The =-\elationshi}) 3et-,-een Attituc:_es and Rape
~cennrio
Inter,retations
bv
LJ
kuncie,
1m-~_i2.na
J1)_ne, 19:35
"
-
?p:.:v
;
("~
I
(-:::; :i'
•. - ..1
-
:
.) ;
F
::~
I ")
• - f~
Rape
i~3
a crime of epidemic proportions in our society.
It is one of the fastest-growing areas of crime, and yet,
has one of the lowest conviction rates.
Gager & Schurr
( 1976 ) have estimated that as ,few as three percent of all
rapists are convicted of the crime.
Although there are many
theories as to the causes of rape, the Societal Blame model
has generally been accepted as one !of the most relevant.
The Societal Blame r.lode1 asserts that " sexual assault takes
place when accumulated cultural and societal attitudes are
manifested through the forcible sexual contact of one person
on another" ( Brodsky & Hobart, 1978, p. 385).
words, thl9 causality of rape does not lie
rm th
In other
a select group
of sexually deviant males, but rather in the the negative
attitudes toward Vlomen which currently exist in American
society.
Thus, as many feminist authors have asserted, many
men in the general population could be actual or potential
rapists ( Brownmiller, 1975; Clark & Lewis, 1977; Griffen,
1975, 1979; medea & Thompson, 1974; Russell,
1975~
1930 ).
Cross-Cultural Studies of Rape
Support for the Societal Blame model can be found in several
cross-cultural studies on rape-prone and rape-free societies.
In a study of·300 societies, Otterbein ( 1978 ) found that
the frequency of rape in a society can be determined from two
factors:
amount of punishment incurred for rape, and the
presence or absence of fraternal interest groups ( i.e. power
-.
groups of related males ).
Thus'a society in which the frequency
2.
of rape iE; low has maj or punishment for rape and no fraternal
interest groups.
Conversely, a society which has a high
frequency of rape has little or no punishment for rape despite
the presence or absence of fraternal
inter~st
groups.
In a similar study, Sanday ( 1931 ) found that rape-free
societies are characterized by sexual equality and the notion
that the :3exes are complementary.
There is great importance
attached to the contribution which women make vii thin the
society.
In rape-prone societies, on the other hand, the
sexual assault of Vlomen is either culturally allowable or
largely overlooked.
Sanday also found that the intensity of
interpersonal violence in a society is positively correlated
with the the incidence of rape as is the presence of an ideolgy
which encourages men to be tough and aggressive.
Thus, a
society which encourages violence and strong traditional
sex-role beliefs would be expected to have a high frequency
of rape.
For the individuals within such a society, such
a belief system seems to have a definite effect on the
r\ra~r
8.ttri buti::; :::.' nre made about rape.
Variables. Affecting Attributions About Rape
Russell (
1975 ) argues that, in our society, traditional
sex-role socialization contributes to the objectification
of women and provides the background for attitudes that pronote
and foste:r rape.
Several recent studies support this view.
It has been found that individuals with more conservative
3.
traditionally-oriented values toward women were more inclined
to consider the rape victim at fault th8.l'l those more liberal
or profeminist ( Feild, 1978; Klemmack & Klemmack, 1976;
Thornton, Ryckman, & Robbins, 1982).
A traditional sex-role
orientation has also been found to affect other observer
attributions tov:ard rape victims.
Acock
&
Ireland ( 1983 )
found that subjects with a traditional sex-role orientation
view the victim as less respectable, blame her more, and
blame the rapist less.
On the other hand, Howells, Greasely,
Robertson, Gloster, & metcalf ( 1934
found that liberal
males '.'!erE! more likely to perceive the victim as suffering
psychological damage, perceived less victin causation, gave
more relative b Is.;
A
-=.
·~o
the r8.:;Ji "'-I:;,
a~d
blamed the victim less.
Less stereotypical, less conservative attitudes about women
have also been associated with greater empathy to\'Jards the
rape victim ( Dietz, Blacl\:well, Daley,
&
Bentley, 1982 ),
vlith less aggressiveness toward women ( Taylor,
and
wl~h
Smith, 1974 ),
&;
. citing societal reinforcement of male aggression
as a reasonable explanation for rape ( Krulewitz
8:
Payne,
1978 ).
Sex-role attitudes can also affect I'lhether a person defines
a crime as rape.
Krulewi tz
&
Payne ( 1978 ) found that 'Nomen
with traditional sex-role attitudes became increasingly
convinced that the incident was rape as greater physical force
\'las used by the assailant.
'."iomen .wi th less stereotypical
4.
attitudes maintained a relatively high degree of certainty
at all degrees of physical force.
Thus, sex-role beliefs not
only influence the attributions people tend to make about
rape, but they even affectan individual's definition of rape.
Sex-ro:~e
beliefs, hov/ever, are not the only variable vihich
seems to influence this definitional process.
People seem to
share a degree of uncertainty about what comprises rape
( Burgess & Holmstrom, 1976; Holmstrom & Burgess, 1978;
Krulewitz & Payne, 1978 ), and seem to take a variety. of
information into account when attempting to define a situation
as rape.
Research has shovm that perceptions of rape are
determined by contextual information concerning the victim
( Calhoun 1 Selby, & Ivlagee, 1981; Smith, Keating, Hester, &
Mitchell, 1976 ), the offender ( Barnett & Feild, 1973 ),
and the
a~3saul t
itself ( Krulewi tz
&
Payne, 1978 ).
In addition, perceptions about rape are also influenced
by the sex of the perceiver ( Calhoun, Selby,
Cann, Calhoun,
I(rulev,ri tz
&
&
&
Selby, 1976; Feldman, SUmlllerS,
Nash, 1979 ).
l"iarinr"
&
1976;
I,inder, 1976;
studies have shovm that females
were more likely than males to identify with the victim
( Howells, Greasely, Robertson, Gloster, & Metcalf, 1984;
Kalamuth, Haber·,
& ~itchell,
&
Feshbach, 1980; Smith, Keating, Hester,
197~Tieger,
1981 ), to
Vi8~
raue
a~ ~ ~ore
serious aDe;. more violent crime ( :J:ieger, 1981 ), and to
prescribe
more serious pu..,nishment for the rapist ( nOi'ie11s,
Greasely, Hobertson, Gloster, & j\'Ietcalf, 1984;
Smith, Keating,
Hester, & r.1itchell,1976 ), although conflicting results have
also been
~:ound
( Krule\';i tz
Payne, 1979 ).' 1,18.l8S, on the
&
other hand, tended to rate toe victim as more careless (3mith,
K~ating, HE~ster, & I~:i tchell,
1976 ), and as acting in a more
seductive manner ( Tieger,198l).
1I1ales also believed, more
strongly than females, that the victim enjoyed the crime
( Tieger, 1981).
In addition, males tended to attribute a
desire for sex as being most rapists' basic motivation for
the rape ( Darnett
6;
Feild, 1977 ), vlhereas women tended to
blame societal values more ( Krulewitz & Payne, 1978; Resick
&
Jackson, 1981 ).
Thus, males, as a group, seem to hold
more of these negative beliefs about rape than women.
This
complex of attitudes is lcnm'm as rape myth beliefs.
~
I.Iyth Acceptance and Rape
Burt ( 1980 ) defines rape myths as prejudicial, stE:
or false beliefs about rape, rape victims, or rapists.
'(~)typecl,
These
include beliefs such as " there is no such thing as rape ",
n
she aslced for it ., or ·-:.'omen want to get raped,"
According
to Burt ( 1980 ), rape myth acceptance forms part of a larger
and more complex related structure that includes
sex-role
stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, and interpersonal
violence.
Acversarial sexual beliefs ( ASB ) refers to the
expectation that sexual relationshipE, are basically exploitative
and that everyone involved'in such a relationship is manipulative,
6.
sly,
cheating, and not to be trusted ( Bul:rt, 1980).
Burt
hy-Dothesizes thc.t to a person ':lho holds the::3e beliefs, rape
may seem to be the extreme on a continuum of exploitation,
and not an unexpected or horrifying occurence.
Interpersonal
violence ( IPV) refers to the notion that force and coercion
are legitimate \'iays to gain compliance, and specifically,
that they are legitimate in sexual relationships ( Burt, 1980 ).
Burt fOU:ld that acceptance of interpersonal violence ';ras the
strongest predictor of ra"ge myth acceptance ;'rhile Burt 0:
Albin ( 1981 ) found that the more accepting an individual
-Ras of IFV, the less vtilling he or she vras to convict a
rapist.
Thus rape myth acceptance is one of several components,
each contributing to the global acceptance of rape.
Rape myth acceptance has also been found to have a direct
effect on rape definition.
The Greater the rape ayth acceptance,
the le08 l.ikely a re'::-oonc.cmt is to call a given situation
--'ane ( :.....'
""",-'" 1";,.'l'ol'''''
Lu.. L
L';
..L .... ,
1.;:
11..181)
...... ./
•
Eurt arf,ues that these attitudes
are rape-·supportive because they .deny· the reality of E1aI1Y
actual rctpe s .
Hape myths :::ieeffi to be "Tell-rooted vii thin present American
society.
In a study by Barnett
2;
Feild ( 1977 ), 32,; of the
males ( as comparee' to 3,; ,of the females ) believed it ':Iould
do seme 'i!omen " some [;ood " to Eet raped.
Goodchilds,
-
2;
Giarusso, Johnson,
Zellman ( 1979) reported that over
50,~
of the
male high school students they interviewed thought it ,,[as
acceptable " for a guy to hold a girl dovlYl aYld force her to
7.
have intercourse • ';:hen she rets him sexually exci tee' or she
says she v;ill have sex 'i'li th him and. then changes her mind.
Belief in rape myths, hm','ever, is not limited exclusively
to males. In a study by r::alamuth, 'Haber, & Feshbach ( 1980 ),
females eE:timated that over 25,; of the female population
vlOuld deri.ve some pleasure from being raped.
Burt ( 1978, 1980 ) argues that belief in rape myths plays an
ir:portant role in the causation of rane.
;:)he hypotheE'izes
that such beliefs J:18Y be used by rapists to
when they \':ant to c01!Tmi t an assault.
ju:::;t:L~:-
their
iJtudies (oDe "I.'i th convicted
rapists have supported Burt I s hypothesis.
After revie",rine,
the li teratur.e, r,=alamuth ( 1981b ) has found eX:geriment2.1
support for the notion tr1at ralJists tend to have a hibh belief
in rape myths.
He states that there are two types of re3Donses
that appear to discriminate betvleen rapists and the general
population.
First, rapists tend to show relatively high
levels of sexual arousal to depictions of rape.
Second,
rapists tend to hold callous attitudes toward rape, and to
believe in rape myths.
In addition, there is some indication
that rape myth beliefs are more likely to be held by rapists
than by males 'in the general population ( Clark 8: Le':.ris, 1977;
?eild, 19'78; Gager [.: Schurr, 1976 ), and that such beliefs
may contribute to the commission of their crimes ( Burt, 1973,
-
1980 ).
::::xperimental support has also been fOl.U1d for Burt's
claim that rapists tend to justify their rapes.
\folfe 8:
8.
Baker ( 1980 ) studied the beliefs and attitudes of 86
convictec. rapists, and reported that
,'~
c;;-:pi te :::tro/l[' evidence to
the contrary, almost all believed that their actions did not
constftadle: rape, or v!ere
ju~-;tified
by the circuTJ1stances.
Hadar ( 1977 ) found similar results vii th his s8Jrmle of 46
convicted rapists.
A problem with these studies, however, lies within the
restrictedness of the sa.'Tlples.
rapists
d10
It is highly probable that
are convictec' of the crime are systeD8.tically
(Ufferent fror:. those
ra:)ist~
~.I~77).
\';ho are not ( Clar:: tc Le','is
Thus, the samples usinG convicted rapists may be ll1representative
of rapists as a \',hole.
In reSI)onse to this problem, I,:alamuth and
as:c.~ociates
have
done a series of experiments using a male collere student
population.
The m8.jor independent variable in the;::;e studies
'ii8.S the enj oyv.ent of the
',:as
cho:::~en
ra~Je
by the victim.
because it hac; been found that
ma:'r1~T
ThL~
variable
rapists stronfly
believe that their victi.ms derive :!)leasure from beinp assaulted.
The
resul~s
showed that if a person was portrayed from the
rapist,' s perspective, as beconing involuntarily ,sexually
aroused. b~r the assault, then subj ects were as sexually aroused
by the rape depictions as they TIere by the depictions of
!:lutually-eonsentin[ sex.
i
If, hO'Jever, the victim vms :!)ortrayec
as abhorrine the assault, then significantly less arousal in
relation to the mutually-consenting depictions occurred
9.
( i·:a18.r1uth & Check, 1930a, 193Gb;
1930).
r.~alamuth,
These results are in agreement
~ith
Heim, & I'eshbach,
previous research
vlhich has found that nonrapists show relatively little arousal
to
l~~pt3
when depictions are used which emphasize the victim's
abhorr:::mce ( Able, BarlO'.'.', Blanchard & Guild, 1977 ).
'}hen
rape c.epictions describe or imply victim arousal, however,
the relative arousal level tends to be high ( Farkas, 1979
as cited in j,:alarnuth, 1981b ).
:.:alamuth, Feshbach, .& Jaffe ( 1977 ) suggest that certain
ele-r.lercts \'ri thin rape portrayals may therefore serve to strongly
inhibit sexual responsiveness.
These elements would include
the social inappropriateness of the rape and the victim's
suffering.
They suggest that the difference between deviates
8.r..C! nondeviates is not Drimarily what " turns them on ", but
':.That " turn.> them off ".
Thus, normal subj ects rlay become
hi6111:/ aroused to rape themes in the context of disinhibi tory
cues
i.e. victim enjoyment).
One might further theorize
that if a male already believes that rape victims enjoy
rape, it would serve to sidinhibit social sanctions concerning
rane.
The result, as Burt and r.lalamuth suge:est, would be a
male very li'zely to comrr.i t rape.
1i'::e1ihood to :::laDe and ?cape Iiiyth Belief
A number of stuclie
'C.
!_~
recent years have investigated
the relationship between rape proclivity, or likelihood to rape
( LR ), and the belief in rape myths ( Briere'& r.1a1amuth, 1933;
I',ialamuth &
Chec~(,
1980a; I,ialamuth, Haber, & Feshbach, 1980;
10.
:,:alamuth!, Reisin, 2~ :-jpinner, 1979; 'rieger, 1981 ).
these studies, college males
that they gersonally
~ould
~ere as~ed
In
to indicate the likelihood
rape if they could be assured of
not fetting caught or punished. Typically, they -,'Jere asked
to indicate their responses on a five point scale ranging from
.. 1 • ( not at all lil<::ely ) to .. 5
studiec~,
an average of about
0,
d a t a 11_
ll":e 1 lIl0!)
o
average
0f
0f
35i~
II
(very likely ).
Across
of the males indicated any
0
(0l.e. a
raplng
or a b ove ) , an d an
:::
""II
0• 1 011
0 dOt
0,
1 l:.<::e
. (0l. e. .a
a b ou t _? 0 /J' In
lca e d h .l..gner
l 100GS
II
3"
or above), ( r:al2J!luth, 19G1b ).
I.:alarl'..1th asserts that this LJ. measure is a reliable measure
of rape )roclivity, and the research supports this claim.
Research has ::;horm that males ';Ii th high LR scores have a
tenc:ency to hold particular beliefs about rape very similar
to those of convicted
ra~ns"'Cs.
(
=~a1c.r.1Uth,
re~crt~
as
2. ;·~e::-~12.1
nct ·,:hich
~.lomen
8: Chec~, 1980a ).
ten0 to perceive raye
enj oy and desire, \'lhereas those
'iTi th lO':i'3r LR reports perceive rape more in terms of an act
of viole:1.ce ':Ii th serious consequences for the victim (I,:alamuth,
c.;
Chec~'~,
19-3()a; ::alamuth, Haber, 8: Feshbach, 1980; I-:alamuth,
Reis.in, ,::; ,.>pil'"l...i:1.er, 1979; Tiefer, 1981 ). Self-reported tendency
to r2.-ne ·,·.'as al::.;o ;:;ir::nificantly correlated with identification
1:,·.i th the rapist ( I:alamuth, Haber, & Feshbach, 1980; Tieger; 1931 ).
High Ln males ',','ere also more
( TReger, 1981 ).
li~ely
to blame the victim
-,
11.
It
h2.F.
also been consistently reported that individuals
scores have more callous attitudes tmlard rape,
beliE~ve
ancL
in rape nyths to a greater derree than those ':!i th
1m','er J'j:;1 scores ( Briere & I.;alamuth, 1983; l.:ala."!luth & Check,
19::30a; i:alamuth, rIaber, t; Peshbach, 1980; Ualamuth, Reisin,
&- ;=:pinner, 1979; 'rie{!er, 1981 ).
r:venl
. ·t·l L'Q.J .la
,.
1 am
...u th (
c~ted
2~,-,.~
'"
Using Burt t s ( 1980 ) scales,
.;n
lO/Slb ) found tha.t
. , -'!"a
, l_ 8r:luth,
_.
raiJe l'wth accept2.J."1ce ( Pl:). ) and interpersonal violence ( IPV )
~ere
both hiehly correlated with
~R
scores.
Br5.ere & [.;alamuth ( 1983 ) found
for r.eported LR.
In addition,
to be a predictor variable
Thus, the research suggests that both LR
a.nd T·Il\. are measuring rape-conducive attitudes and theoretically,
could be used to predict rape proclivity.
In sU.rnmary, the research points to several conclusions.
2irst, previous
bet~.leen
re.·~earch 118.S
:;ho'.:n a c:istinct relationship
sex-role beliefs and ra'0e clefini tion.
The more
traditional and conservative a person's sex-role beliefs,
the more lL<ely he or she is to consider the rape victim
as responsible for her ovm victimization, and thus, are less
li~ely
to define a situation as rape.
be a strone sex difference.
I~ales,
Second, there seems to
as a group, tend to view
rape as less serious, and tend to have a higher belief in
rape myths.
Burt ( 1973, 1990 ) suggests that such beliefs are used
by rapists to justify their behavior, and disinhibit themselves
from societal sanctions.
This claim is supported by studies
using both convicted rapists and college students.
Furthermore,
-
12.
in a series of studies by
I,~alamuth
and his associates, a
strong belief in rape IDy,ths has been linked to self-reported
lil{elihood to rape, thus providing a theoretical "
y2.rdsticl~
"
for raye proclivity.
It is the aim of the present study to examine these issues.
First, the relationship betv.'een Burt's ( 1930 ) scales and
110'.: people tend to define a situation as rape viill be exa-rninec1.
A measure of rape c1efini tion i';as deterrrlineo throuFh the use
of four 8.rrbifUOuS rape
scenar'io~.
more a person acceptE rape
~yths,
It ·,,,c.c:
:!!re~
icted that the
interper~onal
violence, and
adversaricJ. sexual belieff3, the le3s lLcely he or she vlould be to
believe that the women in the scenarios had been raped.
Furthermore, since Burt & Albin ( 1921 ) found that interpersonal
violence was the strongest predictor of willinGness to convict
a rapist, it was predicted that I?V would playa more sir;nificant
role in rape definition than m.l\. or
A~B.
In addition, since
previous research has shm'm an effect of sex-role "beliefs
and gender, it was predicted that males and those v!i th more
traditional sex-role beliefs
~ould
aJso tend to show more
doubt that a rape had been cor:rrnited.
;;econd, th,e relationship betvleen LR and
will be examined.
r2.~~,e
myth definition
Since LR has been linked with a stronf
belief in rape Dyths, it was predicted that the belief in
the rapists' justification for the crimes
accordancE~
to LR.
~oult
vary in
The higher a ma:;t.e' s LR report, the more
he should believe that the rapists' actions were justified.
13.
by the behaviors of the victims in the scenarios.
In 2{dition, the effects of rape education on belief in
rape myths '.'lill be examined.
Research has shovm that subjects
presented with depicted ranes
'<;~~:L
(as compared to those presented
nonra."pe (el'ictions ) ':lere less likely
to believe that
r2,T)e re ~;ul ts from the victi.I!l' s behavior or desire to be raped
,';hen the depictions ':rere follo':red by a debriefing ( r,Ialamuth
8: C,hec::, 193 L:,; Check & Lalamuth t
1984 ).
;~alamuth
and Check
speculate that debriefing serves to " innoculate " the
individual, thereby at least temporarily reducing the belief
in
myths, and the
ra.1}E
rape.
li~~elihood
~as
Consequently, it
that an individual will
~re~icted
that individuals
receivinf, a series of educational materials on rape should
sho':1 a lm'Jer acceptance of rape mytas 'and report less likelihood
to r2-De them individuals '..'ho did not receive the:3e materials.
Lethod
.: . ubj ects
~::leven
Dales and thirteen females ':1ho were enrolled in
undergra~uate
psychology classes
~articipated
in the study.
Depending on the class in which they ',vere enrolled, some
~:ub
j eGts partic::.pateG. to gain extra credit, and others
participated as part
ot
a class requirement .
.:.;timuli
The stimulus boo1:1ets used during the first experinental
session consisted of four
55 to 62 word scenarios, and three
-
14.
questionnaires.
'i'he rape scenarios '.'!ere four ambiguous
clepictions of rape ':/hich c,iffered from each other only in
situational factors.
These included a date rape, a marital
rape, a stranger rape, and a vrar rape.
Each scenario was
followed by a series of questions which required the subject
to five his/her opinion on the
believabili~y
of the victim,
the amount of physical or eMotional harm incurred by the
victim, the avioclability of the rape, the motivation of the
attac:ter, the amount of enjoyment felt by the victim, the
seductiveness of the victim, and the justification of the
rapist's attack.
(~ee
Apuendix A ).
The first questionnaire consisted of the Attitudes
Toward -[omen -.:icale (-.:ipence 2c Helmreich, 1972)
':'he second
questionnaire consisted of items from Burt's ( 1980 ) scales
of
A~versarial
Beliefs,
~exual
Violence, and Rape
~yth
in a randomized order.
~cceptance
A~ceptance.
of Interpersonal
The items were presented
To control for social desirability
effects, a third questionnaire, the Social Desirability ,:3cale
( CrO':"ine & Llarlovr, 1964 ), ':ras included.
'J'he stimulus booklets for the second experimental session
consi:::ted of the :\'1'01"
rape
~cenarios
E~cales
and Burt's ( 1930 ) scales.
The
and the :3D scale, which vlere presented in the
experimental session, were omitted in the second session.
'I'he educational stimuli consisted of a lecture and a filn •
............
The lecture consisted of a discussion of rape myths, and the
15.
trauma -.. 'hich rape victims often go through after the incident.
The movie, "Rape:
involved actual
Face to Pace"
rape vi_ctims discussing their experiences, and later
confronting a group of convicted rapists.
Procedure
The subjects were tested in small groups of two to six
people ,.)'J.ring the first experimental session, the questionr..aires
and scenarios c:lere given to subjects in one complete packet.
The order in which subjects completed the questionnaires
anC:. scenarios '.'Tas determined by a Latin .:)quare.
-
The subjects
were given as long as they needed to complete the stimulus
materials.
.':"fter completing the stimulus booklets, the
subjects in the experimental condition saw the film.
session lasted approximately two hours.
the control sroup were dismis2ed.
This
The subjects in
The session for the
control group lasted approximately one hour.
During the second experimental session, subjects in the
experimental group listened to a 20 minute lecture given
by a female Ball 3tate University faculty member, and
were given the opportunity to ask questions.
The experimental
group then completed the AT'; scale and Burt's scales.
This
session lasted approximately 50 minutes.
The order of presentation of these two events was
.-
reversed for the control group.
0ubjects in the control
16.
group '::ere required to comnlete the AT',T scale and Burt's
scales.
lifter completion of this task, subj ects were
given th3 opportunity to listen to the lecture.
This
lecture c:las identical to that given to the experimental
group.
This 3ession lasted approximately
50 minutes.
Results
Scoring
For each subject, a separate score was calculated for
each of the measuring instruments.
mean score
','laS
For each scenario, a
calculated using the seven questions which
followed each of the scenarios.
A low score ( 1 ) indicated
a loVl belief in rape myths, whereas a high score ( 5 )
indicated a greater belief.
In addition, a separate mean
was calculated across scenarios for the rapist-justification
question ( i tern ,,'7 on each 3cenario-,";ee Appendix A ).
low Dean
A
1) indicated little belief that the rapist was
justified in his actions, whereas a higher mean ( 5 )
indicated a greater belief.
For Burt's ( 1980 ) scales, a separate mean was
calculated for each subject's scores on the Rr.1A, IPV, and
:'o.-~3
.:::r;;31es.
::2he riLA ';las broken dovm into two components--
m,:"\,l a::1d m.llclI.
m.IAl included i terns testing beliefs in
common rape myths such as
,-
promiscuous, ",
II
tI
',\;omen vlho get raped are
she asked for it," etc.
R!iIAIl included
17.
items which assessed a more generalized attitude to'.'mrd
RI,~AII
rape.
a3ked questions concerning the believability
of the victim.
For
PJ,~AI
and miiAII, a separate mean was
derived and the data was scored according to the system
described by Burt ( 1980).
two measures, a
10V!
Consequently, for each of the
score ( 0 ) indicated a high rape myth
belief', and a high score ( 6 ) indicated a
belief.
10Vi
rape myth
The IP'! and A.::lB scales v:ere also scored according
to Burtt s ( 1980 ) system, and an individual mean score 'Nas
calculated for each.
accept~~ce
A low score ( 0 ) indicated a high
of interpersonal
viole~ce
or
adver~arial
sexual
belief's, whereas a high score ( 6 ) indicated little or no
acceptance of these beliefs.
For the
AT~
8cale, the standard scoring system given
by ._ Dence 2: Eeln:eich ( 1972 ) ',.ra2 v.sed.
a
10'.'i
,,'i th this system,
score ( 0 ) indicated sex-role conservatism, whereas
a higher score ( 3 ) indicated a more liberal attitude toward
sex-roles.
A mean for all items VIas calculated for each
subject.
The LR r!1easure ';:as presented with the mi!AII items.
A
raw score was taken for this question, with a low score ( 1 )
indicating little likelihood to rape, and a high score ( 5 )
in~icating
Tt,e
3D
a higher likelihood.
scale "vas scored according to Cro1.'rne & LarlQ',rt>s
-
18.
( 1964 ) specifications, with a lov.' score ( 0 ) inc icating
little concern for social desirability and a high score
( 1 ) indicating greater concern for social desirability.
Comparison of the :t:.;ffects of the H"lroothesiz8d Predictor
VariablE~s
',,'i th ;:3cenario Scores
The follm'ling analyses were conducted on data f:-::-om
2 LI- SUbjHctS.
One subject's data
ViaS
dropDed fron the analyse:j
due to failure to complete alJ of the questionnaire :"aterials.
In addition, due to an insuffici.ent nUr:lber of subjects,
analysis of the effect::: of education on rape mytj1 belief:"
was not possible.
In each anlysis, F-level restrictions
( F-to-enter equals 4.0, F-to-remove equals
3.9 ) were
used to limit unnecessary steps in the regression analysis.
Ten stepwise regression analyses were perfOTI:led.
analyse~3
Vlere performed for each of the scenarios.
'rwo
One
analysif3 utilized the data of r.lale subjects only.
The
other analysis utilized the data of both genders.
The
rapist- ;justi~ication item ',':as analyzec: in a similar fashion.
One analysis was conducted for each of the folloc..'inf criterion
variabled:
Scenario I ( Date
~ape
), Scenario II ( r.lari t2.1
Rape ), Scenario III ( Srranger Rape ), .::!cenario IV ( ',Jar
Rape ), and Rapist-Justification.
In each analysi:::, the
follo'.ving prec-:ictor variacles v:ere entered:
RLAII, ::?V, A_lB, age, sex, and ,3D.
analyses, LR
~as
!~'l'.,
:;-C_~I,
For the ffic,le:c-only
also entered aS,a predictor variable.
19.
During each analyses, social desirability was always
entered first.
Scenario -I ( Date RaDe )
~~~~~
~
Analysis of the male;:,;-only data for the date rape
scenario indicated that the more a male tended to accept
interpersonal violence, the more likely he was to hold
negative beliefs about the rape victim in the scenario.
After soeial de:;irability was entered into the equation,
only IPV contributed sirnificantly to the
the first scenario
~cores,
.57, increase in R-C:,quare(
10.47.
R equals .75,
equi::.l~
pre~iction
n-;_~quareC;
of
equals
.57, F ( 2, 8 ) equ2.1s
All other variables Vlere fou.l1d to be nonsignificant
predicto:::-s.
Analysis of the data of both genders revealed slightly
different results.
It was found that the more a person
accepted interperRonal violence, Bnd the less he or she
believec: rape, victim:' in general, the more lil:ely he or
she
VIaS
to hold necative beliefs about the rape victim.
After social desirability was entered into the equation,
IPV significantly predicted scores on scenario I, R equals
.68, R-squared equals .46, increase in R-squared equals
.38, F ( s, sl ) equals 14.55.
ffilAII also significantly
predicted first scenario scores R equals .74, R-squared
equals .55, increase in R-squared equals .0915, F ( 3, 20 )
-
20.
equals 4.07.
All other variable s v;ere ins ir;nificant predictors.
Scenario II ( l:'ari tal Rape )
Analysis of the males-only da:ta for the marital rape
scenario again indicated high predictive power for
The more a male tended to accept
IP~,
the more
I~V.
li~ely
he
was to hold negative beliefs about the marital rape victim.
After social desirability was entered into the
eq~r~lon,
only IF7 contributed sirnificantly to the prediction of the
l"n
r
~ C 'urre~
n-...,q.::t
---.=. 4')"
7~
~I
~ s
:::,")
'-7
Q~
j.uu.
All other v2risbles
"'Jere found to be insignificant predictors.
Analysis of the elata of both genders for the marital
rape scenario revealed differing results than the malesonly ana=_ysis.
The more a person tendeel to believe rape
victims in general, the less likely he or she wa2 to hold
negative beliefs about the marital rape victim.
After
social cesirabili ty 1,'Iac:: entered into the equation, only
l\.T~AII
sirnificantly pred icted
~)cores
on ...)cenario II,
R:::. 4.3, R·-dquared=. 23, increase in R-squareC:-;:.. 21, ? ( 2, 21 )
==5.70.
All other variable::c 'were found to be nonsi[.nificcmt
predictors.
;;;cenario III
.stranFer Heme )
}\nalysis of the males-only data for the stra:.r1r::er-rane
.l:
scenario indicated that the more males accepted interperEonal
violence and rape myths, the more likely he
VTaS
to hold
2l.
negative beliefs about the victim of the stranGer rape.
After social desirability was entered into the equation,
IPV contributed significantly to the prediction of the third
scenario scores,
J
R~.77,
R-squared=.59, increase in 2-squared
51, F ( 2, ,3 )':::10. O?
p~ -,1\1
al:o::o significantly predicted
third scenario scores for Eales, R:.36, R-squarec=.75,
increase in R-squarecl=.15, F ( ), 7 )-=4.26
Analysis of the data of both gen6er!:.' indicated that,
1i':0 scenario:': I a11c' IT, t118 ;'lore an inoivic:u8l belicvec
rape victiT';s in £e:leral, the ler's li':cly ho or
:-:11,:; ":as
to hold ::1egative beliefs about the victim of the --tranF:':er
rape.
After social desirability wac entered into the
equation, only
~cenario
~.16,
PJ'~iUI
significantly prec.i icted score,
III, R:.5l, R-squared-.26,
increa~e
in
on
~-~quared
F (2, 21 ):4.56.
::~cenario
1"1·( \','ar Hape )
}malysis of the males-only data for the V.'8.r
rc~pe
scenario indicated that the more a male tended to accept
interpersonal violence, the more likely he waG to hold
negative beliefs about the victiM of the war rape.
?fter
social desirability was entered into the equation, only
IPV contributed significantly to the prediction of the
fourth scenario scoro for r.:ales,
R~.Gl~,
R-scuared-:..65,
increase in R-squared:.65, F ( 2, 3 ):18.61.
variables were insie:nificant predictors.
AI] other
22.
J\....'1alysis of the data of both gender..:bel~eved
the more an individual
li~ely
indicatec~
that
in rape myths, the more
he or she was to hold negative beliefs about the
war rape victil'l.
In addition, males tended to expre:=:s
those negative beliefs about the victim to a greater
extent than females.
'.1hen social de.:-:irabili ty
ViaS
entered
into the equation, m.AI significantly predicted score:c for
:3cenaric IV, R=. 60, E-squared-::.. 36, increase in
.31,
l~
R-squarec~::
( .?, 21 )::'13. 61..::'1J. other variables ,-,,'ere
in~ignificant
predictors.
Justification of the Rapist Across Scenarios
The Rapist-Justification item, v:hich involve( the
believec. ,justification of the rapis-t across scenario:.", t:;as
C?.nalyzec in a sil'Jilar fashion to the scene.rios.
Analysis
of the males-only data for the rapist-justification item
indice.ted that the more a male believed in rape myths,
the more li?:ely he
justifie~
VIaS
to believe that the rapists 1.1cre
in their actions against the rape victims.
After
social Clesirabili ty ';!as entered into the equation, only
K~';.I
contributed Eignificantly to the prediction of the
Rapist-J'ustification
score;~
for males, R=. 73, R-squareo::::
F ( 2, 8 )::. 3 . 70 .
variable c ; v/ere
f01).118.
All other
to be non,c:ir:nificant prec'ictors.
Analy,::is of the data of both gencers indicated that
the older an incli vidual was, the'more likely he or she ':Jas
-
23.
to believe that the rapists were justified in their actions
o t ·the rane
ag a lns
_ ~ Vlo ctl°,.,.,S
.!:
•
After social desirabi1i tv "',':as
v
entered. into the equation, only afe :::;ignificant1y pres.icted
Rapist-J·. .wtification f::core c
in
n-squared~.20,
F ( 2, 21
,
R=. 1:,5, ?-squared::::. 20, incre8. . ::e
)~5.J4.
~11
other variable2
vlere nonsignificant predictors.
Discussion
A:: di:3cussed in the Introduction, the ,:30cicta1 Blame model
asserts that the causality for rape lies within the attitudes
and values of a particular culture.
ltti tude:3 tovJard sex-roles,
violence, male-female relationships, and the concept of rape
itseJ.f have all been found to 4ffect the wayan individual
defines rape.
This core cluster of beliefs has been demonstrated
in the literature time and time again, and their
is undisputed.
interrelatednes~3
'rhE) findings do not, however, seem as clear
vlhen it comes to the relative il"lportance of each of these
variable~)
in relationship to rape.
a corrplex model vrhich
show~3
Burt ( 1930 ) has formulated
the interdependencies of these
8.tti tude~o, and the model has been supported empirically.
The present stu6y partially supports Burt's ( 1980 ) work.
The resu=_ts sf).ovred that particular kinds of attitudes do
seem to cluster together.
In particular, acceptance of
interpersonal violence within the context of male-female
relationships, and rape myth acceptance were both correlated
~~oc
with
~cenario
~nterDret~t'Lon
."...
.•
a..
L
"
Gender also seems to be
included in this attitudinal cluster, with males defining a
rape situation in
------_._--_
..
8
very different way than do females.
The
1'10"t
sip-nifico.nt f:i n(~ in?: hsre ",rae:' that I1'V and
ThL.'
IVJ :=mc1
~{,~,
PJ,.,\
rrovid~~:
(10
to
S08T:',
l);:Jrt of [' rclobc'.l cluster of r:;Dc-conc1ucivc attitu,:'ie.--:.
cl
irect
re
HO':Jover,
rc l:-' t ; C) '1
: ':~,l['."T rcn~i'1inl';+v "ut'l'lor' ar'Rer+
"v
,:)~
(e
• 0...
J
1_ •
ten(; c( t() hc:vc norc
T)rcc~ict~_vc
to
,;-ithin the
e:'~~lcrir:lental
procedure.
-
?6.
}t
rC:'lIJ.t
.L
It~
',!a;;
foul1c~
"J"
that
)
j :..l.t
(
+1") 0.
l.J
r; 1( CT'.
1.L '....
.:J. 7.
Bibliogra"'Jhy
/~be 1,
DRrlo~,
G. G.
( 1977).
0.
~.
31a~chard,
,
, & G~ild,
~.
~.
The components of r2pists' sexual arousal.
Archives of General Fsvchiatry,li, 395-403.
~\ttribution
of blame in rape case:3:
The impact on
gender, and sex-role qttitude.
nOrT.
:ex Roles,
vio la tion,
2, 179-
193·
Amoroso, D.
r.l. ,
& Brovm, ri..
(
1973 ).
the effects of erotic material.
~,
ProbleT'ls in studying
Journal of '::;'ex Hesearch,
187-195.
Ashton,
~\r.
I;. ( 1982 ).
Psychological Eeports, 2Q, 252.
Acceptance scale.
Barbaree, H. E.
Validation of the Rape I',.yth
, Larshall, ..'. L.
, Lightfoot, L. E.
&
Y2.i;e::.:: ,
sexual cehavior:
presented at the
i.".)
}2.bora tory
~ut'r~n Geetin~
~tud
ie:::.
~cmer
of the Ontario Psychological
!',s[30ciation.
Barnett,
,~.
J.
, & Feild, :I,J, ( 1977 ).
;:iex difference3
in unLrersi t:',r stud ents' a ttl tuc es to'::ard rape.
of Colleree
· :·,f • J•
B arne t -:;,
,~~b. lcent
,
Journal
i-sr:::onnel, 13,93-96.
" . ,' l d
(~I'eL:_
, ,:-". ,.).' ( 197 8) .
Character of the
defendant and length of sentence in rape and burglary
-
crimes.
Journal of . oclal Fsychology, 104, 271-277.
Br ~ ere
•
L
•
J
L.alamuth, J. I'~. ( 1 0/33 ).
co,:"
•
•
;:;elf-renorted
•
li 'ce lihood of sexually 2_fE'Tessi ve behavior:
ver.3us ;::,exual explanations.
in Personality,
Becker, J. V.
'"
:...i.
Journal of Research
11, 315-323.
, Abel, G. G.
, Blanchard, E. B. ,I;iurphy,
Co leman, :2. ( 1978 ).
, (,;
stills of sexual aggressives.
2,
Behavior,
Brodshky,
~:~
-
2,
~.
Evaluating social
Criminal Justice and
357-367.
~
L. , & Hobart,
assaila~t re~earch.
C. ( 1973).
Blame
mode:~
Criminal Justice and Behavior,
3'79-333.
Bro':mmiller,
.s. (
and rape.
Bur~8~S,
1975).
:Ijew Yorlc:
A. ~.
Against our will:
:\f ur sing,
I,~.
, & Holmstrom, L. L. ( 1973).
women,
The rape
,!".r:1erican Journal of
1l, 17 L:,. 1-1 7l~ 5 .
R. ( .1978).
!~r:1.erican
~,.en,
::i imon and':lchuster.
victim in the emergency ','lard.
Eurt,
Atti tudinal
culture.
:technology,
Attitudes supportive of rape in
House Committee on
~ubcommittee
;~cience
Q11d
Domestic and 0cientific
f12rh'1ing Analysis and Cooneration, Research into
violent behavior:
;~xual
assaults ( Hearing, 95th
Congress, 2nd session, January 10-12, 1973 ).
·,;ashington, D. C. Government Printinf Office (pp.
277-322 ).
"bur t ,
~
>.
'-':\.. ( 1 0/ '3
°)
•
Cultural myths and supports for rape.
Journal of Personalit~l and ..:ocial Psvcholo€,v, l§.,
217-230.
Burt, ~. R.
, & ~lbin, R. S. ( 1931).
Rape myths, rape
cefinitions, and probability of conviction.
of .Applied
C21houn, L. G.
( 1]31 ).
P~ychology,
, Cann, A.
11, 212-230.
,~elby,
J . . '. ,& fl:agee, D. L.
=~ffects
Victim emotional recponse:
reaction to victims of rape.
11,
cmd Clinical Psychology,
-
,3elby, J. '.,'.
Calhoun, L. G.
Journal
on social
British Journal of Social
191-192.
~;arring,
, &
L ....1. (
1976 ).
.
;'ocial perception of the victim's causal role in rape:
An expl::lratory examination of four factors.
klel!"lti
l\
_~
'_ o~""'"
.. ~J."-"
HumR.n
0('.
..:~,
y.
,-~
. 011-'\'1r
-'~'~'v'
u....
T
.-
(
-'".)
1°7 0
Attributinf responsibility to the victim of rape:
Influence of information regardinG past sexual
exyerience.
Clc>r:{, L.
, & :'~e';fis, D.
coercive
Check, \[. ?
be
~2xualitv.
(
1977).
ezp'3riments?
?8ne:
Toronto:
, & l~alanuth., N. ~,;.
~ositive
.J1., 57-67.
Human Relations,
The
,
(
The Drice of
:o~en's
1934 ).
Press.
Can there
effects of participation in pornography
The Journal of ,_ex Research, 20, 14-31.
3D.
Crm'me,
;J.
~ie'.:
Dietz,
,
];
York:
'j.
R.
:,:arlo':!, 0. ( 1964).
'rhe a1)Droval notive.
"iley.
, ElaclcT;rell,
B. ,J. ( 19:32 ).
1'...
T.
, Daley, P. C.
, & Bentley,
Eeasures of empathy tbward rape
victim::: and r2.pists.
Journal of Personality and
:.,oc1al :sycho~~ogy, ~, 372-334.
& Berkowitz, L. ( 1981).
Donnerstein,=::.
Victim reactions
to ;:::'fc:re::.::si ve erotic films as a factor in violence
ag'aLnst '.'.'omen.
Journal of Personality and ,_ocis1
710-724.
~other
The politics of porn.
-~yRenck,
H. J.
( 1978).
Jones,
jex and Personality, London:
;'_1phere Books.
~~~TS 811.C ~.~,
1£. J.
( 1973 ).
.:ex, violence,
",nd the r'eC:ia.!e':! York:)t. Lartin's :i?ress.
. ( 1973
Atti tudes to','fard rape:
A comparative
analysis of police, rapists, crisis counselors, and
citizens.
Journal of Personality and Social
E§ychoJor:y, JQ, 156-179.
Fe iId, :--:.
A
:J'
(
1979 ).
D~ycholagical
R2pe trials and jurors' decisions:
analysis of the effects of victim,
(lefendant, and case characteristics.
-
Behav50r, }, 261-284.
!a~:l
and Human
Felc.rT.an--:uT:'saer:::;,~. &, Lindner, ~:.
( 1976 ).
Perceptions
of victi..ms and defendants in crin;inal assault cases.
Criminal Justice and Behavior, }, 135-149.
To:. ,
Fulero ,..i.
1976 ).
0; Delara, C. (
attributed responsibility:
ap~roach.
G2cer,
_~.
Victimolory,
c;
,
A defensive attribution
1, 551-563.
).~exual
0ch'J.rr, C. ( 1976
Confronti!}g
~
Rape victims and
in America.
assault:
Gros:-~ett
New York:
&
Dunlap.
Giaru3so, R.
"v.
, Johnson, P.
( April, 1979).
"'ex and assault.
, Goodchilds, J.
, & iellman,
Adolescents' clues and signals:
Paper presented at the Annual
i;~eeting
of the ,;e::;tern Psychological Association, San Diego,
California.
In I,. ,.chultz
111..:
(!~d.
)
~~aDe
victimolo{,y.
,~'prin~field,
Charle:" C. Thomas.
Griffen, ..:l. ( 1979 ).
Eenn,J. A.
:.1ane:
Her,i2.nic,
Forensic psychiatry:
offenders.
~"
'.2he Dower of consciousness..
, & 'ra.'1.Cierpearl, R. H. ( 1976 ).
Profiles of two types of sex
'J::erican Journal of Fsychiatry, lJJ.,
69/)--696.
( 1973 ).
~ victim
of rape:
Th~titutional
'" iley and
~ons
reactions.
~.
, & hetcalfe,
Gloster, D.
rape in a 3ri tish ::ample:
victim, status,
~ex,
,
, Robertson, J.
( 1984).
and attitude2 to
;'~01sa':Ta11a,
;i~.
Perceptions of
':':;ffects of relationship,
n,
J ourne.l of .)ocia1 Psychology,
Kane'-:ar, ,:.;.
John
.
.Jhaw, F., Grea.sley, r:.
Ho'::ellt3, K.
New York:
~omen.
British
35-40.
& D'Souza, A. ( 1981 ).
B.
Attribution of responsibility to a victim of rape.
Br:~tish
Klerrrr'18.ck,
Journal of
~)ocial
FS;Tcholog;T, 20, 165-170.
, & ~Clorn:lack, D. L.
.;. H.
definition of rape.
.,.2.::8.
The victin and the rapist.
IJe:ci:lzton ?reS3.
,-\
victiT'l.
r03i~~tance,
The social
In I.l. "aD:::er & :3. L. Brodsky
..,exual 2.2saul t :
::.e):inp:ton,
( 1976).
Q
1('.;7
-.'
).
"ff'oct~
o~
:...._~.~.L
raroe
oJ
8.:--;r;aul t outCOT"l.8, and sex of observer
on attributions about rape.
Journal of Per:Jonality,
!l1.. 557-574.
l~rule'.,·itz,
about
J. :::::.
ra~e:
, & rayne,
~ffect~
sex-role attitudes.
.0.
J. ( 1973 ).
Attributions
of rapist force, observer sex, and
Journal of Annlied Psychology,
291-305.
Le':;is, 1.). C.
,
.~hanko1(,
.). ..:'.
~
Juvenile ca1e ,::'ex assaul ters.
Fsychiatry, 136, 1194-1196.
Pincus, J. H. ( 1979 ).
"':'~rrrerican
Journal of
0ane fantasies as a function of
( 1931a )
expo :::ure to vi Jlent
::~ex1J.al
::tiT:'luli •
Archives of
::':~exual
Behavior, 10, 3J-L~7.
Lalamuth, -:T.
:i. (
1931b).
~-{ape
proclivity 'among males.
Journ2.l of~oci8.l Ts::-:ue8, J1., 1}3-l57.
- Check, J. V. P. ( 1980a ).
I :2.1anuth,
Penile
tUr:1escence and perceptual response:: to rape as a function
of victim's perceived reactions.
Journal of Apnlied
'\.,ocia1 F:.c;ycholo;::y, 10, 523-51.;.7.
M8.lar:-'t1.rth, ':., D; Check, J
r-Y1ci
.
-
c011centinf
~r.
(18piction:::~:
~exual
arousal to rape
The ir:r[:,ortance of the ',':om 3...c'1 's
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, §2, 763-766 .
8Tou'.:a.1.
I,;qlclJ-:tuth,
(1930) •
,
&: Checl~, IJ. ( 1931a ).
exposur8 to a[fressive
~ornofraphy:
The effects of
Ra~e
proclivity,
1Jre "cntc;ri. at the .'.n'1ual Convention of the i\.JJ.erican
P~ycholoficsl
Augu;~t
Association, Los Angeles, California,
.
8; Checl~,
J. V. P. (, 1981b ).
eXDo~ure
on acceptance of violence against
of mass
~edia
·,.'omen:
_\ fiel( 8x-peri'''.cmt.
Per::onali ty,
I::alamuth,
~r.
I.~.
12,
Journal of 'i\esearch in
l,36-2~46.
, 2: Check, J. if. P. ( 1983 ).
to rape depictio'1s:
-
The effects
Sexual arousal
Individual differences.
Abnorr:al Psychology, 92, 55-67.
Journal of
::. , (:
1~2.J8.r1uth, =~.
~l)inner, B.
( J9:~0).
A lonGitudinal
The Journal of ...;ex Hesearch, J.6,
erotic ma[azine:-:.
2~6-237.
l.c~jon8.1r1,
J. _'., ( 1971 ).
;pringfiel~,
Yor1c :
cttorbein,
Ill.
?ane offenders and their victims.
Chelr Ie s C. 'I'homas.
l"2.rrar , J tr2,us, & Giro'll':;';:.
,~.
L.=Te;~sive
F. ( 1979 ).
Feho.vior,
i\ cross-cnl tural ,ctuc:y of raDe.
2, 425-435.
penile
J.932 ).
to nonsexual violence amonp r2.pists.
and Behavior,
r8 1 )ist::,
9,[1r'
~,
Criminal Justice
372-331.
2.~·S2,UJ
t:::rs
.~:l
a court'9rvice.:; population.
JO'.,trnal of CO:1su 1 tin; and ;~l~nical I>:ycholor:::v,
xe~ic~~
P. A.
, & Jac~son, T. L. ( 1981).
CO~T:1unity
victim's :;erc.-Dective.
E. H. ( 1980).
~he
politics of ra~e:
":8':[ Yorl-;::
~tein
The
and iJay.
Pornography and violence:
','.'hD.t dOGS the new research S8Y?
--.
American
Psychology, 9, 431-490.
H. ( 1975).
Russe1~, 0.
45.
Attitude3 toward
r2.pe PHon€, r!lental health profe:Jsionals.
Journ0.1 of
re8ponse~
T
.1.n
T
.i.J.
T
.;
(. - ,
Je do~rer::'Q.
)
.
.3 !S.
-- • . .. ,~.
i,.:::.lamu th , ll
n
,
0;
effectiveness
",
,
iJnecl~,
-r
\
T
u.
•
J
follo~inc ex~osure
rape rJ epic -cions.
-':-:-:e
,j onr~12.1
JOO)I)
.;'--'-r.
(
.[".
n<:brl·ef.i·_"''!
~,=
-,"~"-.
to pornographic
J;:ex Research, 20,
1-13.
Lalanuth, l'T •
i..
r,;. ( 198 0 ).
& i-I e im,
I"eshbach,-':".
,
Ethical issues and exposure to rape sti.muli:
reply to :::;herif.
' 1. '':)FY,
P S\. cno
Lalamuth, II.
':>0
~,
A
Journal of Fer:::;onali tv and ..:-ocial
"13 J'15
t.;.-.
->(
•
& Jaffe, Y. ( 1977 ).
, l"e shbach,
,.:e2l:u13.l arousal 13.nci.
2.E,?Te:::;::-:
a.nc. theoretical issues.
ion:
~1ecent
eXDerinents
Journal of ;.:.ocial Issues,
TI, 1).0-133.
C
alar.mth, l;. : ..
Eaber, ,..;.
s~:x:
vinlcnce,
, 2c r'e8hbach, .J. ( 1930 ).
difference:::;,
2l1.(~
tho "norTIali ty" of
121-137.
l.:alanuth, ii.
~exual
l'~.
, Heirr., ~'"
o
6;
'l'.
'
e" 'b
n acn,
;).' • (le;;":/
/ '--' 0 ).
respon2iveness of college 3tudents to rape depictions:
Inhihi tory and dic::inhibi tory effects.
Personali t·y "'.nd <ocial Ps'rchc 10"Y,
,
D.~e'.:~l·n,
., - -
T.
~
-,......,
,;~·)l·nner
1 1 -
,
Journal of
E,
B
•
399-408.
(
1979 )
Exposure to pornography and reactions to rape.
pre::::ented at the imnual
~.:eeting
•
Paper
of the American Psychological
As:::ociation, lle",r Yorlc City, ::eptember.
Tal'.:g ='2d: the nipht:
.-orlen on pornop;ra-ohy.
NeVI York:
:,iilliam Lorrow and Company.
5anday, P. R. ( 1981).
rape:
The socio-cultural context of
A cross-cultural study.
Journal of 00cial
}\nalysis of the need systems of
Psychological Re-oorts,
twenty Dale ra?ists.
:3croggs, J.
n. ( 1976 ) .
11,
Penalties for rape as a function
of victim provocativeness, damage, and resistance.
-
Selif'T~:::;;'
C.
, Bric':man, J.
, C; :Coulak, D. ( 1977 ).
.~.sc-:irning
a.no physical attractiv,?'·-r;,·s:
to victi:'lS.
Journal of per'''onality,
, : ~ eat inc, J. F.
H.
,
the
(
'Ii .
lC7/'
-'-/ 0
~ttribution
,
i~ e :.~ t
Rape
responsibility
~,
er ,
554-563.
, & I,:itchell,
201e and justice considerations in
of
re~pon~iblity
to a rape victim.
Journal of Re::earch in Personality, 10, 346-357 .
.jpence, J. 'r.
,
& Heln:.reich, rt.
TO';'8.rd "ODen :.:;cale:
attitu~cs
t~1ar~
:m
~aylor
.J..
-
,
.'.
p
_.
,
an
The Attitudes
ob,j 8cti 'Ie instrument to
the rights and roles of
contenpora.ry cooci2ty'.
in ?sychology,
( 1972).
~onen
r'1ea:~ure
in
J,;;".:) Catalog of 0elected Docur:cents
1" 66.
~""'1'+'f1,
." _
T~.
(
1,97"
_ . 'Y
)•
function of .:::;ex of viot2..D ane. 1Tl2.1e subj ect t s atti tuce
-
37,
;':;e=_f-::...~ated
'1'ie:,er, 'i.'. ( 1931 ).
a~::::'
1i'celihood of raDing
the social perception of r8.!,le.
1 "
In ~Jlersona 1 l t Y, 1:2,
147-158.
0
o
'l'hornto~,
E.
, Ryckman, H. L:.
rel~~ionships
The
Journal of R.esearch
, 8-. :r\obbins, L.
.\.. ( 1932 ).
of observer characteristics to beliefs
in the causal responsibility of victims of sexual assault.
Eur'"-an r.e1ations,
,,0 1fe,
J.
J.2,
, 8: Baker, V.
(~onvicte(l
321-330.
( 1930 ).
Characteristics of
rapists and circumstance:c-; of the rape.
C. C. ,-arner ( .'::;d.
Germantoc;!D,
;,=.
lJ.
~1(me
),
:
and ,_exual Assault.
.::"spen ,;y:;tems Cocpany.
8~
(193, J
H.
r .. ", ,
'i''''p1'''-''''Y
... 1. ___
Yate::.:, ,.,".
01
_,
__ ,
).
Ba.rbclree,
IrJ ent ification of cues and control ()f
.
,,,'
•
L'·60_LL7o'
•
, Barbaree, E.
~~.
C iar o,ha11,
·,i.
L. ( 19<30 ).
'rl'w effect:: cf 'an'::'er'
on ,sexual arousal to rape cues.
l'a:per presented at the
.·lutU::l~
:.eeting of the Association
for\('rancenent of Behavior Therapy, ne':l York,
Zi
11~':12_rl,
ca~loucne~s,
of
-
In
~roverlber.
pornogra}Jhy, sexual
and the trivia1ization of rape.
~oc;':1'...mica tion,
JZ.,
10-21.
Journal
~cen2rio
I: Date
~ape
TOr!) and Sherrie got back fror.: the n:ovies around midnight.
was rather late, Sherrie invited
drinks ano. watch T .. V.
the arm.
~-i,"
up to her apartcent to have a few
As Sherrie was pourinG the wine, TOll: grabbed her by
He pushed her down and forced her to have sex wi th him.
,qUE~stions
For each of the
your opinion.
1.
To~
Al though it
V:ould you
a. !~o tAt !... ll
beliE~ve
c1Aoc~
below,
the a::sv;er which best e>.'])resses
Sherrie if she s&id she had been raped?
b. Pro bably
!~ot
c. Uncerteirl
d.Probably
e. Certainly
2. Rov. r:.uct men tal and phy si cal h&Y'rr, do you t.G..ink Sherrie e}"-peri en ced?
iH-<
a. rone
~._
b.Fot Very i<uch
d.~uite
A Bit
e.A Great Deal
If Sherrie had acted differently, could she have avoi ded this incident?
a.Definitely Not
4".
c. Uncertain
b.Probably :Kat
c. Uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly -;:--;;
Do you think that Tom was sexually r::.oti vated to act this wa;J?
a. r~o tAt All
b. P::,o bably
ro t
c. Uncertain
d. ProbablY
5. Do you think that Sherrie enjoyed having sex in this
a.Definitely Not
b.Probably rot
c. Uncertain
e.Certainly ---,
wa:y?
d. Pro bably
e.Certainly
~H:-
6. Do you think that seductilleness on Sherrie's part encouraged Toe:. to behave
:.the w~b.e 'Cid?
a.Definitely
~ot
•
b. Pro bably
l~o
t
c.Uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly -;;'' ;-
7. If you were Tom, would you feel that Sherrie's conduct justified your
behavior toward her?
a.Defin~tely
Not
b.Probably !\ot
c.Uncertain
i:--')te :riigh r8pe r:1yth belief
•
d.Probably
e. Certainly
";--l:;-
-.
:";cenarioII : l.arital Rape
l'-lary was puttin£ laundry av:a;; when Brian, her husb2.::.d, car:.e h::>I:le.
had. gone bo\·.ling v."i th his frie:r.d.s, and had come horte intoxicatec..
He
Mary
and Brion bee;an to argue over his drifu:.in[ when suddenly Briar. grabbed her
by the arm.
tie
~ushed
her down and forced her to h.G:.ve ss-x wi th hie.
,~bJ:>CI6.
For eact of the questions below,
the ans\':er wlic:::' best expresses your
op~nion.
II
1.
Would you believe Mary if she said she had been rared?
a.~~ot
2.
At All
c.Uncertcin
EJv. a::.lcn z::ental and physical h&..rrr. do yot;
b.I\ot Ve!'y J.juch
a. r~one
- 3.
b. Pro bably r:o t
c.Uncertain
t~nk.
i':&..ry e:q:erie!lced.?
d.Qui te A Ei t
e.A Great Deal ....
If hary haa. ':lcted differently, could she have avoided this incident?
b. Pro bably !\o t
',:-"
d. Pro bablY
c.Uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly
4.
Do you thlrJ.<:. that Brian was sexually Ir.oti vated to act this was?
a.~: 0
t /,.: ;'.11
5.
Do yeu tnink Eary enjoyed having sex in this way?
b.Probably Fot
~H~- a.Definitely r;ot
c. Uncertain
b.Probably rot
d. Probably
c.Uncertair.
e.Certainly
a.Frobably
e. Certainly
6. Do you think that seducti veness on Mary's part encouraged. Erian to behave
t.hewa:! he . .q1d?
-~:-::- a. Definl tely Not
7.
b. Pro bably ho t
If y::>u were 3rian,
behavior toward her?
.J.'.. .:-'_
un
~oul ci
c. Uncertain
d.Prcbably
e.Certainly
you feel that Eary f s conduct justi fied your
•
a.:)efinttely Net
~KNote:high
b.Probatly Kot
rape myth belief
c. Uncertain
d.Frob~bly
e. Certainly
-
..)cenario III. : stranger Hape
~.as
Eeli.ssa
_walking back to 'ti.e dorm after her night cl ass.
To save
some time, she decided to take a short-cut through a poorly-lit and
rather isolated section of Caffipus.
Suddenly, a man darted out from
behind some bushes and grabbed her bY.the arm.
.-
dO\L'D., .:
and forcE,d her
~tu
He pushed her
have sex wi th hi'll:.·.
For ea.ch of the ciuesn.ons belo\'.', ~he~. the answer which best expresses your
•
.~pi~~~.·
1.
\','oul d you believe Eeli ssa if see said sn.e had been raped?
a. r·:o t .'. t 1-.11
2.
1). Pro bably No t
d.PrDbably
e. Ce r t
ainly;~':~
Hov; much rr.en1:.al and physical harm do you think l':elissa eJoi.-perienced?
If
~elissa
d.Quite A Bit
c. Uncertain
b.Kot Very !,-iuch
3.
c. Uncertain
-;~--~.
e.A Great Deal
had acted differently, could she have avoided this incident?
-:~.~~-
b. Probably Kot
a.Definttely Not
4.
·".c
Do you
b. Pro bably
tr~nk
l~o
t
e.Certainiy.
c.Somewhat
d.probably
e. Certainl.y
that Melissa enjoyed having sex in this way?
a.Definitely Not
b.Probably Not
6.
c. Uncertain
Do you think that seducti veeness on
to behave the way he did?
-iH:·
d.Probably
Do you think that this man was sexually m0tivated to act act in this way?
a.Not t..t All
5.
c. Uncertain
a. Defin i tely Not
b. Pro bably No t
l-~elissa'
c. Uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly
s part encouraged this Dlan
d.Probably
e.Certainly
7. If you were this man, would you feel that I·jelissa's conduct justified
your behavior toward her?
.
a.DefiDltely Not
"H~-IJote:
hi,gh rape:.Alyth
.'~
./
b.Probably Not
elief
c.Uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly
,--,ce:'1:?.rj.C! IV: .,ar Rape
Seun Lei was walkinG through t.he village on her way to the ri ver to get
\',nter when a group of American soldiers appeared.
the huts, lookin£ for Viet Cong.
villa~e,
They began to searchinG
hs she reached the outskirts of the
ar~~
one of the soldiers grabbed hEr by the
He pushed her
do~n,
ar.d forced her tc have sex wi th him..
for each of the cuestions below, 'c.b.osc the ansv:er which best expressEs
'sour opinihcrn..
..
1.
'.'.ould you believe 8eun Lei if she said she had been raped?
b.Probably
a. !~o tAt All
c.Ur..certaiL
I~ot
e. Certair..ly-::--·:·
ci.Probably
2. - How much mental and physical har::::i. do you think Seun Lei experienced?
a.Kone
3.
b. r\ot Very l"l.uch
-;;-;C
-;H:
e. A Great Deal::·-i;'
b.Probably :r-;ot
c. Uncertain
d.Pro bably
e. Certainly
:So you think ttat tr..is soldier v.as sexually mati vateci to act in this
a.r;-ot At All
5.
d. ~ui te a Bi t
If Seun Lei h.ad acted differently, could- she have avoided this incident?
":-.;~. a. ~efir.. ~ tely Not
4.
c. Uncertain
b. Pro bably I:o t
c. Uncertain
d.ProbablY
Wa;j?
e. Certainly
Do you think Seun Lei enjoyed having sex in this way?
a. Jefin ltely Not
b. Pro bably No t
c. uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly
6.
Do you think that seductiveness on Seun Lei's part encouraged this soldier
to behave the way he dici?
-,C'.-
-"-
a. Defin i tely Not
b. Pro bably Not
c. Uncertain
d.Probably
e. Certainly
7. If you were this soldier, would you feel that Seil.n Lei t s conduct justifieci
your behavior towards her?
.
a.Definltely
Not
b. Probably Not
**Note: high rane myth Belief
c. Uncertain
d.Probably
e.Certainly