HEAT PUMPS
TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
This report has been prepared by
Martin Forsén, Swedish Heat pump Association, SVEP,
Member of the European Heat Pump Association EHPA.
The Swedish Heat Pump Association would like to thank
the following people and organisations for their valuable
contributions to this report
European Heat Pump Association
Raphaela Boeswarth, arsenal research, Austria
Xavier Dubuisson, Sustainable Energy Ireland, Ireland
Bengt Sandström, Mid Sweden University, Sweden
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Energy utilisation in the built environment is one of the most important aspects that have to be
addressed in the near future. Around 40% of the primary energy use within Europe is related
to the building sector. In order to reach the targets of the Kyoto-protocol, the energy
utilisation in the built environment has to go through a transition. Up to now most of our
space conditioning systems are major contributors to global warming. Environmentally
benign heating systems have to be introduced on a large scale in order to reduce the emissions
of green house gases. ECO-Labelling of such environmentally benign systems is one way to
encourage and guide customers in their choice of products.
One of the most promising technologies to reduce green house gas emissions is provided by
electric heat pumps. Heat pumps offer an energy efficient way to provide space heating and
preparation of sanitary hot water. Even though technical know-how of the heat pumping
technology is well proven, it has not yet reached public recognition worldwide. In Europe, a
sustainable market has only been established in small countries like Sweden, Switzerland and
parts of Austria. Due to the escalating price of oil and electricity in conjunction with the
increase of energy related taxes and growing environmental concern, the market for heat
pumps have started to grow in all of Europe.
The word heat pump is a collective term for a wide range of products utilising the same
working principle. There are however many different types of heat pumps, all of which most
suitable for different applications. Heat pumps are in general divided into different types
depending on which heat source and heat sink they are designed for. All types have their own
pros and cons as well as environmental impact. The most important aspects to consider during
an evaluating of different heat sources are; availability, temperature level, annual temperature
fluctuations and investment cost attributed to the choice of heat source. In reality the choice
will be limited due to prevailing local conditions.
Ambient air is by far the most common heat source for heat pump applications worldwide.
The reason to this is the unlimited availability that enables an uncomplicated and quick
installation. In most European climates the temperature of ambient air, changes significantly
depending on the time of year. The fact that the performance of a heat pump is reduced as the
temperature of the heat source drops, lead to unfavourable characteristics. The performance of
an ambient air heat pump will decrease as the heating demand is increasing. At a certain point
the temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink will be to great for the heat
pump to operate at all and the heat pump has to be stopped. For most ambient air heat pumps
this will occur at temperatures in the range of (–15°C)-(-20°C). In cold climates this raises the
demand for an auxiliary heating system that is designed for the maximum heat load of the
building. Heat pumps are unique in the sense that one and the same appliance are able to
provide heating as well as cooling. Bearing in mind that more than 15 000 people died during
the heat wave 2003, space cooling is in many parts of Europe not only a matter of comfort,
but a necessity for human well being. A major quantity of all air source heat pumps is
designed for dual use, heating as well as cooling. Cooling may be achieved by simply
reversing the cycle. Small air source heat pumps sold in the southern part of Europe are
mainly used for cooling purposes, whereas the same unit sold in the northern part of Europe
will be used for heating.
The use of the ground as heat source for heat pumps enables the use of renewable energy
stored in the soil or bedrock. The ground serves as seasonal storage of solar energy. At a
depth of 0.9-1.5 m the amplitude of temperature change due to changes of outdoor
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
temperature is damped and delayed. This results in very favourable working conditions for a
heat pump extracting energy from the ground. The heat exchanger may either be designed for
horizontal installation in the ground soil or a vertical installation. The vertical heat exchangers
are most commonly installed in deep boreholes in embedded bedrock. The horizontal loops
are generally cheaper to install than the vertical systems. The vertical systems are however
requiring much less surface area. The ground may additionally serve as a heat sink for cooling
applications or as in some systems, which are designed for ”free-cooling”, provide comfort
cooling at almost no electric input at all.
Exhaust air, ground water and surface water (e.g. lake, river or pond) are other examples of
commonly used heat sources.
The overall efficiency of a heat pump system, which is called the coefficient of performance
(COP), is not only dependent on the efficiency of the appliance. One and the same appliance
will generate quite different annual efficiency factors depending on the temperature levels of
the heat source and the heat distribution system. An experienced installer is required, in order
to achieve appropriate design according to the unique conditions. There is a strong need for
competence among the installers in order to develop a successful market. Several markets
have experienced periods of bad repute due to the lack of qualified installers. The need for
trained installers is well known and has initiated a joint certification project within the
European Union. The aim of the project is to develop a general basis for a European
certification scheme for heat pump installers and initiate pilot courses in each participating
country. Austria and Sweden are already offering several different training options for
installers, whereas most other countries are at the stage of developing training courses.
Unit performance is tested according to the European standard EN-14511 by accredited test
institutes. Growing interest for the technology has intensified research and development,
which has led to significant improvement of the efficiency during the last decade. In
comparison to a conventional boiler a highly efficient heat pump system will reduce the use of
fossil fuel and reduce hazardous emissions locally. Depending on the generation of electricity
emissions do occur at the plant site. Utility plants are however in general generating lower
emission rates than small domestic furnaces. The indirect emissions from heat pumps are thus
dependent on the efficiency of the heat pump system as well as the efficiency of the plant
generating the electricity. Mitigation of emissions is the most pronounced environmental
benefit offered by heat pumps. The magnitude of the possible benefits will vary, depending on
the local generation of electricity.
Heat pumps do however contribute to direct emissions by means of refrigerant leakage over
their lifecycle. In addition to leakage that occurs during operation, losses will occur at
demolition of the appliance. The impact of these losses on the environment will depend on the
refrigerant in use. The most commonly used refrigerants today are hydroflourocarbons (HFC).
These refrigerants have no ozone depletion potential (ODP), but they are contributing to global
warming and should therefore be used with care. In order to improve the control of HFCs the
European commission has proposed a new directive on restrictive use of F-gases (HFCs,
perfluorocarbons or PFCs and sulphur hexafluoride or SF6). In the current version of the
proposal (latest amendments 14 October 2004) the directive has been divided into two parts.
The first part is dealing with the phase out of R-134a from vehicle air-conditioning. The
second part apply to domestic and commercial refrigeration, air-conditioners, heat pumps, fire
fighting appliances, health care, etc. The overall aim of the second part of the new directive is
to improve the control of HFCs by setting minimum standards for inspection and recovery.
Regulations regarding monitoring and reporting on leakage are strengthened, including training
and certification of personnel in charge of inspections. Labelling of products is introduced in
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
order to improve the information to the consumers. The proposal will be sent to the European
Parliament for a second reading in the beginning of 2005. A final agreement is not expected
before 2006.
Environmental evaluations of heat pump applications need to take into account for indirect
emissions related to the generation of electricity that is used to operate the heat pump, as well
as direct emissions of the refrigerant. A lot of research has been made on the establishment of
an integrated method to calculate the contribution of green house gas emissions from
refrigeration and heat pump applications. The most well established method, TEWI (Total
Equivalent Warming Impact), was developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the early
nineties. A TEWI calculation integrates direct and indirect green house gas emissions over the
whole lifetime into a single number expressed in terms of CO2 mass equivalents. The TEWI
concept is used in the newly developed criteria for eco-labelling of electrically driven heat
pumps under “Der blaue engel” in Germany.
Estimation of CO2-emissions is an essential exercise in the evaluation of environmental
performance. There are however other measures to compare the performance of different
systems available. The concept of primary energy ratio (PER) is merely the relation between
useful energy output divided by necessary energy input. This value gives a direct value of the
overall efficiency for a complete system, taking in to account for losses related to the
generation of electricity. For a common combustion appliance the PER value is equal to the
overall efficiency of the system.
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
HEAT PUMP TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................. 3
1.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3
1.2
The general principle of an electric heat pump......................................................... 3
1.3
The vapour compression cycle .................................................................................... 4
1.4
Alternative cycles – Gas absorption heat pump ........................................................ 5
1.5
Overview of available heat sources for heat pumps and their inherent
characteristics ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.5.1
Ambient air............................................................................................................. 6
1.5.2
Exhaust air.............................................................................................................. 7
1.5.3
Ground soil............................................................................................................. 8
1.5.4
Ground rock.......................................................................................................... 10
1.5.5
Ground water........................................................................................................ 12
1.5.6
Surface water........................................................................................................ 12
1.6
Choice of technology .................................................................................................. 13
1.7
Existing test institutes and test standards for heat pumps ..................................... 14
2
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT RELATED TO THE USE OF HEAT PUMPS...... 15
2.1
The TEWI example applied on national basis......................................................... 16
2.1.1
Concluding remarks on TEWI ............................................................................. 17
2.2
Refrigerants ................................................................................................................ 18
2.2.1
Refrigerants and European regulation.................................................................. 18
2.3
3
3.1
Secondary refrigerants .............................................................................................. 19
COMPETENCE REQUIREMENTS ................................................................... 20
Existing schemes for vocational education............................................................... 21
4
EXISTING LABELLING SCHEMES.................................................................. 23
5
SCOPE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS .................................................. 25
5.1
6
A comparison of primary energy ratio (PER) ......................................................... 26
APPLIANCE AND SYSTEM EFFICIENCY ....................................................... 27
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
6.1
7
Tools and methods available for SPF evaluation .................................................... 29
EUROPEAN MARKET SURVEY ...................................................................... 29
7.1
Barriers to overcome.................................................................................................. 29
7.1.1
Limited awareness................................................................................................ 29
7.1.2
High initial cost .................................................................................................... 30
7.1.3
Poor perception .................................................................................................... 30
7.1.4
Low energy prices ................................................................................................ 30
7.2
European market statistics........................................................................................ 30
2
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
1 HEAT PUMP TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
Energy utilisation in the built environment is one of the most important aspects that have to be
addressed in the near future. Around 40% of the primary energy use within Europe is related
to the building sector. In order to reach the targets of the Kyoto-protocol, the energy
utilisation in the built environment has to go through a transition. Up to now most of our
space conditioning systems are major contributors to global warming. Environmentally
benign heating systems have to be introduced on a large scale in order to reduce the emissions
of green house gases. ECO-Labelling of such environmentally benign systems is one way to
encourage and guide customers in their choice of products.
Electric heat pumps are one of the most energy efficient ways to provide space heating and
preparation of sanitary hot water. Even though technical know-how on the heat pumping
technology is well proven, it has not yet reached public recognition worldwide. In Europe, a
sustainable market has only been established in small countries like Sweden, Switzerland and
parts of Austria. Due to the escalating price of oil and electricity in conjunction with the
increase on energy related taxes and growing environmental concern, the market for heat
pumps have started to grow in all of Europe.
The energy efficiency of heat pumps is reached at the price of being sensitive to temperature
levels of the systems circumscribing the heat pump, i.e. the heat source and heat distribution
system. Heat pumps are unique in the sense that one and the same appliance are able to
provide heating as well as cooling. Some systems that are designed for “free-cooling” provide
comfort cooling at almost no electric input at all. Bearing in mind that more than 15 000
people died during the heat wave 2003, space cooling is in many parts of Europe not only a
matter of comfort but a necessity for human well being.
The word heat pump is a collective term for a wide range of products utilising the same
working principle. There are however many different types of heat pumps, all of which most
suitable for different applications. Heat pumps are in general divided into different types
depending on which heat source and heat sink they are designed for. All types have their own
pros and cons as well as environmental impact. The following section will present the general
principle of heat pumps that is common for all types considered in this study. There after an
overview of available heat sources, aspects related to system design and viable efficiency will
be given.
1.2 The general principle of an electric heat pump
This section serves as an introduction to the vapour compression cycle by a simplified
description of an electric heat pump in operation. A heat pump, when used in heating mode,
extracts energy from a low temperature heat source and transforms it to energy at a desirable
temperature level by the use of a compressor. The compressor requires power input in order to
upgrade the energy. The maximum efficiency that may be achieved by a heat pump is defined
by the theoretical “Carnot-process” by which the efficiency is only dependent on the
temperature level of the heat source and heat sink. The general principal and theoretical
efficiency is given a graphical explanation in Figure 1.
1. Energy at low temperature is extracted from the heat source.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
2. The energy extracted from the heat source is transformed to energy at a high
temperature level by the compressor. The transformation made by the compressor
requires energy in terms of electric power. The required power input to the compressor
is related to the temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink.
3. As energy cannot be destroyed the available amount of energy that may be rejected to
the heat sink is equal to the sum of the extracted energy from the heat source and the
energy input to the compressor.
4. The efficiency of the system is defined as rejected energy divided by the energy input
to the compressor. The efficiency of a heat pump is called coefficient of performance
(COP)
T1
Heat sink
Compressor
T2
Heat source
COP =
Figure 1: Principle of an electric heat pump
COPcarnot =
T1
T1 − T2
(1)
The graphical presentation above reveals that the efficiency (COP) of a heat pump in heating
mode is always greater than 1. The COP deteriorates by a large temperature difference
between the heat sink and the heat source. This stresses the importance to look for an
adequate heat source at reasonable temperature level and reduce the temperature where heat
rejection is to take place. At present, modern heat pumps operate at a COP in the range of 4-5
at a heat source temperature of 0°C and 35°C heat sink temperature. This means that an
electric input of 1 kWhelectricity is transformed to 4-5 kWhheating. In comparison modern
condensing boilers may attain approximately 1.07 kWhheating out of 1 kWh energy content of
the fuel in use.
1.3 The vapour compression cycle
In the following text a brief explanation, on how the general working principal described
above is realised in practice, will be given. All heat pumps that are considered in this study
use a vapour compression cycle to transport heat from the heat source to the heat sink (heat
distribution system). Other cycles exist, but play a minor part and will not be given any
thorough explanation in this study.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Condenser
Expansion
valve
Electric
compressor
Evaporator
Figure 2: Vapour compression cycle
In principal all heat pumps consist of a condenser, expansion device, evaporator and a
compressor. In heating mode, the cycle starts as liquid refrigerant at high pressure exits the
condenser. The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion device, which reduces the
pressure of the refrigerant. The refrigerant at low pressure passes through a heat exchanger
(evaporator) and absorbs heat from the low-temperature source. The refrigerant evaporates
into a gas as heat is absorbed. The gaseous refrigerant then passes through a compressor
where it is pressurized, raising its temperature. The hot gas then circulates through a
condenser where the heat is removed to the heat sink. As the refrigerant rejects heat, it
changes phase back to liquid phase and the process begins again.
1.4 Alternative cycles – Gas absorption heat pump
Even though the electric heat pumps are the only ones commercially available on the
domestic market at present, there are interesting alternatives that might be introduced in the
future. Absorption heat pumps offer a well-established technology that has mainly been used
in cooling applications so far. The absorption heat pump is an example of a heat driven heat
pump cycle that only require electric input for a liquid pump and the control devices. The
COP of an absorption heat pump is however much less than what can be achieved by an
electric heat pump, typical COPs range in between 1.4-1.7. The absorption heat pump might
however become interesting if strict regulations of the use of HFCs will come in to force, as
absorption heat pumps normally do not operate with HFC. Presently there are no
commercially available absorption heat pumps for the domestic market, but there is
development going on for a natural gas absorption heat pump. This development is aimed
especially for countries with the existence of widespread gas grids and favourable gas prices
in relation to electricity.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
1.5 Overview of available heat sources for heat pumps and their
inherent characteristics
The most important aspects to consider during an evaluating of different heat sources are;
availability, temperature level, annual temperature fluctuations and investment cost attributed
to the choice of heat source. In reality the choice will be limited due to prevailing local
conditions. In this work we restrict the overview to heat sources commonly used for domestic
heat pumps.
1.5.1 Ambient air
Ambient air is by far the most common heat source for heat pump applications worldwide.
The reason to this is the unlimited availability that enables an uncomplicated and quick
installation. In most European climates the temperature of ambient air, changes significantly
depending on the time of year. The fact that the performance of a heat pump is reduced as the
temperature of the heat source drops, lead to unfavourable characteristics. The performance of
an ambient air heat pump will decrease as the heating demand is increasing. At a certain point
the temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink will be to great for the heat
pump to operate at all and the heat pump has to be stopped. For most ambient air heat pumps
this will occur at temperatures in the range of (–15°C)-(-20°C). In cold climates this raises the
demand for an auxiliary heating system that is designed to cover the maximum heat load of
the house. Another disadvantage related to ambient air as heat source is the fact that cold
moist air will evoke frost formation on the heat exchanger exposed to ambient air. The frost
will eventually induce such a large thermal resistance that the heat exchanger needs to be
defrosted. During defrost the heat pump will not be able to provide heat to the inside of the
house. Instead the heat exchanger exposed to the ambient air will require heat in order to melt
the ice. Defrosting may be acquired by reversing the cycle or simply by an electric cable.
Except for very dry climates defrosting is in general required at temperatures around +7°C
and below. As defrosting will affect the efficiency negatively, the control of the intervals
between each defrost period is of great importance.
kW
Auxiliary heating
Heat output
heat pump
Required electric
input
-15 °C
0 °C
10 °C
Figure 3 General characteristics of an air-source heat pump
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
An air source heat pump may be designed for heat rejection directly to indoor air (air-air heat
pump), or for connection to a hydronic heat distribution system (air-water heat pump).
Furthermore the air-air heat pumps may be designed for connection to a ducted air system or
heat rejection in a single room. Ducted air systems are widespread in the USA but fairly
uncommon in Europe. A disadvantage related to air-air heat pumps are that they may not be
used for preparation of sanitary hot water. On the other hand air-air heat pumps are most often
reversible, i.e. they are able to operate in cooling mode. As a consequence of the inherent
characteristics of an air-air heat pump, these are dominating in the southern parts of Europe
where the need for cooling is more pronounced and in buildings without an existing hydronic
heat distribution system.
Air-water heat pumps are either designed as a “split-unit” (Figure 4a) or as a compact unit.
The split unit is divided in an outdoor part and an indoor part. The outdoor part contains the
evaporator and the compressor. The indoor unit contains the condenser and usually an
accumulator tank for sanitary hot water. A compact air-water heat pump may either be
installed outside, or inside the building. An installation inside the house (Figure 4b) requires
air ducts for inlet and outlet. Outside installation have benefit of reducing the space
requirements indoors and reduce noise levels.
Figure 4a air-water heat pump split version (IVT) 4b compact version (Viessmann)
1.5.2 Exhaust air
The use of exhaust air as heat source for heat pumps is restricted to buildings with mechanical
ventilation systems. Installation of mechanical ventilation systems involves significant
interference in the building. When it comes to retrofitting, this is a costly operation and
consequently exhaust air heat pumps are merely a solution for buildings with existence of
mechanical ventilation. The heat source itself offers favourable working conditions for the
heat pump as the temperature level of the exhaust air is in the range of +20°C. The drawback
however, is that the availability is limited to the airflow through the ventilation system. For a
typical single family house this limits the heat output of an exhaust air heat pump in the range
of 2 kWheating. An exhaust air heat pump for space conditioning will thus in almost all cases
require additional heating. In order to overcome the drawback of the limited heat output some
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
exhaust air heat pumps are designed for dual heat sources. These hybrid systems may be
designed for connection to a shallow borehole, horizontal ground coil (Figure 5) or ambient
(outdoor) air. Some exhaust air heat pumps are designed solely for sanitary hot water heating.
Figure 5: Exhaust air heat pump with shallow ground collector (source IVT)
1.5.3 Ground soil
The use of ground soil as heat source for heat pumps enables the use of renewable energy
stored in the ground. The ground serves as seasonal storage of solar energy. At a depth of
0.9-1.5 m the amplitude of temperature change due to changes of outdoor temperature is
damped and delayed. This results in very favourable working conditions for a heat pump
extracting energy from the ground. The ground may additionally serve as a heat sink for
cooling applications. A ground source heat pump utilising ground soil as heat source may be
designed for direct evaporation or as an indirect system where a secondary refrigerant is used
as heat carrier.
Direct evaporation system:
A direct evaporation system, often referred to as direct expansion system, circulates the
refrigerant in the ground coil. The advantages of direct evaporation systems are:
•
Reduction of temperature loss
•
Avoidance of circulation pump
Disadvantages:
•
In comparison to indirect systems, the direct evaporation systems require higher
refrigerant charge.
•
May not be used for passive (free) cooling.
•
Potential technical problems related to sufficient lubrication of the compressor exists
Indirect ground soil system:
The indirect ground soil systems make use of a secondary refrigerant (anti freeze solution) as
energy carrier in the ground coil. The advantages of indirect ground soil systems are:
•
Minimize the charge of refrigerant.
•
May be used for passive cooling.
•
Simplified installation
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Disadvantages:
•
Thermal losses are introduced, as the system requires an additional heat exchanger.
•
Require a circulation pump.
Heating system
Domestic hot water
Evaporator
Condenser
Figure 6: Indirect ground soil system
Insulation
Depth
0.9-1.5m
Figure 7: Ground coil configuration
At the beginning of the heating season the ground temperature adjacent to the coil, will be
greater than the ambient air temperature. As heat is continuously extracted from the ground
soil during the heating season, the temperature of the ground will decrease and in most cases
the soil closest to the coil will freeze. The freezing process enables extensive heat extraction,
as the soil undergo phase change. The frost formation around the coil enhances thermal
conductivity of the soil. The thermal conductivity of the ground soil has significant impact on
the design of the collector. The thermal conductivity of ground soil is mainly dependent on
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
the water content of the soil, the higher water content, the higher thermal conductivity. The
use of ground soil as heat source for heat pump applications has negligible influence on the
vegetation above. Flowering might be delayed up to two weeks due to low ground
temperatures. During summertime the temperature of the ground will be naturally recovered if
the collector is properly designed. One of the drawbacks of horizontal ground coils are that a
correct collector design in general requires a large surface area. This restricts the use in many
areas around cities where available surface area is limited. The “slinky-coil” offers an
alternative to the basic horizontal coil and reduce the required surface area to some extent.
Figure 8 Slinky-coil
1.5.4 Ground rock
For the last decade there has been a growing interest in using ground rock as heat source for
heat pumps. A lot of research and development have been performed in order to improve the
knowledge base for the design of such systems. Most of the benefits associated with ground
soil systems are valid for the ground rock systems. Ground rock systems however require
much less surface area and have consequently become the preferred choice in dense populated
areas where space is limited. Ground rock systems may be designed for direct expansion or as
an indirect system. A typical system for this type of application is shown in Figure 9.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Soil layer
Bedrock
Figure 9 Ground rock heat pump
In most cases the establishment of a borehole for a heat pump application requires permission
from local authorities. General drilling restrictions might prevail in water protection areas and
in the surroundings of tunnels. The most frequently used technique for drilling in rock is
called down the hole hammer (DTH). Compressed air is fed through the drilling pipes down
to a hammer at the bottom. The hammer is driven by the compressed air. The technique is
suitable for drilling depths up to the range of 200 meters. The diameter of the borehole is
usually 115 mm or 140 mm. The drilling equipment must be designed for drilling and
mounting of lining and moreover, be able to move on different surfaces without damaging
sensitive garden areas. The main aspects that influence the required borehole depth are
thermal conductivity of the bedrock, undisturbed ground temperature, and annual heat
extraction from the ground.
In order to obtain a high level of quality and lifetime of a ground rock system, and to protect
the ground water many countries have developed standards or regulations for ground rock
systems. Normbrunn 97 is a Swedish norm that has been developed by Geological Survey of
Sweden (SGU) in collaboration with the Swedish Heat Pump Association and the two drilling
organizations, Geotec and Avanti. Normbrunn 97 consists of requirements for the borehole
itself and in addition requirements on the equipment and competence of the drillers. A
collector is lowered into the borehole when the drilling is completed. Even though many
different types of collectors exist, the single- and double U-pipes are predominant. The Upipes are most commonly manufactured by high density polythene, PEM, Ø 40 mm, for 6
bars, and has a welded U bottom piece
General requirements for components used in bedrock systems are that all components need
to be made of corrosion-proof material (e.g. copper-coated, synthetic material, stainless steel
materials), which resist the hydro-chemical elements (e.g. heavily mineralised water). Where
possible no joints should be used. In all cases a leak test should establish the tightness of the
collector.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Tight lid
Steal lining
Layer of ground
soil
Welded joint
Bedrock
minimum 2 meters
lining pipe
Seal between
lining pipe
and bedrock
Figure 10 Configuration according to Normbrunn 97
1.5.5 Ground water
In areas where ground water is abundant and uncomplicated to access this can be used as heat
source as well. In these systems, ground water is extracted from a well and circulated through
the cold side of the heat pump. The ground water can either be used directly by circulation
through the evaporator, or indirectly by use of an intermediate heat exchanger. The use of an
intermediate heat exchanger is preferred in most cases as ground water might cause corrosion
or clogging of the evaporator. After leaving the heat exchanger the cold ground water is
brought back to the ground by an injection well. It is important to separate the two wells
properly in order to avoid thermal shortcutting. Due to risk of clogging and restricted
authorization in many countries ground water is not widely used.
1.5.6 Surface water
Lakes are excellent heat storages for solar energy. Heat that is absorbed by the surface during
summertime may be used for heat extraction during wintertime. The number of installations
in lakes is however relatively small and mostly restricted to larger applications. One famous
installation is located at The Castle of Drottningholm, the home of the Swedish royal family.
The most common sea- or lake heat collector, is basically designed like the surface soil heat
collector. The collector is lowered to the bottom of the lake and secured by anchors. The
anchors are counteracting the lifting power of the ice produced around the collector pipe. In
order for a lake heating unit to be considered, a few conditions have to be fulfilled:
-
The house should be near the sea or a lake, with rights to access the water.
-
The place for the collector must be freed of activities, i.e. no fishing, anchoring etc.
-
The water cannot be rapid flowing and must be deep enough not to freeze to the bottom.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Heating
system
Heat pump
Sanitary
hot water
l t
Weights for
Collector with
anchoring
plastic pipes
Figure 11 System for utilisation of lake water
1.6 Choice of technology
All different types of heat pumps previously described, have been developed for different
applications and adjusted to the predominant local conditions. As a consequence the choice of
heat pump technology is quite different in the northern part of Europe from the southern part.
In the northern part of Europe, the need for heating is dominating. Cooling of domestic
households are only required during a few weeks during summertime. Whereas cooling is a
necessity in the southern part and heating is restricted to a few months of the year. Except for
climatic differences, geological variations will influence the choice of technology. As for
example ground rock heat pumps are not viable in areas constituting of bedrock with low
thermal conductivity or areas where the bedrock is covered by a deep layer of soil. Ground
rock heat pumps have already reached a significant market share in Sweden and are being
promoted in rest of Europe as one of the most efficient systems. Among its benefits ground
rock heat pumps offer a relatively high and stable temperature throughout the whole year.
They have small space requirements and are able to provide comfort cooling as well. The
main disadvantage to ground rock heat pumps is that drilling costs are generally high. The
table below generalise the use of the different types of heat pumps in Europe.
Type of
heat pump
Air-air
Air-water
Exhaust air
Ground rock
Ground soil
Lake water
Most common
capacity range
3 - 5 kW
4 - 40 kW
2 - 3 kW
5 - 40 kW
5 - 25 kW
15 - 40 kW
Application
Heating + cooling
Heating
Heating
Heating + free cooling
Heating
Heating
Dominant
region
Southern Europe*
Central Europe
Sweden
Northern + central
Northern + central
* Main application is cooling
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
1.7 Existing test institutes and test standards for heat pumps
Sweden
SP, the Swedish National Research and Testing Institute located in Borås is host for the IEA
Heat Pump Centre (HPC). HPC is an information and coordination centre for IEA heat pump
related activities. SP is a well established research and testing centre with close collaboration
to the Swedish heat pump market actors. SP operates an accredited test laboratory for heat
pump testing according to EN-14511. In addition to performance testing, SP is marketing its
own heat pump quality label “P-label”.
Austria
arsenal research is an independent public research institute owned by majority by the Austrian
Republic. arsenal research is operating an accredited testing centre for heat pump testing. The
laboratory comprise of test facilities for all types of heat pumps including a test rig for direct
expansion systems. Arsenal plays an active role in vocational education of installers. In
addition to training courses, arsenal is the accredited certification body for certification of
heat pump installers in Austria.
The Netherlands
The TNO-MEP Centre for Development and Testing of Heat Pumps provides service to
developers, suppliers, end-users and consultants in the field of heat pumps. TNO operates an
accredited test laboratory and support actors on the heat pump market by offering help in
product development, labelling and certification of equipment and systems. TNO has a strong
position, both nationally and internationally, in the fields of refrigeration and heat pumps.
France
CETIAT (Centre Technique des Industries Aérauliques et Thermiques) is a French technical
centre for testing of boilers, ventilation, air conditioning and heat pump appliances. CETIAT
is located in Lyon and approved by EUROVENT.
Switzerland
The Swiss test institute is Buchs Heat-pump checking and testing centre The heat pump
testing centre is situated in Buchs. The testing centre offers the possibility for testing
air/water, water/water and brine/water heat pumps. This testing centre has a significant
influence on the quality of the products.
Germany
TÜV is the German accredited test laboratory.
EN-14511
Heat pump performance data should be measured and recorded according to the European test
standard EN-14511. This standard supersedes the EN 255 standard. EN-14511 include terms
and definitions, test conditions, test methods and requirements for air conditioners, liquid
chilling packages and heat pumps with electrically driven compressors for space heating and
cooling.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT RELATED TO THE USE OF HEAT PUMPS
With the exception of a few technologies, the majority of all life cycle assessments carried out
on systems for space conditioning or generation of electricity by combustion, confirm that
most of the environmental impact stems from the appliance/plant in operation (IEA 2002,
Spath, Mann 2000, Halozan et al 1999). Environmental evaluations of heat pump applications
need to take into account for indirect emissions related to the generation of electricity that is
used to operate the heat pump, as well as direct emissions of the refrigerant. A lot of research
has been made on the establishment of an integrated method to calculate the contribution of
green house gas emissions from refrigeration and heat pump applications. The most well
established method, TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact), was developed at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory in the early nineties. A TEWI calculation integrates direct and indirect
green house gas emissions over the whole lifetime into a single number expressed in terms of
CO2 mass equivalents.
TEWI = (n × L × m × GWP) + (n × E annual × EF ) + ( Ldemolition × m × GWP)
direct emissions due to
leakage
Where
Indirect emissions
related to electricity
generation
direct emissions at
demolition
n
equipment lifetime [year]
L
annual leakage rate [%]
m
refrigerant charge [kg]
GWP
global warming potential [kg CO2/kg refrigerant]
Eannual
annual energy use [kWh/year]
EF
emission factor driving energy [kg CO2/kWh]
Ldemolition
refrigerant losses during demolition [%]
TEWI example:
Domestic ground source heat pump supporting a single family house with an annual heat load
of 24 000 kWhheating. Annual electric input, based on a seasonal performance factor of 3,
8 000 kWh.
Heat pump: NIBE Fighter 1230
Labelled heat output: 6 kW
Refrigerant charge: 1.8 kg R-407c
GWP R-407c: 1530 kg CO2/kg refrigerant (Appendix II, Table 2)
Equipment lifetime: 15 years
*Annual leakage rate 2%
Refrigerant losses during demolition: 15 %
Annual electric energy input 8 000 kWh
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Electricity emission factor 0.47 kg CO2/kWhelectricity
TEWI = (15 × 0.02 × 1.8 × 1530) + (15 × 8 000 × 0.47) + (0.15 × 1.8 × 1530) = 57 639 [kg CO2 ]
826 kg CO2
56 400 kg CO2
413 kg CO2
Comments:
Indirect emissions related to the generation of electricity (97.8%) are in this particular
example, by far the largest contributor to green house gas emissions. It is however difficult to
draw any general conclusion from this example as the emission factor related to the
generation of electricity may vary in a fairly wide range depending on the source of electricity
generation. The example was based on 1992 average emission data for EU-12 (Michorius,
1996).
*Direct emissions of refrigerants in air-conditioners and unitary heat pumps have been
estimated in a study performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA (Sand et al 1997).
These estimates were 4% annual leakage for the technology available in 1997 and
estimated to drop to 2% by 2005.
2.1 The TEWI example applied on national basis
It is evident that different technologies, used for electricity generation, will have different
impact on the indirect emissions for any electric appliance. In countries like Norway, where
almost 100% of the electricity is generated by hydropower, the total equivalent warming
impact is only marginal. At the other end of the scale, in countries that are heavily dependent
on fossil fuel for generation of electricity, will consequently end up at significantly higher
TEWI. In order to disclose these differences, the TEWI example above has been applied to
national emission factors in Europe. The results from the calculations are presented in Table 1
and Figure 12. The national emission factors given by Sand et al 1997 were used as a basis for
the calculations. The results reveal a striking difference in green house gas emissions, for one
and the same appliance and identical efficiency (seasonal performance factor), due to the
differences in power supply. The results underline the importance of using an accurate
emission factor. The use of inappropriate emission factor may lead to wrong conclusions. The
fifth column in Table 1 point out that the indirect emissions of green house gases stands for
the predominant part of the TEWI. These emissions are directly influenced by the efficiency
of the system. Refrigerants with low GWP values will, in general, only lead to a reduction of
the TEWI if the efficiency of the system is maintained. A reduction of the direct emissions
will however, lead to further reductions of green house gases in countries that are benefiting
of low emission factors.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
kg CO2/kWhelec
Country
Norway
Sweden
Switzerland
France
Austria
Finland
Belgium
European Average
Spain
Italy
Germany
Turkey
Netherlands
Portugal
U.K.
Ireland
Denmark
Greece
Luxenbourg
TEWI [kg CO2]
0,005
0,04
0,08
0,09
0,22
0,24
0,29
0,47
0,48
0,59
0,61
0,62
0,64
0,64
0,64
0,7
0,84
0,98
1,08
direct emissions
indirect
direct emissions
due to leakage [%] emissions [%] at demolition [%]
1 839
6 039
10 839
12 039
27 639
30 039
36 039
57 639
58 839
72 039
74 439
75 639
78 039
78 039
78 039
85 239
102 039
118 839
130 839
44,9
13,7
7,6
6,9
3,0
2,8
2,3
1,4
1,4
1,1
1,1
1,1
1,1
1,1
1,1
1,0
0,8
0,7
0,6
32,6
79,5
88,6
89,7
95,5
95,9
96,6
97,8
97,9
98,3
98,3
98,4
98,4
98,4
98,4
98,5
98,8
99,0
99,1
22,5
6,8
3,8
3,4
1,5
1,4
1,1
0,7
0,7
0,6
0,6
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,3
Table 1 TEWI calculation example applied to national electricity emission factors
kg CO2 equivalents
140 000
120 000
100 000
European average
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
Luxenbourg
Greece
Denmark
Ireland
U.K.
Portugal
Netherlands
Turkey
Germany
Italy
Belgium
European
Average
Spain
Finland
Austria
France
Switzerland
Sweden
Norway
0
Figure 12 Calculated TEWI based on national emission factors
2.1.1 Concluding remarks on TEWI
The TEWI concept is well known and has been up to discussion in numerous publications. In
recent years a refined version called life cycle climate performance (LCCP) is gaining
attention. The LCCP is extending the system boundary to take into account for indirect
emissions of green house gases related to manufacturing and installation of the equipment.
These emissions are evidently not uncomplicated to estimate and require thorough studies.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
The LCCP concept is an ambitious attempt to bring in higher accuracy to studies of the
environmental impact of refrigeration and heat pump applications.
2.2 Refrigerants
The working fluid in a heat pump must be chosen with consideration of a number of different
aspects. Some of the working fluids that have been used extensively in heat pumps have been
discovered to have severe impact on the environment and have therefore been subject to
international phase out schemes and strict regulation. The refrigerant must fulfil a number of
requirements, of which the most essential are reviewed below.
•
•
•
•
Chemical stability
The refrigerant has to be completely stabile within the system and ideally
quickly decompose to harmless substances in the atmosphere.
Environmental impact, health and safety
Environmental impact due to direct emissions (leakage) must be kept at
minimum level. The use of flammable and toxic refrigerants is limited due to
strict regulation and reluctance from the industry.
Thermodynamic properties
Freezing temperature: well below normal operating conditions
Critical point and boiling point temperatures has to be appropriate for the
application.
Reasonable operating pressures are preferred in order keep costs at a minimum
High volumetric refrigeration capacity is beneficial
Practical characteristics
High oil solubility is in general preferred
Compatibility with common construction material
Low cost
Heat pump type
Air-air
Air-water
Exhaust air
Brine water
Refrigerant
R-410a, R-407c
R-134a, R-407c, R-410a, R-290, R-744
R-134a, R-290
R-134a, R-407c, R-404a, R-410a
Table 2 Most commonly used refrigerants
2.2.1 Refrigerants and European regulation
In the beginning of the twentieth century the refrigeration industry was restricted to the use of
ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide or water. None of these refrigerants were at that
time viable for use for domestic appliances. The lack of an adequate refrigerant was seen as
the most important barrier to overcome. In 1928, Thomas Midgley and his associate Albert
Henne were assigned to find a non flammable and non toxic refrigerant. Just two years later,
at a meeting of the American Chemical Society, presented Midgley the new refrigerant, later
known as R-12. The presentation was quite sensational as Midgley proved the desired
characteristics by inhaling the refrigerant and then extinguished a candle as he exhaled
(McLinden, Didion, 1987). The introduction of R-12, which is a chloroflurocarbon (CFC),
served as the take off for the refrigeration industry and the vast use of CFCs and later on
HCFCs.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
In 1973, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina presented a theory that CFCs would deplete
the ozone layer. The work of Rowland and Molina awarded them with the Nobel Prize in
1995 and led to the international agreement to phase out the use of CFCs in the Montreal
Protocol 1987 and later on in the amendments to include the reduction of HCFCs.
The use of substances that deplete the ozone layer in the EU is regulated by regulation no.
2037/2000. It differs from the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments in that it specifies: an
accelerated HCFC phase-out schedule bans on use or compulsory recovery of CFCs and
HCFCs, and leak control. By now the use of CFC in heat pumps is phased out and since 1
January 2004 the use of HCFC is prohibited in the production of all air-conditioning and heat
pump systems.
As the use of ozone depleting substances is already profoundly covered by international
regulation, focus is now set to reduce emissions of hydrofluorocarbons (HFC). The HFCs were
introduced as a substitute of the CFCs and HCFCs. HFC is a group of substances that have no
detrimental effect on the ozone layer, but contribute to global warming. The European
commission has proposed a new directive on restrictive use of F-gases (HFCs,
perfluorocarbons or PFCs and sulphur hexafluoride or SF6).
In the current version of the proposal (latest amendments 14 October 2004) the directive has
been divided into two parts. The first part is dealing with the phase out of R-134a from
vehicle air-conditioning. The second part apply to domestic and commercial refrigeration, airconditioners, heat pumps, fire fighting appliances, health care, etc. The overall aim of the
second part of the new directive is to improve the control of HFCs by setting minimum
standards for inspection and recovery. Regulations regarding monitoring and reporting on
leakage are strengthened, including training and certification of personnel in charge of
inspections. Labelling of products is introduced in order to improve the information to the
consumers.
The proposal will be sent to the European Parliament for a second reading in the beginning of
2005. A final agreement is not expected before 2006. After adoption, member states will have
18 months to transpose the directive. The regulation will come into force on the twentieth day
after its publication in the Official Journal of the European Union.
2.3 Secondary refrigerants
The detrimental environmental impact related to emissions of common refrigerants, has
emphasized the need to reduce the refrigerant charge in refrigeration and heat pump
applications. An indirect system allows for compact design and simplified installation in
many cases. Significant reductions of refrigerant charge may be achieved, especially in
refrigeration systems for supermarkets and ground source heat pump systems. The downside
to indirect systems is that an additional heat exchanger and a distribution pump are needed. In
order to protect the equipment from freezing, the secondary refrigerant has to be chosen in
respect of minimum operation temperature and the freezing point of the secondary refrigerant.
Water is an excellent secondary refrigerant, but as most indirect heat pump applications will
operate at temperatures below 0°C, pure water is only applicable to applications with
exceptionally favourable operation conditions. This raises the need to look for an anti-freeze
solution, with adequate properties.
Design of the secondary loop and choice of secondary refrigerant requires special attention in
order to reduce energy losses and avoid risks of malfunction.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Design aspects
•
Care has to be taken in order to avoid large pressure drop. An excessive pressure drop
will require additional energy for circulation.
•
Indirect systems require a buffer tank of appropriate volume to allow for density
changes, due to temperature differences of the secondary refrigerant.
•
The design of the secondary loop has to enable purging of air out of the system.
Trapped air is one of the most common reasons to insufficient flow in the secondary
loop.
•
Sufficient insulation is required to avoid condensation and enable required resistance
to fire in the case flammable fluids are used.
Property aspects
•
High specific heat of the secondary refrigerant is favourable, since this will enable
efficient energy use, as the temperature difference and volume flow may be kept low.
•
Low viscosity will reduce pumping power and enable high heat transfer coefficient.
•
High heat transfer coefficient will reduce thermal losses in heat exchangers.
•
Toxic secondary refrigerants may cause damage to environment and health if a
leakage occur.
•
Flammable liquids require fire resistive pipe insulation.
•
Some secondary refrigerants may become highly corrosive in the presence of oxygen.
Risk of corrosion is reduced by the use of corrosion inhibitors.
The most commonly used secondary refrigerants in domestic heat pump applications are
aqueous solutions of ethylene glycol, propylene glycol and ethyl alcohol. From technical and
environmental view secondary refrigerants should be used with care. In central and southern
parts of Europe systems could well be designed for temperatures above 0 °C and thus
enabling the use of water. During the last few years a new concept to avoid secondary
refrigerants has been developed in Austria. The concept is developed for vertical ground heat
exchangers and introduces a CO2-thermosyphon (Rieberer et al 2005). The thermosyphon is
operating as a refrigeration cycle on its own. The inherent CO2 evaporates during heat
extraction in the lower part of the thermosyphon and condensates as the evaporator of the heat
pump cools it. The system is self-circulating and will thus not need any circulation pump as
an ordinary indirect system. The drawback of the system is that it is not possible to use for
free-cooling.
3 COMPETENCE REQUIREMENTS
European heat pump markets are developed in very different stages. Sweden and Austria
started to develop their markets some thirty years ago and have by now established a selfsustaining market. The markets in these countries have up to now gone through a number of
upturns and periods of decline. Even though the reasons for market decline have been
different it has sometimes been related to lack of installer know-how. The fact that a heat
pump application is more complicated than most other space conditioning systems raises the
demand for competence.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
An installer needs a mixture of skills, which are normally covered by different professions
(electricians, plumbers and HVAC technicians). The overall efficiency of the system is very
much dependent on accurate design of the heat source and proper integration with the heat
distribution system and other auxiliary systems. The lack of qualified installer has been
recognised as one of the greatest barriers on some of the emerging markets in Europe. From
experience it is known that poor installation may have a dramatic negative effect on the
market as a whole. The markets in Sweden and Austria have, at times, suffered severely from
poor installations leading to bad repute for the trade. Actors on these markets have learned
from this experience and initiated different training schemes.
The need for education of installers is well recognised in all of Europe and has resulted in a
joint European project with participation from Sweden, Austria, Ireland, Slovenia, Czech
Republic, U.K., France, Italy, Switzerland and The European Heat Pump Association. The
aim of the project (European Certified Installer, 2002) is to develop and initiate training
programmes, on all emerging markets, based on experience from the most developed
countries. The project will establish European curricula for training courses and develop a
European certification scheme.
3.1 Existing schemes for vocational education
Training of installers are in one way or the other available in most of the European countries.
There are however vast variations of quality level in the training and requirements for
examination. The following section presents an overview of existing schemes for vocational
education in Europe.
Austria
The training program for installers started in the year 2001. Since the implementation of the
training facility at Arsenal Research, more than 130 installers and electricians have attended
the course. Arsenal is the accredited certification body for certification of installers. In order to
comply with the requirements for certification, the installers must be actively working in the
field of heat pumps and regularly take part in further education in the field of heat pumps.
Furthermore they have to keep record of all written complaints and provide complete planning
documentation for one installation every three years. Up to now more than 30 installers have
complied for certification and the program is gradually gaining more interest. Feedback from
the trainees has been extremely positive.
Switzerland
The Winterthur testing and training centre provides vocational education for heat pump
designers and installers. After fulfilled training course and verification of one installation an
installer may apply for publication on a list of certified installers. In Switzerland training of
drillers has been given high priority and as a result Switzerland has implemented a certification
program for drilling companies. In order to attain certification the companies have to verify the
quality of the equipment, relevant competence of the employees and provide necessary
authorization. The certification is valid for 3 years, during which the company is obliged to
take part in further education.
Sweden
In Sweden, there are many actors offer training of installers and drillers. In addition to the
education offered by The Swedish Heat Pump Association (SVEP) in collaboration with Mid
Sweden University, the major national manufacturers, The Swedish Society of Heating and
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Ventilation and a national vocational education centre (IUC) offer training courses for heat
pump installers. The perhaps most well-established and renowned programme is the one
offered by SVEP and Mid Sweden University.
Even though regular students at Mid Sweden University take part in the course, the main target
group for the Swedish education programme is active installers. The duration of the training
course is 5 days. There is however a distance learning option, that has become the most viable
alternative for most installers. The compulsory part of the distance learning course includes a
one-day seminar and a practical laboration. Exercises, supervision and examination are
available on the Internet. The syllabus of the course encompasses environmental topics,
building constructions and refrigeration and heat pump technologies. Much effort is put into
the general knowledge of heating and cooling load calculation, system design, control
strategies, maintenance and legislation.
France
There is no official education standard covering the whole scope of heat pumps; nevertheless,
there are education standards for cooling and/or air conditioning, mainly for tertiary sectors.
People who have attended these courses have acquired a strong basis for the fast acquisition of
complementary knowledge about heat pump systems.
Official education standard offered by French National Education Department
•
A 2-year vocational education allows people to install, commission and maintain
systems for cooling and air conditioning
In addition there are short training courses (from 1 to 5 days), which are mainly provided by
manufacturers and private or semi-private organisations. Each of them provides 5 to 20 short
training units focusing on air conditioning and cooling. Among these training units, there are
only a few that focus specifically on heat pumps (< 10). Manufacturers are generally adapting
the training according individual experience e.g.
•
General training for installers who have no air conditioning background (e.g.
electrician)
•
Complementary training specifying in air conditioning for an electrician (especially for
split systems)
•
Complementary short training of electrical part for plumber
Accredited
certification scheme
Austria
Czech Repulic
France
Germany
Ireland
Slovenia
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
Inofficial
Training offered
certification/licencing
by manufacturers
courses
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Table 3 Existing training schemes
4 EXISTING LABELLING SCHEMES
There are already at present a few eco-labelling schemes for heat pumps in operation in
Europe. The eco-labelling scheme for the Nordic countries is administered by SISMiljömärkning in Sweden. In addition to the labelling schemes there are three qualitylabelling schemes. One of the quality labelling scheme is administered by the Swedish
National Testing and Research Institute (SP). SP is labelling heat pumps under the P-label.
The other two are the D-A-CH label and the French Promotelec.
Quality-label France
There is a label called “Promotelec” , which is managed by the private Promotelec
Association (to which EDF belongs). This label ensures that houses (individual or collective)
have a sufficient level of electrical comfort. Requirements must be met for electrical systems
and installation. For houses equipped with heat pump systems, the heat pump must have a
minimum level of performance according to the type of heat pump. If the performances are
certified by the EUROVENT Association, or are published in a testing report issued by an
independent laboratory, retained values are those given by the manufacturers; if not, there is a
degradation coefficient depending on the technology of the heat pump. An independent
company gives the label to the house after a check.
Sweden
Quality labels for the heat pump
There are two labelling systems in Sweden presently, the P-mark, which is a quality label and
the Swan which is an eco-label.
1. The P-mark
The P–mark is a quality label that has been developed by the SP Swedish National Testing
and Research Institute together with Swedish heat pump associations and manufacturers. To
receive the label the product must fulfil:
Efficiency requirements (COP at certain operating points)
Efficiency requirements for preparing sanitary hot water (if applicable)
The Swedish Refrigeration Code
The Swedish Building Regulations
Noise levels according to the Swedish Building Regulations
Demands for CE-marking, both for electricity and pressure vessels
Demands on the information in the manuals and installation instructions
Demands on the quality of the manufacturing; this is controlled by surveillance
inspections.
2. The Swan
The Swan is the official Nordic ecolabel, introduced by the Nordic Council of Ministers.The
Swan label demonstrates that a product is a sound environmental choice. The green symbol is
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
available for more than 100 product groups for which it is felt that ecolabelling is needed and
will be beneficial. The Swan checks that products fulfil certain criteria using methods such as
samples from independent laboratories, certificates and control visits.
Noise
The refrigerant
The secondary refrigerant
Plastic details
Surface treatments
Packaging material
Efficiency
The information material
Requirements on efficiency
Requirements on competent retailers and installers
Germany
There are two eco labelling criteria for different types of heat pumps available under “Der
Blaue Engel”. One is for absorption and adsorption heat pump systems or combustion engine
driven compressors. The criteria applies to factory manufactured units for space heating with
a rated thermal output of up to 70 kWheating.
The criteria sets requirements for:
The GWP (global warming potential) of the refrigerant
Emissions of NO2, CO and dust
Energy efficiency
Auxiliary power demand
Test institutes
Test methods
The second criteria has been established for electrically driven heat pumps.
The criteria sets requirements for:
TEWI (Total equivalent warming impact) of the system
Calculation of seasonal performance factor
The manual and guidelines
Test methods
Test institutes
It is interesting that this criteria sets requirements for TEWI, which then takes in to account
for energy efficiency of the appliance, refrigerant leakage, environmental impact of the
refrigerant as well as the environmental impact from generation of electricity.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
DACH – Germany D, Austria A, Switzerland CH,
The German spoken countries, Germany, Austria and Switzerland have agreed on common
criteria for a quality label for heat pump units. The criteria which is called DACH-Gütesiegel,
covers air-water heat pumps, water-water heat pumps, brine-water heat pumps as well as
exhaust air heat pumps and direct evaporation heat pumps. The criteria sets requirements for:
Energy efficiency
Operating range
Manual
Warranty
Service capability
Availability of spare parts
The DACH-label is perhaps the most renown label for heat pumps in Europe at present.
5 SCOPE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
Energy efficiency and mitigation of climate change are of highest priority in many
international collaboration projects. There is a great opportunity for substantial savings of
energy usage in the built environment. As infrastructure, technology level, climate, economics
and competence are at very different levels within the EU, policies, incentives and choice of
technology will have to depend on the local conditions. A European environmental labelling
scheme for heat sources will only become successful if there is an inherent flexibility that
enables considerations for local conditions.
The most obvious environmental benefits a heat pump offer the end user is perhaps the
complete avoidance of local emissions from combustion. Depending on the generation of
electricity emissions do occur at the plant site. Utility plants are however in general
generating lower emission rates than small domestic furnaces. The indirect emissions from a
heat pump are thus dependent on the efficiency of the plant generating the electricity.
Comparison of CO2-emissions
Reducing the use of fossil fuel is one of the most efficient ways to mitigate the emissions of
carbon dioxide. Replacement of old, low performing, gas boilers and oil boilers is therefore of
high priority. A shift to heat pump technology will under most circumstances be efficient, but
as the following calculations will show, the magnitude of the possible benefits vary depending
on the electric emission factor (kg CO2/kWhelectricity).
General assumption: Annual heat demand 20 000 kWh.
Scenario a (low electricity emission factor):
A heat pump providing 20 000 kWhheating at seasonal performance factor 3, electricity
generated at an emission factor of 0.1 kg CO2/kWhelectricity is compared to conventional gas
and oil boilers at annual efficiencies of 70%-90%.
kg CO 2
kg CO 2
Ga s boile r 70%
6000
Oil boile r 70%
8000
Ga s biole r 80%
5250
Oil boile r 80%
7000
Ga s boile r 90%
4667
Oil boile r 90%
6222
He a t pum p SPF 3
667
He a t pum p SPF 3
667
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY
IMPACT July 2005: Part
1
CO 2-sa vings
CO 2-sa vings
85-88% AND ENVIRONMENTAL
89-92%
Table 4a, b Emissions savings low electricity emission factor
25
Scenario b (EU Average electricity emission factor):
A heat pump providing 20 000 kWhheating at seasonal performance factor 3, electricity
generated at an emission factor of 0.47 kg CO2/kWhelectricity is compared to conventional gas
and oil boilers at annual efficiencies of 70%-90%.
Ga s boile r 70%
Ga s biole r 80%
Ga s boile r 90%
He a t pum p SPF 3
CO 2-sa vings
kg CO 2
6000
5250
4667
3133
32-47%
Oil boile r 70%
Oil boile r 80%
Oil boile r 90%
He a t pum p SPF 3
CO 2-sa vings
kg CO 2
8000
7000
6222
3133
49-60%
Table 5a, b Emissions savings EU average electricity emission factor
Scenario c (high electricity emission factor):
A heat pump providing 20 000 kWhheating at seasonal performance factor 3, electricity
generated at an emission factor of 0.9 kg CO2/kWhelectricity is compared to conventional gas
and oil boilers at annual efficiencies of 70%-90%.
Ga s boile r 70%
Ga s biole r 80%
Ga s boile r 90%
He a t pum p SPF 3
CO 2-sa vings
kg CO 2
6000
5250
4667
6000
-28-0%'
Oil boile r 70%
Oil boile r 80%
Oil boile r 90%
He a t pum p SPF 3
CO 2-sa vings
kg CO 2
8000
7000
6222
6000
3-25%
Table 6a, b Emission comparison high electricity emission factor
Comments on the potential of mitigating CO2-emissions
A conclusion from the different scenarios described above is that the introduction of electric
heat pumps will in most, but not all, cases result in substantial reductions of CO2-emissions.
All grid losses, direct emissions due to refrigerant leakage and emissions due to transport of
natural gas and heating oil were neglected in the calculations above.
5.1 A comparison of primary energy ratio (PER)
Estimation of CO2-emissions is an essential exercise in the evaluation of environmental
performance. There are however other measures to compare the performance of different
systems available. The concept of primary energy ratio (PER) is merely the relation between
useful energy output divided by necessary energy input. This value gives a direct value of the
overall efficiency for a complete system, taking in to account for losses related to the
generation of electricity. For a common combustion appliance the PER value is equal to the
overall efficiency of the system. Annual PER for a gas boiler is in the range of 0.8-0.9. The
PER for a heat pump application is equal to the seasonal performance factor times overall
26
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
efficiency for generation of electricity. Figure 13 is providing a comparison of PER for
different SPFs, electricity generation efficiency and common boiler efficiencies.
2,5
European
average
0.38
2
Boiler 70%
1,5
PER
Boiler 80%
Heat pump SPF 3
1
Heat pump SPF 4
0,5
0
0,3
0,4
0,5
Efficiency power generation
Figure 13 PER comparison
Boile r 70%
Boile r 80%
SPF 3
SPF 4
Efficie ncy pow e r ge ne ra tion
PER
0,7
0,8
1,14
1,52
0,38
Table 6 PER comparison based on
average european efficiency
6 APPLIANCE AND SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
The simplified calculation of CO2-emissions and PER highlights the potential for substantial
improvement that might be achieved by a wide introduction of high performing heat pump
systems. It is in this respect interesting to discuss viable efficiencies for heat pump systems of
today and tomorrow.
The overall efficiency of a heat pump system is not only dependent on the efficiency of the
appliance. One and the same appliance will generate quite different annual efficiency factors
depending on the temperature levels of the heat source and the heat distribution system. An
experienced installer is required, in order to achieve appropriate design according to the
unique conditions. An appliance of high efficiency will of course be a precondition for a high
performing system. SP, the Swedish National Research and Testing Institute perform
appliance testing at regular intervals. Figure 14, 15 outlines the development of appliance
efficiency.
27
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Figure 14 Appliance efficiency 1992, 1994, 1995, 1998
Figure 15 Appliance efficiency 1986, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2004
28
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
6.1 Tools and methods available for SPF evaluation
The efficiency of heat pumps are published by the manufacturers at specific operating
conditions defined by the standard EN 14511 or the former EN 255. These values together
with information on climate, heat demand and temperature levels of the heat source and heat
distribution system enable an estimation of the seasonal performance factor. A number of heat
pump manufacturers provide this kind of calculation tool as sales support. A national research
project in Sweden (Forsén, Lundqvist 2005) has presented a common basis for design and
energy performance calculations for heat pump systems. The major heat pump manufacturers
have taken part in the project that has been founded by the actors on the Swedish heat pump
market together with the Swedish Energy Agency.
The IEA Heat Pump Programme has an ongoing Annex (IEA Annex 28) aiming at the
establishment of a test procedure that will provide the necessary output for reliable calculation
of seasonal performance factor. The second aim of the project is to develop a simplified
method for seasonal performance calculation.
A new regulation related to calculation of seasonal performance factor
(Energiesparverodnung Nr 42, 2005) came in to force in Upper Austria 1 July 2005. The new
regulation stipulates guidelines on how to estimate “jahres arbeits zahl (JAZ)” for heat pump
systems. The method is based on the norm published by Vereinung Deutche Ingenerung (VDI
4650) and is compulsory to use for application of available heat pump subsidies in Upper
Austria.
7 EUROPEAN MARKET SURVEY
The market for heat pumps is, so far, only well established in a small number of countries
(Sweden, Switzerland and Austria). Other countries like Germany, the Netherlands and
France show a great potential, but have not yet been able to gain a self-sustaining market.
There are a number of countries, within the European Union, that face a real challenge in
meeting their Kyoto targets. Heat pumps present a technology that has proven to be very
effective in reducing green house gas (GHG) emissions. The need for exchange of technical
know-how is however vast, which raises the need for international collaboration. In order to
facilitate international collaboration by promoting awareness and proper deployment of heat
pump technology, the European Heat Pump Association (EHPA) was founded in 2000. The
Association is primarily for all legally constituted organisations in the European Union.
Organisations in the European Free Trade Association and aspirant states to the European
Union may become associate members.
In many of the European countries it is expected that the heat pump market will annually
increase by 10% or more during the next decade. Few countries expect a smaller increase. The
attitude of the authorities to the use of heat pumps differs substantially between countries.
However, in many countries heat pumps are valued as an important means of saving energy
and reducing the emission of CO2 and they have become an important factor in overall energy
and environment planning and policy. In the most ambitious countries the expected annual
growth of the heat pump market in the period 2000-2010 is in the range 15-40%.
7.1 Barriers to overcome
7.1.1 Limited awareness
The limited awareness by decision makers, the public, authorities and politicians dealing with
energy matters is due to a lack of professional information at all levels. It is worth mentioning
29
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
that whereas such renewable energy sources as wind, solar, biomass and photo voltaic are
well known alternatives, because of effective information campaigns and authority support,
only modest emphasis has been placed on the energy saving and environmental potential of
heat pump systems.
7.1.2 High initial cost
High initial costs are in many cases a barrier, in spite of the fact that the overall lifetime cost
of the system is very satisfactory. Those promoting and marketing heat pump systems may
here be facing a pedagogical, or educational challenge. In addition to marketing arguments,
environmental and comfort benefits of heat pumps should be stressed and valued.
7.1.3 Poor perception
Poor perception has occasionally had a detrimental effect on the heat pump market. This has
mainly been the result of a fast growing market, which has tempted incompetent vendors and
installers to enter. This has, in some instances and in combination with some brands not
meeting a reasonable efficiency and quality standard, led to frustrated buyers and a setback in
sales. This situation has arisen in several European countries, often in conjunction with energy
saving initiatives and programmes.
If initiatives aimed at increasing the future use of heat pumps in Europe are to be successful,
steps must be taken to avoid that such situations are repeated. These steps include the training
and certification of installers and marketing personnel. They should also include the
establishment of a heat pump labelling programme, as a guarantee of energy efficiency
performance and environmental benefits.
It is believed that a simple method of calculating heat pump system savings in terms of energy
and cost could be a useful tool for heat pump sellers, who should be able to give a heat pump
buyer reliable and relevant information. The development of such a method should therefore
be considered.
7.1.4
Low energy prices
Low energy prices, which do not fully reflect the external cost of the different energies, are a
significant barrier in some European countries. This is often related to the fact that even if a
heat pump system is economically competitive, the energy cost difference may be too small to
decide for the heat pump system. This is in spite of other benefits that a heat pump system
offers, such as reduced CO2 emissions, more comfort etc. This barrier can only be overcome
by offering incentives, grants, renewable energy tax benefits for heat pumps, exempted or
reduced CO2 taxes etc.
7.2 European market statistics
Sweden is by far the most developed market for heat pumps. The market in Sweden has
shown a strong increase every year during the last decade. Other markets like Germany,
France, Finland, Switzerland, Austria and Norway are however starting to increase the
number of sales and there are significant signs of a growing interest for the technology from
large European companies. One of the largest Swedish manufacturers IVT, was purchased by
BBT Thermotechnik GMBH (part of the BOSH-group) in 2004. The large Danish company
Danfoss acquired another of the leading Swedish manufacturers Thermia, as late as June
2005.
30
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
The official market statistics for countries in Europe that are revealed below have been
compiled by the European Heat Pump Association (EHPA) and presented in the form of
tables and diagrams. The statistics are based on an inquiry that was sent to 23 European
countries and refers to the situation 2003. As the quality of the statistical data provided differ
considerably, the EHPA has decided to only publish the statistics from 8 countries that are
considered to be reliable. Unfortunately the survey lacks information from Southern Europe.
General remarks
Results
•
Total sales of space heating heat pumps: Minimum185.000 pieces (including exhaust air
and reversible air-air heat pumps)
•
Sweden clearly dominating market: 68.100 pieces, 60% of them heating only heat pumps
(without heat recovery heat pumps)
•
Market increase > 100%: Finland and The Netherlands
•
Ground source heat pumps are dominating systems in most countries
•
Reversible heat pumps are dominating systems in Norway (94%) and Finland (59%);
mostly air-to air heat pumps primarily used for heating purposes
EHPA Heat Pump Statistics 2003: Sales Figures Space Heating
Austria
3 6 0 0 18 0
Heating only HPs (w ithout heat recovery)
15
Bulgaria
510
25
Estonia
Heat recovery HPs
1 300
Finland
2 230
France
9 000
Reversible HPs
4 70 0
5 000
9 74 5
Germ any
1 557
Netherlands
Norw ay
5 0 10
684
2 440
51 9 57
39 600
Sw eden
8 695
Sw itzerland
0
12 0 0 0
16 50 0
37
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
70 000
Figure 16 Sales figures space heating
31
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
EHPA Heat Pump Statistics 2003: Sales Figures Heating Only
(without heat recovery heat pumps)
420
2 555
Austria
525
11
Bulgaria
Air/water
Estonia
360
Finland
2 230
Water/water
Brine/water
Dir. expan./water or dir. cond.
5 400
Total Bulgaria / NL
3 600
France
1 152
2 396
Germany
6 197
1 557
Netherlands
2 440
Norway
500
3 100
Sweden
36 000
277
5 129
Switzerland
0
3 234
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
30 000
35 000
40 000
Figure 17 Sales figures heating only
EHPA Heat Pump Statistics 2003: Stock of installed systems for space heating
33 227
Austria
Bulgaria
Heating only (without heat
recovery)
Estonia
Heat recovery
6 000
11 000
23 000
Finland
Reversible heat pumps
France
11 000
68 000
Germany
3 858
Netherlands
10 204
Norway
92 919
10 087
360 000
Sweden
1 660
73 603
Switzerland
0
50 000
100 000
150 000
200 000
250 000
300 000
350 000
400 000
Figure 18 Stock of installed systems for space heating
32
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Abbreviations
CFC
chlorofluorocarbon
COP
coefficient of performance
DTH
down the hole hammer
EDF
Electricité de France
EHPA
European Heat Pump Association
GHG
green house gas emission
GWP
global warming potential
HCFC
hydroclorofluorocarbon
HFC
hydrofluorocarbon
HPC
Heat Pump Centre
HVAC
heating ventilation and air conditioning
IEA
International Energy Agency
IUC
Installatörernas Utbildningscentrum
JAZ
jahres arbeits zahl=SPF
LCCP
life cycle climate performance
PER
primary energy ratio
SPF
seasonal performance factor
TEWI
total equivalent warming impact
VDI
Vereinung Deutsche Ingenerung
References
Forsén, M., Lundqvist, P., ”A novel design tool for heat pump systems” 8th International
Energy Agency, Heat Pump Conference 2005, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 30 May- 2 June.
Halozan, et al (1999). ”Environmental benefits of heat pumping technologies”, Analysis
Report HPC – AR6.
IEA (2002), The International Energy Agency - Implementing Agreement for Hydropower
Technologies and Programmes “Environmental and Health Impacts of Electricity
Generation”, June 2002.
McLinden, M. O., Didion, D. A. “Quest for alternatives – A molecular approach demonstrates
tradeoffs and limitations are inevitable in seeking refrigerants” ASHRAE Journal December
1987.
Michorius, J., Ducth Electricity Generation Board, 1996.
Rieberer, R., Mittermayr, C., Halozan, H.,“CO2-thermosyphons as heat source systems for
heat pumps – 4 year of market experience” ” 8th International Energy Agency, Heat Pump
Conference 2005, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 30 May- 2 June.
33
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Spath, P., Mann, M., (2000). „Life Cycle Assessment of a Natural Gas Combined-Cycle
Power Generation System”. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 1617 Cole Boulevard,
Golden Colorado 80401-3393.
Sand et al (1997). “Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging
Technologies”, Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1997.
34
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
Appendix I
Direct Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) relative to carbon dioxide (for gases for which
the lifetimes have been adequately characterised). GWPs are an index for estimating relative
global warming contribution due to atmospheric emission of a kg of a particular greenhouse
gas compared to emission of a kg of carbon dioxide. GWPs calculated for different time
horizons show the effects of atmospheric lifetimes of the different gases.
Gas
Lifetime
(years)
Global Warming Potential
(Time Horizon in years)
20 yrs
100 yrs
500 yrs
1
1
1
Carbon dioxide
CO2
Methanea
CH4
12.0 b
62
23
7
Nitrous oxide
N2O
114 b
275
296
156
HFC-23
CHF3
260
9400
12000
10000
HFC-32
CH2F2
5.0
1800
550
170
HFC-41
CH3F
2.6
330
97
30
HFC-125
CHF2CF3
29
5900
3400
1100
HFC-134
CHF2CHF2
9.6
3200
1100
330
HFC-134a
CH2FCF3
13.8
3300
1300
400
HFC-143
CHF2CH2F
3.4
1100
330
100
HFC-143a
CF3CH3
52
5500
4300
1600
HFC-152
CH2FCH2F
0.5
140
43
13
HFC-152a
CH3CHF2
1.4
410
120
37
HFC-161
CH3CH2F
0.3
40
12
4
HFC-227ea
CF3CHFCF3
33
5600
3500
1100
HFC-236cb
CH2FCF2CF3
13.2
3300
1300
390
HFC-236ea
CHF2CHFCF3
10
3600
1200
390
HFC-236fa
CF3CH2CF3
220
7500
9400
7100
HFC-245ca
CH2FCF2CHF2
5.9
2100
640
200
HFC-245fa
CHF2CH2CF3
7.2
3000
950
300
HFC-365mfc
CF3CH2CF2CH3
9.9
2600
890
280
HFC-43-10mee
CF3CHFCHFCF2CF3 15
3700
1500
470
Hydrofluorocarbons
(Source IPCC Climate Change 2001 Synthesis Report Contribution by WG I)
35
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1
PART 2
Part 2 constitutes of national heat pump market analysis for 9 European countries. Members
of the EHPA and participants in the European project European Certified Heat Pump Installer
have provided the reports that serve as a ground for this section. The national reports describe
the overall heat market as well as major stakeholders, drivers and barriers to overcome.
Inquiries on national market statistics have been sent to competent associations and
organisations.
1
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
Austria ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1
Heating systems.......................................................................................................... 5
1.2
Energy prices.............................................................................................................. 5
1.3
Development of the market ........................................................................................ 6
1.4
Building standards...................................................................................................... 8
1.5
Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology................................................ 9
1.6
What were the main barriers to overcome ................................................................. 9
1.7
Way to success ......................................................................................................... 10
1.8
Strategies by the Government .................................................................................. 11
1.9
Strategies of utilities................................................................................................. 11
1.10 Strategies of the Manufacturers................................................................................ 12
1.11 Current situation....................................................................................................... 14
1.11.1
Heat pump market ............................................................................................ 14
1.11.2
Quality assurance: ............................................................................................ 15
1.11.3
Certified installers ............................................................................................ 16
1.11.4
Monitoring........................................................................................................ 16
1.12 Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 16
1.13 Subsidies for heat pumps.......................................................................................... 17
1.14 Investment costs – running costs.............................................................................. 18
1.15 Perspectives.............................................................................................................. 18
2
Germany ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.1
Heating systems........................................................................................................ 20
2.2
Energy prices............................................................................................................ 20
2.3
Development of the Market...................................................................................... 21
2.4
Building standards.................................................................................................... 24
2.5
Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology.............................................. 25
2.6
Strength of the current heat pump market................................................................ 25
2.7
What were the main barriers to overcome?.............................................................. 25
2.8
Main barriers of the current market.......................................................................... 26
2.9
Way to success ......................................................................................................... 26
2.10 Strategy..................................................................................................................... 28
2.10.1
Info-systems ..................................................................................................... 28
2.10.2
Public relation .................................................................................................. 28
2.10.3
Congresses, special conferences and action weeks.......................................... 28
2.10.4
Limits ............................................................................................................... 29
2.11 Current market situation........................................................................................... 29
2.12 DACH quality label.................................................................................................. 31
2.13 Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 31
2.14 Comparison of heating costs .................................................................................... 32
2.15 Perspectives.............................................................................................................. 32
3
Switzerland....................................................................................................................... 33
3.1
Heating systems........................................................................................................ 33
3.2
Energy prices............................................................................................................ 33
3.3
Development of the market ...................................................................................... 33
3.4
Building standards.................................................................................................... 34
3.5
Why had the heat pump technology prospects in the eighties ................................. 35
2
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
4
5
6
7
3.6
What were the main barriers to overcome ............................................................... 35
3.7
Way to success ......................................................................................................... 36
3.7.1
Foundation era (1992 – 1994) .......................................................................... 37
3.7.2
Consolidation phase (1995 – 1997).................................................................. 37
3.7.3
Professionalism (1998 – 2000)......................................................................... 37
3.7.4
Heat pumps for replacement market (since 2001) ........................................... 37
3.7.5
Utilities ............................................................................................................. 38
3.8
Current situation....................................................................................................... 39
3.8.2
Heat pump associations.................................................................................... 40
3.8.3
AWP Swiss Heat Pump Association................................................................ 40
3.8.4
Swiss Geothermal Association......................................................................... 40
3.8.5
Quality assurance ............................................................................................. 40
3.9
Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 41
3.10 Subsidies for heat pumps.......................................................................................... 41
3.11 Perspectives.............................................................................................................. 42
The Czech republic........................................................................................................... 43
4.1
Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 43
4.2
Heat Pump Market Development in the Czech Republic ........................................ 44
4.3
Current Situation ...................................................................................................... 44
4.4
Technical Description of the Most Frequent Technologies ..................................... 46
4.5
Usual distribution channels ...................................................................................... 46
4.6
Education.................................................................................................................. 46
4.7
Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 46
France ............................................................................................................................... 47
5.1
Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 47
5.1.1
Development of the market .............................................................................. 47
5.2
Current situation....................................................................................................... 48
5.3
Application of heat pumps ....................................................................................... 50
5.4
Common distribution channels................................................................................. 50
5.4.1
For domestic applications................................................................................. 50
5.4.2
Commercial applications.................................................................................. 51
5.5
Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 51
5.6
Qualification Certificate for persons ........................................................................ 51
5.6.1
Description of the current situation.................................................................. 51
5.7
Quality label for heat pumps .................................................................................... 52
5.7.1
Description of the current situation.................................................................. 52
5.8
Literature .................................................................................................................. 53
Ireland............................................................................................................................... 54
6.1
Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 54
6.1.1
Development of the market .............................................................................. 54
6.2
Current situation....................................................................................................... 55
6.3
Common distribution channels................................................................................. 57
6.3.1
For domestic applications................................................................................. 57
6.4
Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 57
6.5
For people installing a heat pump ............................................................................ 57
Slovenia............................................................................................................................ 59
7.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 59
7.2
Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 60
7.2.1
Development of the market .............................................................................. 60
7.3
Current situation....................................................................................................... 61
3
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
7.3.1
Weather conditions........................................................................................... 61
7.3.2
Energy situation................................................................................................ 62
7.3.3
Heat distribution systems ................................................................................. 63
7.3.4
Use of ground water ......................................................................................... 63
7.3.5
Refrigerants ...................................................................................................... 63
7.3.6
Market actors.................................................................................................... 64
7.3.7
Governmental support ...................................................................................... 64
7.4
Common distribution channels................................................................................. 64
7.4.1
For domestic applications................................................................................. 64
7.5
Vocational Education for installers .......................................................................... 65
7.6
Existing specialised heat pump training................................................................... 65
8
United Kingdom............................................................................................................... 66
8.1
Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 66
8.1.1
Development of the market .............................................................................. 66
8.2
Current situation....................................................................................................... 66
8.3
Technical description of the most common technologies ........................................ 68
8.3.1
Water/Water ..................................................................................................... 68
8.3.2
Brine/Water ...................................................................................................... 68
8.3.3
Exhaust air........................................................................................................ 68
8.3.4
Air/Air .............................................................................................................. 68
8.3.5
In-building heat pumps..................................................................................... 68
8.4
Common distribution channels................................................................................. 69
8.5
Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 69
9
Sweden ............................................................................................................................. 70
9.1
Heating Systems....................................................................................................... 70
9.2
Energy prices............................................................................................................ 70
9.3
Heat pump market development .............................................................................. 71
9.4
Building standards.................................................................................................... 73
9.5
Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology.............................................. 73
9.6
What were the main barriers to overcome ............................................................... 73
9.7
Way to success ......................................................................................................... 74
9.8
Current situation market situation ............................................................................ 76
9.9
Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 78
9.10 Future perspectives................................................................................................... 78
4
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
1 AUSTRIA
1.1 Heating systems
Central and Northern Europe, including Austria have hydronic heat distribution systems. The
majority of these hydronic heat distribution systems in the 80’s had been sized and designed
for supply/return water temperatures of 90/70°C, i.e. temperatures exceeding the temperature
level of heat pumps. Heating was carried out mainly with fossil fuel fired boilers. In the
seventies, only some new buildings had low-temperature or occasionally floor heating
systems installed. Air conditioning was only common in large commercial buildings.
1.2 Energy prices
Figure 1 Development of the energy prices for mineral oil products in Austria 1970-2002 (EVA, 2003)
Figure 2 Development of the energy prices for pipe bounded energy transfer mediums and solid fuels
in Austria 1970-2002 (EVA, 2003)
5
HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Figure 3 Development of the energy prices for electrical power, heating oil, mineral coal, gas,
firewood, district heating in the time from January 2000 to July 2003 in Austria (EVA, 2003)
The figures above show the development of the prices for electricity and heating oil in
Austria. Attention should be paid to the strong price fluctuation for heating oil. Generally
there was a sharp increase in oil prices since the seventies. Figure 1 is dominated by the first
and the second oil price shock. 1973 was the first occurrence of a significant price rise, but it
was only the precursor for the second oil price shock in 1978. At this time there were the best
conditions for the development of a heat pump market in Austria, and as the market statistics
show these conditions resulted in a significant rise in the heat pump sales figures in Austria.
Between 1978 and 1984 the oil price was still rising but the sales figures of the heat pumps
were decreasing. The reasons for this opposite development were the poor quality and
efficiency of the heat pump systems at this time (see next point).
Figure 3 shows that we are not immune to a further oil price shock. There was a jump in oil
prices in September 2000 and March 2003. Due to these fluctuations it is especially difficult
to assess the future development of the prices for mineral oil products.
In contrast to the oil price there was a steady rise in demand for electricity until 1986,
afterwards there was only a small rise. Since 1986 the price has been more or less stable. This
benefited the development of the heat pump market, because the price for electricity is
deemed to be relatively stable.
1.3 Development of the market
The first oil price shock in 1973 showed Austria’s dependency on imported energy, and also
showed the vulnerability of trade and industry, which could not exist without imported
energy. At this time in Japan and in the USA the marketing of heat pumps began. In Europe a
lot of work on solar energy utilisation had been carried out.
After a number of years, despite higher energy costs, nothing had changed. In 1978 the
second oil price shock took place, which caused a lasting reaction: Nationally and
internationally this led to serious considerations of how to reduce the dependency on imported
oil.
Internationally the IEA (founded in 1974) published in1980 its "Strategy Study",
where the sector “space conditioning” has been identified as the largest energy saving
potential which can be realised relatively fast. Solar energy, district heating and heat
pumps should save 600 Mio. tonnes of oil per year by 2020; the share of heat pumps
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
on these savings should be about 80 % (IEA, 2003).
The first energy report (Energiebericht) of the government has been published in
Austria with the recommendation that the most promising sectors for oil conservation
were the improvement of thermal insulation, use of heat pumps and solar energy and
the use of district heat produced by co-generation plants.
The Austrian heat pump market started after the second oil price shock. After reaching a peak
in installations in 1981, the market collapsed and the sales figures stabilized at a lower level
and dropped again at the end of the eighties. In the early nineties the heat pump market was
recovering and since then has grown steadily. Figure 4 shows the development of the Austrian
heat pump market.
Figure 4. Development of the heat pump market in Austria; annual installed systems (FANINGER,
2001)
Reasons for the development shown in Fig. 4
The Austrian market was a heating-only market based on different heat sources and hydronic
heat distribution systems. The first systems installed were monovalent systems (which means
that the heat pump is the only heat producer in the building) with groundwater as the heat
source, combined with a low-temperature heat distribution system (most common were floor
heating systems) and bivalent systems (a second heat producer is integrated in the system, e.g.
boiler) where outside air was used as the heat source, combined with a high-temperature heat
distribution system with radiators. Monovalent systems were installed in new buildings;
bivalent systems were mainly used for retrofitting of existing heating systems with oil-fired
boilers.
At the beginning of the market development the price ratio of electricity/oil (oil was the main
fuel used for heating purposes) was somewhere in the range of 2:5, and subsidies were based
on a tax deduction model. The results of these positive basic conditions were a peak in heat
pump sales and installations, but also a lot of failing systems. The main reason for these
failing systems was not the heat pump unit itself; it was mostly incorrect integration of a heat
pump unit into a hydraulic system. Due to a lack of information and experience the system
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
integration of heat pumps was carried out in much the same way as the integration of oil
boilers.
After an initial peak at the beginning of the eighties the market stabilised. The remaining
companies – many of the companies of the first phase disappeared from the market - had
learned valuable lessons. The most successful region was the supply region of OKA, a utility
which has studied heat pump systems and which has supported customers, not financially, but
in the case of failing systems. This region, a relatively small part of Austria, still accounts for
about 50 % of the total heat pump installations.
In 1985 two things happened: the oil price dropped and government subsidies were cancelled.
Due to the high investment costs and the falling prices of fossil oil, bivalent systems, which
had held the main market shares, were no longer cost effective, and manufacturers and
installers had to concentrate on monovalent systems for new buildings. In addition to the use
of ground water systems, ground was introduced as a heat source and with secondary loop
systems, direct expansion systems started dominating the market because of their higher
efficiency.
Since the early nineties the heat pump market has had a slow, but steadily rising development.
The ground became the main heat source, and due to a better framework (i.e. better insulated
houses, improved compressors and heat exchangers) Seasonal Performance Factors in the
range of 4 plus had been achieved relatively quickly, especially with direct expansion
systems.
1.4 Building standards
The following chart shows the specific heating load [W/m²], the consumption of heating oil
per year and per square meter and the heat demand per square meter and per year for typical
buildings of the fifties and seventies, for conventional new buildings, for low energy houses
and for passive houses.
Heat demand
kWh/m²a
Heating oil
consumption l/m²a
Specific heating
load W/m²
Old building (till 1950)
>450
>45
>300
Old building (1950-1970)
<400
<40
<265
Old building (since 1970)
<250
<25
<165
Conventional new building
<100
<10
<65
Low energy house
<40
<4
<27
Passive house
<15
<1,5
<10
Tab. 1: Building standards now and in the past (ARSENAL RESEARCH, 2002)
The chart above shows that in Austria there has been an essential increase in building quality
from 1970 to the present. The heat demand of the buildings decreased at 40% of the heat
demand during the seventies. Reasons for this development were the first and the second oil
price shock, the increasing building regulations in cooperation with subsidies for the
compliance with these regulations, the improved technologies in the field of building
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
engineering and the rising awareness of alternative and energy efficient technologies. Due to
these changes the conditions for using heat pumps are now much better than in the past.
Stand: 9/2003
B
K
N
O
S
St
T
V
W
Effective from
‘02
‘97
‘96
‘99
‘02
‘97
‘98
‘96
‘01
External wall
0,38
0,40
0,40
0,50
0,35
MFH: 0,50
EFH/ZFH:
0,40
0,35
0,35
0,50
Wall to unheated parts of the
building
0,50
0,70
0,70
0,70
0,50
0,70
0,50
0,50
0,50
Wall to separate flats
0,90
1,60
1,60
1,60
0,90
1,60
0,90
1,60
0,90
Ceiling to outside air
0,20
0,25
0,22
0,25
0,20
0,20
0,20
0,25
0,25
Ceiling to unheated parts of
the building
0,35
0,40
0,40
0,45
0,40
0,40
0,40
0,40
0,45
Ceilings to separate flats
0,70
0,90
0,90
0,90
0,90
0,90
0,70
0,90
0,90
Windows
1,70
1,80
1,80
1,90
1,70
1.90
1,70
1,80
1,90
Outer door
1,70
1,80
1,80
1,90
1,70
1,70 / 1,90
(GT)
1,70
1,90
1,90
Walls to earth
0,35
0,50
0,50
0,50
0,40
0,50
0,40
0,50
0,50
Flours to earth
0,35
0,50
0,50
0,50
0,285
0,50
0,40
0,50
0,45
Tab. 2: building regulations for the c-value in the different departments of Austria (EVA, 2003)
1.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology
As previously mentioned, in Austria, most of the heating systems were fired with fossil fuel
boilers. During the second oil price shock prices for fossil fuel increased fourfold within one
year. People were looking for means to reduce their heating costs. Therefore, bivalent
air/water heat pumps were a good option. In addition to the existing oil boiler, an air/water
heat pump was installed. These heat pumps are easy to install (no building activities for
theheat sources necessary) and they satisfy most of the heat load during the year. Only during
afew very cold days the oil boiler was needed. Also the government recognised the
requirement for a change in the energy policy in terms ofthe import dependency of Austria.
So subsidies based on a tax deduction model wereimplemented for all renewable energy
technologies and also for heat pumps.
Due to price ratio of electricity/oil and the subsidies given from the government, heat pumps
were a very attractive alternative to oil boilers. OKA, the electric utility of Upper Austria, has
recognised the potential of heat pumptechnology and started to actively support this
technology.
As a result of environmental requirements and in particular the reduction of CO2 released into
the atmosphere, the development of the heat pump market has been given aboost since the
beginning of the 1990’s.
1.6 What were the main barriers to overcome
One of the biggest problems at the beginning of the market development in the eighties was
the lack of information for the end users. During this stage it was especially difficult to
convince people of the possibility to heat the house with the “cold” earth or air. But at the
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
same time due to the high oil prices people were looking for alternative systems with lower
running costs than conventional oil boilers. Therefore a heat pump was a good option and a
few people overcame their reservations and tried the new technology. Consequently, the first
promotion work was done by word of mouth, the rest was done by the activities of the utilities
and by the governmental grants for renewable systems.
So the market demand for heat pumps was rising fast, but companies had very little
experience with this technology and there were few products on the market. This situation
created the following developments:
A few serious companies started production of heat pumps and they also started
internal training programs for the installers with whom they were in partnership.
Apart from these serious companies, many small companies motivated by
favorable conditions, were founded by those from a refrigeration background. These
refrigeration technicians knew how a refrigeration cycle, i.e. a heat pump unit, should be
designed, but often did not know anything about heating technology and especially hydronic
heating systems.
Installers knew how conventional hydronic heating system work, but knew little
about the characteristics of heat pumps and how to size and integrate a heat pump into such a
system.
Too many failures occurred during the start-up period of the market by all parties involved
and so the reputation of heat pump systems was destroyed. The market reacted very quickly,
and the serious companies with reliable products and trained installers survived this market
break down.
At this initial phase electric utilities were split up into two groups:
The larger group saw in the heat pump a competitor for direct electric heating with the
disadvantage of less electricity consumption; they fought against this technology.
The smaller, farsighted group saw in the heat pump a new interesting potential market, the
market of fossil fuel fired hydronic systems, and they started to support heat pumps.
The rapid drop in oil prices in 1985 combined with the ending of the tax reduction subsidies
in Austria reduced sales figures significantly (especially of bivalent outside air heat pump
systems integrated into high-temperature hydronic heat distribution systems). Due to their low
Seasonal Performance Factors the operation of the oil-fired system alone became cheaper than
the operation of the bivalent outside air system.
After the oil price shocks, when the price for fossil fuel was moderate the higher investment
costs for heat pumps became one of the most serious barriers to the heat pump technology.
1.7 Way to success
Market strategies for the dissemination of heat pumps can be initiated by different bodies like
the Government, electric utilities, heat pump manufacturers and distributors, and heat pump
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
installers. The best precondition for the market introduction is, of course, if all these bodies
and organisations work together; however, most commonly this goal cannot be achieved.
However, the development in the past shows, that market strategies have to be carried out
very carefully, and it is not always money, which makes a strategy successful.
What strategies for the market development have been used, and what strategies have been
successful?
1.8 Strategies by the Government
Based on the IEA Strategy Study and its own Energy Report the Austrian Government
decided to support energy saving measures, especially in the field of building technologies.
Such measures were the improvement of the thermal insulation of buildings, solar thermal
systems, biomass boilers and heat pumps. The subsidy programme was based on tax
deduction, an adult could deduct ATS 10,000.- (€ 727,-) per year, a child ATS 5,000.- (€
363,-) from the investment cost of one of the technologies mentioned above.
As the sales figures show this programme was a success, at least in the first two years. But
what happened in these two years? Encouraged by the generous subsidies many people
wanted a heat pump, but not all of the companies which offered heat pumps were serious.
They installed systems without any knowledge of system layout and they promised their
costumers energy savings and energy cost savings far removed from reality.
The market reacted very fast, the sales figures decreased quickly to a very low level and only
the serious companies with reliable products and trained installers survived this market break
down.
This experience shows that the subsidy itself helps to increase sales. The investment cost
becomes lower and the profitability gets higher, which brings greater business opportunities.
The subsidies also work in an “irrational manner”, the customer/investor buys the product
because he feels that he can not "afford" to miss out on a governmental subsidy.
The support of a technology only with subsidies is not target oriented because it could result
in an undesired effect. Therefore it is important to couple the subsidies on the observation of
quality standards.
1.9 Strategies of utilities
Many electric utilities had problems with heat pumps: They did not understand why they
should support a technology which reduced electricity sales to one third compared with direct
electric heating.
But there have been a few utilities, who realized, that heat pumps are not a competitor for
direct electric heating systems, but heat pumps offer a new market, the market of hydronic
heat distribution systems. In this market segment heat pumps are a competitor to oil-fired and
gas-fired boilers, electricity is competing with oil and gas.
OKA, the electric utility of Upper Austria, has been involved – after the first oil price shock in a governmental programme for reducing the energy consumption of school buildings, by
improving the thermal insulation of the building envelope and by means of improved heating
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
systems. Some of the school buildings have been equipped with heat pumps, and OKA used
these heat pumps as an internal training programme for the staff. Measurements were carried
out, and the behaviour of such a unit in a hydronic system has been studied. When customers
started to install heat pumps, OKA was prepared. They informed their customers about
reliable installers and heat pumps. When a failure occurred they supported their customer
against the installer and/or the heat pump manufacturer. If they did not carry out the repair
work necessary to get a functioning system, they were eliminated from the promotional list of
OKA. So OKA saw the lack and the importance of quality management for the whole heat
pump system and took the first step in the right direction.
Salzburg
5%
Kärnten
8%
Oberösterreich
35%
Steiermark
8%
Tirol
16%
Vorarlberg
2%
Burgenland
2%
Niederösterreich
21%
Wien
3%
Figure 5 Heat pump installations divided by region (FANINGER, 2001)
This policy was so successful, that even today 35% of the heat pump sales in Austria take
place in this region (Oberösterreich), and almost every second new single family house is
equipped with a heat pump there.
In comparison to upper Austria (share of population: 17,1%) in Styria - Steiermark (share of
population: 14,7%) only 8,4% of all heat pumps in Austria were sold. Reason for this
situation is that in Styria there was no driving force for this technology; neither the utilities
nor the local government or installers and manufacturers.
1.10 Strategies of the Manufacturers
Manufacturers could stimulate the market in two different ways. One is to improve their
products, the second is to demonstrate the advantages of heat pump systems to the customer.
The first option has been carried out by several manufacturers. Milestones are the
development of the direct evaporation systems (which are more efficient and cost effective
than secondary loop systems), flat plate heat exchangers, advanced cycle control strategies,
improved compressors, refrigerants like propane and R-410A, and heat-pipe with CO2 as heat
carrier. Heat pump manufacturers have also demonstrated, that with floor heating systems,
sometimes combined with wall heating systems, maximum supply temperatures can be
reduced down to 35°C and less. This was the way to achieve Seasonal performance factors of
4.5 and higher.
The second option was carried out by the manufacturers in cooperation with a few reliable,
dedicated and well educated installers. This installers have given expert advice, a skilful
system layout and they have installed high quality products in a proper and respectable way.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Such systems have achieved high efficiency and quality requirements. The consumers were
satisfied with their system and they communicated this satisfaction to their circle of friends.
Additionally a few systems were documented and measured and this data serves as a good
reputation for this technology. This was one of the most successful measures to promote the
heat pump technology in the local area.
But different Installers and different manufacturers are competing on the market, and very
often this competition was between one heat pump and another, and the winner was often a
boiler. To overcome this problem the LGW, “Leistungsgemeinschaft Wärmepumpe”, an
association of the majority of the heat pump manufacturers and distributors was founded in
1990. The aim of this association is still to promote the heat pump technology, to solve legal
aspects, to influence regulations and to present the importance of the heat pump for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions as part of the total energy system.
Another success of the association was to form together with Germany and Switzerland the
D-A-CH (D = Germany, A = Austria, and CH = Switzerland), an international cooperation
and association, and this association developed the rules for the D-A-CH quality label for heat
pump units, first for air/water heat pumps, water/water heat pumps and brine/water heat
pumps. In the meantime direct evaporation heat pumps and exhaust air heat pumps are also
included. The D-A-CH quality label includes tests for minimum COP requirements as well as
the possible operating range of the heat pump units, but also three years guarantee, spare parts
for 10 years and servicing capabilities within 24 hours of the companies which joined this
agreement and use the quality label.
The problems of heat pump units seem to be solved, however the more serious problem
remains of the system remains, i.e. the interaction of heat source, heat pump unit, heat sink,
control, and the building itself. To overcome this problem the Austrian heat pump association
in cooperation with arsenal research has started a certification programme for heat pump
installers in the year 2001. They have to attend a theoretical and a practical course on heat
pump systems, the course lasts 72 hours, and they have to pass a theoretical and practical
examination.
The course covers environmental issues, building physics, heat pump technologies, basics of
refrigeration, components of heat pumps, heat sources and design criteria of heat source
systems, heat distribution systems, heat pump heating systems, basics in electrical
engineering, measurement techniques, fault diagnostic in heat pump systems, initial operating
of heat pumps, installation and operation of heat pump heating systems as well as subsidies
and marketing.
Additionally they have to provide the complete planning documentation of a heat pump
system every three years. They have to be a fully qualified installer or electrician or attended a
respective college and they have to keep a complaints book. If all requirements are fulfilled
they get the title of a certified heat pump installer.
LGW is confident that the D-A-CH quality label for heat pumps and the certification of
installers will succeed in a market development without failing systems and therefore with
customers satisfied with their heat pump heating systems.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
To document the successful combination of certified installers and the D-A-CH quality label
arsenal research has implemented an automated monitoring systems for heat pump
installations. With the outcome of this independent investigation, heat pump installers,
manufacturers and users have the possibility to prove the efficiency and the ecological
benefits of heat pumps to decision makers, politicians, etc.
1.11 Current situation
1.11.1 Heat pump market
Now sales figures of heat pumps for space heating in the residential sector are steadily rising.
Reasons for this development can be found in the activities of the Austrian heat pump
association LGW, in the increasing quality of the systems and in the rising awareness of the
end users. The main market shares are in new single-family houses. The figure below shows
that in Austria the market share of direct-expansion ground-coupled heat pumps is almost
43,4 %.
Air/Water
5%
Direct
expansion
44%
Water/Water
15%
Brine/Water
36%
Figure 6 Heating only heat pumps installed 2001 (Fanninger 2001)
Presently in Austria more than 159,698 heat pump units are in operation, about 119.929 heat
pump water heaters and 39.769 heat pumps for heating purposes. The installed thermal
capacity is about 833,5 MW, the annual heat delivery 1.972,6 GWh, corresponding to an oil
equivalent of 264.637 t/yr.; the CO2 emission reduction counts for 781,000 t/yr., based on the
electricity generation mix in Austria and oil-fired boilers.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Fig. 7 Heat Pump Market in Austria 1975 - 2001 (FANINGER, 2001)
Austrian heat pump association – Leistungsgemeinschaft Wärmepumpe LGW Austria
In the year 1990 the Austrian heat pump association LGW was founded. The driving force for
setting up such an association was the manufacturers. Within a short time also installers and
utilities were included. Over the years the utilities became an important promoter of the
organization. At the beginning the main topic of the LGW was stimulation of the market and
creation of awareness for the new technology, because at this stage only a few people knew
about the existence, the function and the application area of heat pumps. The target groups for
the campaign were, beside end users, politicians and building developers. Now the Austrian
heat pump association has more than 25 members, consisting of manufactures, installers,
utilities and other promotional members. The main tasks of the heat pump association are
quality management, marketing and public relations, education and training, research and
development standardization and dissipation of legal constraints.
1.11.2 Quality assurance:
-D-A-CH quality label
The DACH quality label looks for the quality of the heat pump unit and guarantees that the
customer receives a reliable product. Spare parts, maintenance and servicing are guaranteed
for at least 10 years.
-Heat pump test rig
In Austria arsenal research runs a test rig for water/water, brine/water and direct evaporation
heat humps. This testing facility plays an important role in the field of increasing the quality
of the heat pump technology. Beside standard tests and tests for the DACH quality label
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
arsenal research provides manufactures the opportunity to use the test rig for development
projects.
1.11.3 Certified installers
The training program for installers started in the year 2001. Since the implementation of this
training facility, seven courses took place and more then 130 installers and electricians were
educated. The certified installers must be actively working in the field of heat pumps and take
part regularly in further education in the field of heat pumps. Furthermore they have to keep a
complaints book and have to provide the complete planning documentation of a heat pump
system every three years to the certification authority. Until now more than 30 installers have
agreed with these strict regulations and so they are entitled to keep the mark “certified heat
pump installer”.
1.11.4 Monitoring
The third part of the Austrian quality management is to control efficiency and quality of heat
pump systems in real conditions. The aim of the monitoring system is to measure a heat pump
system during a whole year. The analysis of the measurements can be used to convince
decision-makers and government. The measured data verifies the efficiency and the
functionality of the system. Before the monitoring system can be installed, plumbers have to
announce the basic conditions of the system. Therefore they have to fill in a questionnaire and
prepare the hydraulic plan of the heat pump system. The monitoring system obtains a high
level of automation. Therefore the monitoring system is based on data loggers. These data
loggers transfer the measurements via Internet to the measuring computer where they get
analysed automatically by a database.
1.12 Electrical power generation
In 2002 63.4% of the electricity generation was covered by renewable energies. The other
36,6% of the power generation was done by conventional thermal energy generation. In
Austria there are no nuclear power stations.
Fig. 8 Electrical power generation in Austria (IEA, 2003)
More than 93% of the renewable power generation is provided by hydro power generation,
solid biomass covers 6.1%, and the remaining 0.7% of the renewable power generation is
provided by photovoltaic, wind and solid waste.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Hydro 93,12%
PV 0,06%
Wind 0,56%
Solid Waste 0,10%
Biomass 6,18%
Figure 9 Share of renewable electricity generation (IEA, 2003)
1.13 Subsidies for heat pumps
In Austria there are different subsidies in each of the nine federal states. The most common
form of subsidies is direct financial grant, but in some regions there are also subsidies in form
of cheap credits or grant for interests existing.
Additional to the subsidies mentioned in Tab. 3, most of the utilities have also special prices
for electricity. The information mentioned above is from the Austrian heat pump association.
Wien
Vorarlberg
direct financial grant in the amount of 2000 €
subsidies depends on the heat source: -air: 700 € -water and earth
with horizontal collectors: 1200€ -earth with vertical collectors: 1600
€
Niederösterreich
heat pump for hot water supply: 1100€ heating heat pump: 2200 €
Burgenland
heat pump for hot water supply: 750€ heating heat pump: 1800 €
Steiermark
cheap credits for heat pumps
Salzburg:
174 € per kW electrical power
Tirol:
maximal 3270 €; if the heat pump has no DACH quality label, or the
installer have no certification the subsidy will be reduced
Kärnten:
Oberösterreich
cheap credits for heat pumps
heat pump for hot water supply: 370 € heating heat pump (air as
heat source): 1500 € heating heat pump (water or earth as heat
source): 2200 €
Tab. 3 subsidies for heat pumps in Austria
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
1.14 Investment costs – running costs
1.15 Perspectives
Presently in Austria (and also in the rest of Europe) there are two main problems to solve.
One is the reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions with respect to the anticipated or current
climate change and the second is to decrease the import dependency on fossil fuels. This
means that a significant reduction of using fossil fuels will be necessary, and this can happen
in the transformation sector and in the end-use energy sector. Looking at the end-use energy
sector, it is mainly the building sector, which can contribute significantly in a short time
frame. And the Kyoto Protocol requests a short term frame; reduction rates have to be
achieved by 2010. In the case of Austria it means a reduction by 13 % based on the emissions
of 1990. Due to the development of the CO2 emissions during the last decade, we have to
reduce our greenhouse gas emission by about 17 to 18 % in reality. To solve these problems
the heat pump technology will play a key role.
The heat pump market in Austria (and also in other European countries) is presently
concentrated on new buildings. Because these buildings offer ideal conditions for using heat
pumps. Due to the high building standards and the installation of low-temperature heat
distribution systems ground-coupled heat pump systems achieve SPFs in the range of 3.8 to
4.5.
But the market of new building covers only about 1 % of the existing building stock; the large
market potential available in the retrofitting sector is presently not used for the heat pump.
Reasons are the existing high-temperature hydronic systems, which require bivalent systems
and a sophisticated control, the lower seasonal performance factor due to the higher heat
pump outlet temperatures, and bad experiences in the eighties.
The electricity market is now deregulated, which means, that utilities can become much more
flexible, they can play an active role in developing an electricity market which covers energy
efficiency with environmental advantages; heat pumps may be one tool in this direction.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Beside ambient heat, the heat pump offers the option of utilising waste heat, and this means
the recycling of thermal energy. Both ambient heat and waste heat are CO2-free and could
contribute to the reduction of global warming. Most of the heat pumps in Austria are heating
only heat pumps, but in time heating and cooling heat pumps will become more and more
attractive both for large scaled buildings and for single family houses. Lack of uniformity in
equipment design and safety standards among countries with relatively small market volumes
(for example, European countries) results in higher production costs for manufacturers.
Governments should adopt uniform design, safety, rating and labelling standards as quickly as
possible.
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2 GERMANY
2.1 Heating systems
At the end of the seventies the heating systems in Germany were comparable to the Austrian
systems. There were hydraulic heat distribution systems with supply temperatures of 90/70°C
common too. Energy sources were predominately oil, coal or gas. In some new buildings
lower supply temperatures were possible and in rare cases there were floor heating systems
used. Air heating systems or air conditioning were also only common in large commercial
buildings.
Since the early 90’s there was a clear structural change indicated by:
•
•
•
•
increased use of natural gas instead of heating oil
increased use of gas burners instead of boilers
significant reduction of noxious emissions because of improved processes of
combustion
reduction of energy consumption by improved condensing technology and increasing
of efficiency by use of condensing technology.
2.2 Energy prices
Figure 12 and 13 show that the price for electrical energy is about 3.9 times higher than the
price for one kilowatt hour of natural gas. But if the electricity is used for the operation of
water-water or ground-coupled heat pumps with a SPF around 4 almost the same running
costs for both systems could be achieved. The reason why heat pumps are not competitive in
areas with gas pipes are the investment costs which are still much higher in comparison with a
gas boiler.
price for electricity 17 ct/kWh, Production, main, etc. VAT eco tax concession renewable
energy and CHP charges
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
price for natural gas 4,44 ct/kWh, Production, import, distribution, etc. VAT gas tax
concession charges for conveyance
Looking at the development of the oil price in Germany we can recognize a similar
development as in Austria. Maximum prices were attained also in the years 1984 and 2000.
2.3 Development of the Market
While the market introduction of heat pumps in the USA started just after the second
worldwar (popular were primary heating pumps which could be changed from cooling in
summer times to heating in winter times) there were just a few systems in Germany in the
50’s, mostly for agricultural milk cooling and simultaneous water heating.
At the end of the 60’s low investment costs for heating and warm water preparation were
much more important for private investors than the energy costs. The market for heat pumps
was therefore concentrated just on a few systems for heating swimming pools and for
heatrecovery in large scaled buildings.
This changed after the oil crisis in 1973 and particularly in 1979. While in the year 1973 just
around 500 heat pumps were sold, the number of electrical heat pumps sold particularly in
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
single and multi family houses climbed up to more than 12000systems in the years 1980/81, a
number that has never been reached again till today.
With the following fall of the oil price and because of many bad experiences caused by poorly
installed systems the heat pump fell into disrepute and the market collapsed again at the end
of the 80’s. It stagnated for several years at just 500 sold systems a year.
At the beginning of the 90’s the thermodynamic heating with heat pumps as a contribution to
environmental protection became more important caused by the realization that the CO2
emissions influence the greenhouse effect and the resulting change of the climate.
Supportive measures of the Federal Government, its counties and many utilities, the slowly
climbing oil prices and the foundation of the German heat pump association led to a revival of
the heat pump market. Sales figures recovered slowly and achieved good rates of increase.
At first glance the result of 2002 does not seem to be particularly impressive, but taking into
account the poor economical situation in Germany at the time, places it in a better light.
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With regard to the used heat sources there was also a clear change. Until the middle of the
80’s ground coupled, air and water heat pumps where approximately equal, but later the
ground coupled heat pumps became more and more important. The reason for this was that
the utilities forced up the development of ground coupled systems because of their better
seasonal performance factors. Now about 65% of the heating heat pumps use ground, 15%
use air and 20% use water as heat source.
Fig. 16. Sales figures of the different heat sources 1996-2002 (BWP, 2002)
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
2.4 Building standards
The graph below shows that a clear improvement in building standards took place between
the 80’s and the 90’s. The building-guideline of 1995 asked for clearly higher standards on
the insulation of buildings and on the quality of windows.
Because of those strict conditions it was possible to decrease the average heat demand from
250 kWh/m²a down to less than 110 kWh/m²a. This means that the half of the earlier required
heat demand is now enough for heating a building. This again means that it was suddenly
possible to reduce the supply temperature of heating systems and to facilitate the heat transfer
via floor heating with surface temperatures fewer than 28°C.
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In the year 2002 a new energy-saving law came into force. It was directed at the saving of
primary energy. This means that in comparison with buildings which are heated with fossil
energies higher heat losses are tolerated for buildings which are equipped with high-efficient
heating systems or heated with regenerative energies (heat pump, solar technology, biomass).
This law creates new advantages for the heat pump because environmental heat is accepted as
a form of renewable energies.
2.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology
As in Austria, Germany also suffered the oil price shocks in the 70’s, which generated the
first boom for heat pumps. The high prices for fossil energies and the simple possibility of
combining the existing oil boiler with an air/water heat pump to decrease heating costs where
the main reasons. As previously mentioned, the technology in Germany was unsuccessful
mainly due to quality-problems and installation mistakes. After the fall of oil prices, the
market collapsed. The heat pump market did not recover until the beginning of the 90’s, but
since then it has achieved positive sales figures.
What was the reason why the heat pump became interesting at this time? First of all the basic
conditions for using heat pumps in view of building standards had been clearly improved;
secondly the acceptance and the interest in ecological, energy efficient technologies were
much higher than in the 70’s. But also the problem with the greenhouse effect and the
associated necessity to save CO2 emissions were already a topic. The energy utilities
recognized this potential and saw a possibility to come into the heat market with the help of
the heat pump. The utilities had been supported by the heat pump producers, which continued
to exist throughout the bad years by supplying, in particular, the Austrian and Swiss heat
pump market.
2.6 Strength of the current heat pump market
The high energy prices of the last few years and the fact that the prices for electricity are more
stable than the oil and gas prices have strengthened the German heat pump market. This
development is recognizable in the sales figures of the recent years. Since the liberalization of
the electricity market the utilities had to withdraw themselves from active lobbying activities
in the field of heat pumps because of the cost pressure between the competitors. Generally,
the German utilities still think positive about the heat pump technology. In many supply areas
special tariffs are offered for using heat pumps, but price politics are different from region to
region.
Because of low running costs and relatively high costs of fossil fuels, an amortisation within
acceptable periods of time is realistic. For low energy and passive houses the heat pump is
ideally suited, because of their smaller heating loads. In future heat pumps for heat recovery
in the area of ventilation systems will become more and more important.
The acceptance of heat pump technology and also the desire to participate in the field of
sustainable energy politics are beginning to be embraced by end users, but this will only
continue if economical aspects work in their favour.
2.7 What were the main barriers to overcome?
Main barriers during the seventies:
At the beginning of heat pump technology the biggest barriers were definitely the lack of
awareness of heat pump technology among end users and also the high investment costs. First
of all the consumers had to be convinced, that such a form of heating actually worked.
Additionally many installers also had to be persuaded. The workmen had problems getting the
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
know-how which is necessary to build up a good-working and high-quality system and there
was little experience to draw from. This led to technical problems and inefficient systems,
which undermined the heat pumps reputation. This image problem – born in the 70’s – is
noticeable till today in the field of trade, but concerning clients there is hardly any effect
noticeable. Unfortunately there are still some barriers left and the heat pump has to fight
against several obstacles:
2.8 Main barriers of the current market
In the field of marketing the heating heat pump suffers from the supremacy of the
overpowering boiler manufacturers. On principle market transparency, knowledge of the
technology and availability of information for end users are still too little. Many craftsmen
still don’t have the competence in the area of heat pump technology, although there are some
good-trained and experienced specialists. To use electricity for heating applications meets
with negative and sceptical attitude, because electric current as a heat producing energy is
perceived to be unprofitable. The general more stable prices for electricity have positive
effects on the heat pump sector. The investment costs for the heat pump, the heat source and
the installation are still relatively high in comparison with conventional technologies. The
partly considerable high pricing pressure between the companies distorts the competition;
small companies which are specialised in heat pump technology have often price
disadvantages. When buying a heating system the price is still the most important
consideration. Here the costs for a vertical collector reflect negatively on the total costs. With
systems that use ground water there are sometimes problems during the procedures for
permission to obtain water rights. Proceedings are often tedious and misjudged during the
planning stage.
The trades have the key position in the realization of heat pump systems in the area of single
family houses as they are the interface between supply and demand. The installation of heat
pumps can be done by different trades (heating engineers, electricians, refrigeration) but the
demand is directed mainly at heating engineers. But not every heating engineer is interested in
installing a heat pump system, therefore many inquiries of clients are still diverted to
conventional heating systems. Technically qualified companies are often specialised in the
installation of heat pumps and develop high sales figures. Outside the representatives of the
different branches there is hardly any lobbying for the heat pump, since the liberalisation of
the electricity market the utilities do not conduct any active promotion for heat pumps and
also within the political arena there is no recognizable lobby for the heat pump.
2.9 Way to success
The first growth of market in the 70’s was carried by the high prices of fossil energies. The
rapid increase in oil prices resulted in a big demand for energy-saving measures and therefore
for heat pumps. The small amount of suppliers could not cover this demand and so a lot of
small companies set up, some of which were unreliable and offered low quality products. The
market reacted relatively fast to this development with an almost total breakdown. At the
beginning of the 90’s general conditions for using heat pumps were much better and the end
users had developed meanwhile awareness for environmental-friendly and energy-saving
measures. At this time the utilities in Germany recognized the potential of the heat pump in
the future and they started to engage in the promotion of this technology. In 1992 seven big
utilities, several producers and workmen were united and developed together with an
instructed agency a concept to promote and to reintroduce the heat pump to the market. To
establish a well-founded basis for further procedures, a stock-check was taken.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
7.325 operators of heat pumps were contacted. The main question was, if they would be in
favour of installing a heat pump again and 68% answered with “yes”. This result did not
persuade but it was the incentive to form a heat pump initiative and it led to the foundation of
the German heat pump association called „Initiativkreis Wärmepumpe“ (IWP) in the year
1993.
The first step of this association was to recruit the installing crafts. This was done through
intensive support and advertising activities. It was demonstrated that the heat pump was an
independent and fully developed heating system. Very quickly those first marketing measures
attracted members to the IWP. On the 1st of January 2001 the „Initiativkreis“ changed to
„Bundesverband WärmePumpe“ (BWP).
Cooperation between the trades
To guarantee objectivity and credibility, the structure of the „Bundesverband“ from the
beginning contained a varied combination of members such as
heat pump producers
sanitary engineers, heating engineers, electricians, refrigerants
utilities
The experiences of all these disciplines were pooled for the benefit of the end user’s
information, and were unbiased toward any particular manufacturer. On the basis of the
knowledge and the experiences of those different lobbies, the first manual for heat pump
technology was drafted in 1994 which is available now for workman, architects and planners.
Definition of the operation scale
Before marketing and promotion activities could begin it was necessary to define strategic
targets and a realistic timetable. Furthermore the most promising market segment for heat
pumps has to be identified. In phase one (up to 2002) the promotion activities were focused
mainly on new buildings with 1-6 apartments and floor heating systems. The heat load of the
buildings were mainly less than 50 kW and the heat sources were ground, water or air.
Positive image for the heat pump
A product is always as good as its reputation. It sounds banal but it is difficult when a product
is to be revived, which is fundamentally good but has negative connotations. With the term
“solar heating” and the catch phrase “we have solved the problem to storage the sun“ as well
as with the logo „the warming heart of the house“ it was possible to supply the heat pump
with a positive image and to integrate the heat pump into the steadily growing public interest
in solar energy at the same time. The big ecological advantage of the heat pump and the to the
ecological appeal to the builder-owner had also positive effects.
Above all the heat pump logo turned out to be a strong sympathetic figure. Meanwhile it is
used internationally as the DACH-quality label.
Figure 19 DACH-label
Just a good product is selling well
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
If the industry did not strongly believe in the future of the heat pump all marketing and
advertising campaigns would have been doomed to fail, and further technical development
may have stalled. The positive image, which the heat pump has today, is based principally on
the high quality of the product.
2.10 Strategy
It was quickly recognized that it was necessary but not enough just to persuade the trade of
the advantages of a heat pump. The “pressure” had to come from the builder-owner. He has to
be the one that goes to the specialists and has to make it clear that he absolutely wants a heat
pump; no oil, no gas but environmental heat should supply his house with warmth.
2.10.1 Info-systems
Neutral information- and advisory-material as well as technical descriptions with planning
guidelines have been compiled. The information campaign for builder-owners started with a
comprehensible brochure for end users. Since then this brochure has been passed on more
than 500.000 times. Advertisements in the magazines of big building societies were also
successful in promoting the heat pump. Also the opportunities provided by the Internet were
used quite early and the advantages of heat pump technology have been put into the World
Wide Web. More than 80.000 interested people looked at the BWP-homepage just in 2002, all
in all there were more than 300.000 people that visited the average 7 pages. Here important
information about the technology as well as examples for system costs is presented. Another
service of this homepage is the data-base of workman. Building owners can get the addresses
of the relevant companies or planners in their area just after the input of the postcode.
2.10.2 Public relation
To get the heat pump back into public awareness, a wide-ranging PR campaign was
necessary. Independent journalists, editors of professional journals and daily newspapers
report regularly about the heat pump.
The “service-centre-heat pump”, which is organized by the BWP, has given advice via
Internet and a telephone-hotline to more than 20.000 interested people within the last number
of years.
2.10.3 Congresses, special conferences and action weeks
Beside the political work and the publicity campaigns, events are an important part of
dissemination, to show the advantages of the heat pump to the experts and to the public.
To effectively draw attention to a new or an old product you need the right platform. Since
1995 the congress “SOLARTEC – heat from the sun and from the environment” has been
successfully conducted three times in the “German patent office” and in the “congress centre
Würzburg” together with the solar industrial sector.
The special conference of electrical heat pumps has been conducted three times. In the year
2001 also the „heat-pump-Expo“ was brought to Germany and integrated into the
„SolarEnergy“ in Berlin.
The heat pump weeks are also one of the most successful regional activities. They took place
four times in Bavaria. On offer have been events about the heat pump, lectures, open door
days and visits to craft companies. Advertisements on the radio drew the attention to the heat
pump for weeks.
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Nordrhein-Westfalen (another German province) has also picked up the successful Bavarian
concept and organized its first heat-pump-week in January 2002. Because of its popularity
the event took place for the third time in 2002.
2.10.4 Limits
Although the growth rates have been favourable in the last number of years, it must not be
forgotten, that until now just 15% of all builder-owners have been reached. These are people
who really advocate heat pump technology (5%) and such people that are open-minded to
every new technology and have good prior knowledge.
“But to open up the big potential of those builder-owners, for whom it doesn’t matter what
type of heating they install (85%), you have to think in totally different and above all
considerably bigger dimensions in view of advertising media and budget; because the heat
market is not waiting to be conquered by the heat pump. The conventional heating
technologies are still dominating and this will not be change so readily. With the same
financial means as before, a good and effective public relations campaign can also be
conducted in future. If the heat market is to be conquered and the heat pump should become
more or less the third power in this energy-segment then publicity campaigns are unavoidable
“ (SCHÖLER, 2002).
The absence of political acceptance is another considerable handicap. The importance of
political acceptance to the development of the heat pump market is evident in the provinces of
Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Brandenburg and Nordrein-Westfalen. In those provinces the
heat pump technology is accepted by the local governments and in some cases it is forced in
the form of incentive measures. The graph below shows that in those provinces the heat pump
market is much stronger than in the rest of Germany. The share of market of these four
provinces is about 78% of the whole country, although just 52% of the population live there.
2.11 Current market situation
The main market for heat pump applications is the heating of new buildings, especially of
single- and two-family-houses. At the moment for heat pump systems it is difficult to get at
the modernization market.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
The slow increase of heating heat pumps sold in the year 2002 seems to be surprising on first
look, but if the bad economical situation and the extreme reluctance to buy are taken into
consideration, the plus of 1,35% in the area of heating heat pumps assumes more importance.
On top of this is the fact that housing projects in 2002 decreased by around 8% in Germany.
In the area of small houses (1-2 flats), which is at the moment the most relevant sector for the
heat pump, the decrease in West Germany was 5,1% and in the new provinces (former
Eastern Germany) as much as 13,3%.
Also the sales figures of the second quarter of 2003 can be seen as satisfactory. All in all the
heating heat pumps can boast an increase of +7,96% in comparison with the same quarter of
2002. The graph below shows the increases of the different technologies.
Noticeable is the significant increase of air/water heat pumps (+30,68%). The reason for this
is first of all increasing numbers of low energy – and passive houses in which air/water heat
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
pumps are used for heat recovery in combination with controlled living room ventilation.
German Heat Pump Association- Bundesverband Wärmepumpe BWP
The German Heat Pump Association (Bundesverband Wärme Pumpe) former Initiativkreis
Wärmepumpe (IWP) was founded in June 1993. While in Austria the heat pump producers
were responsible for the foundation of the heat pump association, in Germany the utilities
were the driving force. Today the association has more than 500 members throughout
Germany including 34 utilities and 21 producers. Heating planners, craftsmen, architects, all
the notable producers, many big German utilities and also city departments and institutions
are working together. The BWP makes neutral information available. Additionally the BWP
forces and coordinates measures to develop the heat pump technology. In the meantime the
activities reach beyond the German borders. There is a close cooperation with the Austrian
„Leistungsgemeinschaft Wärmepumpe“ (LGW-A) and the „Fördergemeinschaft
Wärmepumpe Schweiz“ (FWS). Apart from calculated marketing one of the most important
duties of the „Initiativkreis WärmePumpe“ is the political work.
2.12 DACH quality label
Like in Austria and in Switzerland the DACH quality label is an important mechanism for
quality assurance. The same standards are valid like in the other two countries (see page 12
and 14).
2.13 Electrical power generation
The main part of electricity generation in Germany is by nuclear energy (30%), hard coal
(26% - one third of it imported) and brown coal (26%). Less importance is placed, at the
moment on natural gas (9%) and renewable energies (6%); oil lost importance and covers
currently only 1%. Under the present conditions the use of many regenerative energies is
economical but not competitive in comparison with conventional electricity generation. The
actual costs for wind-gained electricity are 2-3 times higher, for solar-gained electricity 25
times higher than for conventional power stations. Because of governmental subsidies and the
competition between the producers it was, for example, possible to drop the costs for windpower down to 50% in the last 10 years. Further improvement relating to the reduction of
costs can be expected. They are decisive for a lasting contribution of renewable energies in
competition markets.
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Subsidies for heat pumps:
Like in Austria supportive measures for heat pumps are different from province to province.
In Bavaria for example the following subsidies for heat pump systems were available in the
year 2003.
€ 150 for every installed kilowatt of heat capacity in existing
buildings, if the heat-distribution system is adapted at the same
time
€ 100 for every installed kilowatt of heat capacity in every other
case.
The maximum support is 25% of the concerned investment costs but maximum € 12.500 per
heat pump system.
In Brandenburg the use of heat pump systems for hot water preparation or/and for heating is
supported. The level of supportive measures goes up to 30% of the investment costs, but it is
limited to 613,55 Euro/kW proven heat demand. The maximum amount per system is
102.258,35 Euro. The seasonal performance factor of the system has to be at least 3,8. This
has to be proven for every concerned project. The heat distribution in buildings is not
supported.
In Nordrein-Westfalen there was a promotion for heat pumps within the REN-programme
(Rationelle Energieverwendung und Nutzung unerschöpflicher Energiequellen – rational use
of energy and use of inexhaustible energy sources) until the 30.9.2003. At the moment there
are no incentive measures for heat pump systems, but a resumption of the REN-program is
planned for 2004, but today the conditions that are tied up in a support measure are not
known.
2.14 Comparison of heating costs
Heat pump systems have much higher investment costs than conventional heating systems.
The period of amortization is dependent on the price for electricity and the expenses for
maintenance and fault-fixing. The current price situation for oil/gas on the one side and
electricity on the other side is enough to save a lot of running costs. The rate of those savings
compensates the higher annual costs of capital. But this fact is not really known yet. The
annual total costs of heating heat pumps and ventilation systems for houses with heat recovery
achieve more or less the same amount like conventional heating systems with condensing
technology but with significant reduced annual running costs.
2.15 Perspectives
The heating of buildings is one of the biggest energy consumers in the economical energy
balance. One third of the total energy consumption is used for heating. Therefore the heating
heat pump is a very interesting possibility. Especially in the field of retrofitting the heat pump
could open a new market potential as a part of controlled ventilation systems with heat
recovery for reduction of ventilation losses.
In times of steadily climbing comfort requirements the heat pump can become more important
especially with the possibility of direct or indirect cooling. At the moment the heat pump has
hardly any chances in the field of modernisation. With new innovative solutions in the area of
„high temperature heat pumps“ this very promising market could be opened up.
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3
SWITZERLAND
3.1 Heating systems
The situation in Switzerland was similar to the situation in Austria and Germany. During the
eighties the heating market was dominated by hydronic heat distribution systems with
radiators and high supply temperatures. The heat preparation was mostly done by heating oil,
gas or wood pieces.
3.2 Energy prices
Figure 31 shows the development of the prices for electricity and heating oil in Switzerland.
As in the other countries there is a strong price fluctuation for heating oil noticeable.
Furthermore there was also a sharp price rise in the year 1979 with a price top till 1985. After
the year 1985 the price was fluctuating on a relatively low level. In the year 2002 the price
was rising once again, but on a lower level as in the eighties.
In contrast to the oil price there was a slight decrease in electricity prices with a relatively
stable development, which is a very positive framework for using heat pumps.
Figure 24 Development of energy prices in Switzerland
3.3 Development of the market
In comparison to Germany and Austria the recording of sales figures start relatively late, in
the year 1980. Remarkable is the relatively stable tendency to rise. There were also two small
market disruptions in the years 1982 and 1992 but the impact of these was relatively harmless.
One year later the sales figures were rising.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
As in Austria and Germany the reasons for the first market disruption in Switzerland were
also faulty systems with higher than acceptable running costs and short life span because of
inappropriate installations. In short the quality of the systems was not satisfactory.
The second slump of the market was caused by the falling oil prices combined with the
absence of marketing activities and lobbying. This situation changed very quickly with the
foundation of the Swiss heat pump association, FWS and their lobbying activities and the
implementation of direct financial grants.
Since the beginning of the 1990s the heat pump market has grown constantly. Under the boost
of the energy saving program “Energie 2000” launched in 1993 by the federal government,
the number of heat pumps sold per year increased between 1992 and 1994 from 2800 to 4100
units. In 2000, the number of systems installed in Switzerland was about 7200 units. Although
sales are mainly in the new home market, the renovation market has been improving for the
last two years now.
8000
7000
Units
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
0
Year
Figure 25 Swiss heat pump market development 1980-2002
3.4 Building standards
In Switzerland the development of the building standards had a comparable characteristic as
in Austria and Germany. There was also an essential increase of the building quality between
the seventies and the nineties, from about 200 kWh/m²a before the eighties to about 87
kWh/m²a in the year 2001. In figure 33 there is an overview given about the development of
the building standards during the last 20 years.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
250
206
kWh/m²a
200
181
156
128
150
100
100
71
89
44
50
31
en
ov
at
io
C
n
rit
SI
ic
A
a
20
lV
01
al
ue
Ta
r
ge
M
in
tV
er
M
al
gi
in
ue
e
er
Re
gi
e
no
Ne
va
w
t io
C
n
on
st
ru
ct
io
n
M
in
er
gy
P
20
00
20
01
SI
A
SI
A
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01
R
19
90
19
80
0
Figure 26 Building standards in Switzerland (FWS, 2003)
New houses built up to the Minergie standard have a yearly heat demand of 44 kWh/m²a,
which is approximately half of the heat demand of conventional new buildings. In
Switzerland there is also a building standard for renovated houses. A house which is
renovated according to the conventional building standards has a yearly heat demand of 128
kWh/m²a. If the building is renovated according to the Minergie Standard the house would
have a demand of 89 kWh/m²a, which is about 70% of the conventional heat demand. In
average new minergie buildings have higher investment costs of only 6.3%. Because of the
ecological and economical facts and professional promotion the Minergie standard became
more and more important during the last few years.
3.5 Why had the heat pump technology prospects in the eighties
In the eighties during the oil price shocks Swiss people were also looking at alternatives to
reduce their heating costs. Heat pumps were easy to install because they need no special
storeroom and they are an automated heating system. At the beginning of the nineties the heat
pump technology attracted political interest. The heat pump was viewed as one possibility to
reduce the Swiss energy dependency and the CO2 emissions. So the Federal Energy Office
has accepted the heat pump as a renewable energy technology and therefore the heat pump is
included in the national energy programme “Energie 2000” with the target of 100 000 heat
pumps in the year 2010. Additional the local energy utilities recognised in the heat pump an
opportunity to supply the heating market as well as the electricity market. Furthermore the
building standards were significantly increased in the time from 1970 till 1990 and so the
framework conditions were also suitable for using heat pumps. The public awareness for
alternative and sustainable heating systems was significantly higher than in the early eighties.
3.6 What were the main barriers to overcome
In the late seventies, during the initial phase of the heat pump technology the biggest
problems were the lack of information and experiences with the new technology and the lack
of high quality products. There were a few manufacturers on the market but the installers
lacked the required know how to integrate the heat pumps in the right way. At the market
entry of the heat pump technology the lack of general recognition was one of the main
problems. It was difficult to convince the consumers about the function of this system.
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But it was not enough just to convince the consumers. The installers were also wary of the
new technology. For the installers it was much easier to install a conventional oil boiler,
where they were confident that the system would run without problems. At the time of the
first sales top in the late seventies there were a great number of small manufacturers on the
market. It was difficult to distinguish between reliable and unreliable companies and nobody
could say how long these companies would survive on the market. This fact brought a lot of
problems in the field of after sales service. Because it was not always guaranteed that the
customer could get spare parts five years after buying the heat pump. It was often a problem
to find a company to take responsibility for the mistakes in a poorly operating system.
3.7 Way to success
Strategic Alliance
One reason for the Swiss success is certainly that all relevant persons and institutions have
joined forces and worked together for the same aims. The key persons/institutions were the:
Manufacturers
Power Utilities
Swiss Federal Office of Energy
Installer Association
Roles of the different market partners:
• Swiss Federal Office of Energy
From 1993 to 2000, the federal Swiss government developed a strategic program to encourage
the use of heat pumps for heating. The Swiss government’s objective was to replace up to
3.5% of the quantity of heat produced by fossil fuels with heat produced by renewable
energies. The promotion of heat pumps plays an important role in this strategy, under the
supervision of the general «Energy 2000» program. The program was structured in three
directions:
- the setting up of the Swiss Association for Promotion of Heat Pumps - FWS
- improving the quality and performance of heat pumps,
- financial incentives for customers installing heat pumps.
It should also be noted that in a number of districts, a regional program has completed the
federal program. And finally, at the end of 1999 the Federal Office Of Energy launched a
project for the development of heat pumps in existing homes. The "Energy 2000" program
now has a successor called "Energie Suisse". Its ambition is to have at least 100 000 heating
heat pumps in operation by 2010 which would mean that heat pumps represent 50% of the
market in new homes and 10% of the replacement of fuel boilers market.
• The Swiss association for promotion of heat pumps - FWS
This association includes members belonging to various categories: installers, designers, and
manufacturers of heat pumps, electricity companies, federal and local public authorities. The
association receives 50% financial assistance by the federal government.
The most important objectives of this association were:
-the deployment of information and marketing activities,
- the setting up and the promotion of a quality label,
- the coordination of training activities.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
The marketing activities of FWS were structured in four strategic steps:
3.7.1
Foundation era (1992 – 1994)
1992 a marketing and communication concept was developed for the promotion of heat
pumps in Switzerland. The main goal at this time was to inform the customer about the heat
pump technology and make the heat pump technology popular and strength the confidence of
the consumers in this technology. Furthermore the market has been stimulated by direct
financial subsidies.
In the year 1993 the foundation of FWS and therewith the Swiss Government promotes
application of heat pumps.
3.7.2
Consolidation phase (1995 – 1997)
In this phase the consolidation of the market was done. Also the confidence of craftsmen inthe
heat pump technology was stabilized. The slogan for this time was: Build up and extend! In
the year 1996 the first National Heat Pump Expo took place. With this exhibition the
harmonisation of all involved parties was consolidated. This was the time when the heat
pumps became visible in the market of heating equipment and the involved parties were
accepted as serious players.
3.7.3
Professionalism (1998 – 2000)
At this stage heat pumps are established for new constructions, they have more than 30%
market share of the new building market. The heat pump was therefore a very serious
competitor to oil boilers but for replacements the heat pump was still far away from success.
The network of FWS was accepted as an effective tool. At the next Heat Pump Expo the
feeling of being in a challenging sector was reinforced.
3.7.4
Heat pumps for replacement market (since 2001)
During this phase the Swiss Government did not promote directly, but gave money to the
regional governments. The Heat Pump Expo was extended to a new national Expo together
with all renewable energies (Heat Pumps, Solar and Wood). With the financing of the
regional governments the regional marketing realises with the regional actors towards the
local customers became important. Target market for the promotion campaigns became more
and more the replacement market.
Among the very large number of information and marketing activities jointly set up by the
federal government and the FWS, there are listed below those which have proved to be the
most relevant:
- 3 national heat-pump exhibitions: There were three heat pump exhibitions in
Switzerland with a very broad effect to the end users and to the publicity.
- Information talks: There are regularly informative meetings organized for
people working in the construction industry. Additionally regularly information
events for end users are organised.
- Targeted media work: The target media work during the foundation and
consolidation phase was focused on heat pumps in new single family houses.
Nowadays heat pumps in this application are standard in Switzerland, therefore
now media work is focused on “Renovating heating systems and large
installations“.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
- Regularly heat pump news as a special supplement in selected trade journals
- Broad effecting FWS – Advertisements in media, newspaper and journals
- Open-days for end users: cheap to organise and highly productive! For such an
open door day manufacturers, utilities and local government work closely
together. Nowadays more and more of them are organised in renovated
buildings.
-Support for members
- Recommendation list for qualified and experienced installers
- Vividly advertising slogans; for example “Heat-pumps have a promising
future, other heating methods are simply traditional”
- Printing and circulation of brochures about heat pumps and incentive
programs,
- Setting up of several information centres where interested people get
objective information
- Publishing of an information letter by the Swiss association for the promotion
of heat pumps
- Web-side with a broad offer of information
- Preparation and dissemination of technical information folders
Beside the research and development which was done by the manufacturers there was also a
national program for R&D. Within this program research projects were supported (e.g. the
development of advanced control systems), furthermore competitions were organised (e. g:
Swiss Retrofit Heat Pump for higher supply temperatures in the retrofitting market) and
additional demonstration projects were financed (e. g. combination of heat pumps and solar
panels). The Winterthur testing and training centre began its heat pump testing activities in
1993. The technical tests carried out mainly focus on thermal and acoustic performance
measurements of products. Performances of heat pumps were published in a bulletin and were
also accessible on an Internet Web site. The centre also provides training for heat pump
designers and installers. And finally the Swiss Association for Promotion of Heat Pumps has
set up an after-sales service ("heat pump doctor") to deal with bad references. In the quality
field, Switzerland was involved in setting up the DACH label together with Germany and
Austria. The DACH label is added by a set of recommendations concerning the sizing of the
installation, control and balancing of hydraulic distribution.
3.7.5 Utilities
In Switzerland there are a lot of regional utilities on the market. The policy in case of heat
pumps is therefore varying from district to district. Overall the utilities in the regions (where
the heat pump technology is really successful) have supported the federal program. In general,
utilities have set up a strategy based on four main aspects:
- information of partners and the public,
- providing a set of services supporting heat pumps sold,
- assistance in buying,
- decrease in operating costs by the setting up of special electricity prices for the
use of heat pumps.
This strategy has, of course been implemented in close cooperation with the other partners in
the market: heat pump manufacturers, architects, constructors, design offices, installers, etc.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
3.8 Current situation
The total number of heat pumps in Switzerland is estimated to be about 67,000 units. Heat
pumps are used both for heating and production of domestic hot water or for production of
domestic hot water only. In the year 2002 there were 7,554 heating heat pumps installed. In
figure 27 the development of the heat pump sales figures in connection with the new building
market is illustrated. In the year 2002 the heat pump technology covers about 45,6% of the
new building market.
Heat pump market
New Buildings Heat pumps
Figure 27 Heat pumps <20 kW installed in new buildings (Source: FWS 2003)
But not only the new building market registered good results, the retrofitting market also
become more and more important. In figure 28 the increase of the sales figures in the field of
renovated buildings is shown.
1400
1265 1255
1105
1200
Units
1000
863
955
1040
925
762
768
800
600
400
452
295
200
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Figure 28 Sales of heat pumps <20 kW for renovated buildings (Source: FWS, 2003)
In Switzerland the outside air/water heat pump is the most common type with (52%), in
second place is the ground coupled heat pump with 43% and the water/water heat pump
covers 5% of the market shares. In figure 29 the partition of the different technologies is
pictured.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Water/Water
5%
Air/Water
52%
Ground/Water
43%
Figure 29 Sales of heat pumps divided by type (Source: FWS, 2003)
3.8.2 Heat pump associations
FWS Swiss Association for Promotion of Heat Pumps
The FWS is an umbrella organisation which includes all the major players that promote the
use of heat-pumps: professional associations of planners and fitters, the heat-pump industry,
the energy sector and public authorities.
-Marketing
-Training
-Quality assurance
-Swiss Refrigeration Association
-International Affairs
3.8.3 AWP Swiss Heat Pump Association
The Swiss heat pump association AWP was founded in the year 1980. It is a working group
for heat pump manufacturers and importers. The aim of this association is the promotion of
the heat pump technology and the representation of the interests to the authorities, to other
associations, organisations, test and certification centres and education establishments.
3.8.4 Swiss Geothermal Association
The main task of the Swiss geothermal association is the promotion of geothermal
technologies. One working part of this organisation is the vertical heat exchangers for heat
pumps. Therefore the Geothermal association is closely linked to the heat pump associations.
3.8.5 Quality assurance
-DACH- quality label: The DACH quality label is also used in Switzerland. There are
identical requirements as used in Germany and Austria.
-Heat-pump checking and testing centre: The heat pump testing centre is now situated in
Buchs. The testing centre offers the possibility for testing air/water, water/water and
brine/water heat pumps. This testing centre has a significant influence on the quality of the
products.
-education program: In Switzerland there are a few possibilities for further education in the
field of heat pump technology. One is the course „environmental energy“ which is part of the
penta-program. This program focuses on renewable energy technologies and marketing
aspects and is developed especially of specialists in the field of HVAC (heating, ventilation,
air conditioning and cooling). The university of applied sciences in Basel offers the course
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
“the heat pump in the Minergie house” and furthermore there is a course “marketing and
coaching for installers and utilities” available.
-certified installers: This is a recommendation list of experienced installers. For acceptance
on to this list the installer has to show one installed system, or he has to attend the penta
training course or he could show the complete offer for one heat pump system.
-certified drilling companies: The quality of a vertical heat exchanger is relevant to the
efficiency of the whole system. Furthermore it is very difficult to correct mistakes at the
vertical heat exchanger and mostly it is not possible. Therefore Switzerland has implemented
a certification program for drilling companies. To get the certification the companies have to
document the quality of the equipment, the qualification of the personal and the necessary
approvals. The certification is issued for 3 years, during these three years the company is
obligated to regular further education. After the three years the documentation and
certification must be repeated.
-heat pump doctor: The heat pump doctor is a contact point for heat pump users with
problems. The doctor helps in case of conflict situations between the installer and the
consumer. The number of reported problems is decreasing steadily during the last years,
which is an indicator of increasing system quality. However the institution will be also needed
in the future, because it is an important control mechanism for the quality assurance of the
heat pump systems on the market. Due to the consumer assistance it is possible to get
feedback from the customers about the most common problems.
3.9 Electrical power generation
In the year 2002 56,2% of the total electricity generation was done by hydraulic power
stations. 27,1% of this was covered by river power plants, the rest by storage power stations.
The nuclear power stations have covered 39,5% of the electricity production and the rest of
4,3% was done by conventional thermal power plants and other power plants. In figure 30 the
partition of the different technologies is diagrammed.
Thermal + other
4%
Nuclear
40%
Hydro power
56%
Figure 30 Electricity generation Switzerland (Source: BFE, 2002)
In the case of the low percentage of thermal power plants the electricity is nearly CO2 free.
That’s one of the reasons why the heat pump technology in Switzerland is accepted as a
renewable energy technology.
3.10 Subsidies for heat pumps
The situation for subsidies in Switzerland differs from district to district. The supporting
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
institutions are often energy utilities, communities, or local energy authorities. Some of these
subsidies are bound by special conditions (e.g. the heat hump must have a DACH quality
label, to obtain money for the heat pump there is a requirement to improve the building
standard, quality label for the vertical collector, etc
3.11 Perspectives
The development of the first future perspectives has started a few years ago. This perspective
is the change from the new building market to the retrofitting market. The promotion
campaigns of FWS and the development of the “Swiss retrofitting heat hump” (a heat pump
for supply temperatures of 65°C) is one step in this direction. But further development in the
direction of better coefficients of performance at such high temperatures and higher possible
supply temperatures could be an exercise for the future. The second perspective is to extend
the Minergy standard on the building sector. With a growing percentage of such buildings, the
CO2 emissions could be reduced. Furthermore such low energy buildings are the perfect field
of application for air/water and exhausted air heat pumps.
•
At the moment most of the heat pumps in Switzerland are just used for heating and hot
water generation applications, but in future reversible heat pumps with cooling
possibility could get more and more attractive.
•
Another future perspective could be the recharge of the heat source with solar energy.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
4 THE CZECH REPUBLIC
4.1 Current Market Situation
Currently, there are about 4,200 heat pump installations in the Czech Republic. 1,600
installations are estimated for 2004 and expected to be doubled in 2005. 80% of all
installations are in new dwellings.
The common heating and distribution system is natural gas boiler and classical radiators both
in new buildings and also in the existing building stock (single family houses) and centralised
systems for both heating and water heating in the living sites (blocks of flats). Direct
accumulation and mixed electric heating is installed in ~ 300,000 households (~ 8% of total).
Heat pump technology is relatively well known in regard to public awareness. Taking into
account the investment costs and possible subsidies from various sources (up to one third of
the purchase price), the heat pump is perceived as a progressive but expensive solution.
There is the Czech Heat Pump Association, which was founded to disseminate information
and promote education concerning heat pumps to various target groups (architects,
construction engineers, designers, installation companies, authorities, potential investors). The
Association is a member of the European Heat Pump Association. Their objective is also to
increase the technical level of member companies to avoid or minimise faulty heat pump
installations.
There are dozens (!) of companies manufacturing, delivering, installing and/or maintaining
the heating systems with heat pumps. About half of them are members of the Czech Heat
Pump Association. Consequently, there exists some intercommunication in regard to statistics,
types, quality, etc. The other companies, however, are outside the scope of the Association,
and data acquiring is therefore more difficult.
There is a special electricity rate for households (or companies) having heat pump
installations, which makes it possible to use a low tariff for 22 hours per day. There is also the
possibility to obtain support for the installation from a government programme (State
Environmental Fund, up to 1/3 of the investment costs; 100,000 CZK = €312 maximum), or
from the local utility (~ 20,000 CZK = €625; differs at each utility).
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
4.2 Heat Pump Market Development in the Czech Republic
There was practically no HP market in the Czech Republic before the year 2000; rather, there
were some dozens of single installations a year.
From the year 2001, apparent annual growth can be observed due to rising energy prices,
namely natural gas, of which a considerable amount is used for the heating in domestic
houses. At the same time, the development indicates a positive influence of state subsidies on
HP installations in family houses or subsidies and low interest rates for credits for HP
installations in commercial and industrial buildings. This trend of annual growth, amounting
to approx. 80%, dropped in 2003 and 2004. The main causes are the new rules for subsidy
assignment that are highly restrictive and in practice impossible to meet. Taking into
consideration both high HP investment costs and the purchase power in the Czech Republic,
acquiring the subsidy amounting to approx. 30% of the total investment and installation costs
is relatively important.
Using the actual price level of fuels for a calculation, the simple payback period of HP
installations without any subsidy is far more than 10 years. This is the main reason why those
interested in HP systems hesitate and wait for a reduction in HP prices. Such a situation helps
those companies that offer cheap systems which are often of poor operating quality, damaging
thus the reputation of the heat pump industry in general.
Currently, about 5,000 HP systems of all sorts and principles are installed in the Czech
Republic; this number is an expert‘s estimate, since there are no precise numbers at our
disposal so far. We estimate last year’s amount of installations to be 1,200; this year’s number
is expected to be double. 80% of all installations are in new buildings.
There is a special electricity rate for households (or companies) having heat pump
installations, which makes it possible to use a low tariff for 22 hours per day. There is also the
possibility to obtain support for installation from a government programme (State
Environmental Fund, up to 1/3 of the investment costs; 100,000 CZK maximum), or from the
local electricity distribution company (~ 20,000 CZK, different for each distributor).
4.3 Current Situation
Historically and currently, high temperature heating systems are installed in domestic
buildings, administrative and commercial buildings, which have a water temperature of 90°C,
later 80°C. In industrial buildings, there are hot water or steam systems that have a water
temperature of over 100°C.
During the last decade, low temperature systems are being – very slowly –installed; their
majority is in floor heating systems, more rarely in wall systems.
Common heating and distribution systems are natural gas boiler and classical radiators located
in separate rooms both in new buildings and also in the existing building stock (single family
houses), and centralised systems for both heating and water heating in apartment blocks.
Direct, accumulation, and mixed electric heating is installed in ~ 300,000 households (~ 8%
of total).
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
New residential buildings, however, are often being equipped either completely with floor
systems or in combination with radiators.
The heat pump technology is relatively well known to the public. The information on this
technology spreads rapidly. Taking into consideration the investment costs and possible
subsidy from various sources (up to one third of the purchase price), the heat pump is
perceived as a progressive but expensive solution.
The principal information is issued mainly by the companies producing, importing or
installing heat pump systems. There are several tens (!) of companies manufacturing,
delivering, installing and/or maintaining the heating systems with heat pumps. About half of
them are members of the Czech Heat Pump Association, so there is some intercommunication
as to statistics, types, quality, etc. The other companies, however, are outside the reach of the
Association and data acquiring is therefore more difficult.
The majority of heat pumps in operation in the Czech Republic are imported from the
countries where they are a common part of the household equipment. In addition to the
importers, there are several Czech producers who deliver their systems to the installation
companies.
The Czech Heat Pump Association was founded in 2001. The member companies are
producers and importers of heat pumps, installers, schools and sympathising companies,
consultancies, etc. The Czech Heat Pump Association is contributing to the acceptance of HPs
by participating in exhibitions, presentations, media, reports, and educative workshops for
various target groups – designers, architects, state and urban authorities, etc. The Association
is a member of the European Heat Pump Association. Their objective is also to increase the
technical standard of member companies to avoid or minimise faulty heat pump installations.
The majority of installed heat pump systems are brine/water. A change can be observed in the
last years, where demand and offers of other heat pump systems, namely air/water, and the
number of installations of such systems began to increase.
Air/air systems are not so frequent since warm air heating is not very often installed in the
Czech Republic. Water/water systems are relatively rare as the geological situation in our
country is not favourable. Direct evaporation systems are implemented in a few installations
only.
The relation of separate systems can be estimated as follows:
Brine/water
Air/water
Air/air
Water/water
Other
45%
40%
8%
5%
2%
The majority of heat pump systems are installed in family houses and are about 90% of the
market. The rest are commercial, industrial, sport and other buildings. If water heating is
integrated in the system, it is usually integrated in the same unit. Waste heat utilisation is not
very frequent; only a few installations are known of.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Ground water utilisation is permitted if the legislation requirements on the protection of
ground water are met.
4.4 Technical Description of the Most Frequent Technologies
Air/water systems: The heat pump is either a „split-“configuration or compact unit. It is
always equipped with an accumulation vessel of heating water and complementary/bivalent
heat source.
Brine/water systems are usually connected with deep beoreholes. If there are horizontal
collectors, they are laid in the depth of 120 – 130 cm.
4.5 Usual distribution channels
In majority, the end-users contact those producers or importers of heat pumps who are active
in advertising their products. They direct their customers usually to the installation companies
that co-operate with them. The customer learns about heat pumps through advertising in
magazines or special exhibitions. Web pages are another good information source.
The companies installing heating systems usually carry out the installation of heat pump
systems. The skilled technical personnel of the installation company conduct the overall
design of the heat pump system. The company installing the heat pump system is also
responsible for its proper operation. Hydraulic connection, electrical and (occasionally)
ventilation distribution paths are also in their field of responsibility and are either done either
by their own staff or by contractors of other companies. Cooling circuits are in majority
installed by specialists.
4.6 Education
The Czech Heat Pump Association is preparing an initial training course on heat pump
function, maintenance and repair on the basis of material from arsenal research. The material
will be translated and slightly modified for our needs, and the first course will be held in the
first half of 2005.
From time to time, there is a training course held by some company (e.g. Stiebel Eltron,
IVT,DIMPLEX, etc.), which includes heat pumps in their training programme.
4.7 Vocational Education
An education programme, which deals solely with heat pump systems, does not exist in
practice. Necessary skills are acquired mainly by practice (trial – error). Heat pump producers
or importers hold elementary informative seminars (seminar duration is on average several
hours) for designers, installers, and sales representatives. Heat pump systems are not included
in the school syllabuses in detail, but there is a general description of them.
Courses and training programmes are only organised by producers or importers to educate cooperating companies (or gain new ones) in the installation of their systems.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
5 FRANCE
5.1 Current Market Situation
5.1.1 Development of the market
Figure 31 shows the development of the French heat pump market [1], [2], and [3].
heat pump market in France (P< 80 kW)
( gro und s yt e m ;a ir/ wa t e r;a ir/ a ir ( duc t ) )
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Figure 31 Development of the French heat pump market [1], [2], and [3
ÎPlease note that figure 10 is related only to heat pump systems that are mainly used for
heating purposes.
There is a dramatic increase in sales of small heat pumps for air conditioning purposes; 75%
of them are reversible. Among these 75 %, which of course are mainly bought for building
cooling during summer, it is difficult to evaluate how many of them are used by customers for
heating during late autumn, winter, or early spring. However, it is estimated that this number
is growing. The 2 major reasons for this are:
Technology development has extended operating temperature range. Low limit temperature of
split systems are now reaching –15°C, which is sufficient for most parts of France
Split systems are most often capacity controlled, which allows the system to reach better
average efficiency and to avoid the decrease of too much thermal power at a low temperature.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Individual air conditioning market in France
250000
200000
150000
HP ( mainly heating < 20 kW)
Air Condition. multisplit
Air Condition. monosplit
100000
50000
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Figure 32 Individual air conditioning market in France
5.2 Current situation
Common heat distribution systems in new buildings and in the existing building stock ([5],
[6] and [7])
Presently, for dwelling houses, energy consumption for heating is 317 TWh in 2002. The
hydronic system is mainly used (88%) for radiators (most cases) and floor heating. Oil and
gas heating systems represent 60% of the heating energy and are distributed in most case by
hydronics systems. Electricity represents 28% of heating energy and is distributed mainly by
radiators (convectors first, and then radiant). In new buildings, which are heated with
electricity, the ratio tendency is 33% for convectors, 27% for radiant and 24% for heating
floor (almost nil for heating ceilings). Only a few percent (5% in 2000, [1]) of electrical
systems in new houses were HP systems.
For tertiary sectors, the total energy consumption of 2000 was 209 TWh, with 112 TWh for
oil and gas and 82 kWh for electricity (with 44 kWh for specific electricity use, i.e. no
thermal use as heating, cooking, hot water). Thermal using was 132 TWh (113 TWh for
heating, and other for cooking and hot water). From what precedes, we can deduce that of 132
TWh for thermal use, electricity represents 29%, and oil and gas represents between 60% and
71%. Exact distributions of oil, gas and electricity for heating only in tertiary sectors are not
published (it exists only in confidential or private documents). Nevertheless, we can add that
oil and gas heating are distributed in most case by hydronics systems. Electricity is distributed
mainly by radiators (mainly convectors), and in a few cases ceiling or floor electric heating, or
reversible heat pumps.
Only a few people are aware of heat pump systems for house heating. In most cases, these are
people with a “green” mind, who are aware of the greenhouse effect. Furthermore, people
who are aware of heat pumps for heating think that the heat pump investment is high and do
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
not consider the increased energy savings with the help of a heat pump. On the other hand,
most people are aware of air conditioning systems, but without knowing well what that
includes.
Agents:
In the heat pump technology for house heating (out of split systems), ~85% are French
national manufacturers, ~5% French brands with imports, and ~10% foreign brands.
Heat pump systems will soon permit people to claim back part of their income tax.
ANAH (National Agency for Existing Building [8]) has a grant for heat pupm systems
up to 900€ (for air/water system) and 1800€ (for ground/water); for the latter, ADEME
(Agency of Environment and Demand Side Management [9]) can add subsidies in
some cases (for demonstration for tertiary and collective dwelling building). EDF,
which is in France at the moment about the only electricity supplier, can grant a loan
with a low rate ([10]) for high quality (label) electrical systems, including heat pumps.
EDF is also active in heat pump activities: tests of innovative systems or new
refrigerants, free advice to customers who want to install a heat pump, significant
involvement in AFPAC, (French Heat Pump Association). AFPAC ([1]) includes
manufacturers, installers unions, utilities, technical centres, ADEME, design offices.
AFPAC is a member of EHPA. For heat pump systems taking heat from aquifer,
Aquapac ([11]) proposes an insurance policy that guarantees against the lack of
resources for 10 years.
distribution of heat pump types in France
( for Pth < 80 kW)
12000
10000
8000
air/water
6000
ground systems
4000
air/air (duct system)
2000
0
2001
2002
2003
Figure 33 Distribution of heat pump types in France
Note: ground systems include: brine water/water, direct evaporation/water; direct evaporation/direct
condensing. Figures related to Air/air (duct) systems must be read carefully (data not very reliable
because difficult to collect).
The number of ground/systems taking heat from aquifer is very low and mainly present for
tertiary sectors and collective buildings.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
5.3 Application of heat pumps
Individual house heating with heat pump:
The distribution of the various systems is quite similar to figure 12.
• Air/air systems (duct system) are used about equally in new and existing houses
• Air/water systems are used in new houses mainly for floor heating, and in a few cases
by fan-coil, or mixed (floor + fan coil)
• Ground systems are used mainly for floor heating (new houses), and in a few cases by
fan-coil, or mixed (floor + fan coil). In 2003, around 60% were brine water/water and
40% direct evaporation/water or direct condensing (the last system is authorised only
for horizontal collectors in France).
• Split and multisplit systems, only for reversible systems, supply the terminal unit
(often high wall or floor mounted)
Tertiary building and collective dwelling building heating
•
•
•
•
Air/air systems (often roof–top) are mainly reversible. They are used for supermarkets
or warehouses (2500 sold in 2003 [4]).
Air/water systems are mainly reversible. They are often used for building offices,
mainly by air handling units or fan-coil.
Ground/water systems are mainly reversible systems. Heat is taken from the ground by
vertical brine water collectors (for a small number of flats) or from aquifer water by
way of a heat water to water exchanger (for a larger number of flats and therefore
larger power). Heating water is distributed through air handling units, or fan-coil, or
floor heating.
Multisplit systems and VRV (variable refrigerant volume) are mainly reversible, and
used mainly in tertiary sectors. Terminal units are often high wall or floor mounted. In
2003, 3100 multisplits and 5000 VRV were sold in France ([4])
==> Note that heat pump systems for domestic hot water are not used a lot in France (less than 100
installations up to now).
Allowed refrigerant for house heating in France
-
•
•
•
•
Authorised: HFC, CO2
In France, now mainly 407 C is used, but there is an increasing tendency towards
410A, except for direct evaporation (404A) and for hot water systems (134A).
Authorised with restriction: NH3 and HC: EN 378-1 limits their load at values that are
too low to be used with a heat pump inside houses. In practice, these refrigerants are
not used for house heating in France.
Forbidden: CFC (since 1995) and HCFC (only for new installations since January
2004) because of their high ODP.
5.4 Common distribution channels
5.4.1 For domestic applications
In most cases when building new houses, builders do not propose heat pump systems because
they consider them to be too expensive and complex installations (their partner installers do
not possess enough knowledge in this field). This is why there are installers who look at all
the planning permissions that are deposited in the town hall.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
In the case of existing houses, if a person wants to install a heat pump system, s/he has to
organise it directly with companies that design and/or install heat pump systems. This means
that in general the private person contacts the local small-scale company or craftsman who is
specialised in heating installation, plumbing or electricity.
Installers can be independent, or they can belong to an installers’ network managed by a
manufacturer (especially of ground systems). Independent installers buy heat pump appliances
from wholesalers (electricity, heating or plumber). Installers belonging to a manufacturer’s
managed network must buy their heat pump appliances from this manufacturer.
Many options are possible, but in each case, the customer holds the installer responsible:
• The installer can sub-delegate the total design, with details of each component
including the proposal of the brand and the exact reference of the most important
components.
• Installers belonging to a manufacturer’s network will contact their manufacturer, who
will do the design.
5.4.2 Commercial applications
For commercial applications, the end-user contacts some main contractors who will contact
the contracting authority (e.g. architect), who will sub-delegate the heat pump system design
to an engineering company, which will choose an installer.
5.5 Vocational Education
There are no official education standard concerning heat pumps; nevertheless, there are
education standards for cooling and/or air conditioning, mainly for tertiary sectors (food
shops, etc.) and industry field. It seems that no courses focus specifically on heat pumps used
for heating and air-conditioning in domestic buildings.
5.6 Qualification Certificate for persons
5.6.1 Description of the current situation
There are qualifications but no certification for cooling and air conditioning.
ÎUnlike an education level certificate, the qualifications are all awarded to a company (and
not to individuals):
“Qualiclimafroid” [20]: a qualification awarded for 3 years by the association
Qualiclimafroid (created by federation of cooling and air-conditioning installers and
manufacturers); there are many levels depending on the types of work (design, installation,
maintenance,…), fields (air conditioning with or without cold production, with or without
high air quality, etc.). For obtaining a qualification, a company must prove, in addition to
some administrative documents:
• its organisation to be kept informed on safety and environment standards and rules
• its authorisation to operate refrigerants
• its technical skill with 3 existing technical installations
The company is systematically submitted to an audit
“Qualibat” [21]: a qualification awarded for 5 years by the association Qualibat (created
under initiative of National Construction by federation of builders, architects, and contracting
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
authorities). There are many levels (> 400), including all types of work that exist in building
(cement, roof, are several levels depending on the type of work, in which one can find 3 levels
related to heating and air conditioning (depending on the size of installations). To obtain a
qualification, a company must provide several documents: administrative documents,
description of its means (tools, technical profile of employees, etc.), and description of 6
existing technical installations. In some cases, the qualification board can ask an audit and/or
a technical control for verification.
.
5.7 Quality label for heat pumps
5.7.1 Description of the current situation
There is a label called “Promotelec” [24], which is managed by the private Promotelec
Association (to which EDF belongs). This label ensures that houses (individual or collective)
have a sufficient level of electrical comfort: requirements must be met for electrical systems
and installation. For houses equipped with heat pump systems, the heat pump must have a
minimum level of performance according to the kind of heat pump (COP, EER, low limit
temperature). If the performances are certified by the EUROVENT Association, or are
published in a testing report issued by an independent laboratory, retained values are those
given by the manufacturers; if not, there is a degradation coefficient depending on the
technology of the heat pump.
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5.8 Literature
[1]
www.afpac.org/
[2]
AFPAC: minutes of general meeting, March 204
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
BATIM: market of HP based on “new housing observatory”, 2003
CLIM’INFO, March 2004
www.industrie.gouv.fr/energie
BATIM : étude 2002
CEREN données 2002
www.anah.fr
revue « Chaud, Froid, Plomberie », n° 659 july 2003
revue « Chaud, Froid, Plomberie », n° 661, october 2003
Aquapac : plaquette available near SAF Environnement
Systèmes thermodynamiques : eau glycolée/eau sur plancher chauffant rafraîchissant,
guide AFF/Costic/EDF, 1998
Systèmes thermodynamiques : air/eau sur plancher chauffant rafraîchissant, guide
AFF/Costic/EDF, 1998
Systèmes thermodynamiques : air/eau sur unités terminales, guide Costic/EDF, 1999
Générateurs réversibles air/air : guide Costic/EDF, 1999
Systèmes thermodynamiques : sol/sol sur plancher chauffant, guide AFF/Costic/EDF,
1998
Systèmes thermodynamiques : sol/eau sur plancher chauffant, guide AFF/Costic/EDF,
1998
mémo interne EDF, 2002
www.cndp.fr
www.qualiclimafroid.com
www.qualibat.com
www.qualifelec.com
AFPAC : Charte qualité installateurs PAC (projet)
www.promotelec.com
CSTB, fascicule n° 3164, October 1999
Les forages pour pompes à chaleur, note EDF/DER/HE-11/99/021
Qualitat, n° 61, 2000
www.ademe.fr
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
6 IRELAND
6.1 Current Market Situation
6.1.1 Development of the market
Detailed statistics on the development of the Irish heat pump market are not available. The
best indicator for this sector are results published by the Eurobserv’er programme. The most
recently available data is from the 2003 Geothermal Euro-barometer, which provides data for
2001 and 2002, see table 4.
Year
2001
2002
Number Installations
700
1,000
Installed Capacity (MWth)
7
10
Table 4 Eurobserv’er geothermal installed capacity Ireland.
Assuming linear growth in the market as a conservative estimate, it would be expected that at
least a further 300 installations were completed during 2003. Discussions with heat pump
suppliers, installers and importers suggest a doubling of sales in Ireland year on year. In
reality, the growth of the market in Ireland is exponential.
Heat pump markets in Ireland are in their infancy but show great potential for more rapid
market development in the short to medium terms. A recent report [2] identified and detailed
the barriers to the heat pump market in Ireland. The main barriers resulting in the slow market
development of heat pump technologies identified in this report include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
lack of awareness of heat pump technologies and associated benefits
high initial capital costs for heat pump installations when compared to conventional
fossil fuel systems
absence of generally available subsidies for renewable technologies
no tax breaks for renewable technologies
lack of qualified installers and engineers in the field of heat pump technologies
quality of installations unpredictable with no trades taking overall responsibility for
problems or poor system design
lack of commitment at the national policy making level regarding the acceleration of
market take-up of renewable energy technologies
One of the major barriers to market take-off in Ireland is the high capital cost of heat pump
installations. However, life-cycle analysis reveals that heat pumps are marginally viable with
economic paybacks compared to conventional fossil fuel systems being in the region of 7
years. The other major barrier, lack of qualified installers and system designers, results in
potential end-users losing confidence in the technology. As the heat pump market expands in
Ireland, it is important to ensure that qualified and experienced installers and designers are
available to end-users. Previous experience in other European countries suggests a collapse in
end-user confidence could easily occur where unqualified installation companies appear in the
market place in response to increasing market demand. The EU-CERT.HP project aims to
provide a framework and structure for placing qualified and certified installers and system
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designers in the field and would represent the overcoming of a major barrier in developing the
heat pump markets in Ireland.
6.2 Current situation
Common Heat Distribution Systems
The most common heat distribution system in the domestic and commercial building sector,
both existing and new-built, are centralised boiler, wet distribution system and radiator heat
emitters. Installed boilers almost exclusively consume fossil fuels as a primary energy source
with oil, natural gas, and liquid propane gas (LPG) being favoured.
Although less common, a significant number of electric storage heating systems are installed
in the domestic and commercial sector in Ireland. In the domestic sector, space heating is
often supplemented by coal-/wood-/peat-burning open fires/stoves. In larger commercial
buildings, centralised air systems are common as a distribution system. Air conditioning
(cooling) is less common in Ireland due to prevailing climatic conditions, although
installations in larger commercial buildings are becoming more prevalent. The market shares
of renewable technologies such as heat pumps, biomass and solar are small.
With respect to heat emitters, radiators are generally wall mounted and placed under
windows. Flow and return temperatures are in the region of 80° and 70°C respectively.
Embedded wall and floor heating systems are not common in Ireland, although floor heating
is becoming more popular.
Public Awareness of Heat Pump Technologies
In general, levels of awareness of renewable technologies, including heat pumps, in Ireland
are low. Factors contributing to this lack of awareness with respect to heat pumps identified in
a recent study [2] include:
• Little information and few marketing activities, especially on a local level
• Historic poor quality installations; end-users do not appreciate quality
• Many end-users do not believe in the technology
• Many professionals do not believe in the technology and favour more traditional
technologies that they know well, are comfortable with, and have experience in
installing
• Generally, contractors do not understand the technology – largest barrier is credibility
Dissemination and awareness events take place throughout the year. Events include the
Energy Show, Home & Gardens Show, and Self-Built Exhibitions for example.
Manufacturers, installers and importers of heat pump technologies are represented at these
events. Sustainable Energy Ireland (SEI) and more particularly the Renewable Energy
Information Office (REIO) provide information on renewable energies including heat pumps
to the general public as a free service. SEI are responsible for administering national funds,
e.g. grants, for accelerating market take-up of renewable technologies. REIO exhibit at
national events, organise workshops and implement road-shows aimed at promoting
renewable technologies.
Market Actors in the Field of Heat Pump Technologies
The main market actors can be defined as follows:
• Manufacturers/Suppliers/Installers – largely responsible for promoting the majority of
heat pump installations to date within competitive market
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
•
•
End-users – those open to idea of new products/convinced of economic and
environmental merits of heat pump systems
Promoters – national bodies such as SEI, REIO and Energy Agencies charged or with
an interest in promoting renewable technologies (see previous paragraph regarding
national support mechanisms)
The following manufacturers/importers are currently operating in the Irish market:
• NIBE - Sweden
• Solterra - Ireland
• ECO HEAT – Austria
• Climate master – USA
• Thermia – Sweden
• Polar Bear – Canada
• Waterfurnace – USA
• IVT – Sweden
The Renewable Energy Information Office (REIO) currently list 14 suppliers/installers of heat
pumps. Only a small number of experienced, capable, and knowledgeable installers, importers
and manufacturers are available in Ireland, who take responsibility for installed systems.
These pro-active entities have no means of differentiating themselves from others with little
experience and no sense of commitment to the end-user installations. Currently, there is no
national heat pump association. A “Geothermal Association of Ireland” exists, which
incorporates some promotion of heat pumps. Visibility is low and Ireland needs to develop a
high profile, well-structured and organised heat pump association.
Involvement of the electricity utilities in Ireland is limited (options for selecting a preferred
utility company are limited with ESB supplying the vast majority of end-users). Currently, the
electricity market is not fully de-regulated with end-users of 1GWh+ only having an option to
freely select their supplier. Hence, domestic customers have no choice in selecting a supplier.
The market is scheduled to be fully de-regulated in 2005 and may promote further
competition in offering favourable heat pump tariffs to end-users. No special heat pump
tariffs or promotional offers are currently in place.
Common Heat Pump Systems
The most common heat pump system technologies used in Ireland are brine/water systems.
Air, direct evaporation, direct condensing and exhausted air systems are available but
represent a minority of installations. The most common collector is the horizontal loop buried
to a depth of 700mm – 1,000mm within the site boundary. Vertical loops, water covered loops
and open loops represent a minority of installations.
System design is carried out by the installers, manufacturers, and importers who are often
represented by one company offering a turn-key solution.
Typically, heat pumps are combined with under floor heating systems and occasionally with
radiator systems. A typical supply/return temperature combination for under floor heating
systems is 45°/35°C. Heat pumps are currently not generally applied to domestic hot water
heating applications. In commercial buildings, heat pumps are applied to heat recovery
applications and air conditioning occasionally. No comprehensive statistics are available
nationally to provide a breakdown on the types of heat pump systems installed. Subjective
estimations provided are based on the author’s knowledge and knowledge obtained through
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questionnaires, personal interviews, and workshops in the recent “Campaign for Take Off”
report.
Restrictions on Use of Groundwater
There are currently no restrictions on the use of groundwater for the purposes of heating using
heat pumps for typically sized systems in Ireland.
Permissible Refrigerants
Ireland abides to regulations that are generally governed by the European guidelines with
respect to the use of refrigerants. Traditional CFC refrigerants are prohibited in new
equipment. HCFC refrigerants are permissible but are being phased out in line with European
guidelines and directives. HFC refrigerants are being used and will continue to be used in the
future. Refrigerants should not be released into the atmosphere and should be reclaimed
where servicing requires, or at the end of a heat pump’s operating life. In general, Ireland is in
same situation as in the other EU-15 countries.
6.3 Common distribution channels
6.3.1 For domestic applications
Currently, heat pump installations are supplied, specified and installed by smaller companies
in Ireland. Where end-users have become interested in a heat pump installation, their first
point of contact would generally be:
• Renewable Energy Information Office (REIO) – often contacted after promotional
exercises have been carried out – REIO maintain a list of heat pump installation
companies in Ireland
• Installation/Supply Companies – the majority of these companies advertise through
conventional media and often have a website
Heat pump companies normally carry out all aspects of the design, supply, and installation but
may employ sub-contractors to carry out aspects of the installation work, e.g. electrical
installation, ground collector installation. Where sub-contractors are used, the heat pump
company will normally provide supervision on a number of installations until they are content
that the sub-contractors can act relatively unsupervised. Commissioning of the system is
normally carried out by the heat pump company. The heat pump company normally takes
responsibility for the installation in terms of problems and guarantees.
6.4 Vocational Education
Due to the heat pump market being small in Ireland currently, the tasks of system designer,
sales person and installer often fall within the remit of a single person or a small company. As
markets develop further and expand, it is probable that specialists in the individual fields will
emerge. The following sub-sections approach the individual aspects separately for the
purposes of this report although they may be covered simultaneously by an individual in
practice.
6.5 For people installing a heat pump
Installers providing a service to end-users on a commercial basis are required to satisfy
national regulations with respect to refrigeration, plumbing and electrical installations. Hence,
the installer normally possesses the relevant qualifications and/or experience. In Ireland, an
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
installer would normally have undergone a formal training process. Typically, this would
include a one year course and a three year apprenticeship. Heat pump installers in Ireland
typically come from plumbing or refrigeration backgrounds specifically, or a HVAC
background generally. Although vocational courses often touch on heat pump technologies,
this is as part of general refrigeration and the depth of coverage is limited. Specifics of heat
pumps are not covered, e.g. system installation/design within available courses.
Vocational training courses in the plumbing, electrical and refrigeration trades can be
undertaken full time or part time through, for example, FAS and Institutes of Technology.
Training is both practical and theoretical. Apprenticeships are served with an experienced
personnel in an established company or business.
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7 SLOVENIA
7.1 Introduction
Slovenia is a rather small country, which, just like larger countries, had to cover all areas of
activity in the past. This is why companies (or individuals) chose a general-purpose
development rather than specialisation. This is strongly supported by Slovenia’s geographic
variety, and previously bad transport connections, which have improved significantly in the
last years. Improved transport connections and admittance of Slovenia to the EU make
specialisation possible or even necessary.
General-purpose in technical sense is the ability to execute different projects or installations;
however, due to limited theoretical knowledge and ignorance of specific details of design,
many actions are not accomplished optimally. Bad design is especially noticeable in areas
where individuals (installers) install a small number of units (sometimes even just one) and
are often confronted with beginner’s problems because of their personal inexperience.
The use of heat pumps in Slovenia is due to its geographical variety and different restrictions
very diversified. Up to now, heat pumps have been present in all regions in Slovenia and, in
the past (15+ years ago), were installed by individuals (technical enthusiasts) who used them
primarily for their own purpose and satisfaction. Development of heat pumps did start
relatively early, with solid industrial back up (Gorenje), but there were no real economical
interests and possibilities for their broad realisation.
Independence of Slovenia in 1991 caused changes, also in technical fields. Representatives of
different foreign heat pump manufacturers appeared on the market. Most of them had heat
pumps as a parallel programme (they had no specialisation in heat pumps). As well, they
provided only the equipment without any training for installers of their equipment, who were
uneducated in the setup, starting and working conditions of heat pumps. Heat pumps were
improperly designed and/or incorrectly assembled. Their operation was often faulty because
of these errors, while end-users had the feeling that they are unsuitable and unreliable, which
in due course slowed down their installation rate.
Gradually, the situation improved, and today there are some manufacturers specialised in heat
pumps, with appropriate equipment, trained specialists, and sufficient knowledge. However,
specialized providers are more expensive. An uneducated end-user is mainly influenced by
the price of the product, and thus may choose a provider who is not qualified, performs his or
her job poorly, and is without supervision and support of the manufacturer (of the heat pump).
In recent years, the government (MOPE) intervened in the heat pump market with its
specialised agency (AURE). They prepared calls for applications of subsidies to individuals
(domestic applicants) to install a heat pump in their house. Subsidies for domestic applicants
were according to usage divided into:
• Heat pumps for preparation of hot sanitary water and
• Heat pumps for heating of buildings (mostly single houses)
Subsidies were also issued and assigned for installation of industrial heat pumps. With this
intervention, the government has strongly increased the interest in the use of heat pumps.
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
Unfortunately, it is estimated that the market has developed sufficiently, and thus future
subsidies are not regarded as necessary any more.
The purpose of education and certification of heat pumps is to stop or at least reduce
unprofessional installations of heat pumps, and thus protect the end-user. At the same time,
higher quality will improve the general opinion of suitability (economical) and reliability of
heat pumps.
7.2 Current Market Situation
7.2.1 Development of the market
The first oil price shock in 1973 showed Slovenia’s dependency (in this time as a part of
SFRJ) on imported energy, and also showed the vulnerability of trade and industry, which
could not exist without imported energy. After a number of years, and despite higher energy
costs, nothing had changed. In 1978, the second oil price shock took place, which caused a
lasting reaction.
In the last ten years there was a significant increase in the installation of heat pumps. The
estimated number of heat pumps for preparation of sanitary water is shown in figure 34. The
average heating power of those heat pumps is between 2 and 3 kW. The number of heat
pumps for building heating is much lower. The average heating power of those heat pumps is
about 7 kW. The reason for this are the construction costs since heat pumps need a sufficient
heat source, which usually involves a lot of surface diggings.
Between five and ten industrial heat pumps were installed in the last ten years. Most of them
were designed to use the waste heat from industrial plants or public swimming pools and
baths.
1600
number of HP for sanitar water
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
year
Figure 34 Number of heat pumps for preparation of sanitary water (households)
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
35
number of HP for heating
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
year
Figure 35 Number of heat pumps for heating (households)
7.3 Current situation
7.3.1 Weather conditions
Although Slovenia is a very small country, it has various weather and temperature conditions.
Figure 36 shows the areas of design temperature, while figure 37 shows annual temperatures
(Ljubljana 2003).
Figure 36 Design temperatures in Slovenia
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
30.0
temperature [°C]
20.0
10.0
0.0
-10.0
-20.0
day
Figure 37 Average daily temperatures in Ljubljana (2003)
7.3.2 Energy situation
Slovenia has no sources of liquid or gas fuels (fossil) and as such is totally dependent on
import. Of all fossil fuels, coal is the only one available, but its quality is poor. This is why
Slovenia also has to import some of its coal. Slovenia produces electrical energy with power
plants (thermal, hydroelectric, one nuclear). The ratios of produced energy by each plant are
shown in figure 38.
Electricity production by type of producers, 2002
Nuclear power
plant
38,5%
Hydroelectric
power plants
24,3%
Conventional
thermal plants
37,1%
Figure 38 Electricity production by type of producers for 2002
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HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 2
5000
Households heat supply [TJ]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
Figure 39 Use of heat by households (2002)
7.3.3 Heat distribution systems
In Slovenia, hydronic heat distribution systems are common practice. Since the late nineties,
low temperature heating systems with floor heating has become more important, especially in
the new building sector. Common supply temperatures for floor heating systems are between
30° – 35°C. But there are still new buildings provided with radiator systems, mostly due to
their costs.
In the existing building stock, radiator systems are the most common heating systems. The
supply temperatures depend on the building quality and on the radiators; common supply
temperatures are in the range of 70° – 55°C.
In the past, air heating systems combined with air conditioning were only common in large
commercial buildings. Nowadays, beside these applications, there are some air heating
systems combined with heat recovery from the exhausted air.
7.3.4 Use of ground water
The use of underground water in Slovenia was up to now in the field of competence of local
communities or its commissioned agencies, which according to the Law of Waters determines
alone which use of ground water is allowed. Law and acts are still based on laws of SFRJ
(1988), wherefrom Slovenia used to be a part of. In June 2004, new regulations were
announced as a base of a new Law of Waters to determine water-protective regions. It also
states what kinds of interventions are possible in particular regions. This enables the
government to determine the regions.
7.3.5 Refrigerants
Since the 1st of January 2002, the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons in new systems is
prohibited in Slovenia. The alternative solution to chlorinated hydrocarbons is the use of
halogenated hydrocarbons.
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In some industrial heat pumps, ammonia is used as a refrigerant too.
7.3.6 Market actors
In 1991, SDHK association was established, whose field of activity also encompasses heat
pumps. Some of its members (or companies that employ them) also work in the field of heat
pumps. So far, a section for heat pumps has not been established yet, although there are some
intentions to unite the providers of heat pumps.
As part of this, the IV. SDHK Conference (1998) was organised, where 58 participants
became acquainted with innovations of heat pumps and received the Proceeding of the
Conference with 24 scientific and technical papers.
Heat pump providers do have contacts with AURE, but they do not have a joint strategy.
7.3.7 Governmental support
MOPE agency, together with its specialised AURE agency, has prepared calls for applications
(in the years 2000-2004) to subsidise the efficient use of energy and renewable energy
sources.
The call for applications for the year 2004, which was intended for domestic applicants, has
anticipated non-returnable funds:
• for the preparation of sanitary water in the amount of 45,000 SIT (~€190) or up to
40%
• for the heating of buildings in the amount of 500,000 SIT (~€2,100) or up to 40%.
Previous calls for applications anticipated higher non-returnable funds for preparation of
sanitary water (90,000 SIT ~ €380).
In the year 2003, 396 heat pumps for preparation of sanitary water for households were
subsidised and 12 heat pumps for the heating of buildings. The total amount of subsidies for
households was 40,000,000 SIT (~€170.000). As to the industry in the year 2003, 10 heat
pumps were installed with the help of subsidies in the total amount of 26,000,000 SIT
(~€110.000), which on average represented 27% of the total investment.
7.4 Common distribution channels
7.4.1 For domestic applications
If an end-user wants to buy a heat pump, it is common to contact a
manufacturer/representative or installer. In many cases, users have good information about the
possible installations. In most cases, the retailer or the manufacturer will do the system layout.
The calculation of the heat losses is often carried out by external companies. The installation
of the heat pump system is done by the installer. The installer is responsible for the whole
installation. Therefore, s/he has to coordinate the other trades (drilling, digging, etc.). Often,
an expert from the manufacturer undertakes the commissioning of the heat pump, but
sometimes the installers do that as well. In case of a problem with the system, the installer is
the first contact person for the end-user. In most cases, the installer can solve the problem if it
is only a minor one. Otherwise, s/he has to organise the technical service of the manufacturer.
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In some cases, also electricians (who are further educated in the field of heating technology)
deal with heat pumps. In these cases, the electrician takes over the responsibilities mentioned
above.
7.5 Vocational Education for installers
In Slovenia, the customer consultancy is performed by the representative or installer. In many
cases, the customer has some knowledge and the decision is made by him or her. The selling,
planning, and installation of heat pumps (in the field of domestic applications) are done by the
installers.
The education for installers of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning and cooling devices takes
three years. During this time, there are three blocks of theoretical education. During the rest of
the time, the practical training is done by the company. In the end of these three years, the
trainees have to pass a theoretical and practical examination. After passing this examination,
they are allowed to work as installers.
7.6 Existing specialised heat pump training
In Slovenia, there is no specialised heat pump training course that is independent of a special
manufacturer. The different manufacturers offer training courses to their partner installers to
present their products.
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8 UNITED KINGDOM
8.1 Current Market Situation
8.1.1 Development of the market
The UK market for space heating systems is dominated by natural gas fired boilers. This is
because natural gas is very widely available in all populated areas (accessible to >90% of the
population) and is generally the least cost conventional heating option. Furthermore, very
strong competition in the gas appliance market keeps the capital costs of boilers low. There is
thus no economic incentive for existing gas consumers to move to a different heating
technology.
Oil, LPG and electric heating are niche markets. Oil and LPG are mainly used in rural areas or
remote sites where natural gas is unavailable. Electric heating is used in specific applications
such as small apartments that are not connected to a central boiler system and some family
houses that were typically built before 1970. Apartments and houses with electric heating
utilise storage radiators to benefit from off-peak tariffs.
Although heat pumps have been available in the UK for a long time, very few have so far
been installed specifically for space heating in residential and commercial buildings, and the
market penetration lags far behind most other countries in Europe. The UK Government does
however recognise the benefits of reduced carbon emissions from heat pumps and financial
incentives are now available under several programmes. These incentives, coupled with
increasing awareness of the benefits amongst potential installers and increasing choice of
systems, have boosted the market for heat pumps, but it is still tiny compared to conventional
gas boilers.
8.2 Current situation
The typical heating system in most modern homes is a system gas boiler with radiators and an
indirect hot water cylinder. This is also the choice for many new homes though combination
boiler systems are very popular both for new built and retrofit installations. Underfloor
heating is not very common but is growing in popularity at the upper end of the new housing
market.
Most houses and purpose built apartments have an individual heating boiler. Changes to
minimum energy efficiency requirements in the Building Regulations mean that almost all gas
and oil fired boiler systems will in the future be fitted with condensing boilers. District and
communal heating schemes are relatively uncommon except in special situations, e.g. tower
blocks and sheltered (old persons) accommodation.
Small commercial buildings without air conditioning use radiator systems similar to houses.
There are a wide variety of possible systems for air conditioned buildings but the most
popular is based on ceiling mounted four pipe fan coils for heating and cooling.
Since heat pumps are relatively uncommon, it is likely that the average householder would be
unaware of this option when choosing a heating system. Domestic heating engineers,
plumbers, and building professionals are generally aware of what heat pumps can do but are
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unlikely to have personal experience. When considering boiler replacement options (usually
when the existing boiler has failed and cannot be repaired), a householder will tend to seek
advice from the local heating engineer or plumber. This will tend to result in a like-for-like
replacement with the specific choice of boiler based on financial criteria.
Some householders will undertake an Internet search of suppliers for the best prices and
possibly look at the SEDBUK database of boiler efficiencies. There is little chance they will
encounter details of heat pumps unless they are specifically looking for them.
There are a number of UK companies building heat pump systems for heating, but most of the
key components, such as compressors and heat exchangers, are imported. Most of the
common Japanese and European brands are also represented in the market place. Eleven
manufacturers of heat pumps are represented by the UK Heat Pump Association (HPA) (a
member of EHPA). These are:
Airedale International
Calorex Heat Pumps Ltd
Carrier Air Conditioning
Clivet UK Ltd
Colt International Ltd
Daikin Europe NV
Eaton-Williams Group Ltd
Fujitsu General (UK) Co
IMI Air Conditioning Ltd
Toshiba Carrier UK Ltd
Viessmann UK Ltd
Table 5 Heat Pump manufacturers represented by UK HPA
Other manufacturers/importers/brands represented in the market include Accorovi, Belcur,
Breaire, Ciat (UK), Climagas, Climatec, Climatemaster, Coolmation, Daikin, Dantherm, ETT,
Geoscience, HC Troldahl, Hitesca, IVT, Markus, McQuay, Menerga, Mitsubishi, Multiclima,
Panasonic, Simair and Soltherm.
Independent installers would generally be members of the Heating and Ventilating
Contractors Association (HVCA) or the Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors
(APHC).
Heat pumps are promoted by the Government through various bodies including:
Clearskies Programme (support for demonstration projects)
Energy Saving Trust/Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing (financial support
and advice to householders)
Action Energy (advice for businesses)
The most common form of heat pump in the UK is the reversible air to air split
unit, but in reality the heating function is rarely used. “Real” heating systems
include:
water to water (in-building heating/cooling redistribution)
air to air (condensing exhaust heat recovery)
air to water (condensing exhaust heat recovery)
open loop ground source
closed loop ground source
The condensing exhaust heat recover systems are mainly used for swimming pool and leisure
centres, for space and/or pool water heating. A small number of open loop systems for
medium/large building heating and cooling applications have been demonstrated based on
bore holes and ground water extraction. The predominant system for housing applications
(although still small in numbers) would be the closed loop ground source system for heating
and domestic hot water.
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The use of ground water generally requires approval by the Environment Agency and
stringent conditions may be applied to protect the aquifer and discharge sink.
Closed loop systems do not generally require regulatory approval, but consideration must be
given to minimising the risk of ground contamination during installation and in the event of
leakage from the ground loop. The working fluid in the ground loop is usually water.
The UK complies with the Montreal protocol in the use of refrigerants, and there are
significant penalties for the deliberate release of refrigerants that could harm the ozone layer.
In the future, it is likely that only approved persons will be allowed to handle some
refrigerants. There are no restrictions on the use of hydrocarbon based refrigerants in heat
pump systems.
8.3 Technical description of the most common technologies
8.3.1 Water/Water
Open loop water source systems are occasionally used where ground conditions permit,
particularly for large commercial applications. Water is pumped from a borehole and
discharged to a river or lake. Re-injection to the aquifer is less common. Other sources that
have been considered include mine water but the costs associated with water treatment to
remove contaminants can be prohibitive.
8.3.2 Brine/Water
The most common form of system for domestic applications (now and probably in the future)
is the closed loop ground source system. Both shallow buried coils and boreholes are used
depending on local ground conditions. Heat is pumped to underfloor heating (mainly new
houses) or radiators (mainly retrofit systems).
Ground source heat pumps with DX coils are not generally used.
8.3.3 Exhaust air
Exhaust air heat pump heat recovery systems are widely used in swimming pools and leisure
centres to recover the latent heat content of moist air. They are not used in housing.
8.3.4
Air/Air
This is numerically the most common type of heat pump, in the form of packaged through the
wall/window units. They are mainly installed in commercial buildings as reversible air
conditioning units but rarely used for heating.
8.3.5 In-building heat pumps
In-building heat pumps work by transferring heat from areas that need cooling to areas that
need heating. The balance of the heating and cooling requirements is provided by a
conventional heating and cooling plant. There are examples of refrigerant based distribution
systems (variable refrigerant flow – VRF) and water based distribution systems e.g.
Versatemp.
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8.4 Common distribution channels
At the present state of the market, most of the domestic sales are going to consumers that have
some awareness of the technology, i.e. they may be people who are aware of the
environmental benefits of heat pumps and actively seek out the suppliers. Architects also play
a significant role as intermediary. There is little if any direct marketing effort from suppliers
or installers to end-users.
Simple systems may be installed by heating and plumbing or air conditioning engineers, but
more complex systems are installed directly by manufacturers/distributors or sub-contracted
installers.
The installation of ground loops is generally considered a specialist task and may be
undertaken by a different contractor from the internal parts of the heating system.
8.5 Vocational Education
There is practical training available for installers from colleges (as part of air conditioning
courses) and from manufacturers.
College courses are part of the system of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ). Air
conditioning courses may be split into several modules of one to three days duration covering
different issues, e.g. refrigerant handling. Achievement of the qualification is dependent on
assessment and examination. Admission to advanced NVQ courses may require entry
qualifications.
Manufacturers’ courses are orientated towards the practical installation of specific products,
although the general theory and operating principles are usually covered. A certificate of
attendance will normally be issued. Manufacturers’ courses do not generally require entry
qualifications but may suggest that relevant experience would be helpful.
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9 SWEDEN
9.1 Heating Systems
The most common heating systems for domestic use in Sweden are hydronic heating systems
and direct-acting electric radiators. Ducted air distribution systems are rare in the domestic
sector but used in commercial buildings. Previous to 1980 radiator systems used high
temperatures, typically 80/60, i.e. a supply temperature of 80°C and return temperature of
60°C at the design outdoor temperature. In 1984 new building regulations were issued where,
it was prescribed that hydronic heating systems must be designed in such a way that the
supply temperature at the design outdoor temperature does not exceed 55°C. Many of the old
systems could also be adjusted to these temperature levels because they were oversized. Other
actions such as extra insulation of the house also helped to decrease the temperature levels.
Thus the most common temperature levels today are 55/45 at the design outdoor temperature.
At present under floor heating systems are gaining market share, probably due to comfort and
aesthetical reasons. These systems are typically designed for 35/28 at design outdoor
temperature. When a direct-acting electric heating system is changed to hydronic systems, a
fan-coil system is the most convenient choice. These systems also work with low
temperatures and will probably be more common in the future since the Swedish policy is to
decrease the use of direct-acting electric heating.
9.2 Energy prices
Figure 40 shows the development of energy prices in Sweden since 1970. The figure reveals a
similar pattern to other European countries. In contrast to most other European countries, the
price of electric heating has ever since the seventies been in the same order as heating
provided by conventional oil boilers. This is perhaps the single most important factor that heat
pumps have had such a great success in Sweden.
16
Electricity
14
Oil*
euro cent/kWh
12
10
8
6
4
2
*75% boiler efficiency
0
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
Figure 40 Energy prices in Sweden 1970-2004
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9.3 Heat pump market development
The market for domestic heat pumps in Sweden has during the last decade gone through an
enormous development (see figure 41). The total sales of domestic heat pumps reached over
66 thousand units 2004 (Swedish Heat Pump Association 2005). On top of that somewhere in
between 40 000-50 000 reversible air/air heat pumps, (of which only a minor part is included
in the statistics compiled by the Swedish Heat Pump Association) were sold 2004. All
together more than 100 thousand heat pumps were thus sold in Sweden 2004, a country
consisting of approximately 1.6 million single-family houses. Due to escalating price of oil
and electricity in conjunction with the increase on energy related taxes the market for heat
pumps continuous to grow at a high pace.
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
20
04
20
02
20
00
19
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
0
Figure 41 Heat pump market development in Sweden 1994-2004 (Swedish Heat Pump Association
2005)
At the beginning of the eighties generous subsidies and a lot of talk about energy crises made
it easy to market heat pumps. Subsidies were given in the form of interest free state loans.
This was a time when the market was invaded by a large number of fortune seekers, offering
products often of poor quality and promises of enormous savings, which the installations
never could achieve. All this led to a large number of failed installations and the market lost
almost all credibility.
1984 the market reached a peak, but then because of poor reputation the market was stricken
at the same time as the subsidies were withdrawn and the market dropped. The fact that oil
prices at this time were decreasing contributed to the market decline. Only a very small
number of manufacturers survived this period. It wasn’t until the end of the eighties when
Sweden was reaching the top of the economic boom that the market recovered. This was
helped by increasing oil prices and the fact there were a large number of houses being built.
Then a recession hit Sweden in the beginning of the nineties, people had little hope for the
future and even less interest for heat pumps. There were hardly any houses built and the
market dropped once again. The change in sales trend is a result of the ending recession and a
successful heat pump competition that received a lot of good publicity. An interesting
observation from the statistics shows that the types of systems have changed a lot during the
last two decades. If we look at figure 26, representing the situation 1984, we find that
air/water systems were dominating and that air/air units were as little as 2%. At this time there
were as many as 9% of open liquid loop/water systems. This type since then has nearly
disappeared.
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9%
38%
21%
Air/Water 38%
2%
30%
Air/Air 2%
Exhaust Air 30%
Closed Liquid Loop/Water 21%
Open Liquid Loop/Water 9%
Figure 42 Market situation 1984 (Source: SVEP)
The picture of the situation in 1990 (figure 43) is completely different. At this time exhaust air
heat pumps have reached a market share of 44%, but the most interesting observation is that
air/air units have gained such high figures and that the air/water units minimal, because of
numerous installations that failed in the beginning of the eighties.
9%
Air/Water 2%
2%
45%
Air/Air 45%
Exhaust Air 44%
44%
Closed Liquid Loop/Water 9%
Figure 43 Market situation 1990 (Source: SVEP)
If we then look at the current situation (figure 44), the picture has changed again. The closed
liquid/water systems, of which the ground source heat pumps are the major part, completely
dominates, followed by exhaust air heat pumps. As we’ve seen it’s only the exhaust air heat
pumps that have maintained a stable market share over this period. The market share for
exhaust air heat pumps is expected to increase in the future as the new construction is
believed to finally pick up speed and due to the fact that the replacement market for older
exhaust air heat pumps will start to grow.
9%
9%
Air/Water
Air/Air
59%
23%
Exhaust air
Closed liquid loop/Water
Figure 44 Market situation 2004 (Source: SVEP)
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9.4 Building standards
There are altogether 1 775 000 single family houses in Sweden. The building stock is fairly
old, 43% of the dwellings were built before 1961. New construction has been extremely low
ever since the last recession in the beginning of the nineties. The total number of new
constructed single-family houses 2002 was 7227. In comparison, the total number of new
single-family houses in 1975 was 47 057. Strict building regulations combined with a high
degree of energy awareness have led to the fact that those new constructed buildings are well
insulated, thus leading to low heating demand. The tight envelope of the new buildings raises
the demand for controlled ventilation. As a result exhaust air heat pumps are prevalent in new
dwellings. The majority of the building stock though, still relies on natural ventilation. Except
for the buildings heated by direct electricity, hydronic radiators are still the dominating form
of heat distribution within the building. Air distribution systems in dwellings are very rare.
Heat pumps are today installed in more than 90% of the new single family houses. The low
rate of new construction however, implies that the biggest market potential stems from the
existing building stock.
The following chart shows the heat demand per square meter and year for buildings, which
were typical for their construction year. Data provided by the Mid Sweden University.
Year of building construction
Heat demand
kWh/m²a
Till 1950
176
From 1950 till 1965
164
From 1965 till 1975
152
From 1975 till 1980
128
From 1980 till 1990
120
Since 1990
108
Table 6 Average annual heat demand in Sweden Data provided by The Mid Sweden University
9.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology
As in the other countries during the oil price shock in the eighties people were looking for
alternatives to conventional oil boilers. The installation of heat pumps became an interesting
alternative, because of the low operating cost due to low electricity prices and the relatively
high cost of oil, heat pumps were also a fully automatic heating system and the required space
for heat pump installation was little. The implementation of financial incentives by the
government for replacing direct electric or fuel heating was also an incentive for the heat
pump technology. The environmental policy of Europe was also a driving force. Under the
pressure of environmental requirements and in particular the reduction of CO2 released into
atmosphere, the development of the heat pump market has, since the beginning of the 1990s,
been given a fresh impetus.
9.6 What were the main barriers to overcome
The predominance of water type central heating systems and direct electrical systems without
hydronic heat distribution and the low degree of development in air conditioning systems in
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Europe meant that the conditions for replacing old systems by heat pumps were technically
difficult and that the qualification of plumbers for installing these type of products were nonexistent. Furthermore there was no ecological awareness for reducing energy consumption
and for the use of renewable energy systems in the population. People could not imagine how
such a machine could heat the house with the cold earth and they were sceptical about the new
technology.
9.7 Way to success
Governmental subsidies were given from the year 1981 to the year 1991 financial grants for
heat pump installations were available. The form of subsidies has varied in type and size
during the years. In the 1980s, subsidies were available for single and multifamily housing
facilities, but during the 90s they have been available mostly for single family dwellings.
Sweden has had the following types of subsidies over the years:
•
•
•
•
Loans with special interest subventions for single and multifamily houses
Cash contributions to multifamily housing installation, dependent on the number of
installations
Cash contributions to multifamily housing installation, dependent on the total costs of
installation
Income tax reduction for single house residents equivalent to a certain percentage of the
total cost up to a fixed amount (renovation subsidy)
The different subsidies have had a different effect on the market. The first two types aimed to
increase the number of heat pump installation while the third aimed to stimulate the
conversion of direct electric heated buildings into water loop systems and the fourth
subvention aimed to stimulate the overall building industry and was valid for any kind of
investment concerning the building fabric or the heating system.
The subsidies contributed to an increase of heat pumps sales, but they had to be carefully
drafted. If the subsidies in Sweden had been drafted with better judgement from the beginning
the effects could have been much more powerful and the establishment and growth of a
functioning heat pump industry would have been faster.
Positive effects of subsidies:
The largest positive effect of subsidies is probably the publicity and the focus it gives to the
product and the increased activity it brings to the entire market. When a subsidy is introduced,
media coverage is stimulated. This brings additional coverage on the television, newspaper
and radio. Professional literature and monthly/weekly magazines write editorial texts about
product marketing in a very positive and professional way. The government which is
responsible for the subsidy distributes information to the public. This is done, when the
subsidy is introduced, during the time it is available and before it expires, through mailing and
in the mass media. This information plays a very important role for a product that is new and
still not well tried. It creates a governmental-acceptance of it. Once the product is authorised
by the government and the authorities, the lack of confidence and the scepticism is diminished
radically. The market players, the manufacturers and the installers are also activated when
there are subsidies for their products. It makes them more focused on the specific product,
inventing new forms of marketing, pulling the market onwards through information seminars,
direct mailing and advertising. The non monetary effects of a subsidy, described above, are
probably the most important to the market introduction of a new product or technology.
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Without any doubt the subsidy itself helps to increase sales. The investment cost becomes
lower and the profitability gets higher, which brings greater business opportunities. The
subsidies also work in a somewhat irrational manner, meaning that the subsidies are highly
valued in the eyes of the investor. In other words, the customer buys the product because he
feels that he can not "afford" to miss out on a governmental subsidy. When a subsidy is
introduced it always involves certain rules and regulations. This creates a need for
standardisation/regulations for the product which, in most cases is positive for the long-term
development on the market. The sooner these regulations are introduced the better, provided
that they are relevant.
Disadvantages with subsidies
Subsidies also have a lot of disadvantages. When a subsidy is introduced the whole chain of
market players are subject to great stress. The manufacturers are faced with sudden high
demand on volume; retailers, consultants and installers get very busy. This causes a lack of
products and trained personnel within the whole market chain. And the quality suffers. The
rising demand also lures less serious parties, "gold diggers", to the line of business. The
construction of a subsidy can help sell a product or a system that would not be interesting for
the market without subsidies. lf this happens, the boost provided by the subsidy will work
only to prolong the continued market introduction. An example is that if sufficiently large
subsidies are given, the dimensioning of the heat pumps will be a hundred percent of the heat
demand. When the subsidy expires there will be no market/profitability for the systems that
have evolved during the time of subsidies. The market players must once more undertake
adaptations to the new situation and the timeframe for sustainable growth will be postponed.
Rumors on subsidies, changes in subsidies or diffuse announcements on the subsidies often
cause large interruptions in the market introduction of heat pumps. A frightening example of
this was displayed in Sweden in 1998. In February of that year, the authorities announced that
subsidies for heat pump and bio-energy installations would be introduced. What they did not
say, on the other hand, was which conditions that applied, what products that were included,
how large the subsidies would be and during what time period they would be valid. Not until
the month of May, four months later, were the conditions published. The consequences were
devastating. All sales on products related to this ceased during this period. Many companies
went bankrupt or placed in severe economical difficulties. Who would buy a heat pump now
if they think that there will be subsidies to do so in the near future?
Recommendations
However it takes a period of 5 - 10 years to create a market. Therefore it is necessary that the
subsidy is valid over a long time period. The market players must know the conditions and be
given an opportunity to develop products, marketing/sales channels and educate installers and
service technicians over a reasonable timeframe. The introduction of a subsidy must be loud
and clear. When a subsidy is introduced, all parts of it must be described. What is the nature
of the subsidy? How large amount is it? When is it valid? For how long is it valid? Who will
receive the subsidy? How does one apply? The transition from a period of a certain subsidy to
another or to a time without subsidies must be very smooth, and with great notice. For a
subsidy to have the intended effect it must be neither too large nor too small. Too large an
amount will create a great change in the demand of the product that the market players will
not be able to deal with. Too small an amount, on the other hand, will not give the boost that
is intended. A subsidy should be just large enough to give reasonable profitability to a heat
pump installation to a real estate owner. Judging from the experiences in Sweden a heat pump
installation should have a pay-back period of 5~7 years compared to other heating systems, in
order to be attractive.
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Alternatives to subsidies
• Legislation, massive training of the market players and extensive long-term
marketing of the technology can be alternatives to subsidies to hasten the market
transformation for the heat pumping techniques.
•
Other governmental support The Swedish government has followed an active heat
pump development policy. Beside the subsidies, the Swedish government was also
active in the field of communication and Information. Efforts were made, not only in
technical publications, but also and above all in the general press and on television, an
effort which had a very strong impact on market development. In Sweden, heat
pumps are now considered a «natural heating» solution.
•
Swedish heat pump association The setting up of the national heat pump association
SVEP in the year 1980 has played the key role in the development of the heat pump
market in Sweden. This association includes all important market partners (equipment
manufacturers, installers, etc.). SVEP was responsible for lobbying, information,
dissemination and the promotion of quality. This quality promotion has resulted in the
setting up of a label for the installation of quality systems and a training package in
the sizing and installation of heat pumps. Furthermore they have developed a very
innovative measure for provide consumer confidence in the new technology. They
offered a kind of all -inclusive insurance for heat pumps. So the consumers have no
expenses if problems arise with the new technology and therefore take no risk with
the new technology. The heat pump association was also linked closely to the
installers association.
•
Electricity utility Vattenfall The electricity utility Vattenfall was especially dedicated
in the field of heat pumps. They have financed manufacturers for research and
development in the field of heat pump technology and they worked together with the
energy engineer association and the plumbing association. Furthermore they have
accompanied the movement through the setting up of a heat pump promotion
program, and providing financial incentives with a view to reducing investment costs.
9.8 Current situation market situation
The Swedish heat pump market is very strong at the moment. Nearly 40 thousand units were
sold in the year 2002 and there are no signs of market decline, in fact the market has shown
strong growth ever since 1995. As previously mentioned the Swedish building stock of singlefamily houses is old with relatively high demands for heating. This fact gives the opportunity
for the relatively expensive ground source heat pumps to become more cost effective than the
cost of ever-rising bills from electricity- and oil suppliers. The Swedish heat pump market is
currently prospering as oil burners and electric boilers are replaced by heat pumps at a high
rate. Substitute products such as district heating and wood pellet burners that benefits from
lower initial cost, challenge the heat pump. As for new construction, exhaust air heat pumps
offer the most cost effective alternative and are common in new houses. The Swedish heat
pump market is now self-sustaining and has reached a level where heat pump programs
initiated by authorities are welcomed but not indispensable. It has however been a bumpy ride
for the manufacturers that have endured the market development. The preferred system
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solution has evolved over the years. Today we see that integrated ground source heat pumps
(unit including domestic hot water container and distribution pumps) dominate the
refurbishment segment and exhaust air heat pumps dominate the segment of new construction.
Swedish heat pump associations
There are two heat pump associations in Sweden, SVEP and SEV. The two heat pump
associations are together engaging more than 700 member companies. In addition to
manufacturers and importers of heat pumps the two associations consist of installers and
producers of heat pump accessories. The heat pump associations are responsible for
lobbying, dissemination of information and training of installers.
Swedish training scheme - certification
Target groups for the Swedish education scheme are mainly installers. The duration of a
training course is 5 full days, but there is also a distance learning option. This course includes
a one-day seminar, one-day laboratory and the rest is done via Internet. The head of the
training scheme is the Mid Sweden University, Härnösand. The subjects are environmental
topics, building constructions, refrigeration technique, heat pump technique (which includes
heat sources, indirect and direct systems, collectors, sizing, heat pump/distribution system,
domestic hot water, control principals, installation, service and maintenance, product
specifications), heating and cooling, calculation and design and additional law and
regulations. At the end of the course participants must pass a test for certification.
Existing heat pump labels
There are two labeling systems in Sweden today, the P-mark, which is a quality label and the
Swan which is an eco-label.
1. The P-label
The P–mark is a quality mark that has been developed by the SP, The Swedish National
Testing and Research Institute together with the Swedish heat pump associations and
manufacturers. To receive the label the product must fulfil:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Efficiency demands (COP at certain operating points)
Efficiency demands when heating domestic hot water (if applicable)
The Swedish Refrigeration Code
The Swedish Building Regulations
Noise levels according to the Swedish Building Regulations
Demands for CE-labelling, both for electricity and pressure vessels
Demands on the information in the manuals and installation instructions
Demands on the quality of the manufacturing; this is controlled by surveillance
inspections
2. The Swan label
The Swan is the official Nordic Eco label, introduced by the Nordic Council of Ministers. The
Swan logo demonstrates that a product is a good environmental choice. The green symbol is
available for around 60 product groups for which it is felt that eco labelling is needed and will
be beneficial. The Swan checks that products fulfil certain criteria using methods such as
samples from independent laboratories, certificates and control visits.
•
Noise
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The refrigerant
The secondary refrigerant
Plastic details
Surface treatments
Packaging material
Efficiency
The information material
Requirements on efficiency
Requirements on training of the installer
9.9 Electrical power generation
The electrical power generation in Sweden is mainly done by hydro and nuclear power
stations. Hydro energy covers 54% of the electricity production of Sweden, nuclear power has
37%, only 6% of the Swedish power generation is done by fossil fuels and the remaining 3%
is covered by other power stations. Because of this splitting the Swedish electricity is
relatively CO2 neutral, which is a good ecological argument for using heat pumps. In figure
30 the proportions of Swedish energy generation are demonstrated.
Gas 0,4%
Hydro power 40%
Coal 3,3%
Wind 0,5%
Nuclear 49,5%
Oil 3,2%
Biomass 3,1%
Figure 45 Power generation in Sweden 2003 (Source: Swedish Energy Agency)
Subsidies
The Swedish heat pump market is now self-sustaining and has reached a level where
governmental heat pump programs are welcomed but not indispensable.
Comparison of operating costs
Official energy prices are evaluated annually by the Swedish Energy Agency. The table below
reveal relevant net energy prices 2004 (all taxes included) for single family houses with 20
MWh heating demand
Direct electricity
Heat pump (SPF=2,5)
District heating
Oil
Biomass
euro cents/kWh heating
9,8
6,3
6,6
9,1
5,7
Table 7 Operating costs for heating systems (Source: Swedish Energy Agency 2004)
9.10 Future perspectives
The Swedish heat pump market today is very successful, Sweden is one of the countries
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where the technology is not only a curiosity. The heat pump technology is a real competitor to
conventional heating systems. The Swedish market is in a position were it is self sustainable,
without the need for governmental support. The heat pump technology is today a
“conventional” heating system and nobody needs convincing about the efficiency and the
functionality of this technology. Therefore, in the future the heat pump technology would also
be an important part of the Swedish heating market; even though the heat pump would receive
more competition from other alternative heating systems (e.g. biomass).
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