A Canadian Perspective:
An Ocean Policy Examination ©
Author: Allan Gowan-Smith, B.A (Distinction), B.Sc., M.S. (in progress)
Class: Coastal Policy
Professor: Steffan W. Schmidt
2003
©Allan Gowan-Smith. All rights reserved. You must cite the author.
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Abstract
The Canadian perception of the oceans that surround it and the policy that
Canada has is unique from other countries in the world. This paper articulates and
evaluates Canadian policy regarding the oceans that surround it.
Canada’s current ocean “vision” is different from that of other countries of the
world as a result of varied population, diverse economic interests and large land mass.
In Canada the “vision” takes form from two key documents Canada’s Oceans Act
and Canada’s Oceans Strategy (COS).
These materials have been examined along with a Canadian policy perception
study to define an accurate Canadian Policy Perception (CPP). This allows one to
arrive at a general inclusive consensus on how typical Canadians value their oceans.
There appears to be agreement in a general sense in terms of environmental
outlook in principles of sustainability among Canadians although there are issues
regarding a consensus on a CPP “national sense” vs. CPP “local sense”. The
limitations of this paper are also addressed.
This paper will move beyond the general ideas that have been established and
look at the policies and operational framework that defines Canadian policy as well in
design and real-life.
Keywords: policy, oceans, sustainable development, management, Canada, policy
analysis, vision, coastal, public opinion, resource, public perception, Canada’s Oceans
Strategy (COS), Integrated Management
Introduction
This paper articulates the Canadian treatment of its oceans in the future. It
will provide an accurate overview of Canada’s ocean policy. It is not intended to be
the definitive text on policy but rather will use the overview to address the
environmental sustainability issues that involve Canada’s oceans.
When completed the paper will provide a glimpse into Canada’s vision of the
ocean’s that surround it. The vision that Canada’s has is very individual and is not
the same as other countries of the world. Canada’s current ocean “vision” is
different from that of other countries of the world as a result of varied population,
diverse economic interests and large land mass. In Canada the “vision” takes the
form of Oceans Act and Canada’s Oceans Strategy. The Oceans Act provides a
framework for current and future management directions and program and mandates
the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans to develop a national ocean management
strategy for Canada. Canada’s Oceans Strategy comes out of the Oceans Act
mandate.
Canada’s Oceans Strategy document provides for policy direction that is
described as an integrated approach to oceans management that allows for the
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coordination of policies and programs across different governmental levels and an
ecosystem-based ocean resource management and environmental assessment.
When Oceans Act and Canada’s Oceans Strategy are taken together the result
is a government “vision” of policy, which guides all areas that involve Canada’s
oceans.
Canadian Policy in Context
Canada has a number of characteristics that results in unique ocean policy that
differs from most other countries in the world. Canada is a nation that is surrounded by
three major oceans and it has the longest coastline of any country. Facts such as these
along with new international conventions (particularly the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea or UNCLOS) make this point in the development of Canada’s oceans
policy critical, not just for the nation of Canada itself but in a global context as well.
Canada is not often though of in an ocean context due to its large land mass and
geographic location. In fact, Canada is an ocean nation whose economy, environment,
and social aspects are linked to the ocean and coasts. Bordered on three sides by ocean
Canada has a vast and diverse coastline and this means diverse industry and social
relationships to the ocean. Canadian oceans further define a large part of the national
identity of Canada in terms of sovereignty and national security.
The oceans provide Canadians with enormous potential now and in the future in
terms of Canada but also the world. Canada’s ocean and coasts are a critical influence in
a global sense as they regulate climate and provide keys to understanding environmental
changes such as global warming, species shift, and el nina/el nino.
Canada has tens of billions of dollars in activity that is ocean related and much
more in terms of what passes through Canada’s oceans. Canada’s oceans offer huge
potential in future opportunities as well.
The increasing number of different interests makes management of oceans more
difficult and complex as Canada starts the 21st century. Where once traditional fishing
and shipping industries only involved Canadians they now share the oceans with many
others from all around the world. As the issues and conflicts and policies get more
complex it is essential to ensure that ocean policies are clear, developed and cohesive.
In past decades the oceans policy of Canada has been reactive rather than
proactive in nature. Rather than letting the world and its events dictate policy the
Canadian government is seeking to establish a new, current ocean strategy. This new
policy should allow Canada to champion its own progress into the future.
Canada’s Ocean Strategy (COS)
This document provides the strategic framework for Canada’s programs and
policies. The strategy provides the overall strategic structure and is based upon the
principles of sustainable development, integrated management and the precautionary
approach. The control and power mechanism of this strategy is integrated management
plans.
The integrated management process regarding ocean policy has six stages, which
are related to one another:
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1. defining and assessing a management area;
2. engaging affected interests;
3. developing an integrated management plan;
4. endorsement of plan by decision-making authorities;
5. implementing the plan; and
6. monitoring and evaluating outcomes.
The Strategy is the policy and operational framework for integrated management
of the coastal and marine environments in Canada and it works in concert with Canada’s
Oceans Act to form the official policy of Canada.
Policy and Operational Framework for Integrated Management in a Canadian
Context from the COS
Up to now the CPP has been laid out and policy has been outlined in a general
sense. In this section I will detail the policy and operational framework that is present in
Canada. It will contain the policy aspects and guidelines that have been motioned
previously and expand upon them.
Integrated Management Policy and Elements
Having an integrative management approach to ocean and coastal resources in a
nation as vast as Canada involves consideration of impact effects at an ecosystem level.
While ecosystems do occupy generally defined areas they are very fluid in the sense that
they shift over the course of time. Ecosystems also interact with one another and humans
are increasingly having larger and larger impacts.
In the past the policies in Canada (as well as elsewhere) have focused on single
species or single activities or in single ecosystems. As a result of this kind of
management there have been high times and low times because ecosystems are not onedimensional. Canadian examples here are numerous but the Cod fisheries in the
Maritimes (east coast) and the Salmon fisheries in British Columbia are examples that
have been well documented. The COS and the operational framework being put in place
attempts to look at multiple environmental dimensions from a variety of social,
economic, and practical perspectives.
Once the policies are incorporating the correct policy elements into them the
concept of Integrated Management can then be used effectively. As defined in the policy
documentation of Canada Integrated Management can be further detailed.
Integrated Management is designed to be a very (1) comprehensive and inclusive
planning process to manage the activities that occur on the coasts. Hopefully
management will allow planning so that activities do not detrimentally interfere will one
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another and so that all the factors are considered in a conservation and sustainable
manner; (2) a collaborative approach that is not forceful to any of the parties that are
involved as it is designed to encourage compliance in a voluntary way; (3) Integrated
Management is a flexible and open planning process that respects existing boundaries in
a Canadian constitutional, and governmental sense while respecting rights of all
Canadians that has been established in law previously.
In Integrated Management there are also key elements that are important:
• Planning that is based on natural and economic spheres of influence rather than
political boundaries.
• Identification of environmental-based perspectives that can be used to guide
decision makers.
• Acknowledgment on the fact that there is a complex relationship between coastal
resource use and environmental impacts.
• Integration of data collection, analysis, distribution, and education is to be used
where possible.
• Creation of a means to bring interest groups and individuals together in attempts
to resolve conflict.
• Use of a collaborative approach in planning so that new work to produce policy is
not always necessary. Examples include using existing legislation, regulatory
bodies etc. where possible.
• Consideration of cumulative effects in terms of policy and the environment.
• Harmonization of planning, management, policies, and regulatory areas to
increase the effectiveness of the efforts that is involved (efficiency is desired).
It is made clear a number of times in the documentation that Integrated Management is
meant to be very applicable and not purely a thought exercise. Integrated Management as
stated in the COS Integrated Management Framework section is “essentially a simple and
common sense approach to use, protect and conserve Canada’s oceans and coastal waters.
Its development and application will benefit all Canadians and ensure that Canada
continues to set an international example in the stewardship of its marine resources”.
Integrated Management and Governance of Collaboration
Collaboration is the governance model that Canada has chosen to work with the
Integrated Management model. It is based upon the Co-Management guide developed by
the National Roundtable on the Environment and the Economy in 1998.
At the heart of governance in Integrated Management framework is a desire to encourage
citizen input in the broadest terms. This means government at all levels, corporate
interests, private interests, and general interests at all possible levels from local to
national to international. The policies identify the following participants in the
collaborative governmental process:
1. Federal Authorities—to be an effective management scheme Integrated
Management must involve various federal authorities with formal management
and regulatory procedures. Specifically, in reference to coastal areas, this
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
includes control of transportation and navigation and issues of sovereignty and
trade under federal influence.
Provincial/Territorial/Regional---must be involved because many impacts to the
coastal environment are the result of land-based activities and may not be
covered strictly by coastal focused policies and Integrated Management notions.
Aboriginal---impacts and influence must be respected, identified, and
incorporated into the collaborative process. Specifically here are treaty rights
and existing government agreements.
Industry and resource users---need to be involved and these would include
industries such as fishing, aquaculture, oil and gas, mineral exploration, and
travel and tourism.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s)---at all levels groups that are
involved in coastal areas and interests are to be included in the collaborative
process.
Academic/Science---is to provide the needed knowledge and input where
possible. The initial need is expected to be information that allows a successful
shift from sector-specific management to ecosystem-based management.
Collaborative management and governance is expected to be adaptive in nature.
This means that there is a “learning by doing” process that is ongoing over time. The
Integrated Management process realizes that the system is not problem-free and as a
result will constantly be reassessed. With this in mind the policy of Canada
recognizes that objectives and policies must reflect ecosystems that are within other
larger systems and has classified these into two areas as follows:
1. Large Ocean Management Areas (LOMAs)---these are areas that cover a
large portion of ocean and coastal zones and extends to jurisdictional
Canadian boundaries. An example here would be the Grand Banks or
Eastern Shelf region.
2. Coastal Management Areas (CMAs)---are small areas of ocean and coast that
include specific communities and industry and are found within the LOMAs.
It is hoped that by having some separation of management areas that issues that arise can
be dealt with effectively at the proper scale and level of influence.
Canada’s Ocean Act
Canada’s oceans act was brought into force in January of 1997 making Canada the first
country in the world to have comprehensive ocean management legislation. The Oceans
Act is also based upon the ideas of sustainable development, the precautionary approach
and integrated management. The Oceans Act provides the legislative and legal power to
implement the Strategy ideas.
Important here is to note the Oceans Act came into being before Canada’s Ocean
Strategy (COS). This is critical in that legislative power was put in place first, thus
allowing the forthcoming strategy to solely focus on desired oceans policy free from
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encumbrance that normally hinders policy statements when there is no legislative
mandate in place first.
The most important sections of the act have been included here (author
descriptions).
Section 30- provides the foundation for the COS to be based on the principles of
sustainable development, integrated management and the precautionary approach.
Section 31- the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans in collaboration with other government
offices shall facilitate the development and implementation of integrated management
procedures.
Section 32- The Minister is empowered to establish and manage needed programs and
policies, advisory and management bodies, and environmental quality guidelines to
compliment section 31.
Section 35(2)- Mandates the development of a national system of protected ocean areas.
Section 40- The Minister of Fisheries and oceans is the individual identified as being
responsible for all ocean matters not assigned by law to other departments or government
offices.
The Oceans Act is a very specific document that works to provide the legislative
power to produce powerful legislation and because the COS developed after the pieces
were in place it was able to lay out a strategy with lasting effect.
General Canadian Policy Perception
Attempting to get a standard Canadian picture of policy in such a diverse and
large country is exceedingly difficult. Measures to do this typically are only effective at a
local level. Fortunately Scott Coffen-Smout conducted the Canadian Ocean
Assessment, a CIDA-funded research project conducted for the Canadian Operational
Centre of the International Ocean Institute on behalf of the Geneva-based Independent
World Commission on the Oceans.
This project surveyed Canadians regarding policy issues relating to oceans. I
have examined some of the survey results that were common with what I had discovered
in my own investigation to come up with what I think is a general Canadian perception of
oceans policy. Some of the most important finding are included below:
The report is based upon surveying opinion from educational representatives,
individuals from government as well as the general grass roots (public). The purpose of
the paper was to get the pulse of Canada in respect to ocean policy. The notes that this is
the first time that mailed surveys have been used to solicit public opinion regarding
Canadian ocean development.
The survey responses give insight into the general consciousness of Canadians in
four main areas. These are: (i) perception of pollution in Canada’s oceans; (ii) principles
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and values regarding Canada’s coastal zone and oceans policy; (iii) assessment of
sustainable development notions and practices in Canada; and (iv) oceans policy
community attributes. I have taken the report and summarized the conclusions of the
four main areas.
Marine Pollution in Canada
The general consensus is that land-based pollution sources along with shipping
operation pollution are the most important sources of ocean pollution in Canada. The
report notes that it is important to remember that this perception may or may not be
consistent with scientific information or the views of other countries in the world.
Regarding specific ocean regions and pollution the concern was for all the oceans
(Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific). The concerns for the Atlantic and Pacific by Canadians
were focused around cities and fisheries and for the Arctic region the pollution concerns
were a concern for atmospheric (global warming and ozone hole) as well as
transportation.
One important point that seems clear from the report but which is not mentioned
is the fact that the marine pollution concerns were all based on point source concerns
from the cities (population centers) and not concerns that stemmed from marine pollution
affecting Canadian oceans from other countries. This is an important point because many
countries are increasingly focusing on marine pollution across international borders.
Principles and Values of Canadian Ocean Policy
In this portion the respondents voiced principles and values, which should be
included in Canadian oceans policy. The respondents were also asked to address the
various impacts that principles and values have had on Canada’s oceans as a result of
inclusion or exclusion of the principles and values in practice.
Policy that had negative impacts on coastal resources included:
•
•
•
•
Government Subsidization of the Private Sector
The Profit Motive
Resource Utilization
Economic Competition
Policy in Canada does not adequately address the following areas according to those
surveyed:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Human Rights
Gender Equity
Polluter Pays
Community-based Management
Biodiversity
Intergenerational Equity
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Canadian Perceptions on Policy and Sustainable Development
Policy in Canada was considered by most to have the following elements addressed in
policy:
•
•
•
•
International Co-operation
Sustainable Use of Resources
Consultation
Environmental Stewardship
While the survey indicated that many of the ideas behind sustainable development
are present in Canadian policy the survey indicated that most respondents were critical of
current Canadian practices in support of sustainable development concepts. The survey
found that only Vessel Traffic Management (21 management practices identified in
survey) had a score of 3 or better on a scale from 1 to 5.
What this indicated is that the ideas of sustainable development are present but it is
thought that they are just not being implemented to a satisfactory degree. Indications in
the survey suggest that in terms of sustainable development the problem, according to
those surveyed, was integration of environmental policies with economic policies as well
as co-operation between the federal and provincial levels of government (national and
local levels respectively).
It is clear that this portion of the survey is consistent with what is perceived to be the
case in many countries around the world--mainly that people have and support the ideas
of sustainable development as being important to include in policies but that there is no
evidence that theses ideas actually occur in reality.
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Canadian Oceans Policy Community Attributes
In terms of community those surveyed were asked to characterize the individuals,
agencies, communities, and organizations that work in and around our oceans. In this
way the key features of the policy community in Canada could be identified.
The main conclusions were that:
(1) The policy community in Canada was seen as fragmented in policy direction and
values. An example here would be policy that is consistent with sustainable
development being in contrast to another, equally valued, economic policy.
(2) The majority found that there was conflict between local coastal community ideas
and policy. Policy does not represent and address needs of community in light of
future directions for ocean development.
(3) The policy community relies on national funding for research and this research is
dominated by fisheries policy concerns with weak support of technology
development.
The main conclusions along with other data (not included here) lead the authors to
conclude that there is a division within the policy community areas within Canada.
Further, it was found that there is wide disagreement between the government’s role and
the objectives the policy. The take-home point in terms of community is there was no
perceived agreement between the members of the community.
Final Survey Conclusions
The survey has a number of interesting statistics regarding average Canadian
views on policy regarding oceans. But it is the general conclusion that is the most
interesting--in terms of a CPP. The paper concludes by saying that there is widespread
and rampant disagreement over the objectives of policy and its artifacts and the role of
the government (on many levels from local to regional to national).
Further the survey concludes “Canadians exhibit a considerable range of
dissonance and harmony regarding their values for the oceans and their perceptions of the
strengths and weaknesses of the governments and institutions managing Canada's oceans.
There is a need to seek consensus on values for Canadian marine regions.”
This leaves us with CPP that is not consistent across Canada and one must
conclude that a detailed policy statement is not possible because there are so many
variables. But we must remember also that policy itself is simply a high-level overall
plan embracing the general goals and acceptable procedures. This is fundamental and of
critical importance. It does appear that this is present when one looks at the survey
results. The survey is correct in its assertions about the difference of opinion among the
members of the policy community but it is this authors opinion that this aspect will
almost always be identified in any survey the is broad ranging. This is because within
any issue, policy, community there will be different drivers of concern and this causes
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discord where community groups are involved. The simple truth is that policy is a
statement about direction and value and how issues that arise are to be approached for
resolution. It seems pretty clear that the CPP should not really be thought of as not
consistent across Canada but rather as not consistent within the communities that are
concerned only with policy. I would argue that the people of Canada agree with policy as
it is meant to be (the principles) but often get caught up in the details of policy and the
required actions to get the correct (sustainable development) result. This is seen in the
survey under sustainable development where the ideas are seen as there but the realities
of the policies prove that these ideas did not materialize.
The overall plan, general goals is really all that needs be defined in terms of a
broader more inclusive policy statement. And for Canada and many countries in the
world this broader statement is generally already present. These are the three principles
to guide the policy decisions that were mentioned previously. These principles are:
sustainable development of ocean resources, a precautionary approach as part of all
operations, and integrated management of ocean resources and activities. This can be
seen when one examines CPP with Global Perceptions.
Reconciling Canadian Policy Perceptions with Global Perceptions
Canadian policy perception is not consistent across Canada or across the world.
But, the general principles of sustainability are consistent. This is a great revelation
because a common excuse that people, governments and countries use at all levels is that
the policies regarding X are different. If they are the same, as I believe they are, then the
question becomes—how can outcomes be so different if policy is the same? Now at least
any dialogue and progress that occurs focuses on the true nature of the beast. Regarding
oceans and sustainability and our desires the important policy question is whether or not
we as individuals, Canadians, or in a global “common” context really believe in the
policy itself.
If the policy that we claim to hold as our own is not really the policy that is used
or if the results do not represent properly where policy should achieve then
environmental sustainability regarding oceans will never occur. This is where many
people believe that we are today and why the environment and ocean resources in
particular continue to degrade year after year.
Limitations/Future Directions for the CPP
Clearly the problem with defining a common Canadian Policy Perspective (CPP)
is the fact that it is the fact that there are so many different viewpoints. The survey
results show this but they also show that in the area of principles and values that there is
agreement. This is critical. If there was no agreement in this area then there would be no
foreseeable agreement in the future with assessment of practices or within the policy
community. While there was no agreement in these other areas as evidenced by the
survey results the future does look promising. The ideas are there it just takes time to
develop them. The first step in all this is to see where we are at as Canadians. The result
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is that there is a lot of work left to be done (the survey concludes with 50
recommendations).
Another important limitation to the survey is the fact that in terms of policy and
legislation both the Oceans Act and Canada’s Oceans Strategy are relatively new. It
generally takes a long time before the policies and even the legislation works its way into
the consciousness of the public as well as economic sector
Concluding Comments
It seems clear that in terms of policy that at a certain level policy can be said to be
in agreement while at others it is not in agreement. It all comes down to policy levels.
The problems we see with the environment, and oceans in particular, is that there is not
any consistency among policy or the forms that it manifests into across levels. I believe
that it ultimately comes down to the individual.
It is the authors personal opinion that most people on the earth, particularly those
of the most developed countries, really believe in the principles of sustainable
development of ocean resources, a precautionary approach, and integrated management
of ocean resources and activities. The problem lies with taking the required actions that
will allow people to have an effect that is positive on the environment. When the policies
of a country like Canada reflect the general ideas and vision then the CPP is consistent in
broad terms. In this way Canada has a CPP that I argue is consistent to a great extent.
There will be areas where a common perspective cannot be found but this will most often
involve the acts and legislation not the general driving principles.
A common vision has been articulated and analysis with respect to globally
accepted ocean management and sustainable development has been presented. What you
see is policy that is common on certain levels and not on others. In the largest context
(sustainability etc.) there is consistency among not only Canada but globally. In the other
contexts policy is different.
A key notion that comes out of this paper on policy is that like most things scale
is critical and that in the most general sense policy is nothing more than values that we
hold. That is the most painful part about environmental damage and oceans. The values
that we have are different and we often pretend that they are not and we pass these
differences off as “policy”.
It is clear that a CPP, while not easy to articulate in great detail, is present and the
COS and Oceans Act articulate the vision Canadians. There are issues to be examined,
especially implementation and realization of policies, as articulated in the survey that was
conducted. The important first step has been taken and only the future will tell. All
indications are that Canada will lead the world into the future with a strong vision and
policy direction.
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Sources Used
The sources and references used for this paper come from the Internet, public
domain and academia. Most of the resources used come from the public/school
libraries and from the Internet. Any academic papers/sources should be easily
accessible to people in general and as such are expected to come from the Internet as
a result. This is also in keeping with the Internet theme of the course in general. A
list of source material follows. The listed reference material was used facilitate an
educated assessment for the purposes of this paper.
Main Sources:
Coffen-Smout, S.S., Final Report of the Canadian Ocean Assessment: A Review of
Canadian Ocean Policy and Practice (Halifax: International Ocean Institute, 1996).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Oceans Policy of Canada: A Strategy to Meet the
Challenges and Opportunities on the Oceans Frontier (Ottawa:DFO, 1987).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, COS: Policy and Operational Framework for Integrated
Management of Estuarine, Coastal, and Marine Environments in Canada (Ottawa:DFO,
2002).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, The Role of the Federal Government in the Oceans Sector
(Ottawa:DFO, 1997).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Toward Canada’s Ocean Strategy (Ottawa:DFO, 1997).
Additional Sources
Booth, K., Law Force and Diplomacy at Sea (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985).
Cicin-Sain, B. and R.W. Knecht, Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts
and Practices (Washington: Island Press, 1998).
Coastal Zone Canada Association, 1996b. A Call for International Action for the
Sustainable and Wise Use of Coastal and Ocean Resources -- The Rimouski Declaration.
Adopted August 16, 1996.
Coffen-Smout, S.S., Final Report of the Canadian Ocean Assessment: A Review of
Canadian Ocean Policy and Practice (Halifax: International Ocean Institute, 1996).
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Cosgrove, William J. and Frank R. Rijsberman for the World Water Council., World
Water Visions: Making Water Everybody’s Business (London: Earthscan Publications
Ltd., 2000).
Cousteau, Jacques-Yves and staff of the Cousteau Society (Mose Richards, Editor in
Chief)., The Cousteau Almanac: an inventory of life on our water planet. (New York:
Doubleday, 1981).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Oceans Policy of Canada: A Strategy to Meet the
Challenges and Opportunities on the Oceans Frontier (Ottawa:DFO, 1987).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, The Role of the Federal Government in the Oceans Sector
(Ottawa:DFO, 1997).
Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Toward Canada’s Ocean Strategy (Ottawa:DFO, 1997).
Independent World Commision on the Oceans, The Ocean, Our Future: The Report of the
Independent World Commision on the Oceans (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 1998).
Leakey Richard and Roger Lewin, The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of
Humankind (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
Owen, Oliver S.,Natural Resource Conservation, 4th Ed. (New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company, 1985).
Polesetsky, Matthew (Editor)., Global Resources: opposing viewpoints (San Diego, CA:
Greenhaven Press, 1991).
World Commision on Environment and Development. Our Common Future. (Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press, 1997).
World Resources Institute, The 1992 Information Please Environmental Almanac (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992).
Web Sites Used (primary sites marked with asterisk)
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment*
http://www.mbnet.mb.ca/ccme
Canadian Hydrographic Service
http://www.chs-shc.dfo-mpo.gc.ca
International Institute for Sustainable Development
http://www.iisd1.iisd.ca
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International Oceans Institute
http://www.is.dal.ca/~ioihfx/index.html
Oceans Canada*
http://www.oceanscanada.com
Environment Canada*
http://www.ec.gc.ca
United Nations
http://www.un.org
United Nations Commision on Sustainable Development
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd.htm
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