Penn Institute for Economic Research
Department of Economics
University of Pennsylvania
3718 Locust Walk
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6297
pier@econ.upenn.edu
http://www.econ.upenn.edu/pier
PIER Working Paper 01-036
“The Schooling of Southern Blacks: The Roles of Legal Activism and Private
Philanthropy, 1910-1960”
by
John J. Donohue III, James J. Heckman and Petra Todd
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=232549
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TABLE Ia
Georgia School Quality Measures from 1911-1960 for Selected Yearsa
Standard Deviations are in parentheses
Pupil/teacher ratio,
enrollment-based
Pupil/teacher ratio,
attendance based
Term length
(days)
Per diem teacher
salary (1960 dollars)b
Year
1911
black
60
(15)
white
40
(9)
ratio
1.51
black
37
(16)
white
26
(7)
ratio
1.42
black white
119
134
(29)
(30)
ratio
0.89
black
3.11
(1.35)
white
6.90
(2.30)
ratio
0.46
1920
59
(13)
41
(9)
1.44
40
(11)
31
(7)
1.29
129
(30)
143
(30)
0.90
2.36
(1.53)
5.49
(2.38)
0.43
1930
48
(12)
35
(6)
1.37
36
(11)
27
(7)
1.33
131
(32)
153
(25)
0.86
3.80
(2.82)
9.08
(4.17)
0.42
1938
43
(10)
30
(5)
1.43
33
(9)
24
(4)
1.36
153
(18)
170
(10)
0.90
4.81
(2.78)
10.42
(4.56)
0.46
1950
36
(5)
32
(4)
1.13
29
(5)
25
(3)
1.16
177
(7)
180
(0.85)
0.98
11.33
(2.11)
14.40
(2.47)
0.79
1960
31
(3)
29
(3)
1.07
29
(2)
24
(2)
1.21
180
(0.00)
180
(0.00)
1.00
20.00
(2.83)
20.48
(2.84)
0.98
a. For enrollment-based pupil teacher ratio and term length, the table shows the mean for each quality measure given by the average of all
the district means weighted by enrollment for that district. For attendance-based pupil teacher ratio, the district mean is weighted by the
average daily attendance for each district, and for per diem teacher salary by the number of teachers in each district.
b. The deflator used to adjust for inflation is the national Consumer Price Index for each year. (U.S. Bureau of the Census. Historical
Statistics of the United States, Part I Consumer Price Indexes, All Items Series E 135-166).
TABLE Ib
Georgia Teacher Certification Levels, 1911-1960
Proportion of teachers with
2+ years of post-Secondary
education
Year
1911
1930
1938
1942
1944
1950
black
.16
.14
.35
.64
.63
.91
white
.35
.52
.83
.93
.87
.95
b/w ratio
0.45
0.27
0.42
0.69
0.72
0.96
Proportion of teachers with
state certification
black
na
.49
.56
.82
.75
.97
white
na
.92
.97
.98
.94
.98
b/w ratio
na
0.53
0.58
0.84
0.80
0.99
The state certification system was established in 1915 and revised in 1930. The amount
of post-secondary education required for each level of certification was reconstructed from
descriptions in the Georgia Board of Education reports (See Appendix).
TABLE II
Rosenwald Contributions to Black School Buildings in Twelve Southern Statesa
Number of buildings
All
black
schools
Value of property
Value of
Rosenwald
-built
schools as
of 1936
Total reporting
24,454
4,907
.20
68.9
22.2
Fraction of
property
value that
are
Rosenwald
schools
.32
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Louisiana
Maryland
Mississippi
North Carolina
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
2,603
1,438
1,014
3,111
1,675
536
3,339
2,456
2,466
1,208
2,810
1,798
407
389
125
261
435
153
633
813
500
373
527
381
.16
.27
.12
.08
.26
.29
.19
.33
.20
.31
.19
.21
4.7
2.6
4.9
5.7
(NA)
8.8
3.2
12.5
5.2
(NA)
14.1
7.0
1.3
2.0
1.4
1.4
(NA)
0.9
2.9
5.2
2.9
(NA)
2.5
1.9
.27
.74
.29
.24
--.10
.89
.41
.55
--.18
.27
Rosenwaldbuilt
schools
Fraction
Rosenwald
State
Total
black
school
value
(in
millions)
Measure of
Inequity in
School
Spending
by Raceb
.36
.40
.31
.28
.33
.71
.21
.48
.22
-.45
--
Rosenwald school capacity, 1931b
Fraction of
black
school-age
population
Fraction of
black
enrollment
Fraction of
black teachers
employed
.21c
.29c
.29c
.12
.33
.15
.09
.20
.25
.16
.35
.25
.35
.22
.19
.19
.41
.23
.14
.30
.27
.26
.43
.33
.43
.27
.27
.19
.42
.20
.15
.37
.21
.28
.40
.36
.37
.24
.24
a. Source:Wilkerson, Doxey A., 1939, p. 33.
b. Source: Bond, 1934. State funds were allocated per pupil without regard to race, but funds were often redistributed at the l ocal district level away from the black schools (Bond, 1934). The
number shown in the table represents the school expenditures per black pupil divided by the total state dollars apportioned per pupil. For example, if the state apportioned one dollar per student, but
only fifty cents was spent on black pupils, then the inequity index shown in the table would equal 0.5.
c. Source: Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives, Fisk University, box 331 folder 2.
TABLE III
Percent Change in Black-White Mean Teacher Salary Ratio Before and
After Litigation for Segregated Southern and Border States a
Segregated states with teacher salary equalization litigation
State
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Louisiana
Maryland
South Carolina
Texas
Virginia
State
Delaware
Mississippi
Missouri
North Carolina
Oklahoma
Year of
litigation
Percent change
Percent change
(filing
before
after litigation
date)
litigationb
22
72
1942
-5
25
1942
8
65
1941
15
100
1943
27
83
1942
8
23
1936
32
56
1941
11
41
1943
3
51(b)
1939
Segregated states without litigation
Percent change
before 1943
7
-3
41
36
6
Percent change
after 1943
30c
65
5
12
-8c
a. The segregated Southern and border states include the indicated fourteen states plus
Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia. Results for Tennessee (a litigation state) and for Kentucky
and West Virginia (non-litigation states) are not available because of missing data.
b. This second and third columns shows the percent change in the wage ratio for the eight
years before and the eight years after the litigation case (or before and after 1943 for non-litigation
states).
c. Because of missing data, the percent changes in Virginia are calculated based on six years
prior and six years post litigation. Similarly, the percent changes for Delaware are based on fouryear intervals and for Oklahoma on two-year intervals.
TABLE IV
Effect of Teacher-Salary Litigation on Relative Black/White Quality Measures
Based on Post 1930 Sample (1930-1953)
(standard errors are in parentheses)
Specification
Post-litigation indicator
black/white teacher
salary ratios
(1)
(2)
(3)
…
…
…
…
0.014
(0.004)
…
3-4 years post litigation
…
…
5-6 years post litigation
…
…
>7 years post litigation
…
…
Post-litigation*years
since litigation
1-2 years post litigation
0.065
(0.034)
…
0.050
(0.033)
0.080
(0.048)
0.175
(0.055)
0.146
(0.053)
pupil/teacher ratio
term length
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
-0.156
(0.033)
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
0.006
(0.003)
…
…
…
-0.012
(0.003)
…
0.048
(0.013)
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
-0.023
(0.035)
-0.118
(0.019)
-0.132
(0.034)
-0.180
(0.039)
0.022
(0.012)
0.038
(0.017)
0.039
(0.018)
0.076
(0.028)
All specifications include unrestricted state effects and year effects. States included are segregated Southern and border states (Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware,
Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia)
plus the District of Columbia (when the data are available). Standard errors are Huber-White standard errors.
TABLE V
Percentage Breakdown of Georgia and Southern Population
By Race and Rural/Urban Residence
year
black
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
45
42
37
35
31
28
Georgia
white rural
55
58
63
65
69
71
79
75
69
66
55
45
urban
black
21
25
31
34
45
55
30
27
25
24
22
21
South
white rural
70
73
75
76
78
79
77
72
66
63
51
41
urban
23
28
34
37
49
59
South includes the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas.
(Source: Historical Statistics of the United States, Part I Table Series A 195-209 (population), Series C
25-75 (intercensal migration)).
TABLE VI
Decomposition of Change in Georgia’s Quality Measure
into Within County and Between County Changes
white schools
black schools
Quality
Measure
year
total
change
between
county
within
county
total
change
between
county
within
county
Pupil-teacher
ratio
1911-20
1920-30
1930-42
1942-56
4.4
-3.1
-2.9
0.3
0.1
-0.2
0.3
0.3
4.3
-2.9
-3.2
-0.1
3.8
-1.2
-9.6
-2.8
-0.3
-0.4
-0.4
0.7
4.1
-0.8
-9.2
-4.5
Term length
1911-20
1920-30
1930-42
1942-56
9.6
16.3
19.0
1.6
1.3
2.9
0.0
0.0
8.4
13.4
19.1
1.5
9.5
10.3
26.9
14.9
1.3
2.8
0.3
1.2
8.2
7.5
26.5
13.7
Teacher salary
1911-20
1920-30
1930-42
1942-56
-1.7
3.8
1.8
9.5
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.2
-1.8
3.2
1.7
9.3
-0.9
2.1
1.1
14.4
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.4
-1.0
1.8
1.1
14.0
The table shows year-by-year effects aggregated across subsets of years.
Figure I. Black to White Schooling Quality Ratios over Time
1920
1930
1940
1950
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1920
1930
1940
1950
1(c) Ratio of Black Term Length to White Term Length
1(d) Ratio of Black Per Diem Teacher Salary to White Per Diem Teacher Salary
1930
1940
year
1950
1960
0.6
0.8
Georgia avg
urban avg.
rural avg.
0.4
0.95
0.85
1920
1.0
year
ratio of black/white teacher salary
year
Georgia avg
urban avg.
rural avg.
1910
Georgia avg
urban avg.
rural avg.
1910
1960
0.75
ratio of black/white term length
1910
1(b) Ratio of Black Proportions of Teachers with 2+ Years College to White Proportions
ratio of black/white proportions
1.6
1.2
1.4
Georgia avg
urban avg.
rural avg.
1.0
ratio of black/white ptr-attendance
1(a) Ratio of Black Pupils in Attendance Per Teacher to White Pupils in Attendance Per Teacher
1910
1920
1930
1940
year
1950
1960
Figure II. Southern Average Black/White Schooling Quality Ratios over Time
1.6
1.2
1.4
Southern avg
Deep South avg.
1.0
ratio of black/white ptr-attendance
2(a) Ratio of Black Pupils in Attendance Per Teacher to White Pupils in Attendance Per Teacher
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
year
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Southern avg
Deep South avg.
0.5
ratio of black/white term length
2(b) Ratio of Black Term Length to White Term Length
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
year
1.0
0.6
0.8
Southern avg
Deep South avg.
0.4
ratio of black/white teacher salary
2(c) Ratio of Black Annual Teacher Salary to White Annual Teacher Salary
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
year
Note: Southern averages are averages of state means weighted by black enrollment.
The Deep South states are Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Lousiana, Mississippi, N. Carolina, S. Carolina, Texas, and Virginia.
Figure III: Black/White Teacher Salary Ratios, Selected Southern States
Alabama
Arkansas
1.20
1.00
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.60
0.60
Gainer v.
School Board
of Jefferson
City, 1942
0.40
0.40
0.20
0.00
1905
Morris v.
Williams, 1942
0.20
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
0.00
1905
1915
1935
1945
1955
Georgia
Florida
1.00
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.60
0.60
Reynolds v. Board of
Public Instruction of
Dade County, 1941
0.40
0.20
0.00
1905
1925
0.40
Davis v. Cook
1943
0.20
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
0.00
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
Figure III: Black/White Teacher Salary Ratios, Selected Southern States
Louisiana
Maryland
1.00
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.60
0.60
0.40
0.00
1905
0.40
McKelpin v.
School Board of
New Orleans,
1942
0.20
1915
1925
1935
1945
Gibbs v.
Montgomery
County, 1936
0.20
1955
0.00
1905
1915
Mississippi
1935
1945
1955
North Carolina
1.20
1.00
1925
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.60
0.60
0.40
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.00
1905
0.00
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
Figure III: Black/White Teacher Salary Ratios, Selected Southern States
South Carolina
Texas
1.00
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.80
Page v. School
Board of Dallas,
1943
0.60
0.60
Black Teachers'
Association
Petition, 1941
0.40
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.00
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
Virginia
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
Alston v. School
Board of City of
Norfolk, decision
in 1940
0.40
0.20
0.00
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955
0.00
1905
1915
1925
1935
1945
1955