steps are….” Likewise other two groups also said whatever they have written.
“Fine.” Said Ramakabilan, “Now let’s write from the steps and ingredients of the
dish you are making in small sentence. I will give some tips. You use words like
‘firstly…, secondly…, or first, second… then…’ You can use instructive language.
He wrote the first sentence on the black board. He now gave another seven minutes
for them to write in complete sentence. Students wrote making use of the points
jotted down. Once the groups complete the first draft, he asked them to read carefully
and correct the mistakes, if any and improve the write up. He again gave them
another eight minutes to finalise the draft into a complete paragraph which they did.
He asked each group to read out to the other and display on the class notice board. He
ensured that each student contributed in the writing. Then he gave homework each
student individually to describe another dish they know how to make it or to ask
someone at home and describe the process of making the dish. He advised them to
follow the same procedure for writing it.
Activity 1
Based on reading of the above teacher practice discuss the following with your partner:
i.
Is it possible to have such a writing activity in your classroom?
ii.
This writing activity is done as a group work. Will it help in developing writing
skills in every student?
iii.
Can you design one such writing task for your class?
6.4. Differences between Speaking and Writing
As mentioned earlier, writing is not simply spoken language transferred to paper. Here are
some major differences between speaking and writing:
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a) Speaking is an acquired skill while writing is a taught skill; one acquires speech through
interactions with other while writing is a much more laborious process of teaching and
learning.
b) While spoken language can have regional and dialectal variations, writing generally has a
more standardized form.
c) Speakers can use their voice and body language to indicate a change in their ideas;
writing would have to depend on language alone to indicate these changes.
d) Speakers use pauses, breaks, and repetitions; writers would have to depend on
punctuations for this.
e) Speaking is much more spontaneous, and often, unplanned (except in formal speeches);
writing, on the other hand, needs more planning and organization. There is also a
possibility of revision in writing.
f) Speakers tend to use quite a lot of formulaic language or lexical chunks (groups of words
that together have a meaning, for example, “How are you today?”); writers need to vary
their vocabulary and grammar so that it does not become repetitive and boring.
g) Speakers use a lot of coordinators (‘and’ , ‘but’, ‘also’, ‘like’) while writers tend to use
more subordinators (‘therefore’, ‘that’, ‘though’, ‘although’)
6.5. What marks a good writer?
i.
Always thinks of the audience.
ii.
Does not deviate from the main purpose.
iii.
Spends considerable time to plan (Ideas and Arguments).
iv.
Makes good use of reliable sources of knowledge.
v.
Lets ideas flow smoothly (coherence and cohesion).
vi.
Follows a rough organisation plan.
vii.
Seeks and makes use of feedback.
viii.
Gives a lot of attention to choice of words (lexis).
ix.
Willingly (re)revises (accuracy and appropriacy).
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x.
Looks back at the writing at long intervals.
(The list has been taken from M.L. Tickoo (2003) Teaching and Learning English. New
Delhi: Orient Longman)
Let’s now see how the above points are important.
(a) The Audience
Writing can be of different types. It can be descriptive, for example, a newspaper article;
comparative, for example, a brochure that compares and compares between two products;
expository, for example, a recipe or a manual; narrative, for example, a short story or a poem or
a play; and persuasive, for example, a politician’s speech. The type of writing that one does
however, depends on the audience that one addresses. Depending on the audience, the writer
chooses a particular type of writing. However, please remember that sometimes the boundaries
are not very clear cut and one type of writing can often borrow from other types of writing.
(b) Purpose
Every type of writing has a certain purpose. Writing, unlike speaking, is generally about a topic
or a theme. The topic or the theme is then organized in such a manner that the purpose is served.
For example, if the purpose of the writing is to describe then the focus should be on the object of
description, its qualities and the writer’s own analysis of what is being described.
(c) Planning/ Brainstorming
It is essential that any type of writing is planned. It is always a good idea to think about what you
want to say. It would also be advisable to write out in a note-form the plan of the written piece so
that you have a guide for organizing the writing in a certain way. The notes can even in the form
of questions like ‘What is going to be my introduction?’, ‘In what ways will I describe?’, etc.
(d) Using Reliable Sources of Knowledge
Except in the case of narrative writing (and sometimes even for that), you need some source of
knowledge. For example, if you are describing your last vacation trip, you need to know about
the place, what are its tourist attractions, how to reach there, etc. It would be good if your
83
description of the trip is supplemented by other facts that can be taken from reliable sources like
a book or a travel website.
(e) Coherence and Cohesion
In any piece of writing, it is essential that it is logically sequenced. In written language, different
types of words are used to create this. Here is a list of some of them.
afterwards, also, as a result, conversely, consequently, even so, for, example, for instance,
furthermore, hence, however, meanwhile, moreover, therefore, thus, simultaneously,
nevertheless, subsequently
These words are used to indicate a continuity within the text and also to create a link between
different parts of the text. A good piece of writing is always coherent.
(f) Having an Organizational Plan
Before you start to write, it would be essential that you have a plan of what you are going to
write, what you are going to include, and how are you going to organize the material that you
have. Thus, drawing up a plan/ organizer is the first step towards writing.
(g) Feedback
The feedback for writing can be at two stages. One, before you start to write and you have an
organizational plan ready. Sharing the organizational plan with others and making changes
according to the feedback that you receive is a good way to start writing. That makes the writing
more effective. You can also receive feedback after you have finished your writing, In fact, it is
essential that you do that. Depending on the kind of feedback received, revise the writing.
(h) Lexis
Words are the soul of writing. A good writer always pays a lot of attention to words. A good
thesaurus always comes in handy when writing is involved. Here are some tips:
•
Do not repeat the same word again and again; look for a replacement.
84
•
Always aim for the exact word that you are looking for.
•
Explaining something if you do not have a word for it is a good strategy.
•
Use the words in such a way that it fits the grammatical pattern.
(i) Revision
Revision is an essential part of writing. Depending on the feedback that you have received,
revise your writing and make it more compact.
Activity 2
Recall one of your recent writing. It may be your diary, letter, email, an application or an article
to a newspaper. Think about how you wrote it and write down the steps you involved when you
wrote it. Share with your partner and ask him /her how s/he did so.
6.6. Different Forms of Writing
Here are some samples of writing that can be used in the classroom. This is not an exhaustive
list and items can be added under each heading.
Personal Writing
Diaries
Journals
Blogs
E-mails
Twitter Feeds
Shopping Lists
Addresses
Personal Invitations
Social Writing
Letters
Public Invitations
Notes of Condolence/Thanks/
Congratulations
Instructions to friends/family
Public Writing
Letters of Enquiry/Complaint/
Request
Form Filling
Applications
Creative Writing
Poems
Stories
Drama
Songs
Travelogue
Autobiography
Study Writing
Making notes while reading
Making notes from lectures
Making a card index
Summaries
Synopses
Reviews
Essays
Institutional Writing
Agenda
Posters
Minutes
Reports (Informative and
Investigative report)
Reviews
Curriculum Vitae
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Reports
Business Letters
Public Notices
6.7. Approaches to Teaching Writing
Here are two major approaches to teaching writing:
Product
Traditionally, the teacher alone has been the audience for student writing. While
Approach
the students write a certain assignment or homework, the task of the teacher is
generally taken to be the one of evaluator. However, this approach, though quick
and efficient in terms of evaluation, has certain disadvantages. Here are some of
them:
•
This approach focuses on the finished product; the writing is seen as a
product that needs to be completed by the student. However, as outlined
earlier, writing often is a collaborative process and essentially interacts
with the audience. If in a classroom, the audience is always the teacher
and the purpose of writing is always evaluation, then the product may not
fulfill the criteria of writing at all.
This approach is extremely teacher-centred; there is often anxiety among
children to write since the teacher at no point of time is involved in the
process of writing. The teacher thus, just remains an evaluator and not a
facilitator as mentioned in the NCF -2005.
This approach often involves behaviourist models of writing which has
substitution tables or gap-fill exercises. Though these kind of activities
are useful for evaluation, they may not develop the skill of writing
efficiently.
Since there is minimal guidance on the part of the teacher on content and
organization of the students’ writing, the student does not really learn
how to write but instead learns how to write to be evaluated.
Process
Recently, there has been a move away from the product approach to the process
Approach
approach. Teachers who use the process approach keep in mind two crucial
aspect of writing: enough space and time to students to generate and try-out new
ideas, and feedback on the content of their writing. The following stages can be
86
ideas, and feedback on the content of their writing. The following stages can be
followed in the process approach:
The focus in this approach is on the process itself. This does not mean,
however, that the product, the completed written piece, is not important.
But the belief in this approach is that enough investment is made at the
level of process itself, then the product would automatically follow to be
better organized.
This is a Learner-centred approach and the focus is on the production,
generation, dissemination of ideas among the learners. The focus thus
shifts away from the product to the process – what are the students
engaged in rather than what are the students producing?
In this approach, Prewriting, drafting, editing, and re(re)vising are
essential aspects of the process. The teachers acknowledge the fact that
writing is not an easy process and it is often messy stumbling from one
point to another. It often involves quite a lot of re-ordering, resequencing, re-writing, adding, deleting, drafting etc. The teachers need
to acknowledge that this process is as important as the finished product
itself.
An essential aspect of the process approach is feedback and guidance.
Though this requires considerable amount of time, it is essential to
develop the skill of writing. One of the ways that teacher’s time can be
minimized is by encouraging the students to share their writing among
themselves and creating a system of peer evaluation. After the initial
vetting, students can then share their ideas with the teacher.
6.8. Summarizing the Process Approach
Writing: The Process Approach
Brainstorming: Divide the students into groups of three or four and ask them to jot down as
many ideas as they can about a given topic. Ask them to then arrange the
ideas in a sequence.
87
Outlining
: Ask students again in groups to create an outline of their writing – which
ideas will go first, how will they be supported by evidence, will there be a
picture etc.
Drafting
: Ask students to draft the first piece; here the focus is on the content and not
the form.
Revising
: Ask students to share their first draft with other groups and then depending
on the feedback that they get revise their draft.
Proof-reading: Proof-read the draft with the help of the teacher; here the focus is on the
form and not the content.
Final draft:
Write the final draft now.
6.9. Some Writing Tasks
Task 1
Language Function: Making invitations
Divide students into groups of three/ four. Tell them that they are going to write a formal
invitation for a school function. Ask them to brainstorm about the content of the letter. Some
samples of invitation letters can also be shown to them. Ask them to think about the layout of the
letter or any visual material that needs to be included. Once the drafting is done ask them to
share it with their friends.
The teacher might help them with a few examples of ‘invitational language’ like:
•
"We would like to invite you to…"
•
"It is our pleasure to invite you to…"
•
"We are happy to say that... and it gives us immense pleasure to invite you to…"
Once the invitation is ready, ask students to share it with the whole class.
Task 2
Language Function: Politely Agreeing or Disagreeing
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Ask the teacher to carry a short newspaper article to the class. This could be on any ‘hot’ current
topic. Ask students to read it (in case of lack of time, the teacher can summarise the article for
the class). Divide students into groups of three/ four. Each group is given the task of agreeing or
disagreeing with the topic. Tell students that they need to write a letter or an e-mail to the editor
either agreeing or disagreeing with the topic. Follow the steps outlined above in the process
approach. The teacher may give the following examples of language to help the students
"I agree with you up to a point, but…"
"I agree with you in principle, but…"
"I agree with you."
"I couldn't agree with you more."
"I'm afraid I don't share your opinion."
"I'm not sure I agree with you."
"What you have written is quite true, but…"
Task 3
Language Skill: Reassembling, coherence, re-writing.
The teacher creates a strip story. The strips are then distributed to groups of students in the class.
The teacher then asks the students to re-assemble the story so that it reads coherently. Once the
story is re-assembled, the teacher then instructs the class to re-write the story in their own words
making changes if they wish to. The steps outlined above in the process approach needs to be
followed. This activity can be helpful in developing both coherence, re-writing and creative
skills.
6.10.
Assessing Writing
A piece of writing can be seen from a number of different perspectives. Few teachers are
satisfied with written work full of grammatical errors. However, the notion of ‘correctness’
needs to be re-defined in the context of writing. Teacher’s should have a clear guideline about
what they are testing and what is the criteria for assessing. Teachers’ attitudes and methods are
shaped to a certain extent by their approach to language teaching and by the whole education
climate in which they work. However, in the current conditions the teacher often simply corrects
89
the finished product of students’ writing and is not involved in the process of writing at all. In
such circumstances, it is essential that the approach needs to be changed since then correction or
feedback given by the teacher, if not implemented, does not result in any qualitative
improvement of the students’ writing. The teacher should intervene at all the stages of the
writing and not just at the end. The teacher becomes both the ‘facilitator’ as well as the ‘feedback
provider’. One of the ways to achieve this is to create, what in research literature, is known as
‘rubrics’ or ‘analytical scales’. These are often available online and depend on the task that the
teacher has assigned to the students. This has many advantages:
•
It provides a guide to the teachers of what to test and how to test
•
It provides a guide to the students about what to write and how to write
•
It helps in making testing a bit more objective and not completely subjective as in the
product approach
•
It standardizes scores across the curriculum and helps teachers to come to an
understanding of the test scores.
Here is a sample rubric for a feedback form that can be used to test students’ writing. However,
the teacher can themselves devise a rubric for their purposes depending on what they are testing
and what criteria are they applying to test what they are testing.
Feedback on Writing
%ame of the learner:
Date:
Purpose and Coherence
Grammatical Control
These aspects of coherence
are well-managed:
These aspects of grammar
are well-managed
These aspects of coherence
need to be improved upon
(just tick):
Linking of ideas
These aspects of grammar
need to be improved upon
(just tick):
Tense (please specify which
What the learner needs to
do (suggestions)
90
Using cohesive devices
Developing an idea
Any other (please specify)
tense)
Number
Articles
Prepositions
Agreement
Simple constructions
Complex constructions
Any other
(Please specify)
These aspects of vocabulary
need to be improved upon:
Word formation
Word control
Accuracy in word choice
Appropriacy in word choice
The following is a rubric or analytical scale for testing coherence and grammatical accuracy. It
can however be expanded to test other aspects of the test as well and can be changed according
to the teaching environment the teacher is in.
Evaluation Criteria for Written Assignments
Type of writer
Excellent
Coherence
Grammar and Vocabulary
The task argues forcefully and there is
Grammar is well managed though
a complete control over cohesive
there may be occasional errors; the
devices; the answer is coherent
words used are appropriate and
throughout and there is no strain
shows a wide range.
whatsoever.
Competent
There is good persuasion and the
There may be a few grammatical
cohesive devices are managed well;
errors but they are not noticeable;
there may be occasional errors; the
the words show some range though
answer is coherent but can cause
may not be always appropriate.
temporary confusion.
Average
Though the writing sometimes causes
The grammatical errors are
confusion there is a sense of underlying
noticeable and causes strain for the
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confusion there is a sense of underlying
noticeable and causes strain for the
coherence; cohesive devices are
reader; the range of words are
misused, overused or faulty.
limited and repetitive.
Poor / Need a lot
Coherence is lost frequently and the
The grammatical errors are
of Improvement
writing tends to jump from one thing to
numerous and cause severe strain
another without appropriate linking;
for the reader; the range of words
causes severe strain for the reader.
used is extremely limited.
6.11. Summing up
•
Teach students the stages appropriate to writing; brainstorming, drafting, editing,
revising, fine-tuning, etc.
•
Provide models of successful writing and discuss the features that make them effective;
ask students to ‘notice’ successful writing.
•
Discuss the purpose of writing and the audience before delving into any sort of writing
practice.
•
Select writing topics that are of interest to students and represent tasks that will be useful
to their future learning.
•
Avoid writing for its own sake like questions and answers; devise real-lfe tasks so that
students develop real-life skills.
References
Celec-Murcia, M. and D. Larsen Freeman. (1999). The Grammar Book: an ESL/EFL Teachers’
Course, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.
NCERT. (2005). ational Curriculum Framework – 2005.
Reid, J. (1995). Teaching ESL Writing. Upper Sadler River, NJ: Longman.
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Tickoo, M.L. (2009). Teaching and Learning of English: A Sourcebook for Teachers and
Teacher Trainers. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
7. Literature in Language Classroom
7.1.
Why Literature?
Activity 1
Let’s begin with an activity. Do you like songs and poems, and to watch or read plays? Why?
Can you please tell the reasons for liking them or not liking them? You may talk to your friend
and write down below.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Humans like poetry, stories and plays to read, listen to or to watch. Is it because they are
prescribed in our textbooks? Not necessarily. They make us feel the joy of the ideas, the use of
language and music of it. The literary pieces like poetry, short stories and plays in an English
language classroom in our context serve many purposes. They are input for language learning in
natural and authentic context and they also provide experiences which the learners get to
understand a repertoire of social, cultural knowledge.
This module brings to you methods and
strategies through which literature and literary text can be used in our classroom at the secondary
stage with the following objectives.
7.2.
Objectives
This module attempts:
•
To enable the learners to understand the pleasure of reading and listening to poetry.
•
To develop imagination and creativity of the learners through constant exposure to literary
texts.
93
•
To sensitize the learners to the social and cultural issues that are presented through the
literary texts.
•
To develop the critical thinking skills amongst learners through the literary texts and to
promote understanding of life skills amongst learners through literary texts.
•
To understand the creative use of language in the literary texts and enable the learners to use
language creatively.
•
To explore how literary texts can be used for teaching-learning of language aspects like
vocabulary, grammar and special language use.
The teacher practitioners should seriously reflect on what can be done to develop an interest in
literature amongst learners. Let us try to understand what literature can do for the learners,
especially when they step into secondary classes. Would you like to remember what you gained
from literature?
Review and Reflect
The teacher can recollect the wide range of experiences they derived from
reading stories, poems, and prose pieces. The excitement of reading stories which
might have made you realize how an idea expands into a story. The creative use
of language and the thoughts and feelings it evokes may be a rich experience. Add
to it the pleasure of listening to a beautiful recitation of poetry or the thrill of
watching a one-act play. Now, reflect on your efforts in the classroom. Could
your learners feel the same joy as you had done?
The review and reflection may convince you why literature is so important for your learners.
You may also be clear now about the objectives that should be kept in mind while teaching
literature and the learning dimensions it covers.
Christopher Brumfit and Ronald Carter (1987) feel that “for all students literature is an ideal
vehicle for illustration, language use and for introducing cultural assumptions. Our success in
using literature, of course, greatly depends upon a selection of texts which will not be too
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difficult on either a linguistic or a conceptual level. Ultimately, however, if we wish to promote
truly aesthetic reading, it is essential that literature be approached not differently, but in a manner
which establishes a personal and aesthetic interaction between a reader and text”. (p198)
7.3.
Responding to a Short Story
The world of story is an exciting one. The fascination lies in the manner in which a writer
expands an idea into a story. The reader wants to keep reading till the end. The element of
suspense or even the style of presentation captivates the readers. The story also offers a wide
range of experiences which can lead to multiple interpretations. It connects us easily to the world
around us.
A teacher can exploit the various aspects a story contains to develop the higher order skills in the
adolescent learners. NCF 2005 emphasizes that once a learner moves into the secondary stage,
the language classroom should move beyond the development of LSRW skills. In other words,
the learners have to move from BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills) to CALP
(Cognitively Advanced Language Proficiency) and be able to understand and interpret abstract
ideas and themes in a story, poem or play.
The Position paper of National focus Group on Teaching of English (NCERT, 2005) says,
“When language is adequately taught in the early years, the learner can naturally build up these
higher order skills independently, with some guidance from classroom…. Sensitization to
language as a vehicle for gendering can also be initiated… The use of language to develop the
imagination is a major aim of later language study. (p. 10-11)
Jeremy Harmer (2010) proposes a plan to make students experience and respond to a literary
text, namely a story ‘Light in Space’. The story is about a space station. Students have to predict
before they read. There is also the idea of coming up with their own endings. Suggestion for a
role play about being in a space station is also mentioned. The sequence is shown as follows:
Oral fluency Activity
Reaching a consensus about five objects to take into space
Students read about a space station
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Predicting the content based on the title; reading to confirm predictions; reading again for detail
Students devise an ending for the story
Language study
Using the space station situation to make sentences about what people should/shouldn’t have
done.
Immediate creativity/ personalisation
Students talk about things they should/ shouldn’t have done
Interview Role play
Students plan and role-play interviews for jobs as members of a space station crew.
A lesson sequence
This plan offers many possibilities at the secondary stage and also illustrates how a teacher can
use a story to involve learners to develop their life skills and also enhance language skills.
Let us now look at a lesson from ‘The Rainbow’, a textbook of Special English, Class IX, in the
state of
Madhya Pradesh. The story is Sudha Murthy’s ‘Dead Man’s Riddle’. This story
connects with rural landscape of Karnataka, the Panchayat system, respect for elders, values and
ways to solve problems. The most interesting fact about this story is that it has a story within the
story. Hence, the teacher can later make learners appreciate even the structure of the story.
Let us proceed:
Pre-reading activity:
Let learners talk about the title. They may offer views about what kind of story it can be- the
cues can be taken from the title- ‘dead man’, ‘riddle’.
While reading activity:
As students read, let them discuss small portions from the story, e.g., before Som Gowda’s story
or a portion after Gowda’s story. When the riddle appears, let them try to find a solution. Here,
life skills can be developed- e.g.- problem solving, decision making, critical thinking, etc. It is
easy to have plenty of discussion as they read the story.
Post-reading activity:
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Let them now talk about the end. Do they agree with it? They can give opinions on Panchayat
versus Courts in town.
Apart from role play, they can share their experiences similar to the story from real life or
something they read or viewed (movie or T.V. serial). Were there any proper solutions to the
problems/ disputes in those situations?
7.3.1. How to Assess?
With continuous and comprehensive evaluation around us, let us understand that in each of these
stages learning is happening throughout. The active responses of the learners indicate their
ability to infer, comprehend, connect and apply it to real life. This is definitely promoting
learning. The teacher can give projects for group work on similar themes. There can be written
tasks in the form of questions- both short answers and long answer type on the given text.
7.4.
Responding to One Act Play
The play delights the reader since it has dialogues and characters in it. It has plenty of action in it
and invites the readers to experience situations often connected with their lives. The charm
increases if they can be staged. Naturally, a response to a play is different in comparison to a
short story and a poem.
When a teacher has to transact a one-act play in a classroom it is an interesting situation for the
learners also. Students can be given the roles of characters to enact and most students crave for
roles.
It is not an individual reading portions of the text and the whole class listening to her/him
or the teacher. On the contrary, one-act play offers lively scenes which learners have to watch. It
becomes a memorable experience for the learners as the scenes stay in their mind and
comprehending the theme of the play is an easy task.
Further, the dialogues serve as effective source for conversational use. Role-play enables the
students to watch the facial expressions, body movements and tones as actors speak. This helps
the learners to practice similar situations to improve their conversational skills.
Discussing about the different characters and the theme of the play provides to develop their life
skills which include critical thinking, empathy, problem solving, decision making and even
creativity. Helen Toner and Elizabeth Whittome (2003) state that ‘plays can explore ideas very
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vividly; in essay questions, when you are asked about the playwright’s concerns, issues or
themes, you are being asked to discuss the ideas of the work being studied.’
Even the characters connect with the themes and reflecting on them can help in understanding
the theme. It may not be easy to sum up characters as simply ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Usually a good
character may have some unpleasant aspect, while a villain may have some good quality that
may create sympathy for him. It may be a rewarding task for the teacher to make learners
understand this fact and sensitize them to complex nature of human beings. It is important that
adolescent learners at secondary level respond to this feature of complexity and conflict which is
presented beautifully in plays.
Let us once again come to a one-act play ‘The Never Never Nest’ from class IX textbook of
special English of Madhya Pradesh Board. This play has modern life patterns to present to its
readers and has a critical perspective on materialism that has swept people off their feet. The
dialogues have a natural tone and are close to real conversation. The clash between the
generations is seen when Aunt Jane is shocked to find her niece Jill and Jill’s husband Jack
living in comforts due to heavy installments they have to pay for their luxuries. She fails to
understand how the young couple can go on taking loans when they cannot afford the
installments. The technique of satire makes the play vibrant. The teacher can easily engage the
learners to construct knowledge through reflection over the problems encountered in the modern
world.
Let us proceed:
Pre-reading activity:
The teacher can make learners talk about ‘nest’ and ‘home’ and what efforts are required to build
a ‘cosy nest’, that is, home.
While reading / acting activity:
When a portion has been enacted before the class, the students can give their views about the
characters and the relationship between them. As the play reaches the point of conflict, the
students can express their opinion about the clash between the generations. The end should be an
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eye opener for the learners and can serve as a warning to the young learners about the result of
excessive materialism.
Post-reading /acting activity:
The students can be told to collect advertisements from Newspapers where there are easy loan
schemes to purchase property and buy several products. On the basis of these let them calculate
how much a person has to pay on installments. After this, they can discuss how wise it is to plan
before spending money in a foolish manner.
7.4.1. How to Assess?
A play can be used to assess oral skills also- how dialogues are spoken with proper stress and
action, how actors respond to each other and how a majority observe and respond to scenes when
they talk about it. Learners can be asked to write dialogues on simple situations which can be
assessed easily. Textbook questions on theme and characters can also be used to assess the
ability to comprehend the text.
7.5.
Responding to Poetry
The most attractive aspect of a poem is the manner of its presentation, sometimes the brevity,
sometimes the length, sometimes the musical appeal due to rhyme, sometimes the thought
provoking prose and its rhythm and sometimes the pictorial beauty created through figures of
speech. Poetry lifts the reader from this world to another world with an intensity that other
genres may not contain in such a limited space. Half the effect is produced when a poem is
recited well by the teacher. The aesthetic richness of poetry is to be appreciated by the sensitive
reader. Often a poem refreshes the mind with its creative brilliance.
How can teachers take their learners into this world of imagination? It is diving deep into
emotions when one reads poetry or receiving jerks if the poem is metaphysical, satirical and
merciless in exposing realities of life. The poet realizes the full potential of words to create the
distinctive qualities of a poem. Therefore, the reader should be able to absorb the effects of these
words in order to truly appreciate and enjoy the poem. An efficient teacher should be able to
make the learner understand that if any of the words were replaced in a particular poem it would
finish the poem totally.
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Helen Toner and Elizabeth Whittome (2003) provide a valuable tip when they remark that
‘students usually write about a poem’s theme and say little about the poet’s style and methods.’
Once a teacher is able to tackle this aspect it is possible to trigger the creative writing amongst
learners.
It may be useful for the teacher to know what is said in Class X, NCERT textbook ‘First Flight’
on p.vi ‘To the Teacher’
All poetry requires patience. Be patient with the text, read carefully for nuance and
inference. Know what words mean. Look up words that are unfamiliar—look up words
that are familiar but you cannot specify. Pay attention to words and phrases that
resonate with other things and try to identify the connection. Be patient and read slowly,
and you will be amply rewarded.
Let us see how we can transact W.B.Yeats ‘ The Lake Isle of Innisfree’ which is in ‘Beehive’,
Textbook in English for class IX published by NCERT.
The Lake Isle of Innisfree
I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,
And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made:
Nine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for the honey-bee;
And live alone in the bee-loud glade.
And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow,
Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings;
There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,
And evening full of the linnet's wings.
I will arise and go now, for always night and day
I hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore;
While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey,
I hear it in the deep heart's core.
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This is a famous poem of W.B.Yeats and presents the deep urge of the poet to go to Innisfree,
where he had lived in his childhood. The calm atmosphere here and the beauty of nature exert a
strong pull on his mind which is tired in the hectic city life. The lovely description of nature
occupies the entire space in the poem and only one line is given to the harsh city life. The poem,
being a lyric is a treat for the ear along with its fascinating pictorial treat. The teacher will have
to awaken the interest of both urban and rural child to this song of nature because the city child
may not have sufficient exposure to nature, while the rural child may bother little having had too
much exposure to it.
Activity 2
Here are some reflections of poets from different countries on what poetry is and how poetry
should be taught. Read and discuss with your colleague.
The chief principle of teaching poetry is participation. You cannot teach it to adolescents, to
adults or anyone else unless they participate in what they are reading and hearing. That means
that the poetry must take the fullest cognizance of their culture, their background, their
histories or anti-histories. It must not be taught as an oppressive canon of great statements, but
as something that they can join in and make their own.
Teaching of poetry should be making connections between the two, rather than distinctions. The
difficulty is to get students to trust subjective judgement.
BOLA%D Eavan, Ireland / USA
Poetry is first and foremost a matter of feeling. Its purpose is to celebrate beauty through the
musicality of sounds. Adolescents need to be shown that, besides versification, alliteration is
also a vehicle for rhythm.
The practice of poetry is severely lacking in secondary schools. How can you use a weapon that
you do not know how to handle? The idea of poetry clubs, poetry competitions, meeting with
poets, storytellers and so on, is one route.
CAM ARA %angala, Cote-d’lvoire
In my opinion, rather than differentiating the language of poetry from that of prose in the eyes
of adolescent, it would be better to make them feel the qualitative difference between the
utilitarian language of communication and the language of poetic creation, whether this turns
to verse or prose as its medium.
CLA%CIET George-Emmanuel, France
Poetry is a powerful reflection of diversity and of the power of voice. I think students can
benefit from different purposes and exposure to them. Exposure to poetry which is lyrical (that
is the expression of a feeling).
Poetry which incites, poetry which is dramatic or which tells a story-all reflect the diverse
voices of people of the world.
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FORD-SMIRTH Honour, Jamaica / Canada
If my opinion seems not premature, the return of poetry to the school curriculum is a step in
moving from a culture of war to a culture of peace.
Poetry has significant importance in establishing the notion and practice of culture of peace
among our children. It enables, I believe, young people to give meaning to their lives. It also
teaches them the values, attitudes, behaviours, and ways of life that reinforce peaceful coexistence, and respect for the basic right and liberties of every person.
GEBEYEHU Berthanu, Ethiopa
Let us proceed
Pre- reading activity:
The teacher can ask students to recall the places where they went for picnic or express which
places they desire to visit for picnic. Let learners talk about what they enjoyed at these places.
While reading activity:
The teacher should recite a stanza with full vigour and enthusiasm and ask the students to listen
carefully. A good recitation should transport the listener to the mood of the writer. They should
be able to express their feelings.
The teacher can draw the Learner’s attention to ‘nine bean rows’ and ask them to point out what
it could mean. The rhyme scheme can be identified. Similarly, the other stanzas can be recited,
followed by sharing of feelings which the recitation evokes. There can be silent reading in
groups or pairs.
Post- reading activity:
The teacher can now make the learners focus on the main theme and have a debate on nature
versus city life. This will not only sensitize the learners towards man’s neglect of nature but also
make them reflect on the fast pace of life in cities which drains the spirit of man.
Poetry
recitation practice can also follow to let the poem sink into the learner’s heart.
It might be a good idea later when another poem in this textbook ‘On Killing a Tree’ by Gieve
Patel is transacted in the classroom, to connect back to W.B.Yeats ‘The Lake Isle of Innisfree’.
7.5.1. How to assess?
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The teacher can assess the learner’s ability to recite the poem; even tasks on drawing scenes or
collecting pictures of Innisfree for projects can be assessed under CCE. Learners can be
encouraged to write poems on nature under assignments given to them.
Written exams can focus on themes and style of the poem in the form of both short answer and
long answer questions.
Why should poetry be taught at the secondary level?
• One of the functions of poetry is to help us make sense of ourselves in the world.
• The teaching of poetry will develop communicative skills while students are still young
and hence, flexible.
• Since it is a reflection of the world and humanity, poetry should be taught as a discipline
in its own right, as likely as history, geography or biology.
How can teachers cultivate original thinking conducive to the creation and understanding
of poetry?
• Teaching of poetry should be seen as a participatory experience. Teachers should not
insist on one interpretation of a poem, but allow students to take an active role in
interpretation.
• Learning of poems by rote is not recommended as a primary method of introducing
poetry to young people. Poetry is the voice, not recitation.
• One of the most effective ways of helping students become more adept in understanding
poetry is to encourage them to try their hand at composing it.
• The poems to which young people are exposed should be accessible, and of interest to
them. They should reflect what it is to be alive today, be seen to be relevant to the
modern world.
• Students should encouraged to keep journals in which they make a note of striking image
of the poem and note of anything out of the ordinary that occurs to them like clever
phrases, jokes, unfamiliar turns of phrase.
• Setting up of group activities, including the surrealist method whereby one person beings
a poem and another continues it without seeing the previous line. This underscores the
sense that poetry is an activity in which the writer gives himself or herself over to the
idea of unknowing, as well as that sense of play emphasized by so many poets.
• It’s absolutely vital that students be exposed to contemporary poets in the
classroom. Poetry must be seen as belonging to the living, rather than the safely
dead. Poetry, particularly those who can connect with adolescents, should be invited into
the school on a regular basis.
• Students should also be encouraged to start poetry clubs, to publish magazines, have
poetry recitals. They should feel that they have entrusted themselves to the activity of
writing and reading poetry, rather than having it thrust up on them.
Why students should be exposed to poetry from beyond their own culture?
• One of the effects of poetry is to change how we look at the world. It metamorphoses
readers into different beings.
• This (above) new understanding of our environment and ourselves has an influence on
what we contribute to the world. In addition better understanding ourselves, an exposure
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•
•
what we contribute to the world. In addition better understanding ourselves, an exposure
to the poetry of other cultures lead to a better understanding of those cultures.
Poetry is a powerful reflection of diversity, teaching us to value the freedom to praise and
criticize. One poet describes it as a powerful antidote against demons of power.
Poetry encourages us not to impose authoritative interpretations, but to develop
individual responses, to be non-prescriptive, non didactic. The inclination towards the
non-prescriptive and the non-didactic fosters the values and attitudes, which reinforce
peaceful coexistence.
Adopted from Reading and Writing Poetry (Summary by Paul Muldoon) (2005) The
recommendations noted poets from many lands on the teaching of poetry in secondary
school published by UNESCO Paris. P 5-7.
References
Christopher Brumfit and Ronald Carter. (1987). Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
NCERT. (2005). The Position paper of ational Focus Group on Teaching of English. New
Delhi.
Jeremy Harmer (2010). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Longman.
Helen Toner and Elizabeth Whittome. (2003) .A Level English Language and Literature.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
NCERT. (2007). First Flight: Textbook in English for class X. New Delhi.
M.P. Rajya Shiksha Kendra. (2012). The Rainbow: Textbook (Special English) for class
IX.Bhopal, M.P.
NCERT. (2006).Beehive: Textbook in English for class IX. New Delhi.
UNESCO. (2005). Reading and Writing Poetry. The recommendations noted poets from many
lands on the teaching of poetry in secondary school. UNESCO Paris
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8. Language Assessment at Secondary Stage
8.1.
Why assessment?
Any curriculum has goals and objectives to achieve. The skills and competencies learnt through
materials and the classroom processes have to be assessed in order to know how the learner
progresses and to support him / her for further learning. Assessment is also needed for the
teachers to know whether his / her ways of teaching support the learners in learning the skills and
competencies aimed at.
There has been a dissatisfaction with the existing traditional, one-time
paper-pen test and this has lead to integrate assessment with regular classroom practices as a
continuous activity. Read what the position paper on Teaching of English (NCERT, 2005) states:
“Language evaluation need not be limited to ‘achievement’ with respect to particular
syllabi, but must be reoriented to measurement of ‘language proficiency”. (CERT 2006,
Position paper on Teaching of English p.15).
The shift in assessment processes
Conventional Assessment
Continuous Assessment
•
One-time written test
•
Assessment as part of teaching-learning;
classroom based assessment
•
Teacher is the only examiner
•
•
Mostly knowledge/memory
based.
•
Learners and teachers together assess the
occurrences of learning and outcomes
(process and product)
Application based (language use).
•
Teacher knows the purpose of
assessment
Very formal - mostly
summative
Focus on outcome –
achievement- based
•
•
•
•
•
Both the teacher and the learner know
the purpose of assessment
Informal and a combination of both
formative and summative
Focus on both processes and products
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8.2.
Objectives
This module attempts to:
•
Familiarize the teachers with the ideas and processes of continuous assessment for
language learning.
•
Support teachers to develop a perspective on continuous language assessment.
•
Illustrate how continuous assessment activities can be conducted in a language
classroom.
•
8.3.
Suggest ways and means for a continuous language assessment.
Purpose of Language Assessment
Objectives of language assessment should go with the objectives of language curriculum. It
should attempt to answer fundamental questions like: What should we assess? How should we
assess? When should we assess our students? How often should we assess our students? and
Why should we assess our students? Though the first question seems to be easier as compared to
the other ones, the ‘content’ we want to assess is not as concrete as that of other ‘content’
subjects. The texts (narratives, stories, poems, plays, etc.) in the textbook are the means to
language learning through exposure, engagement and use. Assessment and its processes have
also to be employed as means to provide opportunities for learning the language and being aware
of how one learns. Therefore assessment is an integrated activity in the processes of the
classroom. i.e. assessment while learning. The most pertinent question would be ‘How should
we assess our students?
As we are moving away from traditional one time written examination
paving way for an integrated manner of looking at assessment as part of the teaching-learning
processes, the happenings in the classroom are language opportunities for learners to learn and
for the teachers they are opportunities for noticing learning taking place and observing the
occurrences of learning. In other words, noticing the language abilities of learners (though not in
finished form) as they are involved in language learning activities.
8.4.
Learners at the Secondary Stage
Language learners at the secondary stage have undergone their first language at least eight years
while they have been learning the second and third language for at least for more than six or
seven years respectively. The attributes of the learners at the end of ten years of schooling may
give us clues the way assessment processes should adopt ways and means of enabling the
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learners and teachers to integrate assessment as part of the learning processes. This needs a better
understanding on the part of teachers that assessment here means supporting the learners in their
venture of learning, not to test what they do not know. So the learners should also be aware of
the ways and means of assessment and get feedback for remedial measures.
The syllabus developed as a follow up to National Curriculum Framework-2005 aims at
enabling learners to possess ability to function effectively in at least three languages after the ten
years of schooling.
Interpersonal
They (learners) should posses, what Cummins and Swain (1986) call Basic
Communicative
Skills
(BICS) and Cognitively Advanced Language
Proficiency (CALP). They (in their book Bilingualism in Education published by Longman,
London, 1986) make a fundamental distinction between BICS and CALP. This can be stated as:
The language ability that is associated with BICS largely involved the skills to perform
effectively in situations that are rich in context and undemanding at the level of
cognition. The language of here and now and that of peer group interaction belongs to
the domain of BICS.
CALP level abilities are needed to perform effectively in contextually poor and
cognitively demanding situations. It would generally be acquired in tutored language
settings. For example, when a secondary or semi-secondary student is asked to write an
essay on a topic she is not familiar with, or read a newspaper editorial to critique it she
may have to invoke her CALP abilities. These abilities often tend to get transferred from
one
language to another. We strongly believe that all children should leave school
with CALP in at least three languages.
(Syllabus for Secondary and Higher Secondary level: Objectives of language
teaching CERT, 2005:146-147)
Learners at the secondary level should have the competence to understand what they hear by
employing various non-verbal clues coming from the speaker for understanding what has been
said. They should have the abilities to read with comprehension, and not merely decode. The
ability to employ communicative skills in a variety of situations will be a requirement too. They
should be able to present a coherent writing and have control over different registers.
8.5.
Language Ability and Language Use
The expected attributes of learners at the end of the secondary stage has to be taken into account
when we plan for holistic and continuous assessment. If young persons at the end of this stage or
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higher secondary stage have to either enter the job market (whatever form it be) or go for
specialized courses of their choice, the assessment in consonance with the expectation of the
objectives of language education has to assess (continuously) the expected language abilities /
attributes (for the future requirement of the learner). The syllabus (NCERT, 2005) states the
following as skills to be fostered. It can be inferred that these are language abilities to be
assessed continuously.
The development of linguistics proficiency in the learners is needed for the spontaneous and
appropriate use of language in different situations.
•
The learner should acquire the ability to listen and understand and should be able
to employ non-verbal clues to make connections and draw inferences.
•
The learner should develop the habit of reading for information and pleasure;
draw inferences and relate texts to previous knowledge; read critically and
develop the confidence to ask and answer questions.
•
The learner should be able to employ her communicative skills, with a range of
style, and engage in a discussion in an analytical and creative manner.
•
The learners should be able to identify a topic, organise and structure thought and
write with a sense of purpose and an awareness of audience.
•
The learner should be able to understand and use a variety of registers associated
with domains such as music, sports, films, gardening, construction work, etc.
•
The learner should be able to use a dictionary and other materials available in the
library and elsewhere, access and collect information through making and taking
down notes.
•
The learner should be able to use language creatively and imaginatively in texts,
transaction and performance of activities.
•
The learner should be able to develop sensitivity towards their culture and
heritage, aspects of contemporary life and languages in and around the classroom.
•
The learner should be able to refine their literary sensibility and enrich their
aesthetic life through different literary genres.
•
The learner should be able to appreciate similarities and differences across
languages in a multi lingual classroom and society.
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•
It is important learner to notice the different languages and language varieties are
associated with different domains and communicative encounters.
•
The learner should become sensitive to the inherent variability that characterises
language and notice that languages keep changing all the time.
•
It is possible for a student to notice the differences between her own speech and
the speech of her, say, grandparents.
(Syllabus for Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels: Skills to be
fostered. CERT, 2005:152)
Listening and Speaking: Some of the areas (of teaching-learning) in language have to be given
special attention as these areas have not been able to find space in the assessment processes at
secondary stage. Reasons cited for this are lack of resources and (sometimes lack of initiative by
the system and the teacher) absence of these components in the formal examination. The irony is
that these two important components do not find their place in classroom teaching situations.
Continuous assessment will be an instrument to include these aspects of language learning
effective as part of the teaching-learning and assessment processes.
8.6.
Language assessment: The Tools and Processes
Language assessment, like another assessment, is to collect data / information about the way
learners are learning the language to arrive at a decision about the progress made and to provide
them feedback. The assessment tools and their purposes and use have already been discussed in
detail in the introductory section. However, not all the tools and measurement strategies can be
employed for language assessment.
The choice of assessment must be directly related the
objectives of the curriculum. We need to choose or develop the tools depending on the context
of learners and learning to support learning. Observation schedule, portfolio, (home or group)
assignments, group / pair work in the classroom, role plays, interviews, debates for
speaking and listening, written tests, group projects can be effective means of language
assessment. What is to be emphasised is to explore and choose the effective instrument for
assessing the learning while teaching-learning in the classroom. This will bridge the gap between
classroom teaching and assessment. We may need to employ or adopt recent developments like
Task based learning and assessment methodologies in order to realise an integrated way of
assessment.
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Task based learning and assessment
A task involves the following procedures
i. A task- a piece of work / job which involves language use / performance by the
learners.
ii. An implementation procedures-i. Planning time, ii. Interlocutor role, iii. Language
use / generation/ processing.
iii. A performance measure, i.e. a means of assessing the learner’s performance.
Teachers can use the activities / tasks available in the textbook / workbook or design their
own task based on the ideas / themes of the textbook. A good task design should have:
i. Rubrics, ii. Input, iii. The expected response, iv. The interaction between input and
response, v. Assessment.
• Tasks are designed to measure learners’ productive language skills through
performance which allow candidates to demonstrate the kinds of language skills
(that may be) required in real world context. A performance task is “a test in
which the ability of candidates to perform particular tasks, usually associated with
job or study requirements, is assessed”. (Wigglesworth, 2008)
• TBA, then, will be taken to refer to assessment that utilizes holistic tasks
involving either real-world behaviour (or as close as it is possible to get to this) or
the kinds of language processing found in real-world activities (Ellis, Rod 2003).
8.7.
Continuous Assessment Activities (from regular classroom teaching-learning).
This section presents some assessment activities as part of the classroom processes.
(a) Assessment activity One
Subject: English
Level: Class X
Topic / Unit / Text: %elson M andela: Long Walk to Freedom
i.
Objectives
a. To read / decode the given text with comprehension.
b. To listen to and decode the text read out
c. To speak in appropriate context /
ii. The activity
Students are divided into groups of four. Each one in the group reads out a portion of the text
(the unit is divided into parts for the purpose) taking turns and another student asks the questions
given as ‘Oral Comprehension Check’. Students in the group (one by one or the one who knows
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the answer with one reading / listening) answer them. This activity involves the skills: Listening,
speaking and also comprehension of the text read out. If the class has fourty students there will
be eight to ten groups.
iii. %ature of students’ performance: The process or product
Each student in the group reads out a portion of the text, each one again asks the question at the
end of each portion and each one gets a chance to answer the question asked. All this is done
orally, reading out louder, and speaking. Teacher goes around the class and observes how each
group does / the activity and notices how each student is reading out and how the students ask
and answer questions. Teacher records in the portfolio the nature of participation in the form of
descriptors.
iv. Quality dimension
Students’ reading aloud ability is assessed from direct observations. The pronunciation of words,
and the way a formal speech could be read out, how to ask simple informative, inferential
questions and how students answer them with one reading, listening are some of the aspects
assessed. Students can also be asked to tell how others in the group did their part. This leads to
peer assessment.
v. Possible feedback to student
Having noticed / observed the students reading, listening and speaking, also understanding of the
text, teacher can make a whole class comment about the pronunciation aspect; discuss the words
/ phrases that came in the way of understanding of the text. Students can also be given feedback
on communicational skills, strategies like, listening till one person finishes his / her turn, making
eye to eye contact while speaking to the person, and even ideas like intra-communication and
inter-communication.
vi. Alternative teaching plan
Based on the information / idea collected from the activity, the processes involved by students
and teacher doing the activity, teacher may think of ways of doing the same text in a different
manner. For example whether the activity can be done as a pair activity, where each student in
the pair takes turn to read the text and the other asks the question and vice-versa.
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Group Work and Assessment
Three types of group work: i. Formal learning groups, ii. Informal learning groups and iii.
Study groups (Davis, 1993)
i.
Formal Groups: established to complete a specific task in one class session or many
weeks. e.g. group project work.
ii.
Informal Groups: ad hac cluster of students who work in class to discuss an issue or
test understanding.
i.
Study Groups: formed to provide support for members, usually for the duration of a
project of module
Teacher may form the group depending on the nature and context of the activity and
observing the language and other social abilities of students as they are involved in the group
work.
(b) Assessment Activity Two
Class X English
Topic / Unit / Text: Glimpses of India: Tea from Assam
Assessment activity: Speaking –Role Play
i.
Objectives
a. To employ her communicative skills, with a range of style, and engage in a
discussion in an analytical and creative manner.
b. To use language creatively and imaginatively in transaction and performance of
activities.
ii. The activity
The activity here is a role play given in page 98-99 of the textbook, First Flight. Having read the
text, ‘Tea from Assam’ and done the language (integrated grammar) activities, learners are now
given the extrapolative activity in which students in groups participate in a role play. The activity
goes like this.
Imagine there is a meeting of a tea shop owner, tea planter, tea lover (consumer), a
physician and a sales agent. The class is divided into groups of five and role for each
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participant in the group is assigned and defined. Each role in the group has to put
forward his / her views about tea. The following language input is given.
The roles can use the following words and phrases:
I feel............
It is important to know
I disagree with you.......
I think that tea.....
I would like you to know.....
I agree with...
It is my felling......
I am afraid....
I suggest......
May I know why you.....
iii. %ature of students’ performance: The process and / or the product
Teacher gives instructions to the whole defining the roles and sets goals for each role and the
whole activity. Learners in each group play their roles taking turns and as group discussion
activity. Teacher goes around and observes, takes part by supporting a role in a group so that
the hesitant learners are encouraged to speak. Teacher makes a note of the learners’
participation. S/he may observe a particular group closely to record their learning in the
portfolio, observation schedule or anecdotal record. Teacher can decide to observe the groups
one by one or two three groups in a session for making observation and providing feedback.
iv. Feedback and alternative teaching plan
Generally in a role play teacher may ask the role to reflect on how and what they did their
roles and also ask one student to reflect on other. Teacher can also provide a whole class
feedback. This kind of reflection would pave way for the teacher to explore other activities
like debate, interview, etc.
(c) Assessment Activity Three
Subject: English
Level: Class X
Topic / Unit / Text: Writing
Assessment activity: Writing
i.
Objectives
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a. To enable the learners to identify a topic, organise and structure thought and write
with a sense of purpose and an awareness of audience.
b. To enable them to understand and use a variety of registers associated with
domain (here journalism).
ii.
The Activity
Learners are asked to a write an article to a newspaper on the theme given through verbal input.
The input is a number of newspaper clips. The activity goes like this.
Read the news clips from this week’s newspapers. As a concerned citizen you feel sad by the
developments which will hamper the growth of the country. You would like to write an article to
a newspaper examining the problems and ways to contain corruption in public life. Write the
article in about 200 words.
Prime Minister announces the Joint Parliamentary
Committee to probe into irregularities in the allocation of
the telecommunication services to private agencies.
Govt. official arrested for taking bribe
Fight against corruption: Lokbal Bill passed
in parliament
Minister, High official arrested in land scam case
This writing activity can be done as an individual, a pair or group activity. Here let’s plan it as an
individual activity and also use for peer assessment. Learners, having read the news clips from
newspapers, now think about the idea / problem and jot down the ideas / points. They then put
together the ideas into rough paragraphs and then write the first draft. They (individually) edit
the draft and show it to the teacher. Teacher having taken a look at the first draft suggests them
the ways the article can be improved. Then the learners go on to write the second draft and edit
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the same to present it to the teacher. If required the third draft can be written and finalised with
proper editing. The box item presents the processes involved in writing.
Writing – process approach
Process approach to writing emphasizes the steps a writer goes through when
creating a well-written text. The stages include:
Brainstorming: Writing down many ideas that may come to an individual’s
mind or through discussions, pair work, group work
Outlining: Organizing the ideas into a logical sequence
Drafting: writer concentrates on the content of the message (rather than the
form).
Revisions: In response to the writer’s second thoughts or feedback provided
by peers or teacher, the draft is revised.
Proof-reading: With an emphasis on form. Correct the language and
appropriateness of its use.
Final draft: Write the final draft now.
iii.
%ature of students’ performance: the process and / or the product
Teacher here has ample opportunities to notice the way learner develops the draft, edit and
finalise it to an article. Teacher can see the improvement in the different stages of writing and
draw the attention of the learner how the final draft has improved from the previous ones. Each
learner can be assessed the way he/she worked and improved the writing. Here teacher can
adopt self evaluation as well as peer assessment. Peer assessment can take place asking the
learners to mutually read the draft and reflect on other writing. This can help in exchange of
ideas too. Teacher having noticed and recorded the improvement over a period of time will
decide how each learner is writing and provide feedback. Learners can also be asked to compare
their previous writings with current one and asked to reflect on their journal, Learner Journal.
The learner journal is a record of student’s writings and their reflections (by the student) from
time to time and this would inform both the teacher and the student to notice / know about
development / improvement of learner / learning.
8.8.
Assignment and Project Work as tools for Continuous Assessment
Continuous assessment requires tasks which learners can do in groups and use language in real
life situation. Assignment and project work can be used to promote group learning as well as a
115
tool for continuous assessment. Teachers have plan well with learners in selection of ideas,
themes and topics and in executing the project work by learners. The purpose of the doing a
project is to make learners work with language. Next module presents how assignment and
project work can be designed and conducted, along a list of topics for short term and long term
project work for promoting language learning.
Some Test items
Here are some test items which could be used to test across language skills and competencies.
True / False: This test item tests receptive knowledge. This does not necessarily mean that the
learners who got the right answers know the item correctly or appropriately.
Gapfills: Ensure only one right answer. It is better to such gapfills with the root word in the
paraenthesis or in a ‘word bank’.
Matching: Though conventional item, it can be used for matching of synonyms, antonyms,
collocations, grammatical cohesion.
Dictation: Dictation has now grown from mere spell check to a continuous testing and
classroom learning activity. Some of the useful types of dictation activities include: (i) Mutual
dictation: A piece of small text is made into two different chunks or every alternate sentence is
given to pair and each learner dictates to the other and they can mutually correct the whole text.
(ii) Grammar dictation: Teacher reads out the text
at his own pace and learners in groups jot
down point and reconstruct text again. (iii) Translation dictator: A short text or words are
dictated in the language of the learners or L1 and learners are asked to write in English. There
are many more such dictation activities which could be used both as a testing item or classroom
learning activity. Please note that in most of the dictation activities more than one answer is
possible. So plan your assessment strategy accordingly.
Multiple choice Questions:
A good multiple choice item is difficult to set. The ‘stem’ and
‘distracters’ should match well. The distracters should belong the same category and there
should be only one ‘correct’ answer.
Cloze: This is a very useful testing item to test grammar, spelling, punctuation, vocabulary.
This can also be designed as a MCQ item.
Rewrite: Learners modify and rewrite as directed. This may be done as single sentence item or
a short paragraph.
116
Sentence completion: This is easy to set, but difficult to check. Care should be taken to accept
all possible answers.
Translation: This is now a disliked item by progressive pedagogies. This can also be used as
learning and a test item. Care should be taken for setting criteria for assessment.
Error correction: This is a challenging item for learners of all levels. A good practice will
enable learners to do well. Again care should be taken while setting and correcting the item as
more than one answer may be possible.
Unscramble word and unscramble sentences: This item demands good comprehension and
analytical skills. Learners are required to read the parts sentences into coherent whole.
8.9.
Continuous Comprehensive Assessment Schemes
There are many schemes adopted or developed by different boards for continuous assessment of
learners. This module does not advocate any particular CCE scheme. What is important is how to
assess learners on a continuous basis and use assessment to inform learners as well as teachers to
reflect and support learners in their attempts to learn.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
NCERT. (2005). ational Curriculum Framework. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT.(2006). Position Paper: Teaching of English. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT.(2006). Position Paper: Teaching of Indian Languages. New Delhi: NCERT
Jeremy, Harmer. (Year not mentioned). The Practice of English Language Teaching (Fourth
Edition). London: Pearson Longman.
Wigglesworth, G. (2008). Task and Performance Based Assessment. In Shohamy, E and N.H.
Hornberger (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Language and Education 2nd edn. Vol. 7:
Language Testing and Assessment (pp111-122). Springer Science+Business Meida
LLC.
_____
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9. Project Work for Language Learning
9.1.
Why Projects for Language Learning?
Language learning involves learners getting engaged with the language. We know that exposure
to language through visual / print and oral medium is essential. This is what the textbook, other
print and audio materials, and the teacher’s language attempt to do. This exposure is alone not
sufficient. We need to give opportunities to learners to work with language. Learners should
read, think about the ideas of the text, understand the meaning of the words, associate them with
ideas and other words, notice the form of the structures, etc. while being exposed to the language
and working with language on their own. This engagement with language makes them internalise
meaning of words and structures. In addition to textbook activities, project work could be used as
an effective strategy to promote collaborative ways of language learning where learners in
groups work together to do an activity or a task for some period. When learners work together on
a particular idea / topic, they collect information, ideas, observe language being used, use
language in real life situations, exchange views and debate on ideas, write the ideas into a report,
edit their writing and produce the report in a suitable form. Projects can be an instrument in
realising this aim. Projects can be designed to be carried out by a group of learners on topics/
themes. This helps in achieving learners constructing ideas and make critical judgments to arrive
at a decision / conclusion. More importantly learners use language in contexts.
9.2.
Designing and M anaging Projects
There are many ways learners can be initiated to carry out projects. The major aim of the
activities / tasks learners do should enable them read books, newspapers, listen to radio, watch
TV, consult websites, talk to people, observe events and proceedings, interpret and report. This
clearly indicates that the learners work with language, i.e. use language for meaningful real life
purposes. If the meaning of learning is ‘meaning making’ the purpose is achieved in full while
doing projects. This only gives clues that learners should do the project in groups on their own
independently, not ask their parents do or buy readymade products available in the market. They
may seek information or some help from parents or elders as they do with their teachers.
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It would be of much benefit to learners, if projects are planned of interdisciplinary nature. Since
all learning is language learning, project work of interdisciplinary nature will promote better
understanding of the subject (say social science, science, etc) as well as promote language
learning. This also promotes language across curriculum (LAC) perspective for meaningful
language learning.
Teachers of various subjects will have to come together to plan projects of
interdisciplinary nature.
The textbooks developed by NCERT as a follow up to NCF- 2005
include short and long term projects which are directly linked to the themes of the texts / lessons.
A project can be carried out in many ways. Following steps could be followed
•
Selecting and briefing: Projects can be initiated when learners and teachers decide
on a topic. It is better to encourage students to bring their own ideas and have a whole
class discussion to allot topics to each group or teacher may offer a list of possible
topics. Sometimes whole class projects can also be thought of.
•
Planning and language generation: Having chosen a topic for the project, learners
now work together to decide upon how to proceed and what kind of language needs
to be used. Teacher has to direct this very carefully and here is where the learners
need guidance and support. Some of the initial discussions may take place in the
classroom paving way for activities in and outside the school. The work can also be
divided among learners.
•
Collection of date /information / details: Learners gather required data /
information from a number of sources. They can consult encyclopaedia, read books,
interview people, collect pictures and illustrations, record audio / video, visit internet,
watch TV, etc. They can write their field notes to remember and organise the data
collected.
•
Planning, writing the draft and editing: Having collected the required data /
information and ideas, it is time now to plan and organise the data and interpret them
to write the draft. Since most of the projects in language(s) will be of written report or
written creative work like play, songs, essays, chapterisation could also be planned. It
is also possible to have projects in which learners work together to script and enact a
play or direct and enact a play. Editing is important part of writing the report.
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Learners should be made aware of process approach involved in writing a good piece
of work, which involves various stages.
•
The result and presentation: The goal of the whole project has been aiming is
reached when the learners working together produce a report or do an activity as
intended. The final product may be written report, a play, collection of songs or
enacting a play or a big role play, writing posters, etc. Learners are now asked to
submit to the teacher and present it to the whole class or to the whole school during
assembly or special occasions (in case of play, songs, etc.)
•
Follow Up: Teacher with the group carried out the project can think of possible
follow up activities that would enable students to use language in contexts. For
example, a project given in the list at the end is about class newspaper. This could be
explored as a continuous feature and some other group could try the next issue of the
newspaper / magazine. Teacher should take care as the project should not hamper the
other learning activities of students.
9.3.
Teacher’s role
Teacher is the facilitator throughout the life time of the project. S/he is a catalyst and makes
him /herself available whenever the learners need-helping, prompting, clarifying and
delimiting. Consultations with the teacher concerned or other subject teachers (if needed) are
of immense support for learners to accomplish the task. Teacher along with students in the
initial classroom discussions develop a schedule of activities for each group and number of
meeting / consultation that they can have with the teacher while doing the project. It is not
difficult for the teacher (to some extent) to know about each student and his / her area of
interest and how s/he could do things.
Teachers should be able to suggest activities (i.e.
projects) that would suit to the interest of particular group of learners.
9.4.
Short term and Long term projects
Project work can be of two types. Short term project helps in making small groups and carrying
out the activities in one or two week time. Learners and the teacher have to plan well the
activities and time devoted to language engagement in order to carry out the short term project
120
well. Long term projects give ample time so that learners have time to design tools to collect data
and work on it for interpretation and writing of report. Remember in both language use and
engagement with language is the prime goal. The following section presents one short term and
one long term project work topic with its processes for the secondary stage.
9.4.1. Short term project
Title of the Project: Designing a brochure for tourist about your town / village.
Level: Secondary
Age: 14 – 16 years
Time: One / Two week(s)
General Aim: To produce a brochure for tourist and visitors to our town / village
Language Aims:
i.
To develop four language skills and strategic competences by using interviewing
techniques, collection data / information about people, places and economic
indicators;
ii.
To learn to use appropriate vocabulary and structures specific to idea (a
brochure);
iii.
To learn to write in a poster from the collected information.
The Process: Teacher has a brain storming discussion with the group about the idea / theme
and asks learners to chalk out a plan of action for the project.
Learners plan and allocate
work to each member of the group and collect required information. They work together to
design the brochure based on the collected data. The collected information from various
sources-interviews, photos of monuments, facts and figures about the village, etc. will now
be scrutinized and shaped into a poster / brochure to present it to a visitor attractively. The
brochure is made by the group using colourful ink, crayons, etc and the same is presented to
the class.
9.4.2. Long term project
1. Class %ewspaper
Level: Secondary & Senior Secondary
Age: 14-17 years
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Time: Two / Three month (Flexible)
Aims: To produce a class / school newspaper for the village / town.
Language learning:
To develop all fours skills by using various techniques, methods
like interviews, writing news, etc.
The Process: Students are briefed about the aim of the project and the possible outcome.
They discuss the plan and decide on the various activities and contents of a news paper
by analysing available news papers.
Students allocate work among themselves and
decide who takes interviews, who reports events like festivals, accidents, etc. who writes
the draft news items, who does the editing and final writing by hand or printing (using
computer), etc. They work on for some time to collect data and develop the newspaper
with in the given time frame. Then the newspaper is published with illustration, pictures,
etc. Possible follow up activities can also be thought of.
9.5.
Topics for Project Work at the Secondary Stage
Following are some topics / themes for project work at the secondary stage
1. Biographical profile of a person / personality in your area
Students in group meet a person in their village / town and interview him / her to develop
a profile of the person and write into a report.
2. Writing autobiographies
Each one in the group writes his / her autobiography and compile them to present to the
class.
3. Quotable quotes
Students consult books, magazines and newspapers to collect quotes of great people and
proverbs and compile them to theme / alphabetical order
4. Writing review of movies
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Students watch some movies over a period of time and write review of them. They can
also compare the reviews with the ones published in newspapers.
5. Book review
Students read books of their choice and write reviews of them. They can consult with the
newspaper, magazine or journals to know how to write a review.
6. Varied ways of reporting an event in newspapers.
Students are asked to read three or four newspaper and follow a particular or some
stories. They analyse the news stories and comment on them.
7. Collecting views and opinions of people on a particular issue or problem
Students take up a current issue or problem and ask for the opinions of people about the
issue and report it with graphical representations.
8. Writing article to newspapers / magazines
Students write articles to newspapers / magazine on a current problem or issue. This
could be done as individual as well as group activity. Teacher has to guide them well
from thinking about the idea to getting the article published.
9. Writing letters to the editor on a particular issue.
A group of students are encouraged to write letters to the editor in response to some of
the articles / issues published in the newspaper.
10. Develop and conduct quiz competition
Students in groups develop questions for quiz content in the school / class. They decide
how to conduct the quiz, collect information/ ideas for quiz questions, design question
and answer card for all questions, and then conduct the quiz competition. The process
from the beginning to the end is to be written as a report.
11. Collection of folk songs
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Students in groups collect folk songs from their locale / village, categorise them into
various themes like children, nature, romance and love, devotional, poverty, etc., then
they attempt to write the summary of each folk song they collected. They can also find
connections between the folk songs and the history / events of the village. The same is to
be presented in a report form.
12. Translating folk song from Indian language to English or vice versa
Students in groups will collect songs from their mother tongue and translate into English.
This requires a lot from students and teachers. It may be twenty or so poems / songs from
an Indian language or from many languages. They may do it in many stages and can also
compare the songs with available translations. The same is presented to the school
library.
13. Watching a serial in the mother tongue and report the same in English or vice versa
This is to exploit what is considered not so good a habit. Students in groups watch a serial
for a week or month and write episode wise summary of the same. They can report it with
an introduction and a conclusion, commenting on the theme, acting, characterisation and
other of the serial.
14. Designing greeting cards for an occasion
This may be done as group or individual activity. Students design greeting cards for an
occasion, Diwali, Pongal, New year’s eve, Christmas or such an occasion using the
locally available resources and display for sale in school.
15. Conducting surveys and reporting them
a. Eating habits survey
b. Pocket money survery
c. Sleeping and play routine survey
d. Study habits survey
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e. Person of the year survey
f. Use of tobacco
Students develop a questionnaire and contact people to collect information about the
habits they indend to survey. They write a report based on the collected data. The whole
process from developing questionnaire is reported.
16. Language and art of advertisements
Students collected advertisement from various sources like billboards, wall notices,
pamphlets, newspapers, etc. and analyse how
the language is used in them.
Advertisements from many languages can also be used.
17. Planning a tour / trip
Students in group plan a tour or trip a tourist spot located nearby place. They collected
the money required from each student, book the vehicle for travel, or book train ticket,
book hotel / guest houses for stay, etc. and decide the places to visit. After the tour / trip
they write a report.
18. Developing a blog on the web and coordinate the same with friends
Students in groups develop a blog on web, design and develop materials-print, visuals,
songs, etc. and ask other students to comment on each one’s posting on the web.
19. Developing the school website
Students with the help of the computer science teacher design and develop a website for
the school. They collect required information from the principal, teachers, and alumni of
the school and post the same on the web.
20. Holidays and Festivals of the locale
Students in group do project about the festivals of the locale and report how people
celebrate, the food eaten during the festival, dresses, rituals, purpose and reason for the
festivals, etc.
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21. Developing a radio / audio programme
Students in groups develop an audio / radio programme consisting of songs, speeches,
talk shows, interviews of people from the locale. This can be done multilingual or
bilingual. Students plan, write scripts, develop questionnaires and audio record the same
after many trials. The final product will be recorded and the same is produced to the class
/ school assembly.
9.6.
Assessing / Evaluating Project Work
Projects can be stated as the best part of the assessment process of Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE). We need to take care that each learner in the group takes
active part in the work and contributes for the successful completion of the task. It is also
very important that each learner is engaged with language (use the language in various ways)
while doing the project. Teacher may keep a check list or a chart to record what has been
happening (who does what and how) during the project. Asking each learner in the group to
maintain a diary of their work plan, how the information / data was collected and interpreted,
the problems faced and the way the report / the final product was brought out, etc. could be
of use for the teacher in assessing individual contribution in the group. This is one part of the
assessment. Teacher has to observe and record how each student in the group and each group
as a whole make progress in carrying out the project.
A checklist or portfolio may be
developed to record the progress made by each student and each group. The check or
portfolio may have descriptors rather than blind marks (numbers) or grades. The descriptors
could be developed together by students and the teacher or by the teacher based on the diary
or field notes of the students. It would help to have specific guidelines (developed by
teachers themselves) for assessing the project work as part of the Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE).
Descriptors for assessing the projects may go like this. (Descriptors are not given in all the
columns because teachers need to evolve descriptors depending on the context and nature of
projects)
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Criteria for
assessing the
performance
SELECTIO
N
A
Suggested
the idea or
provides an
alternative
idea
B
Supported
the idea and
provides
more
evidence
Shown
interest
in
carrying
forward the
idea
generated.
Remained
passive or
non
receptive to
ideas.
C
D
COLLEC
TION
DATA
COMPILATION
/
INTERPRETATI
ON
Ideas elaborated
coherently
with clarity
REPORTING
and
PRESENTATI
ON
Collaborati
on in the
group
The group
worked
together
well. There
was
cooperation
References
NCERT. (2005). ational Curriculum Framework. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT.(2006). Position Paper: Teaching of English. New Delhi: NCERT.
Jermey Harmer. (Year not mentioned). The Practice of English Language Teaching (Fourth
Edition). London: Pearson Longman.
Meganathan, R.(2012). Project Work for Promoting Language Learning. In Essential Readings
for Teachers of English: From Research Insights to Classroom Practices Eds. A.L.
Khanna and Anju Sahgal Gupta. Delhi: Orient Blackswan pp 161-174
127
10. Growing as a Professional: Continuous Professional Development of Teachers
10.1.
What Happens?
Sometimes, we meet teachers in training programmes and, and overhear some conversations
Why are we called here?
What new are these people going to teach us..... ?
After all, I know my students best and I can do the best what I can
I am professionally trained teacher, then why is another training...... ?
These questions compel one think, whether an individual's learning stage is age bound......?
Should a teacher stop learning once he becomes a designated teacher.....? ? Whether classroom
experience helps oneself grow professionally or is there a need for teachers to learn on a
continuous basis? Before we proceed let’s ask some questions to ourselves
Activity 1
With your partner think about the following and answer them.
1. Do I teach the way I was taught years ago?
2. Has any change occurred during the last eight to ten years in the ideas about teachinglearning?
3. Do I keep my students happy and comfortable in my classroom?
4. Do I need to change my ways of teaching every year or just do whatever I have been
doing for long?
What are your answers to the above questions? Do you think you need to update yourself as
the ideas about teaching-learning are changing? A teacher needs to keep learning in order to
update himself / herself as the ways and means of teaching-learning and our understanding
about learning has been changing. This demands a continuous professional development. This
module attempts to support the teachers by suggesting some ideas for teacher learning.
128
10.2.
Objectives
This module attempts to
1. make the teachers aware of the need for continuous learning by teachers to update
with the developments in English language education and pedagogy;
2. suggest ways and means to learn with their colleagues and need for sharing and
caring colleagues one another in our business of teaching in school;
3. familiarize teachers with ways and means to create resources through various means
for their classroom.
We recognize school is a social system. Like any other system school will also have a variety of
people with varied skills, experience and knowledge and expertise. Mutual sharing of knowledge
and experience is a valuable source of professional growth. It is not that teachers are not willing
to learn. It is often the situation and pre-occupation with other work and personal problems lead
to a kind of stagnation in many of us. We need to come out of this and be an active and lifelong
learner. While making a case for teacher learning Jack C. Richards and Thomas S. C. Farrell
(2005:12) assume that
•
•
•
•
•
•
10.3.
teachers are generally motivated to continue their professional development once they
begin their careers.
knowledge about language teaching and learning is in a tentative and incomplete state,
and teachers need regular opportunities to update their professional knowledge.
classrooms are not only places where students learn—they are also places where teachers
can learn.
teachers can play an active role in their own professional development.
it is the responsibility of schools and administrators to provide opportunities for
continued professional education and to encourage teachers to participate in them.
professional development (like orientation and training programmes) activities need to be
planned, supported, and rewarded.
Continuous Professional Development (CPD)
Continuous learning by teachers is to help ensure competence to practice, taking in knowledge,
skills and practical experience which involves any learning activity whether formal and
structured or informal and self - directed. This, learning by teachers can happen through
•
a series of activities developing an individual's skills, knowledge, expertise and other
characteristics as a teacher.
129
•
moving out of one's boundaries and actively creating challenges.
•
taking risks for innovative experimentation.
•
learning from one's experiences and keep moving ahead by adding on more to one's
knowledge and skills.
It is rightly said that the effective teacher is the developing teacher and no teacher can remain
standstill in work and be an effective teacher. Like a good book is always in print, a good
professional teacher is always learning.
Think it over
Teachers gain experience by learning from their teaching and other ways of professional
development. Read about the following two teachers and think which category you would like
to belong to.
A teacher with 10 years experience.
Or
A teacher with one year experience repeated 10 times.
This is possible. When a teacher believes only in the methodology s/he teaches is correct and
unchangeable, it will not be effective for learners to learn.
10.4.
Why Continuous Professional Development?
Teacher's continuous professional development focuses on areas such as:
-
Providing opportunities to further develop skills and knowledge.
-
Opens up pathways for career advancement.
-
Helps in meeting the challenges of the work and achieving goals.
-
Helps a teacher to become a reflective practitioner
-
Helps in keeping one updated in a content and methodology.
-
Encourages teacher for experimentation & trying out innovative ideas.
Teachers need to be able to take part in activities such as:
•
•
•
Engaging in self-reflection and evaluation.
Developing specialized knowledge and skills about many aspects of teaching.
Expanding their knowledge base about research, theory, and issues in teaching.
130
•
•
Taking on new roles and responsibilities, such as supervisor or mentor teacher.
teacher-researcher, or materials writer.
Developing collaborative relationships with other teachers.
Read and Reflect
Read the following suggested by Prabhu on ways of teacher learning and discuss with your
partner.
Prabhu (2012:1) indicates ‘four kinds of activities that are likely to start to prompt such a
process’ i.e. teachers’ growth. The first activity is viewing someone else’s teaching either live or
video-recorded. The second activity, he suggests, is the teacher making pedagogic decision in
the classroom in the light of when happens and how he perceived it at the time. The third
activity is teacher’s communication of his / her current pedagogic understanding to a fellow
teacher. The fourth activity a teacher should do is to try to interact with the more explicit
pedagogic perceptions of specialists in the field as they appear in the professional literature.
Activity 2
Ask the following question to yourself
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are your plans for your professional development in the next five years?
What kinds of organized staff-development activities have I found most useful?
What should I do to teach effectively in my classroom?
What is constructivism? How can I adopt this approach in my classroom?
BECOM I%G A% EFFECTIVE TEACHER
Starting:
I am a trainee teacher of English taking initial training.
%ewly Qualified
Teacher:
I am a qualified teacher of English in my first two years of
practice and putting my initial training into practice.
Developing
Teacher:
I am a practicing qualified teacher of English with more than
two year experience and still want to consolidate my essential skills.
Proficient
Teacher:
I am an experienced qualified teacher of English with strong all
round knowledge and competence as a teacher.
Advanced
I am highly experienced and qualified teacher, who takes leading Teachers:
roles such as mentoring and may be planning to develop more specialist skills.
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roles such as mentoring and may be planning to develop more specialist skills.
Specialist
I am a practicing specialist. I train teachers, take part in materials
and curriculum development activities and act as advisor to schools and
institutions like SCERT and %CERT
(Based on the ideas from Tim, Philips. (2012). Stages of Teacher Development)
10.5.
Areas of focus for Continuous Professional Development Programmes
The generic issues of understanding adolescent behavior inside as well as outside the class room
needs to be focused extensively with the passage of time, changing values and norms of social
acceptability , the behavior pattern of adolescent has undergone a big change. The teachers
need to understand the students more sensitively and democratically.
Problems of Inclusive Classrooms: This is another area that needs to be brought into discussion.
The heterogeneous groups in terms of level of intelligence, socio-economic status, educational
background and type of special backwardness are some of the themes to be addressed where a
teacher always needs a helpline.
Building of Life skills: All knowledge must lead to better life management. The teachers should
be well aware to connect the content knowledge to the applicability of the same in day-to-day
life. Therefore, means and ways to incorporate life skills in learning must be dealt with in CPD
programmes.
Beyond Textbook and Classroom teaching: The role of teacher as a guide, counselor, stagesetter, facilitator must be emphasized. The focus of learning must be knowledge and skills
development, hence the teacher needs to widen the horizon of knowledge for students and
how that can be done, should be taken up in CPD Programmes.
Self - assessment, Introspection and Self-preparation
We teachers teach does not means we have ceased to learn. We assess students, but hardly
ever think of introspecting, analysing the problems related to students' learning. The reasons
may be many: lack of time, lack of resources and demotivated students. Continuous professional
development of teachers must focus on these issues transforming a teacher in to reflective
132
practitioner who is ready to assess his own teaching. Such a teacher will be motivated for
introspection and self - preparation.
10.6.
Types of Continuous Professional Development Programmes
Teachers need to progress as per the needs of the time. Teachers should also understand their
need as teachers catering to the learning of learners with specific requirements in terms of age
and skills. Sometimes teachers get confused between their need and demand. Our need may
be something and we demand something else. This is possible. An informed and alert teacher
will understand her need as a teacher as well as her learner. 21st century demands high skilled
teachers so that the learners get the required skills and competencies to progress academically
as well as a person. Let’s now see various ways of conducting continuous professional
development activities in an organized manner.
a. Courses and Seminars
b. Workshops and Conferences
c. Add-on Qualification Programmes
d. Observation visit to other schools
e. Participation in a network of teachers
f. Individual / collaborative research
g. Mentoring or peer observation
h. Formation of Reading Groups
i Organising faculty exchange programmes
j. Organising Subject Committee meeting
k. Subscribing magazines, e-journals
l. Memberships of professional organisations
m. Research activities
n. Developing Material for classroom activities
Let's talk and get familiarized with these programmes and the activities that can be taken up by
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a teacher.
a) Courses and Seminars: A number of short-term courses which are thematic help teachers to
find solution to specific problems. Seminars help in updation of teachers about the recent
developments and researches in content & pedagogy.
b) Workshops and Conferences: are vital to enrich oneself from others' point of view and
experiences.
c) Add-on Qualification Programmes: Now a days, many universities and organisations run online programmes, which are very beneficial for the teachers. For example, on-line programmes
for teachers, Distance mode diplomas and certificate courses of IGNOU and EFLU.
d) Observation visit to other Schools: Peer observation helps a teacher to introspect and selfanalysis. A number of issues related to classroom teaching get resolved with such type of
experience .
e) Participation in a network of Teachers: with the increasing popularity and use of the
Internet, the teaching community may also get opportunity in forming E-groups and sharing
their ideas and problems without any hesitation.
f) Individual / collaborative Research: Every single teacher is a researcher as she handles dayto-day class-room problems of students inside as well as outside the classroom. Action Research
helps in identifying the problem and trying to find a solution to the problems. Therefore action
research by individual teachers or in association of fellow colleagues will benefit not only one
single teacher, but also the school as a whole. Classroom Research by the teachers on any
aspects of teaching-learning will provide insights for the teacher
g)
Mentoring or peer observation: Learning from a more experienced colleague is an
invaluable way to gain insights into teaching of English. Find such a colleague, observe her and
talk to him about what works best in English Language teaching. Being observed and getting
feedback from a trusted colleague can give you fresh perspective to your own teaching and
help you to identify the areas you would like to improve upon.
h)
Formation or Reading Groups: Networking with other teachers is one of the most
134
stimulating ways to develop. There are many ELT groups on Facebook and Twitter groups you
can join. You may follow the British Council's Teaching English Websites. You can also set up a
local CPD group to discuss common issues and share experiences with other teachers. Writing
on Blogs may also help in this.
i)
Faculty Exchange Programmes: There are many such teachers and students exchange
programmes which are organised at state, national and international level. Teachers can also be
benefited by such experiences.
j) Organising Subject Committee Meeting: Most schools now have subject committee and the
committees meet to discuss academic issues and problems. Subject Committees can be
instrumental in sharing new ideas, innovating new ideas and developing materials. Therefore all
the teachers of subject must meet once a month to share their classroom experiences. This
shared vision will help to grow professionally making us effective teachers.
k) Subscribing magazines, e-journals: Subscribing to magazines or journals is a good way to
keep update with new ideas and themes in ELT. Most of these magazines and journals are
available on-line as well as in print form. Some of such journals are FORTEL Journal, Voices,
IATEFL Journal, etc.
l) Memberships of professional organizations: Professional association offer a range of
activities for development by organising conferences, special interest group and research
activities and projects. Teachers may get opportunities to discuss and debate ideas and opinions
and take away ideas for classroom activities and to reflect on. These may include virtual
conferences organised by IGNOU, FORTELL (Forum for Teachers of English Language and
Literature) and ELTAI (English Language Teachers Association of India).
m) Research Activities: Programmed action researches, individual action researches and trying
out innovative ideas in the classroom provide teachers a large scope of self- directed learning.
Such researches are teacher-directed and not imposed, often yield impressive results. There is
no dearth of good classroom research but the dismal part lies in the lack of dissemination of
good work.
n) Trying out material already available and developing material for classroom activities:
135
Trying out new teaching materials and developing material is a relevant way of developing as a
teacher, whatever way be the experience.
10.7.
Factors influencing the effectiveness of teachers' professional development
Sometimes teachers find themselves helpless and clueless. How to move forward and whom to
approach' remains a big question. The following are some points that should also be taken into
account for an effective CPD.
(i) Availability of lead trainers: Regular training, workshops and seminars based on new
practices and knowledge encourage the teacher to participate. This knowledge- enhancement
must be provided by experienced skillful lead trainers.
(ii) Sharing knowledge and resources / pooling resources: Teachers learn from other teachers
in their institutions. They gain confidence after using the pooled resources from others.
(iii) Collaboration and Partnership: There must be a continuous dialogue among various stakeholders for the cause of development of teachers and ultimate development of teachers and
ultimate beneficiary the students; CPD should help building partnership among teachers,
trainers, supervisors and the university experts. These networks facilitate sharing of knowledge
which leads to further development.
(iv) Support from Principals and Administration: It is important that heads of schools and other
administrative authorities provide support and opportunities for teachers, and enable them to
apply these knowledge & technologies which they learn under CPD programmes.
10.8.
To Sum Up
All professional development programmes should focus on use of effectiveness of modern
methods and teaching in the classrooms. The use of technology and multimedia helps teachers
to improve skills. Latest developments in evaluation and assessment should be a part of CPD
programmes. Teacher should be trained in developing human values to create a good conclusive
learning environment in the class. The focus should be on facilitating learning and solving
136
problems rather than fault-finding and error correction.
Teacher should be exposed to a variety and teaching learning material like explanatory print
text, workbooks, teacher guide, audio cassettes, video programmes which demonstrate various
teacher models, teacher kit, language kit and laboratory, etc. These help teachers to be more
competent, effective and reflective practitioners.
References
Fullan, M. with Steigelbauer, S. (1991). The new meaning of educational change (2nd ed.) New
York: Teachers College Press.
Grant, C.M.(n.d). Professional development in a technological age: New definitions, old
challenges, new resources (on line).
Jack C. Richards and Thomas S. C. Farrell (2005). Professional Development for Language
Teachers. Cambridge University Press.
Tim, Philips. (2012). Stages of Teacher Development. Paper presented in the Asia TEFL
conference held at Gurgoan, India October 4-6, 2012. Paper available at
www.britishcouncil.uk
Some useful sources for English language teachers
Sl.
Source
Description
%o.
Journals & Periodicals in English Language Teaching
1.
Journal of English Language
Journal of the English Language Teachers Association of
Teaching (JELT), India
India (ELTAI)
2.
English Teaching Professional
A Monthly ELT magazine for teachers and anyone
interested in ELT
3.
English Teaching Forum
A quarterly journal for professionals teaching English as
a Foreign or Second Language, published by the Office of
English Language Programs, Bureau of Educational and
Cultural Affairs, USA.
4.
FORETELL
Digital journal of the FORETELL (Forum for Teachers of
English Language & Literature).
5.
Voices
6.
AJELT Journal
Digital newsletter of the International Association of
Teaching of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL)
The Asian Journal of English Language Teaching
(AJELT) is an international blind-refereed journal which
137
(AJELT) is an international blind-refereed journal which
reviews previously unpublished data-driven
manuscripts that (1) link ESL/EFL theory, research, and
pedagogy and (2) relate specifically to the teaching of
English to Asians at the university level.
Websites
1.
www.ncert.nic.in
This is official website of NCERT. It has lot of print and
non-print materials for teachers, learners and teacher
educators, researchers.
National Repository of Open Educational Resources
(NROER) is a solution developed to address the
challenges faced by the education sector of our country. It
intends to reach the unreached, include the excluded and
extend education to all. It is a collaborative platform
involving everyone who is interested in education. It
offers resources for all school subjects and grades in
multiple languages. It brings together all the digital
resources for a school system such as educational videos,
concept maps, audio clips, interactive objects,
photographs, diagrams, charts, images, articles, learning
objects, talking books, textbook pages and documents,
any resource that can be served digitally. Anyone can
contribute to it.
This site gives you (i) resources for teaching English
language at various levels. (ii) have debates on various
ideas and issues ELT, (iii) Anyone can open your blog
here and share your ideas.
EnglishTeachingDaily.com is a website managed by a
team of English Language students from India. This site
features latest English Language Teaching articles, blog
posts, videos and event details.
2.
http://nroer.gov.in NROERNational Repository of Open
Educational Resources.
3.
teachingenglish@britishcouncil.
org
4.
http://www.englishteachingdaily
.com
5.
http://www.pearsonlongman.co
m
This is a website of Pearson Longman publishers. It has
lot of resources for teachers and students.
6.
ELTCommunity.com
Any teacher can join and share ideas.
7.
www.developingteachers.com
This sites is reached to you by mail &
provides resources for classroom teaching and
new publications.
Professional Associations
ELTAI
IATEFL – International
English Language Teachers Association of India. It has
large number of English language teachers as members
and its (ELTAI) Chapters is spread across India. It is an
associate of IATEFL.
This is an association of English language teachers and an
138
Association of Teachers of
English as a Foreign Language.
On line Television channels
1.
TeachersTV.com
association of a lot of ELT associations across the world.
Its annual Conference is held in April every year in the
United Kingdom.
UK based – videos, classroom teaching, etc. (available for
viewing in India-cannot download free)
139
Some useful software for language teaching-learning
%ame
Platform
Description
Download Site
Audacity
PC, Mac, Linux
software for recording and
editing sounds
http://audacity.sourceforge.net
AVS Video
Converter
PC only
YouTube to iPod
converter
http://www.dvdvideosoft.com/
CoreFTP
PC only
file transfer protocol (ftp)
program
http://www.coreftp.com/
Fetch
Mac only
file transfer protocol (ftp)
program; free license for
education
http://fetchsoftworks.com/
FileZilla
PC only
file transfer protocol (ftp)
program
http://fetchsoftworks.com
Handbrake
PC, Mac, Linux
DVD to MPRG-4
converter
http://handbrake.fr
Hot
Potatoes
PC, Mac
tool for creating
interactive language
exercises
http://hotpot.uvic.ca/
Irfanview
PC only
graphic viewer, editor,
and converter
http://www.irfanview.com/
KompoZer
PC, Mac, Linux
html editor; use to create
and publish web pages
http://www.kompozer.net/
140
OpenOffic
e
PC, Mac, Linux
office suite: word
processing, graphics,
spreadsheet, presention
software
http://www.openoffice.org/
Photo
Story
Windows XP
photo presentation
program
http://microsoft-photostory.en.softonic.com/
Picasa
PC , Linux
software to edit, manage,
and share photos
http://picasa.google.com/
Praat
PC, Mac, Linux
software for acoustic
analysis
http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
PureVoice
PC only
simple audio recording
software for PC
http://www.tucows.com/preview/205
198
QlipBoard
PC only
create Qlippits (slide
shows with media and
voice annotation)
http://www.qlipmedia.com/
Skype
PC, Mac
talk to anyone over the
Internet
http://www.skype.com
Switch
PC, Mac
convert audio files from
one format to another
http://www.nch.com.au/switch/
VLC
Media
Player
PC, Mac
plays many multimedia
formats
http://www.videolan.org/vlc/
Web-based tools
ANVILL
Web-based
A National Virtual
Language Labs
https://anvill.uoregon.edu/anvill2
/
141
Language Labs
/
bibme
Web-based
create a bibliography
according to MLA,
APA, Chicago, or
Turabian formats
http://www.bibme.org/
BubblePly
Web-based
add an annotation or
"bubble" to an online
video
http://www.bubbleply.com
ClipGrab
Web-based
tool for downloading and
converting online video
http://clipgrab.org
CuePrompter
Web-based
teleprompter/autocue
service
http://cueprompter.com/
Dopplr
Web-based
online service for
frequent travellers;
coordinate your future
travel plans with
colleagues
http://www.dopplr.com
Gliffy
Web-based
online application that
makes it easy for you to
create, share, and
collaborate with
diagrams
http://www.gliffy.com/
Google Docs
Web-based
Create and share your
work online (word
processor, spreadsheet,
presentation)
http://documents.google.com
Podomatic
Web-based
Create and share
podcasts
http://www.podomatic.com/
142
podcasts
Ustream.TV
Web-based
live interactive video
broadcast platform
http://www.ustream.tv/
Wordify
Web-based
website that simplifies
language
http://www.rewordify.com/
Wordle
Web-based
“a toy for creating word
clouds”
http://www.wordle.net/
Smartphone Apps
MALLfor the 21st Century
Resource page
for mobileassisted
language
learning
http://www.edvista.com/claire/pres/mall/index.h
tml
Freeappalert
Paid iPhone
apps that just
became free
http://freeappalert.com/
Ten Free Blackberry Apps
that you Actually Want!
useful apps for
the Blackberry
http://www.blogtrepreneur.com/2009/02/17/
ten-free-blackberry-apps-you-actually-want/
NokiaPower
free apps for
Nokia
http://www.nokiapower.com/
Almost Free Tools
Graphic Converter
Mac
only
create, edit, and
convert
graphics files
http://www.lemkesoft.com/
QuickTime Pro
Mac,
PC
record, edit,
compress video
http://www.apple.com/quicktime/pro/
143
files
144