-
Semiotics and International Advertising
Valory Wessels
May 9,1997
Dr. Ray Montagno, Advisor
Honor's Thesis
r <.'
j
LY
)'tr
Wessels 1
Introduction
"Going international without understanding the foreign culture or learning
how to analyze it is like jumping off the high dive with no knowledge of water or
swimming. If I were going to dive from the high dive, I would want to know
something about water and have some swimming lessons under my belt. Also, if I
were a company that was preparing to sell and market some product in a foreign
country, I would want some information on the culture and some tools to be
successful. Several tools exist to provide cultural understanding. The first tool is an
understanding of semiotics." (Donna Krise,
'I Advertising
Media Opportunities for
International Business People," World Trade Club of Indiana, November 19, 1996)
Semiotics represents a range of studies in art, literature, anthropology, and
-
the mass media rather than an independent academic discipline. Semiotics has
been defined as a process of revelation (Deely 13), the way people obtain meanings
from signs (Mowen 96t the study of signs (Leeds-Hurwitz 6), the study of anything
used to tell a lie or describe things that are not currently existing (Eco 86), and as a
system of relations (Culler 8). Today, semiotics is essentially a theoretical approach
to communication in that its aim is to establish widely accepted principles of how
peo!:,le. interpret signs and symbols. The focus of this paper is to examine the
~emIOhc theory as it is used to analyze promotional strategy in marketing and the
Importance of understanding sign usage in a cultu
h
'.
.
.
re w en consldenng
mternatIOnal marketing.
.
The tenn for the field of stud
'"
y, semIOtics, IS derived from the Greek word
semeIOn, meaning "sign" "token"
" 'd
'
, or eVI ence."
Th e current t h eory is generally
accepted as the science of signs. Semiotics stresses that the "meaning" f .
o SIgns, even
-
Wessels 2
when it seems natural or inherent, is always the result of social conventions. Thus,
culture can be reduced to and analyzed as a series of sign systems. For example, a red
rose given from a man to woman in American culture symbolizes romance.
In
Mexican culture, the same rose stands for death and in French culture, infidelity.
(Deely 32) It is, therefore, important to be able to design an advertising campaign
targeted at a foreign culture based on an understanding of semiotics.
The field of semiotics has been studied in one form or another since the time
of Socrates. In the writing of Aurelius Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.), the
following widely influential definition of sign can be found (Poyatos 12):
/I
A sign is
something that stands for something else." Also, early in the history of thought and
philosophy, two kinds of signs were explicitly determined - natural and
conventional sign.s. While some things appear to stand for other things because of a
-
natural connection, as in the example of smoke signifying fire (Leeds-Hurwitz 106),
other signs are clearly the result of artificial correlations such as any natural
language (Deely 59).
A variety of uses of signs were recognized as early as ancient times. Signs
have been used jfor centuries as media of communication, enablers of exchange
between individual sign users, clues or evidence of what is hidden or absent and a
means for constructing diagrams which map relationships and mark differences.
Currently in the business environment, signs and semiotics analysis are the tools
manipulated by managers in promotional strategies in marketing to communicate
information about products or services to a consumer. This improved method of
communication helps U.s. companies survive and prosper in foreign markets just
as swimming lessons help someone jumping from the high dive.
Beyond the basic definition of semiotics, there is considerable variation
-
Wessels 3
among leading semioticians as to what semiotics involves. Further, semiotics has
changed over time, since semioticians have tried to remedy weaknesses in early
semiotic approaches. The writings of semioticians are filled with a variety of
conflicting vocabulary as Paddy Whannel said, "Semiotics tells us things we (in the
culture) already know in a language we will never understand" (Berger 16). In this
paper, the theories of Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Peirce will be used to
examine the "text" of films, television and radio programs, and in particular, print
advertisements in magazines for products that are promoted internationally.
Symbols and signs will be analyzed for possible divergent meanings based on
culture.
Semiotic Tools for Promotional Analysis
Today, the field of semiotics is particularly important in marketing
communications as increasingly, people from cultures outside the United States
expect American marketing and advertising managers to be alert to the use of
symbols and their interpretation in developing the promotional strategy directed at
them. Advertising has been described as lithe modern substitute for myth and
ritual, and directly or indirectly, it uses semiotics (the science of signs) to invest
products with meaning for a culture whose dominant focus is consumption." (Bell
37) Using semiotics directly to create promotion strategy will result in more
effective international marketing campaigns for American businesses.
Independently, but at approximately the same point in time, Ferdinand de
Saussure, a linguist in Switzerland, and Charles Sanders Peirce, a philosopher in the
--
United States, described the need for a field to study the meanings conveyed
Wessels 4
through signs and symbols. Both felt something important was missing in the
currently existing field of study and wanted to remedy the situation. Both authors
serve as standard references in the field. As a result, their influence was greater on
future generations than on their contemporaries.
Saussure's Theory of Semiology
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) conceived the sign as a two-term
relationship and stresses the arbitrariness of the relationship between the two terms.
Saussure/s theory introducing semiology comes from a compilation of notes taken
by several of his students during lectures in Switzerland given between 1907 and
1911. The students published his thoughts in Course in General Linguistics after his
death. (Leeds-Hurwitz 8) The quote most often cited as responsible for establishing
the field follows:
A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it would be a
part of social psychology and consequently of general psychology; I shall call it
semiology (from Greek semeion "sign"). Semiology would show what constitutes
signs, what laws govern them. Since the science does not yet exist, no one can say
what it would be; but it has a right to existence, a place staked out in advance.
Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology; the Jaws discovered
by semiololn' will be applicable to linguistics, and the latter will cir<'Umscribe
.
a
well-defined area within the mass of anthropological facts. (Saussure,1916/1969,
p.16)
-
Saussure's major concern was to establish linguistics as a scientific discipline
,-
Wessels 5
in its own right. He began by making a distinction between language as manifested
by the countless number of instances of speech (parole in French), and language as a
system of rules which governs these individual instances (langue in French) (SIess
15). In other words, the langue is the framework of what one normally experiences
and considers possible and the parole is one's actual experience on a particular
occasion (Leeds-Hurwitz 7). He argued that the system of rules was constant and
should be the basis of linguistic study. A popular analogy to understand his theory
is the game of chess. While hundreds of possible moves exist at any given moment
in a particular game, the rules of the game remain constant throughout the game
(SIess 136). The only way to understand the langue is by examining the parole. This
is difficult to achieve as most members of a culture learn how to speak and be
understood by modeling others in the society, not by learning the rules on which
-
the language is based.
Another aspect of Saussure's theory is the workings of signs, which are
anything that can be used to stand for something else. Saussure said that signs are
composed of two elements -- a sound/image (such as a word of visual
representation) and a concept for which the sound / image stands.
Ambiguity would disappear if the three notions involved here were designated by
three names, each suggesting and opposing the others. I propose to retain the
word sign (signe) to designate the whole and to replace concept and sound/image
respectively by signified (signifie) and signifier (signifiant); the last two terms have
the advantage of indicating the opposition that separates them from each other and
from the whole of which they are parts. (Saussure 67)
-
Thus, the sign, signifier, and signified are united. Every sign has two
-
Wessels 6
components: the visible part, or signifier, and the absent part, or signified. Saussure
suggested that signs were like pieces of paper; one side was the signifier, the other
side was the signified and the paper itself was the sign. The signifier and signified
form the sign and cannot be separated from the sign itself. The relationship
between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary, a matter of chance and
convention. This does not mean, Saussure tells us, "that the choice of the signifier
is left entirely to the speaker" but rather that it is "unmotivated, i.e. arbitrary in that
it actually has no natural connection with the signified." (Saussure 69).
An example of this Saussure's dichtonomy theory of semiology could be a red
rose. When a man offers a woman a red rose, the signifier is the act of giving the
rose, but the signified is romance. The rose, in and of itself, is of little importance
(Pines C6). The rose itself conveys less information than the use of the rose by a
particular person in a particular situation. There is nothing about the color red or
the type of flower that conveys the message of romance, though by tradition many
people in the United States have come to understand and expect this message.
The notion of semiology is applied to arts, rites, and all manners of cultural
phenomena, not exclusively linguistics. Though Saussure does see language as the
ideal system of codes. He defines codes as a system of conventions that enables one
to detect meaning in signs. The matter of learning or discovering codes is the
central business of semiology. Being a linguist himself, Saussure proposed
semiology as a science placing the study of language into a broad context. Similar
concerns by others later led to the development of pragmatics and sociolinguistics.
Today, Saussure's theory of semiology is the basis for French semiotics.
Particularly in Europe, many researchers are now using the contributions of French
-
applied semiotics in management studies to evaluate certain management
-
Wessels 7
situations or marketing problems and to understand what they communicate to
stakeholders. The Saussure/French semiotics could prove valuable to researchers
and marketers if the work is very routinized or the product is standardized in
determining meaning. (Marion 81)
Peirce's Triad of Semiosis
Charles Scmders Peirce (1839-1914), unlike Saussure, wrote his own papers,
though the majority of them remained unpublished during his lifetime. His eight
volumes of collected works covered a large scope and depth of topics over 25 years
from 1931 to 1958 (Sless140). Peirce never concluded or resolved his thoughts on
semiotics (which he actually used the singular, semiotic). In fact, the larger quantity
of available quotes from Peirce encourages debate among his followers as to exactly
what he intended.. He changed his mind on many details over the years and left no
clear indication as to which is preferred or how they link up to other unfinished
ideas he wrote about. Peirce was never, with the exclusion of five years at Johns
Hopkins University, a full-time academic and as a result, his work is fragmented
and incomplete. While Saussure worked with the approach to build large
philosophical systems popular in Europe, Peirce preferred an open-ended view that
incorporated the constant change and transformation of human nature and
behavior.
The essential part of Peirce's theory is that a sign is "something which stands
to somebody for something in some respect or capacity" (Peirce 2.228). He went on
to explain that signs are related to objects by resembling them, being causally
connected to them, or being conventionally tied to them. He used the term iconic
-.
Wessels 8
for resemblance, indexical for causal connections, and symbol for conventional
associations. This idea is expressed in Peirce's statement that
an analysis of the essence of a sign ... leads to a proof that every sign is determined
by its object, either first, by partaking in the characters of the object, when I call
the sign an Icon; secondly, by being really and in its individual existence connected
with the individual object, when I call the sign an Index; thirdly, by more or less
approximate certainty that it will be interpreted as denoting the object, in
consequence of a habit (which term I use as including a natural disposition), when I
call the sign Symbol. (Peirce 18)
This threefold division of stand-for relationships is widely used in studies of
communication. As a part of his general theory of semiotics, Peirce tried to work
out a conceptual basis for the varieties of semiosis. He was interested in the
problem of classifying the multitude of different kinds of stand-for relations. Peirce
developed a much more elaborate structure leading to a system of classification that
had 66 different kinds of stand-for relations. (MacCannell 98) Unfortunately, most
who have taken up his ideas have seen the question as one of classifying different
kinds of signs, when Peirce was really classifying the types of stand-for relations. A
popular example of his Icon/Index/Symbol classification is a photo of a bride which
would be an icon; the statuette of a bride and groom from the top of a wedding cake
would be an index; and the white wedding dress would be a symbol of virginity.
Peirce's classification of stand-for relations is based on his definition of the
critical elements of sign, referent (object being signified), and user (the person who
interprets the meaning of a sign). He calls this the indivisible triad of semiosis.
-
(Mowan 98) The third factor Peirce referred to as the factor of interpretation. In the
Wessels 9
process of semiosis, one factor need not be an actual existent thing. Peirce views the
process of classifying stand-for relations as highly unstable and resistant to
resolution because at least the user is constantly changing.
The sign not only stands for something other than itself, it does so for some third;
and though these two relations - sign to signified and sign to interpretant - may be
taken separately, when they are so taken, there is no longer a question of sign but
of cause to effect on one hand and of object to knowing subject on the other. In
short, for the relation of sign to signified to exist in its proper as being semiotic
(smoke as a sign of fire) regardless of whether that relation exists dyadically as
well (smoke and something burning) reference to the future in a third element,
the interpretant, is essential. (Peirce 2.293)
This third element that Peirce discusses is essential regardless of whether it is
actually there or only virtual and waiting to be realized. Promotion such as
advertisements in newspapers and magazines, on billboards and television, and
even a booth at a trade show are prepared for individuals of a population
surrounding the display. No single interpretant is targeted by most marketing
campaigns,
rathE:~r
the population surrounding the display is comprised of a large
number of potential interpretants. The individual interpretant is not realized in
advance, but only at the moment when one turns the page of a magazine or drives
down a certain stretch of highway. However, the interpretant is essential for the
information diffusion process to occur and for the meaning of the symbols to be
transferred.
Peirce's triad theory is the basis for the view of semiotics in the United States
-
and was adopted and used in a recent advertising campaign for British
Wessels 10
Telecommunications. BT devised a culture-based advertising technique in
planning its popular "It's good to talk" campaign. BT used semiotic techniques to
alter traditional perceptions about the different ways men and women use the
telephone. Conversations between men, characterized as important, serious, and
full of information were categorized as "Big talk." "Small talk" was the category of
trivial, rambling chat characterized by women talking with women. Using semiotic
analysis, BT developed a campaign that put more weight on the emotional benefits
of telephone communication. (Alexander 91)
JJReading" Advertising Using Semiotic Techniques
Advertising, according to most text books, imparts information about
products, which people use to make brand choices. When one considers semiotic
theory, advertising also tells what products mean based on the relationship between
culture and consumption.
"The products we consume express who and what we are and these identities are
detennined by cultural codes.... Products serve as markers; they have consensual
what-implies-what meanings, which we learn from a variety of sources, not the
least of which is advertising. Advertising serves as a kind of culture I consumption
dictionary; its entries are products, and their definitions are cultural meanings.
Consumers use advertising to learn new meanings and to confirm I reinforce those
they already know." ("Reading ... " 49)
Consumers observe these meanings in advertising almost without noticing
-
the activity. Advertisers, particularly international advertisers, can create more
,.-
Wessels 11
powerful and intriguing campaigns by understanding the culture to which they are
trying to give information. An effective ad is one that reflects consumer perceptions
and expectations faithfully according to a country's culture. Although many
contemporary marketers are interested in creating, maintaining, and changing
brand images, consumers generally have a deeper understanding of product
categories. Consumers know more about the meaning of a product category than
they know about the various brands. For example, for any given product category,
most consumers unaided can only name three or four brands within the category,
but have definite feelings about the type of product.
(~facCannell
75) It is important
that the international marketer consider not only the brand's image and meaning
internationally, but also the message of the product cross-culturally.
One way to discern the product meaning is by "reading" the advertising of
successful advertisements because, by definition, effective advertising contains a
product's cultural meaning. To read an ad semiotically, one must interpret its signs
in the context of the structure. The latent meaning comprised of connotations,
implications, and deep symbolisms is coded into the advertising message. ("Mirror"
5) Every advertisements has a surface meaning and then also an additional
meaning to those within the culture who are fluent in the cultural code. For
example, McDonald's famous commercial which said, "You deserve a break today,"
had multiple meanings to American consumers besides a pause from work.
However, the message would have seemed strange to someone outside the U.s.
society and would probably not have been successful internationally. (Frank 56)
The interpretation of advertisements begins by treating them like cultural
texts that convey meaning using a variety of styles like myth, drama, metaphor, etc.
-
Next, the signifiers and signifieds ascribed must be identified in the ad. Finally, the
Wessels 12
structural dimension represented by those signs and the models that capture the
meaning are identified. ("Reading" 53) For example, by studying several
advertisements for liquor, the product categories major meanings can be identified
as escapism, festivity, and status. Different brands and promotional campaigns may
emphasize different meanings, but most meanings fall under these three major
headings after semiotic analysis.
Global Advertising
While it is important to create diverse promotional campaigns when the
product meaning varies from country to country, many product categories have the
same or similar product meanings cross-culturally. Global standardized advertising
-
succeeds when it is perceived in semiotically-equivalent ways by multicultural
consumer segments. ("Mirror" 4) Before standardization of campaigns can begin, it
is necessary to identify segments of consumers who share universally-held beliefs
and needs. This is the foundation for creating advertising strategies that can be
understood multiculturally.
"Fashion and food products - what people put in and on their bodies - enable the
universally-held need of self-expression, and in that sense their perceptions are
thereby driven by a common ethos. Certain consumers, apart from their resident
cultures, regard these products in essentially equivalent, self-relevant ways, so
they are prime candidates for global, if not wholly standardized, advertising."
("Crafty" /'6)
Because the world is becoming smaller in a sense due to increased global
Wessels 13
communications, the younger generation (post World War II) has been exposed to
and influenced by other cultures much more than ever before. This generation is
driven by a cultural force called postmodemism which is producing global cultures
for some product categories. Particularly food and fashion products that were once
indigenous to Western societies are now being adopted by many other countries.
(Stark RC-4) These postmodern global cultures present advertisers with an
opportunity to craft ads that teach multicultural consumers about the meanings of
products and to make ads windows on a global culture of fashion and food
consumption. In creating global advertising, the main objective is recognizing
where the signifier in Saussure's theory or the third element, the interpretant, in
Peirce's discussion is essentially similar.
Survey Purpose & Methodology
In order to test the theory of semiotics, which would lead one to believe that
advertising is interpreted using culturally learned symbols and are not generally
universal among cultures, a survey of 45 Ball State University and Butler
University students was taken. The respondents included 30 international students
identified by the International Centers at BSU and BU; and 15 American students
with some representation from each college at BSU or BU. A nearly equal number
of men and women were selected to balance gender biases. The international
students came from various Asian and European countries including Japan, Korea,
China, Vietnam, France, England, Germany, Belgium, and Spain. The international
students were located with the help of the International Center at Ball State
-
University in Muncie and at Butler University in Indianapolis, both in Indiana.
Wessels 14
The American students were chosen at random in the Student Center at Ball State
University. A list of the number of students from each nation are included in
Appendix 1 and a list of students from each college at Ball State or the corresponding
college at Butler University are included in Appendix 2. The duration of survey
administration was approximately 20 minutes. Each respondent was shown three
advertisements, one each from Asia, America, and Europe. The print
advertisements were shown in color overheads on a large screen in a class room.
Respondents worked independently and had as long as necessary to fill out the
survey forms. A sample of the survey appears in Appendix 4.
The null hypothesis (Ho) of the study is that Americans, Asians, and
Europeans will interpret the print advertisements in different manners due to
cultural differences and cultural symbols. That Americans, Asians, and Europeans
will interpret the advertisements in exactly the same manner regardless of the
nationality of the ad is hypothesis 1 (HI).
HO = Differences in responses between Americans, Asians, and Europeans
Hl = No differences in responses between Americans, Asians, and Europeans
The purpose of this international advertising survey was to analyze the
comprehension and liking of advertisements based on cultural identity and
semiotical communication. I wished to identify possible variances in interpretation
of advertisements based on semiotic principles. The survey also was used to
identify differences in foreign interpretation of US. advertisements in relation to
American interpretation of foreign ads. Because English is becoming the second
language for most of the modern world and the American culture is widely known
-
and emulated, it is important to study the effects. Due to exposure previously to
-
Wessels 15
American advertising, foreign students may not respond in the same manner as
American students to ads in foreign languages. Conversely, lack of exposure of
American students to European and Asian languages could create some differences
in advertisement interpretation.
The study consisted of showing the respondent three magazine
advertisements, one at a time. All students were shown one American print
advertisement, one from Asia, and one from Europe. Three different sets of the
three advertisements were used in order to diminish the biases of one
advertisement and to get a clearer picture of the interpretation of the groups. An
overhead projector was used to show the advertisements to small groups of
students (5 to 10). Subjects were given one survey with four sections, a section for
each type of advertisement and a section for demographic questions. In this way,
each student would rate an advertisement from each country creating a way to cross
reference survey results. A summary of the demographic results are summarized in
Appendices 1 through 3. Objects in the print advertisements were pointed out with
a ruler regarding questions 5 and 6 in the survey.
The selection of the advertisements was a difficult process. Two
advertisements, one Asian and another French, were chosen because they were
presented in a standardized "global" manner. In other words, it is assumed that
these two advertisements should have been interpreted in exactly the same way by a
member of any culture. These two advertisements were found in various
languages, but with the same visual representations. The other seven
advertisements, three American, two Asian, and two European, were selected based
on the inclusion on some cultural symbol or element in the advertisement and
should have been interpreted differently by members of various cultures, but
-
Wessels 16
homogeneously within the culture. These remaining advertisements were located
in Paris Match, ~ewsweek, and other national magazines. The advertisements used
in the survey are located in Appendix 6.
Survey Result~
Survey results were tabulated as raw numbers, percentages and means for
some questions. For questions 4, 5 and 6, ("What picture, word, or element in the
advertisement first attracted your attention?, What does object '1' represent to you?,
What does object '2' represent to you?" respectively) the open-ended responses were
coded to ease tabulations of the data. A complete summary of the data for each
advertisement appears in Appendix 5.
According to survey results, semiotics cannot be ruled out as a theory to
explain differences in interpretation. Because some differences were noticed, the
null hypothesis, which stated that differences would appear in how Americans,
Asians, and Europeans interpreted advertisements, cannot be rejected. Similarly, HI
can be rejected due to the differences found through the survey. Although, most
differences were small, some differences were large and may be attributable to
cultural symbol interpretation. The use of the two standardized ads in particular
were interesting. In general, students were more sympathetic to advertisements
that originated from their continent of origin or that were in a familiar language.
The majority of all students gave higher ratings to the American ads probably
because of common familiarity with English as well as a common liking of
American products. Conversely, American students gave much lower ratings to
-
advertisements not in English, probably due to lack of exposure to foreign
-.
Wessels 17
languages. Americans, however, rated all advertisements overall significantly
lower than European and Asian students. This could be a result of the high level of
exposure to advertisements in magazines, newspapers, radio, and television that
permeate the daily American lifestyle. However, further research would be required
to prove this statement. Americans reacted more positively to colorful, bright
advertisements, though stated that color and shapes were not important to their
interpretation.
European students' ratings reflect that they are more aware of foreign
languages and have positive reactions to foreign advertisements. Especially among
European advertisements whose language was unfamiliar, Europeans maintained
high ratings. Also, European students were much more interested in Asian
advertisements than Americans. However, European students rated American
advertisements slightly lower overall. Advertisements in America tend to be much
more blatant, loud, and less "cultured" according to one European respondent.
Asian subjects rated all advertisements slightly more positively than
Europeans or Americans. Asians were more likely to use positive words to describe
the advertisements and conveyed those statements in their ratings. Asian
respondents rated American advertisements nearly as high as American students,
probably due to the liking of American products in many Asian countries. Another
possible reason is cultural response biases wherein a culture may be more likely to
use positive and flowery words in description.
In the case of the two "global" standardized advertisements, the general
feelings towards the advertisements were similar among cultures in response to the
first question and questions regarding symbol interpretation. However, problems
-
arose in identifying the product or service being advertised due to a lack of
Wessels 18
understanding of the language in which the text or body copy of the advertisement
was written. In general, the standard advertisements were much more successful in
creating a standard image or feeling to all viewers regardless of nation of origin than
non-standard ad.vertisements. Non-standard or country-by-country advertisements
relied much more heavily on cultural symbols or language knowledge for
interpretation and thus, great variations in interpretation appeared. For example,
the first American advertisement included several cultural icons which were
mostly understood only by Americans or those familiar with American culture.
The meaning of the advertisement was difficult for those from Asia and Europe
who had not been in the country a significant time.
In question 1, Asian students were more likely to rate an advertisement as
"funny," "family-oriented," "exciting," "interesting," "modem," and "likable." At
least 3 more Asian respondents selected these feelings to describe the advertisement
than Americans and Europeans. These results can be found on Table 1. In general,
their assessments of the advertisements appear to be more positive and
complimentary. American students selected words such as old-fashioned,"
II
"weird," "confusing," and "work-related." Americans gave more negative ratings.
European subjects rated highest for "clear," "boring," "modem," and "stupid."
Overall, all groups rated the advertisements from their home continent using more
positive words.
The results of the second question, which asked an overall rating of the
advertisement, show that Asian students were more likely to rate advertisements
from America and Asia more favorably than other groups. These results are shown
in Table 2. European students only rated. one advertisement (European) more
favorably than other groups.
-
Similarly, American students only rated one
Wessels 19
advertisement (American) more favorably than other groups.
Question :3 regarding the product being advertised shows the importance of
language to understanding the advertising message. The results of this question are
summarized in Table 2. Asians were significantly better at correctly determining the
product being advertised for Asian ads. Similarly, Americans correctly identified
the product in American ads more often than the other groups. Comprehension of
European advertisements seemed very similar across groups probably because of the
wide differences in languages spoken in Europe. Because language can be identified
as a strong criterion in identifying the product being advertised, a European who is
French may be no better than an American or Asian at understanding a German
advertisement.
Responses to question 4, which asked what first attracted the respondents
attention, were coded into text, symbol! icon, product, and illustration. The results
in Table 3 show that if the language of the advertisement is understood, than the
text is usually read first. For example, Asians looked first at the text in Asian ads,
Americans looked first at the text in American ads, and so on. When the language
is unfamiliar or not native, Asians appeared to be more likely to look at symbols or
icons first, Europeans looked at illustrations first, and Americans looked mostly at
the physical product being advertised first. This difference in eye flow in the
advertisement could possibly be explained by cultural differences.
Question 7, regarding comprehension of the text of the advertisement, shows
the basis for the analysis in many other questions. Table 3 summarizes these results.
As expected Asian students understood the text of Asian advertisements much
more than Americans or Europeans while Europeans understood the text of
European advertisements much more than Americans or Asians. The text of
-
Wessels 20
-.
American advertisements were nearly equally understood by all groups. This is
probably because most of the international students have significant understanding
of the English language in order to attend BSU and BU. However, it is interesting to
note that Americans were the most likely to not understand the text of both Asian
and European advertisements indicating a lack of secondary languages for most
Americans.
The last question of the survey asked the importance of pictures, text, and
color to the understanding and liking of the advertisement. A summary of the
results for this question appear in Table 4. Text was much more important to
Asians and Europeans while Americans preferred pictures. This could be
attributable to the lack of understanding of American respondents of the foreign
languages used in the advertisements. Europeans identified colors as being more
-
important compared to Asians and Americans.
The differences shown in the analysis of the data from the survey can be used
to show that semiotics is used to interpret the print advertisements. Respondents
subconsciously used some sort of semiotic method (either sign, signifier, signified or
icon, index, and symbol classification) to understand the "meaning" or marketing
message of the advertisement.
Conclusion
As more and more U.s. companies strive to market their products
internationally, the need for cultural understanding will increase with the level of
competition. Many endeavors have failed in the past because marketers neglected
the cultural meanings of a country or lacked the skills to determine them. Today,
-
more and more <:ompanies are utilizing the theories of semiotics to target their
Wessels 21
-.
international audience better, to create more compelling messages, and to select
more precisely the media. ("Mirror" 9)
Advertising failures can be avoided by conducting an advertising test with a
group of nationals of the country in which the advertisement is to be placed. Word
meaning, color interpretations, and symbolism vary greatly among cultures and can
often only be identified by persons of the country of advertisement.
With the Saussure's signifier/signified theory being most popular in Europe
and Peirce's sign/object/interpretant theory used frequently in the United States,
marketers have many tools at their disposal to dissect and analysis the product and
brand meanings in any culture. Mistakes are still made by careless advertisers such
as at Ball State University when the school mascot was depicted wearing a Mexican
sombrero and eating hot peppers to show his spirit for a "Red Hot Homecoming."
With tools such as semiotic analYSis available, marketers in the future should be
able to avoid creating ineffective ads for different cultures. However, because
semiotics is not an exact science such as chemistry or physics, the choices for
promotional strategy must still be made with care, extraordinary skill, creativity, and
in some cases sheer luck in order to be successful in one foreign culture or globally.
It is important to understand that while language is possibly the most
important sign system used in advertising, colors, shapes, and illustrations can have
vastly different meanings depending on placement in the advertisement and
cultural identification. Any advertiser who is developing an advertisement for a
foreign market or culture should confer with a national of the targeted culture in
order to attempt to avoid cultural misinterpretation. By studying every aspect of an
advertisement using the theories of semiotics, advertisements can be crafted to
successfully portray the desired marketing message to a foreign market.
-
Wessels 22
Appendix 1
Subjects by Country
15 total
Asia
Japan
Korea
Taiwan
China
Viet Nam
Europe
-
France
Germany
Spain
England
United States
3
7
1
1
3
15 total
3
4
3
5
15 total
45 Total
-
Wessels 23
Appendix 2
Subjects by College
Nationality
.-
College
Business
Communications
Arts & Sciences
Fine Arts
Science & Technology
Teaching
Archi tecture
Asian
American European
7
4
3
14
0
1
4
3
3
2
3
1
2
0
2
1
3
1
1
3
2
15
15
10
5
0
7
1
2
5
15
45
Wessels 24
Appendix 3
Subjects by
Gender, Age,
Length of U.S.
Residence, &
Advertisement
Preference
American
Euro2ean
Asian
8
7
53%
47%
7
8
47%
53%
8
7
53%
47%
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
1
3
9
2
1
0
0
0
0
7%
20%
60%
13%
7%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0
2
7
3
2
1
0
0
0
0%
13%
47%
20%
13%
7%
0%
0%
0%
0
1
5
2
2
3
1
0
1
0%
7%
33%
13%
13%
20%
7%
0%
7%
Time in U.s.
< 1 mo.
1 mo. to 6 mos.
6 mos. to 1 yr.
1 yr. to 5 yrs.
5 yrs. to 10 yrs.
>10 years
0
0
0
0
0
15
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
0
4
9
2
0
0
0%
27%
60%
13%
0%
0%
1
5
6
2
1
0
7%
33%
40%
13%
7%
0%
3
4
8
20%
27%
53%
6
8
1
40%
53%
7%
Gender
Male
Female
Age
-
Advertisement Preference
American
13
87%
Asian
1
7%
European
1
7%
,-
Wessels 25
Appendix 4
International Advertising Survey
As a part of my senior Honor's thesis project, I am examining
advertising :in various countries. I appreciate you taking a few
minutes to give your comments about advertisements from
the United States, Europe, and Asia. Your responses will be
helpful to me in understanding how different nationalities
interpret international advertising.
ASIAN ADVERTISEMENT
1.
What word(s) best describe your feelings toward the advertisement?
(CHECK ALL THAT APPLY)
_, Funny
_ Strong
Clear
Informative
_ Sexy
_ Family-oriented
Anxious
_ Boring
_ Exciting
Old-fashioned
-
2.
-
_
_
What is your overall rating of the advertisement?
(PLEASE CIRCLE ONE NUMBER)
1
2
Extremely Very
Unfavorable
3.
_
Sad
Interesting
Relaxed
Weird
Confusing
Modern
Work-related
Weak
Stupid
Likable
3
Somewhat
4
Neutral
5
Somewhat
What product in your opinion is being advertised?
6
Very
7
Extremely
Favorable
-
Wessels 26
4.
What picture, word or element in the advertisement first attracted
your attention?
5.
What does object "1" represent to you?
6.
What does object "2" represent to you?
7.
Do you understand the text of the advertisement?
o
o
8.
Yes
No
How important are the following to your understanding and liking of
the advertisement with 1 being Extremely Important and 5 being
Extremely Unimportant? (PLEASE MARK ONE ON EACH LINE)
1
PicturesIPhotoslDrawings
Text, Wri1ing, Logo
Colors, Shapes
-
2
3
4
5
Wessels 27
AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT
1.
What word(s) best describe your feelings toward. the advertisement?
(CHECK ALL THAT APPLY)
_. Funny
_. Strong
Clear
Informative
Sexy
_. Family-oriented
Anxious
_. Boring
_. Exciting
Old-fashioned
_
=:
2.
=
What is your overall rating of the advertisement?
(PLEASE CIRCLE ONE NUMBER)
1
2
Extremely Very
Unfavorable
-
_
Sad
Interesting
Relaxed
Weird
Confusing
Modern
Work-related
Weak
Stupid
Likable
3
Somewhat
4
Neutral
5
Somewhat
6
Very
7
Extremely
Favorable
3.
What product in your opinion is being advertised?
4.
What picture, word or element in the advertisement first attracted
your attention?
5.
What dOE'S object "1" represent to you?
Wessels 28
6.
What does object "2" represent to you?
7.
Do you understand the text of the advertisement?
DYes
o No
8.
How important are the following to your understanding and liking of
the advertisement with 1 being Extremely Important and 5 being
Extremely Unimportant? (PLEASE MARK ONE ON EACH LINE)
1
Pictures/Photos/Drawings
Text, Writing, Logo
Colors, Shapes
-
2
3
4
5
Wessels 29
-
EUROPEAN ADVERTISEMENT
1.
What word(s) best describe your feelings toward the advertisement?
(CHECK ALL THAT APPLY)
_
_
_
_
Funny
Strong
Clear
Informative
Sexy
Family-oriented
Anxious
Boring
Exciting
Old-fashioned
_
_
=
_
2.
-
-
_
Sad
Interesting
Relaxed
Weird
Confusing
Modem
Work-related
Weak
Stupid
Likable
What is your overall rating of the advertisement?
(PLEASE CIRCLE ONE NUMBER)
1
2
Extremely Very
Unfavorable
3
Somewhat
4
Neutral
5
Somewhat
6
Very
7
Extremely
Favorable
3.
What product in your opinion is being advertised?
4.
What picture, word or element in the advertisement first attracted
your attention?
5.
What does object" 1" represent to you?
Wessels 30
6.
What does object "2" represent to you?
7.
Do you understand the text of the advertisement?
DYes
o
No
8.
How important are the following to your understanding and liking of
the advertisement with 1 being Extremely Important and 5 being
Extremely Unimportant? (PLEASE MARK ONE ON EACH LINE)
1
PicturesIPhotosiDrawings
Text, Writing, Logo
Colors, Shapes
-
2
3
4
5
-
Wessels 31
Demographic Questions
These questions will be kept totally confidential
and are only asked for statistical purposes.
1.
What is your home country?
2.
What is your gender?
o
o
3.
What college are you enrolled with at BSU?
4.
What is your age?
5.
How long have you lived in the United States?
o
o
o
o
o
o
6.
Less than one month
One month to six months
More than six months, but less than one year
One year to 5 years
5 to 10 years
More than 10 years
Which advertisement do you prefer? (MARK ONLY ONE)
o
7.
-
Male
Female
American
o
Asian
Why do you prefer that advertisement?
Thank You!!!
o
European
Wessels 32
-
-
Appendix 5
Survey Findings
sian Advertisements
Americans
%
Funny
2
13.33
Strong
o
o
0
Clear
Question
%
Asians
%
Total
%
6.666
0
0
3
6.66
6.666
0
0
1
6.666
lO
6h.66
11
24.4
Informative
()
o
o
()
()
]3
8h.1lIl
13
28.8
Sexy
3
20
2
13.33
o
0
5
11.1
Family-oriented
4
2h.hh
8
53.33
3
20
]5
33.3
Anxious
o
o
()
()
o
()
()
()
Boring
2
]3.33
3
20
1
11.111111
11
13.3
Exciting
3
20
2
13.33
5
33.33
10
22.2
Old-fashioned
5
33.33
4
26.1111
2
13.33
11
24.4
Sad
[)
o
1
6.666
o
0
1
2.22
Interesting
4
26.611
9
6()
13
86.M
26
57.7
Relaxed
9
110
12
80
13
811.116
34
75.5
26.1lIl
0
11
13.3
26.66
o
o
0
11
24.4
11.1166
2
13.33
11
13.3
Weird
2
13.33
4
Confusing
7
411.116
4
Modern
3
20
2.22
Work-related
1
11.6611
o
o
[1
0
2.22
Weak
1
Il.hhh
O.
()
o
0
2.22
Stupid
2
13.33
3
20
1
6.666
6
13.3
Likable
8
53.33
11
73.33
13
86.66
32
71.1
[)
o
o
o
o
6.666
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
1
2
4
6
4
0
2.22
3
20
4
2h.66
6
1
2
2
3
o
4
5
6
3
5
7
Average
3 Correct
Incorrect
3
3
1
20
20
33.33
20
6.666
4.733
()
l3.33
26.66
40
26.66
o
5.2
1
6.666
14
2
40
13.33
1
5
10
15
13
3
22.2
33.3
28.8
6.66
11.1
5.467
2
13.33
14
93.33
17
37.7
93.33
13
86.66
1
6.666
28
62.2
2
13.33
3
20
11
40
11
24.4
Symbol
4
26.66
2
13.33
4
26.66
lO
22.2
Product
6
40
5
33.33
3
20
14
3L1
III ustra tion
3
20
4
26.66
2
13.33
9
20
4 Text
Other
o
()
1
6.666
0
o
1
2.22
5 Earth
8
53.33
7
46.66
3
20
18
40
Rest
6
40
3
20
5
33.33
14
31.1
6.666
2
13.33
6
40
9
20
Wealth
Other
o
o
2
13.33
1
6.1166
3
6.66
6 Pepsi
10
66.66
6
40
0
o
16
35.5
Airline
o
()
12
80
14
31.1
5
33.33
2
7
13.33
Other
46.66
3
20
15
33.3
o
o
2
13.33
12
80
14
3l.1
15
100
13
86.66
3
20
31
68.8
8 Pictures
4.3
100
4.5
100
2.9
100
3.9
100
Text
3.2
100
4.1
100
4.6
100
3.9666
100
Colors
1.1
100
1.8
100
2.3
100
1.7333
100
7 Yes
-
Europeans
No
Wessels 33
-
%
Europeans
%
53.33
4
26.66
()
o
2
13.33
3
2
13.33
3
20
14
Informative
1
6.666
2
13.33
]3
Sexy
o
o
0
o
0
Fami Iy-oriented
9
60
8
53.33
Anxious
2
13.33
0
o
Boring
1
6.666
3
20
Exciting
3
6
2
4
13.33
Old-fashioned
20
40
Sad
o
o
0
] n teresti ng
3
20
6
Relaxed
5
33.33
4
Weird
3
20
Confusing
4
26.66
Modern
2
Work-related
Weak
%
Total
%
80
24
53.3
20
5
11.1
93.33
19
42.2
86.66
16
35.5
o
o
o
12
80
29
64.4
0
o
2
4.44
6.666
5
] 1.1
5
33.33
10
22.2
26.66
2
13.33
12
26.6
o
o
o
o
40
0
5
33.33
14
31.1
26.66
7
46.66
16
35.5
1
6.666
2
13.33
6
13.3
3
20
1
6.666
8
17.7
13.33
5
33.33
2
13.33
9
20
3
20
2
13.33
o
o
5
11.1
2
13.33
o
o
3
20
5
11.1
Stupid
1
6.666
5
33.33
7
46.66
13
28.8
Likable
5
33.33
6
40
8
53.33
19
42.2
Americans
Question
Asian Advertisements
2
1 Funny
8
Strong
Clear
2
12
1
1
6.666
2
13.33
1
6.666
4
8.88
2
o
o
3
20
I
6.666
4
8.88
3
2
13.33
3
20
1
6.666
6
13.3
4
4
26.66
2
13.33
3
20
9
20
5
3
20
3
20
4
26.66
10
22.2
6
4
26.66
2
13.33
5
33.33
11
24.4
1
6.666
1
6.666
1
6.666
3
6.66
7
Average
4.6
3 Correct
15
100
15
100
15
100
45
100
o
o
o
o
0
o
0
o
0
o
2
13.33
3
20
5
11.1
4
26.66
4
26.66
6
40
14
31.1
Product
8
53.33
5
33.33
3
20
16
35.5
Illustration
3
20
3
20
3
20
9
20
Incorrect
4 Text
Symbol
5
3.933
o
o
1
6.666
0
o
1
2.22
12
80
9
60
10
66.66
31
68.8
Country
2
13.33
5
33.33
1
6.666
8
17.7
Laziness
o
o
1
6.666
3
20
4
8.88
Other
1
6.666
0
o
1
6.666
2
4.44
15
100
14
93.33
13
86.66
42
93.3
o
o
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
6.666
2
4.44
Other
5 Family
6 McDonalds
Bird
Other
7 Yes
-
Asians
No
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
1
6.666
14
93.33
15
33.3
15
100
14
93.33
1
6.666
30
66.6
8 Pictures
4.5
100
3.8
100
3.6
100
3.9666
100
Text
2.6
100
3.5
]00
4.3
100
3.4666
100
Colors
1.5
100
2.4
100
1.3
100
1.7333
100
Wessels 34
Asian Advertisements
Americans
%
Europeans
%
Asians
%
Total
%
1 Funny
9
60
7
46.66
12
80
28
62.2
Strong
1
6.666
2
13.33
3
20
6
13.3
Clear
o
o
o
o
o
o
2
13.33
11
73.33
13
28.8
1
6.666
10
66.66
11
24.4
1
0.666
0
()
2
13.33
1
6.666
4
26.66
7
15.5
0
4
o
1
6.666
26.66
7
46.66
14
31.1
Question
3
Informative
Sexy
Family-oriented
Anxious
o
o
Boring
3
20
2.22
Exdting
3
20
1
0.666
2
13.33
6
13.3
Old-fashioned
4
26.66
6
40
5
33.33
15
33.3
Sad
2
13.33
0
o
0
o
2
4.44
Interesting
5
33.33
7
46.66
9
60
21
46.6
Relaxed
4
26.66
3
20
3
20
10
22.2
Weird
7
46.66
6
40
2
13.33
15
33.3
Confusing
12
80
10
66.66
3
20
25
55.5
Modern
1
6.666
3
20
o
0
4
8.88
Work-related
o
o
1
6.666
()
0
1
2.22
Weak
3
20
4
26.66
1
6.666
8
17.7
Stupid
9
60
6
40
4
26.66
19
42.2
Likable
3
20
4
26.66
6
40
13
28.8
o
11.1
2
1
2
13.33
3
20
2
4
26.66
4
26.66
3
3
20
3
20
1
4
2
13.33
4
5
3
20
6
7
Average
3 Correct
Incorrect
4 Text
o
0
5
6.666
9
20
6.666
7
15.5
26.66
5
33.33
11
24.4
6.666
5
33.33
9
20
6.666
o
o
3
20
4
8.88
o
1
6.666
1
6.666
2
4.44
o
13
86.66
14
31.1
3.2
5
2.667
6.666
o
14
93.33
15
100
2
13.33
31
68.8
4
26.66
2
13.33
8
53.33
14
31.1
o
o
o
o
2
13.33
2
4.44
2
13.33
3
6.66
Symbol
o
o
Product
1
6.666
Illustration
Y
60
12
80
3
20
24
53.3
Other
1
6.666
1
6.666
o
0
2
4.44
5 Giraffe
Y
60
10
66.66
5
33.33
24
53.3
Nature
4
26.66
2
13.33
3
20
9
20
Throat problems
()
o
6.666
7
46.66
8
17.7
2
13.33
2
13.33
4
8.88
13.33
5
33.33
o
o
0
2
0
7
15.5
Medidne
4
26.66
7
46.66
12
80
23
51.1
Detergent
Y
60
3
20
3
20
15
33.3
Other
6 Milk
-
2.22
7 Yes
o
o
2
13.33
14
93.33
16
35.5
No
15
100
13
86.66
1
6.666
29
64.4
8 Pictures
4.2
100
4
100
3.7
100
3.9666
100
Text
3.1
100
3.2
100
3.Y
100
3.4
100
Colors
2.7
100
1.6
100
1.2
100
1.8333
100
Wessels 35
Americans
,-£\mericanAd vertisements Question
1
Europeans
5
1 Funny
6
40
Strong
3
20
%
Asians
%
Total
%
33.33
8
53.33
3
6.66
6.666
0
o
1
2.22
Clear
8
53.33
6
40
3
20
11
24.4
Informative
9
60
3
20
2
13.33
13
28.8
Sexy
2
13.33
1
6.666
0
o
3
6.66
Family-oriented
1
6.666
o
o
6.666
2
4.44
Anxious
2
13.33
1
6.666
0
o
3
6.66
Boring
o
o
3
20
2
13.33
5
11.1
Exciting
6
40
8
53.33
9
60
23
51.1
Old-fashioned
2
13.33
1
6.666
()
()
3
6.66
Sad
1
6.666
1
6.666
0
o
2
4.44
Interesting
12
80
9
6()
7
46.66
28
62.2
Relaxed
3
20
4
26.66
5
33.33
12
26.6
Weird
1
6.666
2
13.33
9
60
12
26.6
Confusing
2
13.33
4
26.66
8
53.33
14
31.1
Modern
9
60
6
40
7
46.66
22
48.8
3
20
1
6.666
0
4
8.88
Work-related
6.666
o
o
0
o
o
o
()
4
26.66
6
40
10
22.2
14
93.33
10
66.66
8
53.33
32
71.1
o
o
o
o
3
20
1
6.666
4
8.88
I
6.666
0
[)
1
2.22
6.666
2
13.33
3
20
6
13.3
Weak
Stupid
Likable
2
1
2
3
Average
3 Correct
2.22
4
2
13.33
4
26.66
4
26.66
10
22.2
5
5
33.33
3
20
3
20
11
24.4
6
4
26.66
2
13.33
3
20
9
20
7
3
20
o
o
1
6.666
4
8.88
5.4
14
Incorrect
3.6
4.4
93.33
7
46.66
5
33.33
26
57.7
6.666
8
53.33
10
66.66
19
42.2
2
13.33
3
20
6
40
11
24.4
Symbol
1
6.666
2
13.33
4
26.66
7
15.5
Product
o
o
o
o
o
0
0
0
4 Text
-
%
Illustration
12
80
10
66.66
2
13.33
24
53.3
Other
o
o
1
6.666
o
0
1
2.22
5 Freedom
13
86.66
6
40
4
26.66
23
51.1
Rare
2
13.33
2
13.33
5
33.33
9
20
Flying
o
o
5
33.33
8
53.33
13
28.8
Other
o
o
2
13.33
1
6.666
3
6.66
6 Justice
13
86.66
3
20
4
26.66
20
44.4
Balance
2
13.33
8
53.33
9
60
19
42.2
Other
o
o
4
26.66
2
13.33
6
13.3
7 Yes
15
100
15
100
14
93.33
44
97.7
No
o
o
o
o
6.666
1
2.22
8 Pictures
4.5
100
3.6
100
3.9666
100
3
100
100
100
3.8
Text
4.4
100
3.3
100
3.5666
100
1.8
100
1.6
100
1.5666
100
Colors
1.3
Wessels 36
%
Europeans
%
%
Total
%
1 Funny
7
46.66
3
20
10
66.66
20
44.4
Strong
1
6.666
0
o
2
13.33
3
6.66
Clear
4
26.66
3
20
2
13.33
9
20
(}
Americans
,-American Advertisements Question
2
Informative
3
20
2
13.33
(}
5
11.1
Sexy
o
o
o
()
o
0
o
o
Family-oriented
8
53.33
2
13.33
10
66.66
20
44.4
Anxious
o
o
o
o
o
0
o
o
Boring
3
20
5
33.33
2
13.33
10
22.2
Exciting
2
13.33
1
6.666
6
40
9
20
Old-fashioned
9
60
3
20
2
13.33
14
31.1
Sad
o
o
o
o
o
0
o
o
Interesting
5
33.33
3
20
8
53.33
16
35.5
Relaxed
3
20
2
13.33
6
40
11
24.4
Weird
6
40
4
26.66
2
13.33
12
26.6
6.666
3
20
5
33.33
9
20
3
20
5
33.33
8
17.7
()
o
o
1
6.666
o
o
0
0
2.22
26.66
o
o
1
4
4
8.88
Confusing
Modern
o
Work-related
Weak
Stupid
3
20
5
33.33
2
13.33
10
22.2
Likable
6
40
3
20
10
66.66
19
42.2
o
o
0
o
o
(}
2
4.44
2
1
o
o
o
o
2
1
6.666
1
6.666
3
o
o
3
20
1
6.666
4
8.88
4
4
26.66
4
26.66
4
26.66
12
26.6
5
5
33.33
5
33.33
5
33.33
15
33.3
6
4
26.66
2
13.33
5
33.33
11
24.4
1
6.666
1
6.666
1
6.666
3
6.66
7
Average
3 Correct
Incorrect
4 Text
4.267
4.933
5.133
14
93.33
12
80
9
00
35
77.7
1
6.666
3
20
6
40
10
22.2
5
33.33
4
26.66
2
13.33
11
24.4
Symbol
1
6.666
o
o
()
0
0
2.22
o
o
o
1
Product
o
o
o
o
Illustration
9
60
10
66.66
13
86.66
32
71.1
Other
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
o
0
1
2.22
3
20
2
13.33
5
11.1
Silverware
12
80
11
73.33
10
66.66
33
73.3
Kid's Books
2
13.33
o
o
3
20
5
11.1
Other
1
6.666
1
6.666
o
0
2
4.44
13
86.66
12
80
8
53.33
33
73.3
2
13.33
3
20
6
40
11
24.4
5 Women
6 Scroll
Banner
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
7 Yes
15
100
15
100
15
IOO
45
100
No
o
I)
o
()
o
o
0
0
3.9
100
4.4
100
4.7
IOO
4.3333
100
Text
2.2
100
3.2
100
3.9
100
3.1
100
Colors
1.1
100
2
100
1.4
100
1.5
100
Other
-
Asians
8 Pictures
Wessels 37
Americans
..-..:\mericanAdvertisements Question
3
Europeans
%
Asians
%
Total
%
15.5
1 Funny
4
26.66
1
6.666
2
13.33
7
Strong
6
40
2
13.33
8
53.33
16
35.5
13
28.8
Clear
4
26.66
6
40
3
20
Informative
7
46.66
5
33.33
3
20
15
33.3
6.666
3
20
()
4
8.88
o
o
o
80
32
71.1
Fami Iy-oriented
()
o
0
o
0
0
Anxious
<)
60
11
73.33
12
Boring
2
13.33
2
13.33
0
o
4
8.88
Exciting
5
33.33
9
60
10
66.66
24
53.3
Old-fashioned
1
6.666
0
o
()
Sad
1
6.666
0
o
0
o
o
1
2.22
Interesting
9
60
4
26.66
7
46.66
20
44.4
Relaxed
()
o
0
o
0
o
o
o
Sexy
2.22
Weird
5
33.33
9
60
11
73.33
25
55.5
Confusing
2
13.33
6
40
8
53.33
16
35.5
Modern
6
40
8
53.33
9
60
23
51.1
Work-related
()
()
o
o
0
Weak
()
1
6.666
o
o
0
()
o
o
1
2.22
Stupid
4
26.66
6
40
8
53.33
18
4()
6
40
4
26.66
5
33.33
15
33.3
1
o
()
3
20
1
6.666
4
8.88
2
2
13.33
2
13.33
o
o
4
8.88
3
3
20
3
20
2
13.33
8
17.7
4
26.66
12
26.6
Likable
2
4
4
26.66
4
26.66
5
5
33.33
1
6.666
3
20
<)
20
6.666
2
13.33
4
26.66
7
15.5
1
6.666
1
6.666
2
4.44
6
7
Average
3 Correct
Incorrect
()
o
4
4.6
3.267
15
100
14
93.33
10
66.66
39
86.6
o
o
1
6.666
5
33.33
6
13.3
7
46.66
6
40
5
33.33
18
40
Symbol
3
20
3
20
7
46.66
13
28.8
4 Text
Product
o
o
o
o
0
o
0
o
Illustration
5
33.33
6
40
3
20
14
31.1
Other
o
()
o
o
0
o
0
o
5 Cursing
12
80
6
40
3
20
21
46.6
Cross, Number, et
o
20
5
33.33
8
17.7
()
o
o
3
Don't Know
4
26.66
7
46.66
11
24.4
3
20
2
13.33
0
o
5
11.1
2
13.33
3
20
3
20
8
17.7
Anger
13
86.66
11
73.33
9
60
33
73.3
Fear
o
o
1
6.666
3
20
4
8.88
7 Yes
15
100
15
100
14
93.33
44
97.7
No
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
8 Pictures
4.2
100
4
100
3.7
100
3.9666
100
Text
3.1
100
3.2
100
3.9
100
3.4
100
Colors
2.7
100
1.6
100
1.2
100
1.8333
100
Other
6 Pain
-
%
Wessels 38
Americans
..-J:uropean Advertisement: Question
1
%
Asians
%
Total
%
0
o
4
26.66
3
6.66
2
Strong
7
46.66
9
60
5
33.33
Clear
3
20
4
26.66
1
6.666
11
24.4
2.22
lnformative
1
6.666
6
40
0
o
13
2~.8
Sexy
4
26.66
2
13.33
6
40
12
26.6
Family-oriented
o
o
0
o
0
o
o
o
Anxious
7
46.66
6
40
4
26.66
17
37.7
Boring
o
o
1
6.666
2
13.33
3
6.66
Exciting
~
53.33
10
66.66
6
40
24
53.3
Old-fashioned
o
o
o
o
0
o
o
o
0
o
o
0
Sad
o
o
Interesting
4
26.61'>
6
40
3
20
13
28.~
Relaxed
1
6.666
0
o
2
13.33
3
6.66
Weird
9
60
2
13.33
9
60
20
44.4
Confusing
~
53.33
1
6.666
4
26.66
13
28.8
Modem
2
13.33
7
46.66
9
60
1~
40
Work-related
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
0
Weak
o
o
0
0
Stupid
7
46.66
2
13.33
4
26.66
13
28.8
2
3 Correct
()
3
20
8
53.33
5
33.33
16
35.5
2
13.33
o
o
1
6.666
3
6.66
2
4
26.66
1
6.666
1
6.666
6
13.3
3
1
6.666
2
13.33
3
20
6
13.3
4
2
13.33
4
26.66
4
26.66
10
22.2
5
5
33.33
4
26.66
2
13.33
11
24.4
6
o
o
4
26.66
3
20
7
15.5
1
6.666
o
o
1
6.666
2
4.44
3.533
14
Incorrect
4 Text
0
1
7
Average
2
Symbol
4.2
4.533
93.33
15
100
14
93.33
43
95.5
6.666
o
o
1
6.666
2
4.44
13.33
5
33.33
1
6.666
8
17.7
6.666
o
o
0
o
1
2.22
Product
11
73.33
~
53.33
12
~O
31
6~.~
Illustration
1
6.666
2
13.33
2
13.33
5
11.1
Other
5 Rock Music
-
Europeans
1 Funny
Likable
-
%
13.33
o
o
1
6.666
0
o
1
2.22
10
66.66
2
13.33
6
40
18
40
Rebellion
3
20
12
80
5
33.33
20
44.4
Death
2
13.33
o
o
3
20
5
11.1
Other
o
o
1
6.666
1
6.666
2
4.44
6 Company
10
66.66
2
13.33
6
40
18
40
Warning
5
33.33
13
86.66
6
40
24
53.3
Other
o
o
o
o
3
20
3
6.66
1
6.666
8
53.33
1
6.666
10
22.2
7 Yes
No
14
93.33
7
46.66
14
93.33
35
77.7
4.6
100
3.3
100
4.2
1 DO
4.0333
100
Text
2.2
100
4.2
1 DO
3.9
100
3.4333
., 00
Colors
1.5
100
1.9
100
2.3
100
1.9
100
8 Pictures
Wessels 39
_
European Advertisement: Question
2
1 Funny
%
Europeans
%
Asians
%
Total
%
6
40
4
26.66
7
46.66
17
37.7
Strong
o
o
1
6.666
0
o
1
2.22
Clear
2
13.33
6
40
3
20
11
24.4
Informative
1
6.666
7
46.66
2
13.33
10
22.2
Sexy
o
o
0
o
0
o
o
o
Family-oriented
10
66.66
12
80
13
86.66
35
77.7
Anxious
o
o
0
o
0
o
o
o
15.5
Boring
1
6.666
4
26.66
2
13.33
7
Exciting
3
20
1
6.666
2
13.33
6
13.3
Old-fashioned
Y
60
6
40
7
46.66
22
48.8
Sad
o
o
0
o
()
o
o
o
lnteresting
1
6.666
5
33.33
9
20
3
20
Relaxed
5
33.33
7
46.66
4
26.66
16
35.5
Weird
3
20
1
6.666
2
13.33
6
13.3
Confusing
4
26.66
3
20
1
6.666
8
17.7
Modern
13.33
()
2
4.44
1
6.666
()
o
o
1
2.22
Weak
()
o
o
o
2
Work-related
o
o
20
3
6.66
1
6.066
o
o
3
Stupid
o
o
7
46.66
8
17.7
Likable
6
40
7
46.66
5
33.33
18
40
o
o
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
()
o
o
0
0
3
2
13.33
3
20
3
20
8
17.7
4
4
26.66
4
26.66
3
20
11
24.4
5
4
26.66
5
33.33
4
26.66
13
28.8
6
4
26.66
2
13.33
4
26.66
10
22.2
1
6.666
1
6.666
1
6.666
3
6.66
2
1
2
-
7
Average
o
4.866
4.866
4.6
12
80
13
86.66
11
73.33
36
80
3
20
2
13.33
4
26.66
9
20
o
o
5
33.33
1
6.666
6
13.3
Symbol
3
20
1
6.666
6
40
10
22.2
Product
5
33.33
1
6.666
3
20
9
20
Illustration
7
46.66
8
53.33
5
33.33
20
44.4
Other
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
3 Correct
Incorrect
4 Text
5 Grandfather
5
33.33
4
26.66
3
20
12
26.6
Wisdom
3
20
5
33.33
10
66.66
18
40
Old
7
46.66
5
33.33
1
6.666
13
28.8
Other
o
o
1
6.666
1
6.666
2
4.44
6 Youth
12
80
10
66.66
8
53.33
30
66.6
Openminded
3
20
5
33.33
6
40
14
31.1
Other
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
1
6.666
8
53.33
1
6.666
10
22.2
7 Yes
-
Americans
No
14
93.33
7
46.66
14
93.33
35
77.7
8 Pictures
4.5
100
3.8
100
3.6
100
3.9666
100
Text
2.6
100
3.5
100
4.3
1 DO
3.4666
100
Colors
1.5
100
2.4
100
1.3
100
1.7333
100
Wessels 40
European Advertisement: Question
3
Americans
Europeans
%
Asians
%
Total
%
1 Funny
1
6.666
o
o
2
13.33
3
6.66
Strong
0
o
1
6.666
3
20
4
8.88
Clear
6
40
7
46.66
5
33.33
18
40
Informative
2
13.33
3
20
1
6.666
6
13.3
Sexy
3
20
2
13.33
0
o
5
11.1
Family-oriented
0
1
6.666
4
26.66
5
11.1
Anxious
0
o
o
o
o
1
6.666
1
2.22
Boring
3
20
2
13.33
5
33.33
10
22.2
Exciting
3
20
4
26.66
2
13.33
9
20
Old-fashioned
7
46.66
6
40
3
20
16
35.5
Sad
0
o
o
o
0
o
o
o
Interesting
5
33.33
7
46.66
9
60
21
46.6
Relaxed
8
53.33
6
40
7
46.66
21
46.6
Weird
1
6.666
o
o
13.33
3
6.66
Confusing
2
13.33
3
20
2
4
26.66
9
20
Modern
1
6.666
2
13.33
4
26.66
7
15.5
Work-related
0
0
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
Weak
o
o
o
6.666
1
2.22
Stupid
2
13.33
1
6.666
1
6.666
4
8.88
Likable
8
53.33
7
46.66
9
60
24
53.3
0
o
o
o
0
o
o
6
13.3
2
0
o
o
o
o
o
o
3
3
20
2
13.33
1
6.666
4
2
13.33
4
26.66
2
13.33
8
17.7
5
3
20
5
33.33
6
40
14
31.1
6
4
26.66
3
20
3
20
10
22.2
7
3
20
1
6.666
3
20
7
15.5
210
Average
3 Correct
5.133
4.8
14
93.33
15
1
6.666
o
o
Symbol
1
6.666
o
Product
4
26.66
1
Illustration
Incorrect
4 Text
()
5.333
100
14
93.33
43
95.5
o
o
1
6.666
2
4.44
6
4{)
1
6.666
7
15.5
o
1
6.666
2
4.44
6.666
7
46.66
12
26.6
10
66.66
8
53.33
6
4{)
24
53.3
Other
()
()
1
6.666
()
0
1
2.22
5 Strength
1
6.666
2
13.33
4
26.66
7
15.5
Wealth
6
40
5
33.33
4
26.66
15
33.3
Long lasting
8
53.33
6
40
7
46.66
21
46.6
Other
()
o
2
13.33
o
0
2
4.44
6 Art
8
53.33
5
33.33
6
40
19
42.2
Beauty
5
33.33
7
46.66
6
40
18
40
Women
2
13.33
3
20
3
17.7
2
13.33
8
53.33
13
86.66
7
46.66
14
7 Yes
-
%
No
20
8
6.666
11
24.4
93.33
34
75.5
8 Pictures
4.2
1110
4
100
3.7
lOO
3.9666
100
Text
3.1
100
3.2
100
3.9
100
3.4
100
Colors
2.7
100
1.6
100
1.2
100
1.8333
100
Wessels 41
Table 1
Question 1:
What words best describe your feeling toward the advertisement?
Asian
1
Funny
Strong
Clear
Informative
Sexy
Family-oriented
Anxious
Boring
Exciting
Old-fashioned
Sad
Interesting
Relaxed
Weird
Confusing
Modem
Work-related
Weak
Stupid
Likable
-
A
A
2
AN
A
A
A
A
A
American
1
2
AN
A
N
NE
N
A
A
AN
3
3
N
AN
E
N
E
A
A
A
N
A
N
AE
AE
E
A
N
AE
N
E
N
A
AE
A
E
A
A
N
NE
NE
E
A
A
N
N
E
N
A
AE
N
E
A
N
A
A
N
A
A
N
E
AN
AE
European
1
A
E
E
E
A
3
A
E
E
A
N
A
E
A
N
NE
A
E
A
N
E
NA
E
AE
AE
A
NA
NA
AE
A
2
A
N
E
N
A
A
A
N=North Americans
N, E, or A indicate that group checked feeling 3 or more times than other groups.
E=Europeans
When two groups' ratings are 3 or more greater than the other,
A=Asians
the group with the largest number is listed first.
Wessels 42
-
Table 2
Question 2:
What is your overal rating of the advertisement?
IMean rating
Asian
1
A
2
A
I
I
3
A
I
I
3
AN
1
E
I
2
I
I
3
I
E=Europeans
When two groups' ratings are 0.7 or more greater than the other,
A=Asians
the group with the largest number is listed first.
Question 3:
What product in your opinion in being advertised?
Asian
Correct
Incorrect
American
European
3
1
2
3
A
A
N
NE
NE
NE
EN
AE
A
A
1
-
I
European
N, t, or A show group's rating was at least + 0.7 points than another group.
N=North Americans
-
I
I
American
1
2
NA I A
2
1
2
3
N=North Americans
N, E, or A show at least 3 more persons answered than another group.
E=Europeans
When two groups' answer 3 or more correct/ incorrect than the other,
A=Asians
the group with the largest number is listed first.
Wessels 43
Table 3
Question 4:
What first attracted your attention in the advertisement?
Text
Symbol/ Icon
Product
Illustration
Asian
1
A
N
2
A
3
A
American
1
2
A
N
A
3
A
N
EN
NE
A
E
European
1
2
E
E
A
N
AN
E
3
E
AN
N
N=North Americans
N, E, or A indicate that at least 3 more persons answered than another group.
E=Europeans
When two groups' answer 3 or more than the other,
A=Asians
the group with the largest number is listed first.
Question 7:
Do you understand the text of the advertisement?
Asian
-
American
1
2
3
Yes
A
A
No
NE
NE
European
1
2
3
A
E
E
E
NE
NA
NA
AN
1
2
3
N=NorthAmericans
N, E, or A indicate that at least 3 more answered "yes/ no" than another group.
E=Europeans
When two groups' answer 3 or more "yes/ no" than the other,
A=Asians
the group with the largest number is listed first.
Wessels 44
Table 4
Question 8:
How important are the following to your understanding
and liking of the advertisement?
Pictures
Text
Colors
-
Asian
1
EN
AE
AE
2
N
AE
E
3
A
N
American
1
2
N
A
E
AE
E
Eur<T~an
3
A
N
1
NA
EA
A
2
N
AE
E
3
A
N
N=North Americans
N, E, or A mean that group's average was at least 0.7 points higher than another.
E=Europeans
When two groups' ratings are 0.7 or more greater than the other,
A=Asians
the group with the largest number is listed first.
,,:rr 4
)'J1'1 ..
:9I ....
~
II
~,.
,t,.
• .. • t' -:V' WI n III M X P J .1!1I"J,l,
l~'
,..
r
I
I t~ IS!. ',2:
i~
IV1uf 1'( ....) .;, '1
t· I'll' . 1'>1" "'W, ,;'~tii~J'lr'.~JP:lIn\ \ to '"'ntl~f~,~f.'·
-
r· ...
:ii.
./
:t.:.
d
~:0
?-t
."
J.
(J' flU
ft/.J .... " ...... I
.1,(;ft~~'J.
1S ~ .Ii llii !i2
'.".'1" .,. ~
!ol ~
Wessels 46
"'
.
.,;,'ft.~ t,",!.;ft~:;:>::"~
,
.
r,
"','\.
•...... t ' \
\
',
.
•
4i'
•
\
\
\
I! .' .'
.
·Slli;
~"
\
(I"'
~·:1.t.j
:',1',
ti,l"~';
'~
,~.
•. ,'. .
:
.1'. l·t
, 'I'j
,!",~.-
,'I
i ,'I "1,1 '.'
; ,:..!,'1j·1fl1:,'·,1
'I,,, ::"1 '~'"
~,,,,, ',',/,'
:1.'
.f
tt,.:
.
• b
,~!!
'1'.
'i
.. 1"1 " . '/ ,
.,Ijl\\ "',"
", .. ""I~ ,'q ','I, If::
I.'I!]:> ~, '~") 11"'11'.'
:'''I'J\plll ':l\l',"I~ 'h/~I!.:"", ','
" 11'1'-": ,~)\ ~ 0.,' " ' , ~I I '~l, ~I'
,I,,",
""I'U"
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------
sels 47
.,..
.
~'
..-
· .• •
~
• •,
•
.II
"
•
-
~
lit
.~
~l~
-.
•
•
••
• •
..
· ,..
••
•
·
'~
..
"
f
•
:
t
~
,
..
•.
ill'
•
"J
t
.
.,
•
•
4'
, ,
,..•
lot
•
•
..
I
•
•
.•
J
~
-,
•
.
•
tI
••
-
-
Wessels 48
Wessels 50
I
EG-Gesundheitsminister: Rauchen gefahrdet die Gesundheit. Der Rauch einer Zigarette dieser Marke enthalt:
0,7 mg Nikotin und 9 mg Kondensat (Teer). (Durchschnittswerte nach ISO)
•
..d
¥
.~'1
J
I
\,
,
4
.PA4._' 4CW t
.;UMW' UP
p
...
Wessels 53
-
rr-T;71l:r6~"""'--
Wessels 54
-
RESOURCES
Alexander, Monty and Max Burt. "Big talk, small talk: BT's strategic use of
semiotics in planning its current advertising." Journal of the Market Research
Society. April 1995, v. 37, n. 2, p. 91-103.
Bell, Emily. "The deconstruction industry: Advertising." The Observer. May 30,
1993, n. 10520, p. 37.
Berger, Arthur Asa. Signs in ContemPQrary Culture: An Introduction to Semiotics.
Longman: New York, 1984.
Chandier,Daniel. Semiotics for Beginners. Internet
(http://www.aber.ac .dgc/semO 1.html#Top). Accessed 9/23/96.
"'Crafty Advertisers': literary versus literal deceptiveness." Journal of Public Policy
& Marketing. Spring 1992, v. 11, n. 1, p. 72-82.
Culler, Jonathan. The Pursuit of Signs. Cornell University Press: Cornell, 1988.
Deely, John. Basics of Semiotics. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 1990.
Domzal, Teresa .J. and Jerome B. Kernan. "Mirror, Mirror: Some Postmodern
Reflections on Global Advertising." Journal of Advertising. December 1993, v.
22, n. 4, p. 1-21.
Domzal, Teresa .J. and Jerome B. Kernan. "Reading Advertising: The What and How
of Product Meaning." The Journal of Consumer Marketing. Summer 1992, v.
9, n. 3, p. 48-65.
Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Indiana University Press: Bloomington,
1976.
Frank, Betsy and Myra Stark. "Semiotics and Entertainment: A Marriage Made in
Heaven." Journal of Advertising Research. Sept.-Oct. 1995, Vol. 35, n. 5,
pages RC:2-RC7.
Goodwin, Andrew. Dancing in the Distraction Factory: Music Television and Popular
-
Culture. University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1992.
-
Wessels 55
Leeds-Hurwitz, ·Wendy. Semiotics and Communications: Signs, Codes, Cultures.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, New Jersey, 1993.
Marion, Gilles, and Patrick Hetzel. "Contributions of French Semiotics to Marketing
Research . " Marketing Research Today (Netherlands). May 1995, v. 23, n. 2,
p.75-86.
MacCannell, Dean and Juliet Flower MacCannell. The Time of the Sign. Indiana
University Press: Bloomington, 1982.
Mowen, John C. Consumer Behavior. Fourth Edition. Prentice-Hall: Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
Peirce, Charles Sanders. The Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Harvard
University Press: Cambridge, MA, 1958.
Poyatos, Fernando. New Perspectives in Nonverbal Communication: Studies in
Cultural.Anthropology, Social Psychology, Linguistics, Literature, and
Semiotics. Pergamon Press: New York, 1983.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de Linguistique Generale. Payot: Paris, 1972.
Sebeok, Thomas A. Semiotics in the United States. Semiotics Advances Press: New
York, 1991.
SIess, David. In Search of Semiotics. Barnes & Noble Books: Totowa, New Jersey,
1986.
Stark, Myra. "Looking for a sign? Try semiotics on TV." AdvertisingAge.
September 11, 1995, v. 66, n. 36, p. S6.
Sutherland, Max. Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer: What Works, What
Doesn't and Why. Allen & Unwin: St. Leonards, 1993.
Umiker-Sebeok, Jean. Marketing and Semiotics: New Directions in the Study of
Signs for Sale. Mouton de Gruyter: Berlin, 1987.
"Words, Script, and Pictures: Semiotics of Visual Language." Publishers Weekly.
July 29, 1H96, v. 243, n. 31, p. 76.