Journal of Selling & Major Account Management
Managing Emotions in Personal Selling:
Examining the Role of Emotion Regulation Strategy in Salespeople
By Elyria Kemp, Aberdeen Leila Borders, and Joe M. Ricks
Personal selling is a dynamic profession and a salesperson's ability to manage his/her emotions is crucial. This research
examines the role that a salesperson's ability to regulate his/her emotions has on burnout, motivation, selling behaviors
and perceived performance. It highlights an emotion regulation strategy which is especially adaptive for managing
negative emotions, cognitive reappraisal. A conceptual framework is developed to illuminate the role of cognitive
appraisal on salesperson emotional well-being, adaptive selling behavior, motivation and perceived performance.
Findings indicate that cognitive reappraisal is positively related to adaptive selling behavior which is positively related
to perceived performance. Further, cognitive reappraisal is negatively related to ruminative propensity and emotional
exhaustion. Results are discussed in relationship to their implications for managers and researchers.
INTRODUCTION
effectively manage their emotions can lead to adaptive
functioning and possibly enhance daily performance on
Emotions play an important role in both an individual's
personal
and
behavioral
professional
responses
in
life.
Emotions
prompt
consumption
the job.
activities
This research explores the role that a salesperson's ability
in purchasing
to regulate his/her emotions has on burnout, motivation,
products (Kemp and Kopp, 2011) and even facilitate
selling behaviors and perceived performance. The focus
interpersonal
of this research is on a common emotion regulation
(Andrade, 2005), affect decision-making
interactions
with friends,
family
and
professional associates (Gross and John, 2003). Because
personal
selling
salespeople's
is a highly
dynamic
profession,
ability to manage their emotions on the
job is crucial.
strategy known
as cognitive
reappraisal.
Cognitive
reapp raisal is an emotion regulation strategy that involves
construing a potentially emotion-eliciting
situation in
a way that changes its emotional impact (Lazarus and
Alfert, 1964; Lazarus, 1991). It is especially adaptive for
Previous
research
that has examined
emotions
in
personal selling has focused on moods and emotions
present in the sales encounter (Verbeke and Bagozzi,
2000; Doney and Cannon,
1997); coping strategies
to manage stress (Nonis and Sager, 2003; Lewin and
Sager, 2008); and salespeople's
managing negative emotions. Research has demonstrated
that individuals employing
cognitive reappraisal can
effectively down-regulate negative emotion and show
enhanced functioning in interpersonal situations (Gross
and John, 2003).
ability to perceive the
emotions of customers (Kidwell et aI., 2007; Rozell et al.,
This
2006). However, little is known about how salespeople
to illuminate
manage the emotions they experience on a daily basis
salesperson
in the work environment (both positive and negative
behavior, motivation and perceived performance
emotions).
literatures
Figure 1). A theoretical review, rooted in the emotion
Research
from the behavioral
research
develops
a
conceptual
the role of cognitive
subjective
well-being,
framework
reappraisal
adaptive
on
selling
(see
suggests that individuals can exert considerable control
and strategic functioning literature is provided. Next,
over their emotions by using strategies to influence
salesperson subjective well-being is presented in the
which emotions they experience (Gross, 1998; Gross
context of its relationships to motivation, adaptive selling
and John, 2003). Such strategic functioning
behavior
can be
and perceived
performance.
An empirical
useful in the sales environment as salespeople deal with
investigation, which tested the proposed model, is then
a myriad of situations and circumstances that can elicit
described. Findings are discussed in relationship to their
strong emotions
implications for managers and researchers.
(rejection,
stress, surprise, elation)
that may need to be managed. Salespeople's
18
ability to
Northern Illinois University
Winter 2012
- Academic Article
Figure 1
Emotion Regulation in Salespeople Performance Model
7
..----
REGULATINQ
SELLING
Salespeople
(Singh,
EMOTIONS
IN
PERSONAL
managing an individual's
subjective state, rather than
objective circumstances (Larsen, 2000).
are highly vulnerable
1998). Because
to role stressors
salespeople
are boundary
Research from the psychology literature suggests that
individuals can cognitively exercise control over their
spanners in the organization and may interface with a
emotions by using strategies to influence which emotions
myriad of individuals on a daily basis, opportunities to
.they experience and when they have them (Lazarus and
encounter possibly negative emotion-eliciting situations
Alfert, 1964; Lazarus, 1991). One common emotion
abound. When unfavorable occurrences manifest, the
regulation strategy is cognitive reappraisal (Gross and
salesperson must have the ability to regulate his/her
John, 2003), which can manifest as a personality trait,
emotions in order to combat negative thought patterns
or individual
and possible emotional exhaustion.
referred to as reappraisal)
individuals
regulation
Cognitive reappraisal
(also
involves using cognitive
maneuvers to alter the meaning of an emotion-eliciting
Cognitive Reappraisal
Emotion
difference.
situation (Gross and John, 2003). Because salespeople
refers to a process
by which
attempt to influence "the emotions they
interface with a number of individuals in their daily
working environment,
the opportunity to experience
have, when they have them and how these emotions
negative situations increases. For example, salespeople
are experienced and expressed" (Gross et al., 2006, p.
face rejection
3). An iJ?-dividual may engage in emotion re~ulation
result in a number of negative emotions.
to dampen, intensify, or simply maintain an existing
poses a threat to people's
emotion.
from coping,
desirable individuals and requires strategies to cope
focus is on decreasing
with emotions like hostility, dejection, and jealousy
Emotion
in that coping's
regulation
principal
differs
on a frequent
basis. Rejection
identities
call
Rejection
as competent,
negative affect caused by life events (e.g. coping with
(Downey and Feldman,
bereavement) for larger periods of time (Gross et al.,
2001). Cognitive Reappraisal
2006). Emotion
to reinterpret the rejection and not see it as lack of
Vol. 12, No.1
regulation
is focused on primarily
1996; Bourgeois
and Leary,
allows the salesperson
19
Journal of Selling & Major Account Management
competence or personal rejection, but rather see the
thoughts that are not directed at resolving the problem.
rejection as a learning opportunity and information for
Such a "brooding" type of rumination may be associated
skill development.
with increased anger, depression and ineffective coping
Cognitive
reappraisal
is
an
(Nolen-Hoeksema
antecedent-focused
and Morrow, 1991).
strategy, in that it occurs early and intervenes before the
Studies show that if ruminating individuals do make
emotion response tendencies have been fully activated.
attempts
to engage in active problem-solving,
Reappraisal entails keeping the emotion-eliciting
solutions
they generate
event
to the problems
the
are often
in mind and actively seeking alternate interpretations
of lower quality than solutions they might derive if
of the meaning of the event. This is conceptually
they were not ruminating (Lyubomirsky
related to cognitive processes such as reinterpretation,
Hoeksema,
which involves learning and rationalizing
offenses often ruminate on the specifics of a hurtful
behavior
and Nolen-
1995). Further, victims of interpersonal
(Hoch, 2002; Loewenstein, 2001). However, cognitive
situation which can lead to negative psychological and
reappraisal's
relational outcomes.
focus
is
on
re-interpreting
specific
emotional
elements in the environment.
Cognitive
reappraisal
can alter the entire emotion
trajectory.
Research
has found that individuals
engaging
in
cognitive reappraisal express more positive emotions,
with high cognitive reappraisers possessing, the ability
to down-regulate the experience of negative emotion
more effectively (Gross and John, 2003). Individuals
that use reappraisal often show enhanced functioning
in interpersonal
situations
and are more likely to
employ cognitive maneuvers to reappraise or reassess
potentially negative events. They may also experience
more success on the job and enjoy a certain level of
subjective well-being
Since salespeople
with a number
of
individuals on a daily basis and are accountable
may interact
to
both their clients and the organization, opportunities to
encounter possibly negative emotion-eliciting
situations
abound. When negative events occur, individuals may
engage in maladaptive behavior such as rumination by
re-playing and thinking about how they were wronged
or treated unfairly in a situation
(Nolen-Hoeksema
and Morrow, 1991). However, individuals'
abilities to
regulate or manage their emotions effectively can lead
to more adaptive functioning (Gross and John, 2003).
Employing cognitive reappraisal by utilizing cognitive
maneuvers to alter the meaning of a potentially negative
Cognitive reappraisal is of particular importance
to
emotion-eliciting
situation may make one less likely to
salespeople. Salespeople can experience successes as
engage in maladaptive ruminative propensities.
well as failure on the job. On any day, they may be the
result, the following is proposed:
victims of rude prospects and rejection. Additionally,
demands
from
existing
clients
as well
as their
organization can potentially have a negative impact on
psychological
well-being. However, when a negative
As a
H1: A negative relationship exists between cognitive
reappraisal and rumination.
Emotional Exhaustion
or disappointing event takes place, it may be human
nature to engage in some degree of repetitive thought,
Emotional exhaustion occurs as a response to job-related
or rumination,
demand stressors and is pervasive in people that work
about the situation. The concept of
rumination is discussed next.
in boundary spanning positions such as sales. Tasks and
stressors associated with professional
Rumination
Rumination is defined as having recurrent thoughts that
are instigated by the discrepancy between one's current
position and a desired goal (Martin and Tesser, 1996).
Some research scholars, including Nolen-Hoeksema
and Morrow (1991), view rumination as maladaptive
and more akinto brooding because it involves repetitive
20
selling can be
substantial as salespeople must meet the needs of th~ir
clients as well as their organizations (Babakus et al.,
1999; Lewin and Sager, 2008). Syndromes of emotional
exhaustion include dread at the prospect of returning to
work, increased absenteeism, diminished
self-esteem,
depression, insomnia and withdrawal from the organization
or profession (Kahill, 1988; Moncrief et al., 1995).
Northern Illinois University
Academic Article
Winter 2012
Stress on the sales job can arise because of an incongruity
about their ability to influence
between a salesperson's
making
desired job expectations and
customer
and perform successfully
decision-
on the job. This
actual perceived conditions (Edwards, 1992). Also, as
subjective assessment of performance, or a salesperson's
mentioned previously, engaging in repetitive thought
perceived performance, is positively related to objective
patterns
measures of salesperson performance (Churchill et aI.,
about negative emotion-eliciting
or rumination,
situations,
can generate negative outcomes. For
1985; Kidwell et al., 2007).
example, research has found links between rumination
and cognitive and emotional
disturbance,
including
pessimistic thinking, depression, anxiety, and decreased
feelings
of control
and Nolen-Hoeksema,
consistent
eventual
over one's
life (Lyubomirsky
1995). For the salesperson,
and active rumination
burnout
the salesperson
and emotional
experiences
may contribute
exhaustion
depression,
to
where
withdrawal
from clients and an overall decrease in the quality
of job performance
(Maslach
and Jackson,
1981).
However, the experience of frequent demand-related
stressors
can contribute
to emotional
exhaustion,
thereby reducing motivation. As discussed previously,
erriotional exhaustion can lead to increased absenteeism,
diminished
self-esteem,
result in volitional
depression
withdrawal,
and
eventually
or removal
of the
salesperson by the firm. Thus, we hypothesize:
H4: A positive relationship exists between motivation
and perceived salesperson performance.
Accordingly, the following is proposed:
H5: A negative relationship exists between emotional
H2: A positive relationship exists between rumination
exhaustion and motivation.
and emotional exhaustion.
ADAPTIVE
Given the potential deleterious nature of rumination,
SELLING
AND
EMOTION
requires
flexibility in
REGULATION
as proposed, rumination may be highly associated with
emotional
exhaustion.
However, enlisting
cognitive
Because cognitive reappraisal
reappraisal and using cognitive maneuvers to alter the
cognitive processing and interpretation,
meaning of an emotion-eliciting
an emotion regulation strategy might also be positively
to reduce
emotional
situation, may help
exhaustion.
Nevertheless,
the
effectiveness of attempting to reappraise negative events
can be undermined if the individual insists on falling prey
enlisting such
associated with salesperson performance.
Salespeople are encouraged to react to different selling
situations by changing their sales behaviors. Altering
to repetitive, negative thought patterns. This suggests
sales-related
that rumination will mediate the relationship between
based on perceived information about the buying and
ognitive reappraisal and emotional exhaustion.
H3: Rumination will mediate the relationship between
cognitive reappraisal and emotional exhaustion.
behaviors
during customer
interactions
selling situation is adaptive selling, which is a crucial .
part of a salesperson's
success (Weitz et aI., 1986;
McQuiston and Morris, 2009).
Kidwell et al. (2007) found a relationship between a
Motivation
salesperson's ability to perceive emotions in the buyerMotivation invol ves the effort the salesperson anticipates
seller interaction and adaptive selling behavior. Findings
expending on tasks associated with his or her job. A
suggested that the emotionally perceptive salesperson
salesperson's motivation is usually viewed as a function
may be more likely to better tailor the sales presentation
of the salesperson's
to match the emotions of the buyer in the sales interaction.
ability, financial compensation,
psychological incentives (recognition, opportunities for
However, in addition to perceiving the emotions of the
personal growth), and organizational and managerial
factors (Walker et. aI., 1979). Salespeople's motivation
customer, individuals that have an inherent ability to
is regarded as a strong determinant
adapting to different selling situations.
of performance
manage their own emotions may be more successful at
outcomes (Walker et aI., 1979). When salespeople are
highly motivated, they often exude more confidence
Vol. 12, No. 1
21
Journal ~ Selling & Major Account Management
Specifically, individuals adept at employing cognitive
A total of 151 completed surveys were received. Fifty-
reappraisal who actively seek alternate interpretations
four percent of the respondents were female and forty-
of emotion-inducing
six percent were male. Fifteen percent of respondents
events (particularly those negative
in nature) might be more effective at adaptive selling.
were 18-24 years of age, thirty percent were 24-34,
Individuals who can appraise and manage their own
forty-three percent were 35-54 and twelve percent were
emotions are often more effective at quickly responding
55 and over. Sixty-seven percent of the participants
to the emotions of others (Salovey and Mayer, 1990;
were
Mayer et al., 2000; Mallalieu and Nakamoto, 2008).
percent
Additionally,
Latino/Hispanic,
these
individuals
may
display
more
European
American/Caucasian,
were African American,
twenty-three
two percent
were
two percent were Native American,
genuinely pleasant dispositions since those who employ
one percent was Asian American and four percent listed
cognitive reappraisal
themselves as "Other."
often experience more positive
emotions than those who do not enlist the emotion
regulation strategy (Gross and John, 2003).
The
data
were
subjected
to
structural
equation
analysis in AMOS 17.0 using the maximum likelihood
We theorize that management of one's ,own emotions
estimation method. As recommended by Anderson and
by enlisting cognitive reappraisal is positively related to
Gerbing (1988), a two-step procedure was used to first
adaptive selling behavior. Furthermore, and consistent
assess the model for construct and discriminant validity
with the literature, adaptive selling behavior will be
and then to test hypotheses in the structural model.
positively related to perceived salesperson performance
and competence (Blackshear and Plank, 1994; Goolsby
et aI., 1992).
Measurement
Model
As previously discussed, many of the constructs in this
H6: A positive relationship exists between cognitive
reappraisal and adaptive selling.
study were measured using existing and established
scales taken from the behavioral literatures. In addition
to employing
H7: A positive relationship exists between adaptive
selling and perceived salesperson performance.
performing
standard
statistical
exploratory
factor
techniques
analysis,
(e.g.,
examining
item-to-total correlations, obtaining Cronbach alphas)
to assess the model for construct
METHOD
and discriminant
validity, confirmatory factor analysis was performed.
Several
Sample and Data Collection
items
Appendix).
were removed
to improve
The final measurement
fit (see
model exhibited
A web-based survey was sent to business-to-business
adequate fit X2 (489.27); p-value (.01); CFI (.92); IFI
;
salespeople in over 16 fields (e.g., consumer packaged
(.92); TLI (.90); and RMSEA (.06). To test for construct
I
goods, pharmaceuticals,
validity, factor loadings, along with the average variance
I
medical
supplies,
business
services and advertising). Firms from various industries
extracted
::-
were chosen in order to improve the generalizability
Standardized factor loadings exceeded the 0.6 threshold
11-:
of results. Twenty sales managers were contacted in
as recommended by Hair et al., (2006). Additionally, as
person, via phone or email. They were asked if they
seen in Table 1, the average variance extracted for each
would share the survey with their salespeople
and
construct exceeded the recommended rule of thumb of
encourage participation. Sales managers sent the survey
05 (Hair et al., 2006), which is an indication that. the
I,
ii
1
i"
IId
ii
II
were calculated
for each latent variable.
to all salespeople within their respective divisions. Over
variance captured by the construct is greater than the
300 salespeople were sent the survey. Scales from the
variance due to measurement error.
existing literature were used to measure the constructs in
·11
,'Ii,
Id
the survey. All measures are presented in the Appendix.
I!
i!
iI
~. -f.'
22
Northern Illinois Universt "".
l
,
j
Winter 2012
Academic Article
Table 1
Average Variance Extracted (in bold) and Squared Correlations
Cognitive
Reappraisal
Emotional
Exhaustion
Rumination
Adaptive
Selling
Perceived
Performance
Motivation
Cognitive Reappraisal
0.61
Rumination
0.04
0,65
Emotional Exhaustion
0.03
0.34
0.58
Adaptive Selling
0.07
0.07
0.03
0.55
Motivation
0.01
0.02
0.09
0.11
0.79
Perceived Performance
0.01
0.27
0.11
0.21
0.13
Composite
Rho
0.90
0.92
0.85
0.86
0.92
0.65
0.88
In order to assess discriminant validity, the Fornell-
The data support this hypothesis. Enlisting recurring
Larcker
thoughts
test (1981)
was performed.
validity is demonstrated
Discriminant
about
negative
situations
is
related
to
when the average variance
greater levels of emotional exhaustion. H3 proposed
extracted for a construct is greater than the squared
a mediating relationship. It suggested that rumination
correlations between that construct and other constructs
would
in the model. As shown in Table 1, the average variances
reappraisal
extracted
than
mediation, if the direct effects are significant, then the
the squared multiple correlations
for each construct
indirect effect is also significant (Cohen and Cohen,
pairing. Reliabilities,
as composite
rho,
1983; Baron and Kenny, 1986). Both the direct effects
were also assessed for each construct to ensure that
between cognitive reappraisal and rumination as well
each
as rumination and emotional exhaustion are significant;
between
exhibited
exemplified
each construct
represented
internal
acceptable
recommended
is greater
consistency.
reliability
All measures
by exceeding
the
0.7 threshold (Nunnally and Bernstein,
mediate
the relationship
and emotional
between
exhaustion.
cognitive
In assessing
thus, the indirect effect is significant. Additionally, the
Sobel test confirms the full mediation (z= 2.04, p<.05).
1994). The results from the structural model follow.
Thus, H3 is supported.
Structural Model
Next, it was predicted that there would be a positive
relationship
The structural model and hypotheses were evaluated
after attaining a validated measurement
model. The
model (see Figure 1) exhibited a good model fit: X2
(507.83); p-value (.01); CFI (.91); IFI (.91); TLI (.89);
and RMSEA (.06).
between
salesperson
The
and
data
perceived
confirm
H4.
Similarly, H5 is confirmed and the data show that there
is a negative relationship between emotional exhaustion
and motivation. It was also predicted that there would
be a positive relationship between cognitive reappraisal
The results of the hypotheses are presented in Table
and
2. HI
and therefore,
predicted
motivation
performance.
a negative
relationship
between
adaptive
selling.
Such
a relationship
H6 is validated.
Finally,
exists,
a positive
cognitive reappraisal and rumination. This hypothesis
relationship
is supported.
performance was predicted in H7. The data corroborate
Individuals
that are likely to employ
cognitive reappraisal may be less likely to engage in
between adaptive selling and perceived
this prediction.
ruminative thought. Next, H2 predicted thatrumination
would be positively related to emotional exhaustion.
Vol. 12, No.1
23
-::
___
~~.~_
•.
~_~~,~_,
___
J
Journal of Selling & Major Account Management
Table 2
Test of Hypotheses
Un-standardized
Coefficient
Hypotheses
HI:
Cognitive
Reappraisal
H2:
Rumination
H3:
Cognitive
Reappraisal
H4:
Motivation
Emotional
Exhaustion
----7
H5:
Cognitive
Reappraisal
----7
H6:
Adaptive
Selling
----7
H7:
Critical
Ratio
pValue
Rumination
-0.33
-0.20
-0.15
-2.l7
P < .05
----7
Emotional
Exhaustion
0.44
0.57
0.08
5.52
P < .01
Emotional
Exhaustion
-0.l0
-0.07
0.10
-0.93
p> .05
Perceived
Performance
0.26
0.26
0.08
3.24
P < .01
Motivation
-0.28
-0.30
0.08
3.33
p< .01
Adaptive
Selling
0.30
0.27
0.10
2.92
p< .01
Perceived
Performance
0.40
0.38
0.10
4.20
p< .01
----7
DISCUSSION
negative
As a boundary spanner in the organization, the salesperson
may be subject to a number of stressors. As a result,
emotional factors including a salesperson's capacity to
regulate hislher emotions can play an important role
in success. In this research, we examined the role that
a salesperson's ability to manage his/her emotions has
on adaptive selling behavior, emotional exhaustion, and
ultimately motivation and perceived performance.
ii:
Standard
Error
----7
----7
The behavioral
Standardized
Coefficient
literatures
have demonstrated
and disparaging
events
occur,
sometimes
human beings spend a great deal of time rehearsing these
negative events. Consistently re-visiting such negative
situations can eventually be exhausting and detrimental
psychologically.
Subsequently,
findings
from
this
research also indicate that there is a positive relationship
between rumination and emotional exhaustion. Further,
.rumination mediates the relationship between cognitive
reappraisal
and emotional
exhaustion.
Emotionally
exhausted salespeople often exhibit little motivation on
that
the job, which can lead to poor performance.
Results
individuals can influence how and when they experience
from our study demonstrate the negative relationship
various emotions by using emotion regulation strategies.
between emotional exhaustion and motivation.
Research has shown that employing a common emotion
regulation strategy known as cognitive reappraisal can
be helpful in managing negative emotions. Our findings
indicate that cognitive reappraisal is negatively related
to maladaptive, recurring
thinking that manifests as
rumination and brooding. Salespeople may be commonly
Finally, findings from this research suggest that there
is a positive relationship
at employing
cognitive
between individuals
reappraisal
adroit
as an emotion
regulation strategy and adaptive selling behavior. Prior
research has demonstrated
that individuals
who can
appraise and manage their own emotions are often more
exposed to rude prospects and difficult clients. When
24
Northern Illinois University
Winter 2012
Aca emic Anide
effective at responding to the emotions of others (Mayer
Such a short assessment
might give sales managers
et al., 2000). Results from our study indicate that skill in
an indication of how effectively the salesperson
using cognitive maneuvers and reappraisal to regulate
handle and down-regulate negative emotions. However,
can
personal emotions is positively correlated with an ability
those salespeople that score low on the measure should
to adapt and alter presentation style with customers in
not necessarily be excluded from selection, but might
various situations. Consistent with previous literature,
require
our findings also show that adaptive selling ability is
regulation and management techniques.
positively related to perceived performance.
Additionally,
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
A significant implication
of this research is that it
regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal can
manage emotions more effectively.
Regulating emotions efficaciously
can contribute to
more effective selling behaviors and possibly thwart
emotional exhaustion. Findings from this research can
provide initial insight into how managers might measure
their current and potential
sales force's
to engage in emotion regulation
training
with regard to emotion
because high performing
sales people
usually are better able to adapt and consider the various
provides empirical evidence suggesting that emotion
help salespeople
additional
propensity
strategies
such as
contingencies within selling situations, it is in the sales
manager's best interest to be able to recognize and hire
individuals that may be more likely to engage in such
selling behavior (Weitz et al., 1986; Weilbaker and
Bennion,
1999). Tendencies
that an individual
may
possess related to enlisting cognitive reappraisal
to
manage emotions might be a barometer as to whether
the salesperson might also be skilled in adaptive selling
behavior. Thus, salespeople that are better at managing
their emotions may be more effective at adaptive selling.
cognitive reappraisal. Such information might be used
Results from this research also indicated that emotional
in training and development as well as in the selection
exhaustion
process. These implications are discussed next.
Given the myriad
of emotions,
emotions salespeople
including
may. experience
styles
that
negative
frequently
significantly
on
consider
salespeople's emotions can serve to facilitate successful
selling
behaviors
For
example,
training people to use emotion regulation
strategies
such as cognitive
psychological
in
salespeople.
reappraisal
outcomes
related
to motivation
previous literature has demonstrated
the job (e.g., stress, rejection, anxiety and loneliness),
managerial
is negatively
may
avert negative
like stress
and emotional
exhaustion. Individuals can be taught to minimize the
and
that it can be a
major cause of turnover (Babakus et al., 1999). Sales
managers can also playa role in combating emotional
exhaustion.
For example,
efforts
create
to
sales managers
positive
working
can make
environments.
Fostering positive working environments might include
offering encouragement,
recognition and performance
feedback. These behavior-based
controls might help
to keep salespeople satisfied and, possibly counteract
emotional exhaustion.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
potentially harmful effects of negative emotions by
identifying and reframing
events. Additionally,
negative emotion-eliciting
these individuals
may be less
likely to engage in potentially destructive rumination
about negative occurrences. This may have significant
practical impact due to the mediation effect identified
in the study. If individuals are emotionally healthy, they
are often easier to motivate, which can result in better
job performance.
Although this research makes important contributions
in understanding
the role
of emotion
strategy in salesperson performance,
regulation
it is not without
its limitations. The data from this study were crosssectional in nature and no causal relationships
could
be established. Future research might include studies
which take place in an experimental, laboratory setting
where causal relationships can be achieved and actual
behavior assessed.
Measuring an individual's ability to engage in cognitive
reappraisal might be used to provide more information
to the sales manager in the hiring and selection process.
Vol. 12, No.1
Additionally, this research only examined one emotion
regulation
strategy,
cognitive
reappraisal.
Other
25
10 irnal of Selling & Major Account
Management
emotion regulation strategies might be studied for their
relationship and effect on salespeople's
performance.
Cognitive reappraisal is an antecedent-focused
regulation
strategy-it
occurs early and intervenes
before emotion response tendencies
activated.
emotion
Response-focused
have been fully
emotion
regulation
strategies, such as expressive suppression, might also
be examined within the context of personal selling.
Expressive
suppression
comes later in the emotion-
generative process and can result in the modification
of emotional response tendencies. Identifying multiple
emotion management strategies and the context in which
they are most effective may have major implications on
Babakus, E, Cravens, DW, Johnston, M et al. (1999)
The role of emotional exhaustion in sales force attitude
and behavior relationships. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science 27(1): 58-70.
Badovick, GJ, Hadaway, FJ and Kaminski, PF (1992)
Attributions and emotions: The effects on salesperson
motivation after successful vs. unsuccessful quota
performance. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales
Management 3(Summer): 1-18.
Baron, RM and Kenny, D (1986) The moderatormediator variable distinction in social psychological
research:
Conceptual,
strategic
and
statistical
considerations. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 51: 1173-1182.
sales force performance.
While this research examined
cogmnve
and its impact on the constructs
reappraisal
measured,
future
research might examine the varying types of emotions
experienced by salespeople during the sales cycle and
identify
management
strategies
for each situation.
This might give managers a "toolbox" for developing
emotion management skills for the salesforce.
Finally, future research might examine the role of the
sales manager in encouraging
and promoting
good
emotional health among salespeople. For example, sales
manager support, in the form of emotional coaching
where individuals are instructed on how to channel
their emotions in order to reach their objectives quickly,
might contribute to successful salesperson performance
and engender positive interpersonal functioning.
Not only do people act on their thoughts, but their
feelings as well. Understanding the role of emotions in
personal selling can provide valuable insight into training
and managing productive and successful salespeople.
Research opportunities abound for understanding
how
emotion management for salespeople can impact their
overall success.
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I:
APPENDIX
Emotion Regulation Strategies: Cognitive Reappraisal·
Gross and John (2003 )
(7.point Likert)
Below are some questions about your emotionallife--in
emotions.
particular, how you control (that is, regulate and manage) your
When I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change what I'm thinking about.
When I want to feel less negative emotion (such as sadness or anger), I change what I'm thinking about.
When I'm faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps me stay calm.
When I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I'm thinking about the situation.
I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I'm in.
When I want to feel less negative emotion, I change the way I'm thinking about the situation.
State Rumination - Adapted from Wade et al. (2008)
(7·point Likert Scale)
Consider the following scenario. You have been working with a potential buyer for six months now. This week you
think that you can get a commitment from the prospect. This sale is equal to 50% of your monthly sales quota. You
meet with your prospective buyer and he/she informs you that he/sheis going to buy from another company. Please
respond to the statements below based on how you would react to this outcome.
I can't stop thinking about how I was wronged by this person.
Memories about this person's wrongful actions have limited my enjoyment of life.
I have a hard time getting thoughts of how I was mistreated out of my head.
I try to figure out the reasons why this person hurt me. *
The wrong I suffered is never far from my mind.
I find myself replaying the events over and over in my mind.
28
Northern Illinois University
I
Winter 2012
Academic Article
Emotional Exhaustion
- Adapted from Singh et at (1994)
(7-point Likert)
Working with customers is really a strain for me. *
I feel I am working too hard for my customers because they're too demanding.
Working with my sales manager directly puts heavy duty stress on me.
I feel emotionally drained by the pressure my sales manager puts on me.
I feel I work too hard trying to satisfy non sales employees of the company. *
I feel burned out from trying to meet top management's expectations .
. I feel frustrated because I can't work directly with non sales employees (e.g., shipping, order processing)
I feel dismayed by the actions of top management.
Motivation - Adapted Badovick, Hadaway
and Kaminski (1992)
(7-point Likert Scale)
I plan to increase my overall efforts to reach my sales quota.
I plan to work harder to make my sales quota.
I have plans to increase the quality of my sales activities.
Perceived Performance
- Adapted from Badovick, Hadaway
and Kaminski
(1992)
For the following items, please rate where you stand compared to other salespeople in the company.
(7-point; l esubstantially below average; 7=substantially above average)
Your overall performance as a salesperson.
Your ability to consistently reach your monthly sales quota.
Your potential for reaching the top 10% of all salespeople in the company.
Adaptive Selling - Kidwell, McFarland
and Avila (2007)
(7-point Likert scale)
Indicate how much you agree or disagree with the following statements.
When I feel that my sales approach is not working, I can easily change to another.
I like to experiment with different sales approaches.
I can easily use a wide variety of selling approaches.
I find it difficult to adapt my presentation style to certain buyers. *
I vary my sales styles from situation to situation. *
I feel confident that I can effectively change my planned presentation when necessary.
Basically, luse different approaches with most customers.*
I am very flexible in the sales approach I use.
I try to understand how one customer differs from another.
*Note: Item had a low factor score and was dropped prior to CFA.
Vol. 12, No.1
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