URBAN UNDERGROUND INFRASTRUCTURE AND CLIMATE
CHANGE: OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS
Nikolai Bobylev
Alexander von Humboldt Fellow
Berlin Institute of Technology and
Russian Academy of Sciences
nikolaibobylev@gmail.com
Summary
Population growth, urbanization, and global warming are the most significant factors that govern
global environmental change. The paper analyses impacts of this change on urban physical
infrastructure (UPI), and focuses on urban underground infrastructure (UUI). UPI and UUI
provide a variety of services (e.g. utility, transport, storage, civil defence, flood protection).
Climate change impacts on UUI are considered through analysis of infrastructure characteristics
like interdependence, convergence, vulnerability, and sustainability. The paper identifies
immediate and perspective climate change related threats to UUI, discusses UUI adaptation to
climate change; and how UUI can help cities to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
Key Words: Urban physical infrastructure, Urban underground infrastructure, Critical
infrastructure, Climate Change, Adaptation.
Urban underground infrastructure and climate change
Fifth Urban Research Symposium 2009
URBAN UNDERGROUND INFRASTRUCTURE AND CLIMATE
CHANGE: OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS
I.
INTRODUCTION: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
Population growth, urbanization, and global warming are the most significant factors that govern
global environmental change. We will start with introduction of the recent facts and projections
of global environmental change, continue with analysis of the impacts of this change on urban
physical infrastructure (UPI), and then focus on urban underground infrastructure (UUI).
In 2008 about half of the world’s population (about three billion people) has been living in urban
areas. It is estimated that in the next twenty-five years almost two billion more people will move
into cities (World Urbanization Prospects, 2007). As 95 percent of population growth occurs in
developing world, 10 new megacities will appear in developing counties by 2010. Developed
countries continue to urbanize at just a bit lower rate than developing ones, in spite of much less
population growth. Angel et al, 2005, estimated increase in built-up area in industrialised
countries (from 300000 square kilometres in year 2000 to 700000 by 2030), and in developing
ones (from 250000 square kilometres in year 2000 to 820000 by 2030).
Analysis of the above data suggests that urbanization in terms of global physical city area
expansion (276% by year 2030) will happen much quicker than cities’ population growth (66%
by 2030). This huge gap can be explained by urban growth in developed world, as well as rising
living standards in developing world. Both: growth in built-up area and population growth imply
a need to significantly expand UPI.
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) names the following effects caused by climate
change: greater frequency of heat waves; increased intensity of storms, floods and droughts;
rising sea levels; a more rapid spread of disease; and loss of biodiversity (IPCC, 2007). In the
context of impacts on UPI extreme weather events and sea level rise (SLR) pose the major
threats.
Recent data shows that SLR should be considered as some meters in the next 100 years. World
Bank suggests that for precautionary planning purposes, SLR in the range of 1 to 3 meters should
be regarded as realistic (Dasgupta et al 2007).
Nicholls, 2004, estimates that by 2080 up to 561 million people (under A2, 0.28 meter SLR
scenario) could be living in coastal flood plains (area below 1 in 1000 year flood level). Mc
Granahan et al, 2007, estimated that over 600 million people (360 million of whom are urban
dwellers) are living in the less than 10 meters elevated above sea level coastal zone.
Comparison of these two findings suggests that a number of populations in coastal areas affected
during extreme weather events like flooding could be much higher than 600 million.
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Currently almost two-thirds of the world’s cities with more than 5 million inhabitants fall in the
10 meter elevated zone, at least partly (Mc Granahan et al, 2007). Directly impacted by SLR
urban land area constitutes 4.68 % of total world urban area in case of 5 meters SLR scenario
(Dasgupta et al, 2007). However it is likely that over the years this figure will increase due to
strong population growth in coastal zones, which is driven by urban sprawl, growing demand for
waterfront properties and coastal resorts development (IPCC, 2007).
Coastal areas have quite high density of physical infrastructure. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
can be used as a proxy that reflects density of infrastructure. Coastal areas generate about 6% of
World’s GDP on about 1% of the area.
II. URBAN PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
1.
Description and characteristics
Infrastructure includes ‘physical’ (such as water, sanitation, energy, transportation and
communication systems) and ‘institutional’ (such as shelter, health care, food supply, security,
and emergency protection) components.
Urban Infrastructure (UI) is a vital component of a city; it includes utility and transport networks,
water and flood management structures, underground networks, etc. Urban Physical
Infrastructure (UPI) is presented by bridges, roads, pipelines, transmission networks, etc.
UPI as a whole has two notable characteristics: interdependence and convergence. Both of these
characteristics trend to increase during continuing UPI evolution (e.g. DTI Forersight, 2006). By
UPI evolution we mean technological progress and increase in diversity and complexity of
infrastructure as a whole.
Interdependence means that service provided by one infrastructure is used by another
infrastructure, rather than its end users. Example: electricity line provides power for
telecommunication equipment as well as to households, who are end users of electricity but not
the electricity for a telecommunication line. The above example illustrates functional
interdependence. Physical interdependence means physical connections of structural elements of
different infrastructures. Example: storm water sewers can be connected or adjacent to motor/rail
transport tunnels. This physical interdependence increases vulnerability of both infrastructures to
e.g. floods, accidents with chemical leakages, geotechnical failures.
Convergence means that several originally independent infrastructures or services converge into
one physical infrastructure. Examples: (1) “triple play” offers, where the operator provides at the
same time via one cable telephony, internet and access to broadcast services (Infrastructure to
2030, 2006); (2) urban underground collectors, which include sewer, electricity lines, and water
pipes; (3) a storm water management and road tunnel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, which
normally functions as a double deck motorway, however during flash floods the tunnel is closed
for traffic and functions as a storm water collector (SMART Project, 2006).
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Many of the urban infrastructure elements can be considered as critical ones, which mean that
city as a system depends on uninterrupted provision of their services. For instance, artificial
coastal defences play a critical role in cities of Tokyo, Shanghai, Hamburg, Rotterdam, New
Orleans and London (Nicholls et al, 2007). In cities of Saint Petersburg and Venice big projects
of food defence barriers are under development.
The G-Cans project (G-Cans, 2006) in Tokyo, Japan is a remarkable example of Critical
Infrastructure (CI). The G-Cans is an underground infrastructure for prevention of flooding
during rain and typhoon seasons (Figure 1). As extreme weather events that cause flooding will
become more frequent due to climate change, we may see more development of similar storm
water infrastructure in flood prone regions.
Figure 1: G-Cans project. Tokyo, Japan.
Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Kanto area maintenance bureau Edogawa river
office tailrace section.
2.
Observed impacts on UPI
Observed impacts of changing climate on UPI can be considered in two categories: (1) extreme
weather events that resulted in physical damage, and (2) prolonged unusual weather conditions
that affected operations and/or resulted in physical damage.
The majority of damage to UPI has been done so far by impacts that fall into the first category.
Presently it is impossible to establish a direct link between a concrete extreme weather event
(e.g. hurricane Katrina) and anthropogenic impact on the environment. Therefore we refrain here
from further discussing examples in the first category of impacts.
Climate change impacts on UPI that fall into the second category can be directly associated with
human activity with more certainty. This at least concerns local climate and urban heat waves.
Three examples of prolonged unusual weather conditions that impacted UPI are given below.
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Impacts of 2003 heat wave in Europe: In France, the cold storage systems of 25-30% of all foodrelated establishments were found to be inadequate (Létard et al., 2004). Electricity demand
increased with the high heat levels; but electricity production was undermined by the facts that
the temperature of rivers rose, reducing the cooling efficiency of power plants (also nuclear) and
that flows of rivers were diminished; six power plants were shut down completely (Létard et al.,
2004). The crisis illustrated how infrastructure can be unable to deal with complex, relatively
sudden environmental challenges (Lagadec, 2004).
Impacts of an urban heat wave in London, UK: During prolonged heat waves, the difference in
temperature between central London and the green and rural areas surrounding the city can be as
much as 9 degrees Celsius (Prasad et al, 2009). The reasons for heat wave are (1) absorption of
solar energy by buildings during the day and their radiation at night, and (2) creation of heat in
the city (minor factor). Urban heat wave deteriorates air quality and increases the amount of
electricity used for cooling in the summer months.
Impacts on Russian Arctic towns: Structural failures in transportation and industrial
infrastructure are becoming more common as a result of permafrost melting in northern Russia,
the effects being more serious in the discontinuous permafrost zone (ACIA, 2004)
3.
Projected impacts on UPI
Industrial sectors, including infrastructures, are generally thought to be less vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change than other sectors, such as agriculture (IPCC, 2007). Increased
temperatures and changes in precipitation can contribute to increases in water demand, for
drinking, for cooling systems and for garden watering (Kirshen, 2002). The effect of climate
change on sanitation is likely to be less than on water supply (Wilbanks et al, 2007). Sewage
treatment works are exposed to damage during floods, SLR will affect the functioning of sea
outfalls (Wilbanks et al, 2007).
UPI can be most likely adversely impacted by climate change, as summarised in table 1.
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Table 1: Climate change impacts on UPI
Climate-related impacts
Floods
Sea level rise, and subsequent rise of surface
and groundwater levels
Extreme temperatures (air and water)
Extreme weather events
Salt water intrusion into fresh water areas
Change in flora and fauna (invasive species)
Changing average temperatures
4.
Examples of UPI affected
UPI inundation, roads erosion
UPI structural damage, soil erosion
Ventilation and indoor climate control systems
Variety of structural damages
Water supply intakes, corrosion of structures
Water supply intakes
Structural damage of pipelines in permafrost
regions; changing of operation mode (average
and peak demands)
UPI evolution in the context of global change
Table 2 analyses how UPI characteristics, (Interdependence, Convergence, Critical facilities,
Vulnerability, and Sustainability) can or should change under external factors of changing
environment (urbanization and climate). Table 2 analyses how UPI characteristics can change
given need to adapt and mitigate climate change.
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Table 2: UPI characteristics and factors of global change
UPI
characteristic
Evolution associated with
urbanization
Interdependence
Increase (current trend)
Convergence
Increase (current trend)
Critical facilities -
Vulnerability
Sustainability
Increase due to higher
number and volume of
infrastructures and their
interdependence
Increase due to higher
volume of infrastructures and
opportunities for
optimisation of their
performance e.g.
convergence
Evolution associated
with adaptation to
climate change
Aim: to decrease due
to increase in
vulnerability
Aim: to increase due
to opportunities for
resource saving
Aim: to increase
number due to need to
respond to extreme
weather events
Will increase due to
extreme weather
events
Will decrease due to
need to adjust to new
climate (resource
expenditure on
adaptation)
Opportunities for
climate change
mitigation
-
Can save resources
like energy
None
-
Sustainable, well
planned
infrastructure can
help to mitigate
climate change
Table 2 reveals some differently directed trends or conflicts of interests, such as:
• It is a trend that interdependence of infrastructures increases (see section I), however
climate change stresses associated with vulnerability of infrastructure require decreasing
interdependence.
• Sustainability of infrastructures increases due to technological progress driven by
urbanization and a need to provide more resource-effective infrastructures. However
climate change might jeopardise this trend due to need of making adjustments in already
existing infrastructures in a limited period of time, which requires extra resources.
Convergence and Sustainability characteristics needed to be increased under both, urbanization
and climate factors. We expect that convergence of infrastructures is going to be a stronger trend
under climate change factor.
Number of critical facilities will increase across infrastructures due to (1) increased vulnerability
to extreme weather impacts of existing structures, and (2) need to provide more emergency
response facilities (these facilities are considered as critical ones).
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III. URBAN UNDERGROUND INFRASTRUCTURE
Underground infrastructure can be defined as a set of below-surface-level structures,
interconnected physically or functionally. Urban underground space (UUS) encompasses
structures of various functional purposes: storage (e.g., food, water, oil, industrial goods, and
waste, including hazardous waste); industry (e.g., power plants); transport (e.g., railways, motor
roads, and pedestrian tunnels); utilities and communications (e.g., water, sewerage, gas, electric
cables); public (e.g., shopping centres, hospitals, civil defence structures); and private and
personal (e.g., car garage). Many underground structures (e.g. water supply facilities) can be
considered as critical ones.
Urban underground space (UUS) has been extensively utilized. Figure 2 gives examples from
three cities of UUS use by function. Numerical UUS volumes are presented in Appendix. In
many cities underground space at a depth of 5 to 10 meters is very congested. Among
underground structures that have significant volume are multipurpose urban public structures and
underground public transportation system. Multipurpose structures most often encompass
motorcar parking and shopping areas and have depth up to 20 meters. Metro tunnels are found at
a depth of up to 60 meters.
Figure 2: UUS use by function
Source: Bobylev, 2009.
Impacts associated with climate change on urban underground infrastructure (UUI) are
particularly interesting and important subject to study due to a number of reasons:
(1)
UUI includes many critical facilities, upon which life of the city depends (e.g. civil
defence, water treatment);
(2)
UUI can help mitigate impacts of climate change on the urban environment (e.g. by
providing stable temperature mode in its premises);
(3)
UUI is vulnerable to impacts of climate change (e.g. floods).
UUI can be quantified by estimating its volume. By UUI volume we mean physical space below
surface level that UUI occupies. Figure 3 presents relationship between population densities in
urban areas and volumes of UUI. Figure 3 refers to developed countries cities; in developing
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countries UUI volumes are much lower. The relationship on figure 3 represents a direct
proportionality, which suggests that cities in developing countries will be actively developing
UUI. Currently existing underground construction technologies allow to develop UUI in almost
any geological conditions, thus financial constrains are the only obstacle for UUI growth in
developing world.
Figure 3: Relationship between population densities in urban areas and volumes of UUI.
UUI volume, million
cubic meters
Urban Underground Infrastructure Volume and
Population Density
100
Paris
80
60
40
20
Tokyo
Stockholm
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
population density, thousands of inhabitants per square
kilometer area
Source: Bobylev, 2009.
Underground facilities are very reliable structures from an engineering point of view. Thanks to
natural properties of soil, artificial underground structures can serve for centuries with a
minimum maintenance. UUI is much more vulnerable to external threats rather than to internal
ones (Bobylev, 2007). External threats include natural disasters, accidents, and military and
terror attacks. Structural failures are considered as internal threats. We will consider all threats
associated with climate change as external ones to UUI.
IV. ANALYSIS OF THREATS TO UUI
5.
Adverse impacts of climate change on UUI
Table 3 summarizes climate change related threats to UUI and describes possible consequences
of adverse external impacts on UUI caused by these threats. We also give an estimation of
vulnerability (the degree to which UUI can be affected by a climate change related threat) and
possible damage.
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Table 3: Climate change related threats to UUI and vulnerabilities.
Climate-related
Impacts on UUI
threat
Floods, Extreme rain Inundation of underground
fall
structures through open
structural elements, like
entrances,
sewers
or
ventilation shafts
Inundation of underground
structures through leakages
in retaining structure due to
high water pressure
Suffusion of surrounding
soil due to change in water
level during the flood
Sewers
and
rainwater
collectors
overcapacity
operation, which might
result in their structural
damage
Sea level rise, and Structural damage due to
subsequent rise of changing soil stress-strain
surface
and condition, “floating up” of
groundwater levels
underground structures
Extreme atmospheric Ventilation systems can
temperatures
become
temporary
not
operational.
Extreme wind
Ventilation shafts can be
structurally damaged
Vulnerability Damage
High
Structural damage is low;
damage to equipment is
high unless waterproofing
doors are used
Low
Low if leakages are not
continues
Low
Extremely high, up to
structural collapse
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium. High in case of
prolonged UUI
maintenance neglect
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Table 3 does not mention loss of land and UUI due to SLR. Extend of this loss would depend on
the level of sea rise and protective measures, which would require permanent structural UUI
changes, e.g. redesigning entrances of the UUI facilities.
Flooding appears to be the major threat to UUI. In the last decade of the 20th century, there have
been four cases when flooding of urban underground rail systems have caused damage worth
more than €10 million and numerous cases of lesser damage (Compton et al., 2002).
Climate change has the potential to increase flooding risks in cities in three ways: from the sea
(SLR and storm surges); from rainfall – for instance by heavier rainfall or rainfall that is more
prolonged than in the past; and from changes that increase river flows – for instance through
increased glacial melt (Satterthwaite, 2008).
Impact of a flood on UUI elements very much depends upon their physical strength, i.e. whether
they can withstand increased water flow. Sewers are the most threatened part of UUI. A city’s
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sewerage system can be combined or separated. Separated sewerage system divides household
sewers and rainwater ones. Rainwater sewers can be damaged by too high water velocities
during flood. Household sewerage is not supposed to transport rainwater, thus it can remain
unaffected. Cities with combined sewerage system faces higher flood vulnerability due to high
functional damage in case of sewerage becomes temporary not operational.
Climate change can aggravate damage to UUI from earthquakes. Underground structures are
quite resilient during earthquakes. However, UUI elements which are close to the surface are
likely to be damaged. Increased surface and groundwater level put additional stress on a near
surface zone of underground structures. Combination of an earthquake and high groundwater
level could result in cracks in retainer walls of an underground structure and its fast inundation.
Extreme weather events represent the major threat to UUI in a short term. SLR of some meters
represents the major threat to UUI in a long term. Major failures of underground structures due
to SLR are unlikely, minor damage is almost certain. This damage will be caused by exposure of
previously “dry” parts of underground structures to groundwater, and increased hydraulic
pressure to lower parts of the structures; both of these phenomena will result in leakages.
Leakages needed to be timely eliminated to avoid serious damage. Thus, SLR will require
increased spending on UUI maintenance.
6.
UUI adaptation to climate change
Adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to evolve in order to accommodate external changes
or to expand the range of variability with which it can cope (Wilbanks et al, 2007). We consider
UUI adaptation to climate change from two perspectives: (1) adaptation of UUI itself; and (2)
opportunities that UUI provides to help cities to adapt (section V).
Adaptation of UUI to climate change is its adjustment to new external conditions by means of
structural, technical, and managerial measures. Adaptation of UUI needed to be anticipatory, i.e.
take place before significant impacts of climate change are observed.
Structural measures to adapt UUI include strengthening waterproofing capacity of the structures,
rigor maintenance and upgrading of sewers for transporting overcapacity amount of storm water.
Storm water temporary storage underground tanks could be installed to mitigate impact of heavy
rain falls (Figure 4). Structures needed to be checked and if necessary repaired or modified to
withstand higher water pressure (and stronger wind in case of ventilation shafts).
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Figure 4: A storm water storage tank (right) adjacent to a sewer (left).
Source: Berliner Wasserbetriebe and Department of Urban Water Management, Berlin Institute of
Technology.
Technical measures to combat extreme weather events like floods include installing
waterproofing barriers (Figure 5) and doors; increasing capacity of pumps, including installation
of emergency reserve pumps in facilities inundation of which can bring extreme damage (e.g.
critical infrastructure facilities).
Figure 5: A vertical groove for installing a water barrier at the entrances to underground
stations in Tokyo, Japan (left); and a flood barrier in Venice, Italy (right).
Source: Nikolai Bobylev
Managerial measures include the whole complex of disaster risk management. It includes (1)
preparedness - identifying weak components of infrastructures, analysis of their vulnerabilities
and interdependences; and (2) emergency response measures.
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SLR represents a threat to UUI in low-lying areas in a long term. UUI cannot adapt to SLR
unless it has been planned with a surplus of capacity, or it needed to be modified and upgraded.
V. ANALYSIS OF OPPORTUNITIES THAT UUI PROVIDES
7.
Opportunities for climate change mitigation
Mitigation in the context of climate change means measures to reduce greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus ultimately the magnitude of climate change.
According to Tol, 2002, by 2100 global benefits of climate change (reduced heating) will be
about 0.75% of GDP and damages (increased cooling) will be approximately 0.45%.
Underground space can provide natural stable temperature conditions, and therefore placing
facilities underground can reduce the above mentioned damages. Thus, UUI provides energy
efficient services and enables continues long term use of low energy consumption facilities.
Another opportunity for reducing energy consumption with UUI is convergence of
infrastructures (see section II). Underground multi-purpose collectors can encompass water,
transport, electricity, and telecommunication infrastructures, thus reducing costs for installation
of underground facilities. The drawback of UUI convergence is reduction in reliability due to
interdependences of infrastructures.
8.
Opportunities for helping cities to adapt to climate change
The most general form of adaptation by infrastructures vulnerable to impacts of climate change
is investment in increased resilience, for instance in new sources of water supply for urban areas
(IPCC, 2007). UUI offers some significant opportunities that can help cities adapt to extreme
weather events. Borrowing terminology form the United Nations International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), UUI can help to mitigate impacts of earthquakes, floods, and
storms. By mitigation in this case we mean measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of
natural and technological hazards (UNISDR, 2008).
Primarily UUI can provide secure isolated environment for civil defence and emergency
response facilities, like control centres, temporary hospitals, storages. Stable temperature mode
in underground space is important advantage in a context of climate change, especially when
providing shelter during “urban heat waves”. Electricity infrastructure can avoid being damaged
by hurricanes if installed in underground collectors, rather than on above ground poles.
UUI plays a broader role in urban sustainably by providing an extra “layer” of infrastructure,
which helps to diversify a variety of risks to cities’ infrastructure as a whole.
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UUI can provide opportunities to mitigate specific hazards. G-Cans project can be one example
(section I); another one is “Flood control measures using underground rivers” in western part of
Tokyo (Prasad, 2009). This UUI will be constructed based on a comprehensive flood control
measure plan that includes measures for each river basin. In addition, the installation of
adjustment reservoirs (water storage tanks) along rivers is planned (Prasad, 2009).
VI. DISCUSSION
Predictions about UPI and UUI performance under changing environmental conditions in a
hundred years outlook face a great uncertainty. Two main factors constitute this uncertainty (1)
uncertainty about what concrete local weather effects climate change can trigger, and (2)
technological progress in infrastructure. Indeed, past experiences suggest that technological
change is highly unpredictable and can have far-reaching impacts on infrastructures (e.g. the
impact of mobile telephony on fixed line infrastructure) (Infrastructure to 2030, 2006).
Urbanization is a factor of global change which is much more certain, thus we can suggest that
UPI is bound to grow in the next decades.
Outlook for UPI in the context of global change reveals some contradictions which are explained
in the next paragraphs.
The first, a contradiction between trajectories for population growth in coastal areas resulting
subsequent need for UPI development, and UPI exposure to SLR. Should we discourage
urbanization of coastal zones, or should we plan and install UPI that is designed to fit perspective
environmental conditions?
The second, a contradiction between estimations for global drop or modest growth in
infrastructures expenditure and projected significant growth in a built up area. Table 4 shows
OECD estimations for selected global infrastructures expenditure.
Table 4: Estimated average annual world infrastructure expenditure (additions and renewal) for
selected sectors, 2000-30, as a percentage of world GDP.
Type of infrastructure
Road
Rail
Electricity
Water (only OECD
countries, Russia, China,
India and Brazil)
Approximate %
of world GDP
Years 2000-2010
0.38
0.09
0.22
1.01
Approximate %
of world GDP
Years 2020-2030
0.29
0.06
0.24
1.03
Source: OECD, 2006
14
Difference in average
annual infrastructure
expenditure (as % of GDP)
-23%
-33%
+9%
+2%
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Fifth Urban Research Symposium 2009
As described in section I, global urban area expansion is estimated as 276% by year 2030,
accompanied by cities’ population growth of 66% by 2030. One can argue about precision of
predictions, but there is a clear discrepancy between future demand for UPI and its actual
provision (as seen from table 4). Cities’ adaptation to climate change is likely to require
increased spending on existing UPI and its new development.
VII. CONCLUSION
UUI should be fully considered in the analysis of climate change impacts on urban areas. This
proposition is justified by the following factors:
• UUI is a significant part of UPI;
• UUI contains many critical facilities;
• UUI can help cities to mitigate and adapt to climate change by providing stable
temperature mode on its premises and natural protection for CI;
• UUI is highly vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change like increased frequency
of floods and SLR.
Extreme weather events represent major threat to UUI worldwide in a short term, and SLR
threatens UUI on up to 5% of world urban area in a long term.
Analysis of UPI and UUI development trends (like interdependence, convergence, and
sustainability) reveals “conflicts of interests” between urban growth, particularly in coastal areas,
and needs for adaptation to adverse impacts of climate change. Furthermore, analysis of
projections for world expenditure for infrastructure development and growth of built up areas
reveals a huge gap between needs and actual provision of UPI. Climate change will forth
additional spending on maintenance of existing and constructing new UPI, including UUI.
We conclude that estimation and especially quantification of urbanization and climate change
impacts on UPI faces great uncertainty due to lack of statistics and research on the issue. We are
adamant that UUI preparedness for climate change is critical. We urge more research on UPI and
UUI to provide policy and planning guidance for adapting urban growth to global environmental
change.
VIII. ACNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the contribution of the Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation, which provided financial support for conducting this research.
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X. APPENDIX
UUS use by function, millions cubic meters
Function/city
Utilities
Transport
Other (industry, commercial public space, basements of private
houses and car parking)
Total
Paris
Stockholm Tokyo
12.2
30.1
51.7
4.6
5
1.7
1.4
10
6.6
94.0
11.3
18.0
The data on UUS volumes and its use by function was collected by the author in 2004-2006 with
the help of Daniel Morfeldt (Sweden); Pierre Duffaut (France); Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport, and Tokyo Metropolitan Government (Japan).
Further explanations about the data interpretation and sources, including acknowledgements, can
be found in:
17
Urban underground infrastructure and climate change
Fifth Urban Research Symposium 2009
1. Bobylev, Nikolai (2009) Mainstreaming Sustainable Development into a City’s Master
Plan: a Case of Urban Underground Space Use. Land Use Policy, Elsevier.
doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.02.003.
2. Bobylev, Nikolai (2008) Urbanization and environmental security: Infrastructure
Development, Environmental Indicators, and Sustainability. In: P.H. Liotta et al. (eds.),
Environmental Change and Human Security, NATO Science Series: IV: Earth and
Environmental Sciences, Springer Science + Business Media B.V. ISBN 978-1-40208550-5. pp. 203-216.
3. Bobylev, Nikolai (2006) Report on Environmental Assessment of Urban Underground
Infrastructure, University of Tokyo, United Nations University. Tokyo.
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