r
SOCIOMETRY AND THE ELEMENTARY TEACHER
A RE3EARCH ,PAPER
SUBMITTED TO THE HONORS COUNCIL
FOR FULFILLMENT OF 'flIE R.&iUIREMENTS
OF I.D. 4-99,- SENIOR HONORS THESIS
BY
MaRY JANE CRONK
ADVISOR-DR. HELEN SORNSON
BALL STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE
MUNCIE, INDIANA
Jun, 1963
C)
PREFACE
This paper is b~ing submitted to the Honors Committee in order to
meet the requirements fOT graduating this June, 1963, on the Honors
Program. I began this paper in June of last summer. It is with a
great deal of relief and regret that I have now completed it almost
one year later.
I began searching for a subject in the broad field of guidance
in the elementary school. During the summer I did reading in this
area, and with the guidance of Dr. Sornson, I decided to write on the
area of sociometry. It was hard to decide on a specific area, since
everything I read was interesting to me. However, I think that sociometry
is one of the most important areas in the field of elementary guidance,
since many of the other areas seem to revolve around or hinge on
sociometry. Sociometry forms a good basis on which to base other
types of guidance activities.
I did student teaching during the fall quarter of this year in a
fifth grade classroom at Westview Elementary School in MunCie, Indiana.
~ critic teacher, Mrs. Irma Gale, and I carried out some action
research in the area of sociometry. I would like to thank ~~s. Gale
for her help, cooperation, patience, and understanding. Also, I
would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Helen Sornson. Without her t
this paper would not have been written. I also wish to thank my
friends for their underst~~ding and patience.
Mary Jane Cronk
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII..
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
'1'tlJ1at Is Sociometry?
Why
~ocionetry?
PAGE
1
3
The :reacher: Her Judgment of Children and the Effect of'
Classroom Atmosphere on Children.
12
Setting Up The Sociometric Test.
16
Administering the Sociometric Test.
19
Plotting the Results of the Socioraetric Test.
21
Interpreting the Sociometric rest.
24
Using the Results of the Sociometric 'rest.
3~
Isolates--Stars.
35
Reliability and Validity of Sociometric Tests.
41
Action Research.
44
Conclusion.
56
TABLE OF !I...ATRL,{ CHA.."'tTS
E,iGE
}IATRIX CHART NljUBER 1
-Who would you like to work with on a social studies
committee?
47
NA.TRIX CHART Wu}IDER 2
If you could sit next to anyone in the class you wanted to,
what five
peo~le
would you like to sit by?
54
lv1ATRIX CHART NUMBER 3
what five people in the classroom would you best like to work
witr. on a special project for the New England states?
58
!<IA.TRIX CF.ART NUMBER
Who do you
4
thi~~ ma~es
a good comT.ittee leader?
59
MATRIX CHART N1JMBER 5
What person in the room has some of the most unusual or
creative ideas?
},,~'flU'!c
60
CF.ii..RT NuNBER 6
·'.mat five people in this room would you invite to a
Halloween ?arty?
61
l'lATRIX CEAitT HL'MBER 7
\ihat ~erson in the rooo would you like to play with
after school?
63
TABLE OF FIGURE3
PAGE
FI,}URE NUI1BER 1
Sociometric Test Number 1
46
FI;VRE NliMBER 2
Sociogram
Who would you like to work with on a social studies
committee?
48
FIGURE NUNBER 3
Social Studies Committees
49
FIGURE NUMBE...tt 4
Sociometric Test Number 2
53
FIGURE l\"VHBE...tt 5
Seating Arrangements
55
FIGURE NUMBER 6
Target ~ociogra~
What five people in this room would you invite to a
Halloween Party?
62
SOCIOMETRY AND THE ELEMENTARY TEACHER
How important is the group in the classroomI
the teacher have on the group?
Wbat influence does
How is a sociogram helpful to the teacher"
Do the children need peer approval and acceptance in order to be secure
and to learn·,
These ar<::: some of the questions that this paper will
consider o
~ociometry,
the study of the inter-relationships among people, can
be very helpful in answering some of these questions.
If a teacher uses
the sociogram as a starting point in her understanding of children, then
she can understand her children better.
The sociogram points out rela-
tionships the teacher may not be aware of.
~he
can also use other
guidance techniques to better advantage.
In this paper, various sociometric techniques, tests, and sociograms are explored.
The value of sociometry to the elementary teacher,
how sociometry helps the teacher, and how the teacher can use the results
of sociometric devices in her classroom will be discussed.
1.
What Is 00ciometry?
Before going further, it is necessary to have a basic understanding
of what sociometry actually is and the terms used in this area.
sociometry is from the Latin word
II
"lhe word
socius" which means companion and the
Latin word "metrum" which means measure. l
Its literal meaning is to
lMarilyn G. Jones, The Use of 0ociometric Data and Observational
Records ~ Guides for J:TOniOt~ -;acial and InteIIe'CtuaI Growth of I'rimary
Children. Masters Thesis (Muncie, Indiana, Ball ,jtate Teachers College,
1955), p. 4.
"L:J-:J!1 1rte':;f.::·:~.r~~;T~}erlt
and
:?v.:~lv.~
t
'1
~on. n~
.:':ar:s: . ~.
~'.)(;rth·~f~1~r, ~·lOVir:"!1.~'-=:::c, :<'a,:; ~~t-t~;._J
~
ceiv"j
ot):
1.":"
e::: j";li'illing tb ~i.r n :~.,i:.:;» or'nlianc2.n2 t.h,'!i.r ;X~) :ri'c'n~;2. ;'J
1:ot
vc
behind th"?
rhoic-s.
':>"conr;
ditj on,
p. 11.
?
<-J:lcoh .:,.cr:mo, i,ho
l-iOUb'?, :!:ac., 1)53)>> p. Th.
~
,:·urviv;:;?,
""oronto
,
L.,vliffc)rd
':>ci
"~nc'3
~:".
:r·(~r3~·11ic~1.9
L~:·:s~·).'.·:.!'ch 1\s,:.~oci8t'.~!;,
the dtDaa1c aspect. ot interaction rather than on indi.14ual
children in ieolation from o.e another. tll The more one know.
about the relationenip8 of one peraOD to other people and hi.
environment and background. the better one is able to understand
this person. It 1. aomet1... hard to underetand the person in
isolation.
MaD7 terse are involve4 in the int.rpr~.i tation ot the sociogram. One of the.e is neglect.e. ~h. negl.ot •• is the individual
who receive. relative11 re. choice. on a eoCiometric test. A
reject •• receiv•• negative choice.. So.et1mes tb1. ie contu.ed
with the iaolat., but the isolate reoeiv.s no choice. either
pos1t1ve or negativ.. A sooiometric cliqu. i . a groyp which
g1ve. relatively fe. choice. o~taide ot the clo ••
knit group_
It i8 a subgroup within the l~rger group. When there is socio•• tric oleavage there i& a lack ot aociometrio choic •• between
two or aore subgroups. A star 1. a person who i . highly chose.
by the group, and a autual choice is the sttuation ot two people
cho.1ng each other.
8oc~o.etry 1. relativel, D.W.
Ita father was Jacob L. Moreno,
who wrote the tirst . . jor book on aocioeetl'1. ~ Shall ~!£vive? t
1n 1954. Although relatively ne., it bas become a very important
tool. Moreno oays that "80010.. tl7 bit" taqht U8 to recogllize
that human 80ciety 1s Dot a riga.nt ot the sind, but a powerful
r.ality ruled by • law and order of ita own, quite ditterent trom
uy law or order p.r.... ting otber part. of the UD1.er••• tt2
l,
II.
Whl Soeio.et£l?
Why should educators be conoerned w1th 80cio.etry? Aa haa
b.en prev10ualy said, aooioa.try ,can be very important in the
ele.entary achool. It. importanoe i. partially hinged on whether
the aChool i . subject •• tter ortented or pupil oriented. More
sohools toda.y are aore pupil oriented. "Iducatora have man,.
re.ponsibilities in common with the parente of their stUdents.
the,. aust help children learn to livo and work and play together
lJenninga, Socio. . trl!! Group Relat1oDa. p. 1,.
ZMor.no. !,ho Shall Surd•• ? t p. 92.
cooperatively as models for their future functioning in society.
They must aid children in achieVing maturity.
One indication
of an individual'. maturity is his relations to the other
members of the groups to which he belongs. tll
Other writers in the area of sociometry have pointed out
the role of the school in developing social responsibility as
well as helping children to learn facts.
Edson Caldwell has
said that "sociometry i8 derived from the developing attention
to the
sociali~at1on
responsibility of the school.
It has now
become an important tool in providing individual guidance for
children and in fostering a healthy classroom social climate. tt2
Mary Beauchamp and Boward Lane indicate that tithe significA.nt
role of the school is to
acce~t
children, to understand their
Circumstances, and upon this acceptance and understanding to
create an environment which complements the rest of their living.'"
It seems that educators are going to have to be concerned about
the individuals in the classroom and the
and amond them.
inter~ctions
between
This is just as important as teaching the
children reading, 'riting, and trithmetic.
Teachers need to
understand their pupils if "their pupils are to be motivated to
healthier personality and group development and to gain from
the school curriculum the most possible.,,4
The sociogram "can
reveal the workings of this child association and thereby help
the teacher to serve the student's needs and at the aame time
lDonald E. Guinouard and Joeeph F. Rychlak. "Personality
Correlates of Sociometric Popularity in Elementary School
Children," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XL (January, 1962),
p. 13.
-
2Edson Caldwell, Creating Better Social Climate in the
Classroom Through Sociometric Teehnigues (San Francisco:--'earon Publishers, 1959), p. 6.
3Mary Beauchamp and Howard Lane, Human Relations in Teaching I
Dynamics £1 Helping Children 2!2! (Englewood Cli!f;t
Prentice-Ball, Inc., 1955), p.i6.
!h!
_
4 Intergroup Education in Cooperating Schools, A Sociometric
Work ................
Guide, p. 5.
.
,
br1n, tbem w1tlU.n ran~"tI of the teacher-s educI)t10nal objeet1ve •• 1tl
"It 18 possible to affect the entire structure of the
group when individual relationships are i.proved. The applioat10n of soc1ometric technique. a.4 an understanding of the 1nfor. .t10D ga1ned permit the teacher to improve the soc1al structure
of a claasroom anti to raise the academic achieve •• nte of the
pupils to 80•• dogr.e. u2
Soc10metry and group dlnaaic. 6re 1nter-related. A person
i8 e.l wal& part of 80.e &roup in aoc1et1_ The ea.ring that "no
.an 18 an island" 18 beooming more true every 481_ the world
toda1 18 Yh'l inte:--depsndent.
Couoquent.ll. it 1. important
to learn to get alOftg with others. Moat people want to be a
part of a group and to bo ~cc.pted by their peers. The baby 1 •
• 'ael.f-centered being. Through group interaction d.oe8 h. learn
to think about other., to aooept 80c1al responsibility, aDd
become a 10 0d citisen. "Our a ••ooiationa with other human
beings are continto.ou.ly uking UII what we are becoming.'"
Humanness 18 learned..
Social acceptance is
very important to .oet people that
often, without it, they beoome maladjusted, unhappy 1ndividuals.
Mann haa said that "children who are socially Wlacceptab1e by
.0
their peers often exhibit eaot10n&11, unstable habit. that
affeot all areas of their develop.ent. If children can be helped
to acquire positive .oc1a1 a ••et., they - , become more socially
ace.ptabl~ to their ~.er..
Social aooeptance, in turn. &&1
increase their aoadem.1c aobiev... nt."lt- Social belongiAg i8 a
psyohological nec •••1tYI the cla•• room haa a profound etrect on
llntergroup Iducation in Cooperating School.,
wor) Qu1d.~. p. 1.
!
Sociometric
2Ieadora Hann, "A Teaeher'. ae.pona.1b111ty: UDderatanding
Grcup Behavior," EducatloD, LXXXI (Jov••ber, 1960), p. 17'.
'Beauchamp and Laae, &'·11 Sele" n •• J.Il "z•• claj • ."
P.lna.u.cs 2! He1pini Children Grow, p. 18.
4M.....U1 • ft. 'feaohert. ,Reapona1bil1t1l
Behavior,ft 1~. 17l.
....
Understanding Group
6
Children_ Hl
aelen Hall J.nning. baa a814 that "all learnia. in
80hool takes place within the .ettins of pupii-pupil relationship.. Teacher•• in ,eneral, r.alize that th. ind1Y1dual t s
p.r.onal and acad.mic crowth ~ be .It.cte4 a4•• r.ely or
la.orab17 b,. hi. ,o81tion ill the group aM that all pupil.
stimulate or thwart each other in "83 w."."2
Children have various Deeda tbat auat be met b.for. they
are r.a41 to oo-.1t th....l ••• wbolly to acadeale l.arnine.
Azoag thesG need. are the basic pbta1cal ...d. ot adequate nour1sb&ent~ eneiter, elothin8. re.t, and medical att.ntion.
The
p8ychological ne.d. are love, a le.llag of .ueo•••• and fr•• do.
troll .xe•••i •• tear. a..ide. tb_ •• n•• 4., th.re are aleo tbe
aeoial n.ed. of being re.pecte' aDd aocept.d ~y othere, belongiDg to a group, and being r.gar4e. aa worth while aa4 important.'
Beauchamp and Lane alao ba.e ad4ed the followiaC needs to tho._
alrea4y ._ntion_d--"self-re.pect &lul a De.d tor. freedoll 80 that
a person could make a mistake without it. bothering hi., could
expre.. upopuar id.... w1 thout becoll1ng UDpopular. and could
recognize a mistake aade by tbe t ••ch.r and .till fe.l .ecur.
with that teacher ... 4 "An tltUIiWiption badc to under_tandtng
human b.havior 18 that 8 • • r1 act is tor the purpose of sat1.,y1ng eo.. need."' a••d. are not alw., • •xpo.~4 to tull vi •••
"They never exiat in isolat1oa. t16 It 1_ the re.ponaib111t1 ot
lH11da Taba and othera. Di!IBo.1n, Huaaa aelation. B.eda
(Washington, D. e.1 ••erican COUDCil on !4ucat1oD, 1951), p.
2Jenn1n.a, Soc1oaetrl !! group a.latione, p. 1.
>Robert Oelau and Jack Kou,h, ".el1:l1nJf Children With
SpeCial Needs," T.aoh.r. Guidanc. BaaQOoOk, vol. 2 (ChicaSO;
Science Research .....oc1at•• , Ino•• 19"'. 1>- )20.
4...uchamp and Lane, Human Selat1ol18 in Toacbin" the
l)1umics 2! Helpin, Childrfln~. pp. i,2:r1tO.
5Dorothy Roger., Mental Health !!. Ele.. ntarl Uucat1on,
(Beeton. Boughton Miff11n Company; Caabridge I the it.ersid.
Pre 86 , 19.57), p. 22.
-
6 Ib1d •• p. 2!J.
71.
7
the teacher to look behind surface behavior to discover what
needs of the pupil are not being met.
Froehlich and Darley sud that whenever students come
together, they participate in a social interaction process. To
really understand a student, it is necessary to know the role
he plays in the group and his satiefaotion with that role. l
"Through the sociometric
technique
a teacher can find out what
.
.
reputations children have in the opinion of their peerst what
children in the group think of each other, and what preference.
and rejections pupils in a group have for each other. Much
information for understanding individual or group problems can
be obtained by pupils evaluating each other. tt2
In the socialization process of human beings, getting
along and being accepted by others is one of the major problems
of children. "The strength he (the child) finds in a group of
friendly peers serves the very necessary purpose of helping
wean him away from complete dependence upon his parents. As
the child learns at school how to relate olosely to others,
many of whom hold different values and opinions than his own,
he is developing some of the human relations skills that he
will need throughout all his adult life."3
A child •• self-concept is very important. The child who
is secure in his self-concept will have the confidence to do
things, to accept failure, to meet new people. and will usually
be interested in learning. "A child's estimation of his own
personal worth, his evaluation of his competence, and his senee
of personal superiority or inferiority are .haped. often to a
lrroehlich and Darley t Studyin~ ~.;tudent8. p. 327.
2Gertrude A. BOld, Understanding Children Through ,nfor~~!
Procedures (Laramie, ~h~ Curricul~m and Research Center, College
o! Ed1.4c:-.t1c,1l., Uni'{ ...·~lty of WyOll'l1ng, Vol. XI (No.1). 1957).
p. 20.
3Ed• on Caldwell, Qreat~i ,'tter QPciLL g*iUle J.A. lAt.
Cla••rAS8 %hrough lociometric "echpiqu••• p.O.
8
critical extent. by the statue accorded or refused hia by his
peers.
hen .. cM.ld fails to win belongi.ng or 1s acti"ely
rejected by his claseaate., the clas810al aSI"s•
or withdrawing patterns of beha"ior that usually follow frustration
are •• ea_"l Theretore, the rejeGted ohild doee not have an
adequate •• If-conoept. ae i8 usually 80 concerned with thie
self-ooncept and the relatioD of hi••• lf with his peera, that
he continuously does the wron& thing when be tries to win
api,roval. Often, this child i8 UDable to learn academic uterial because hi. Bind i . on other thing. wh1ch are of more
immediate importance and value to him.
Sinoe the cla.s i& • large group with various groupe contuned with.i.n it. it is inter•• ting t.o look at cohe.iven••• of
groupe. How much inflUence 40e. the individual have on the
group, and how much i8 the indiVidual attracted to the group?
"The power of a group may b••• asured by the attraotiven••• o~
.1".
the group for the m.mbo;....... ~
..... to l:eroon wants- to etay in a
group, he will be susceptible to influences coming from the
group, and he will be willing to conform to the rules ..'hich the
group .eta up.tt2 n(livea equal influence pr ••• ure., groups high
in attractiveness will have fewer deViated from a group standard
than will groups •• dium or low in attracti't'eneazh"' It ee.u
to be apparent that the stronger the ,roup coheeivene •• , the
more conformity there i8 within the group.
Educators alao h~v. to be concerned with .ental health and
maladjust.ent. It i8 often the person who i . not accepted by
bi. peer. or who does not accept hi. peer. who is having
lA~erican COUDcil of Education, The Staff of the DiVision
on Child Development and feacher Personnel. Be1pi!, 'taohers
Under.tand Ohildren (W•• b1ngton. D. C.I American Council on
Education, l§l5J. p. 219 •
...
ftramiC
'Dor"in Cartwright and Alvin Zander, Group
e.!!!
Reee!lch ~ IBferx. Second Edition, (EY&natoD.inoIs;
Elu'ord. New York, Row. I'at.rson, and Compa.nY', 1960), p. 250.
'Lester M. Libo, MtaaWJi GEoIP CoheGiven ••• (Ann Arbor:
R••earch Center tor Group Dynamic., I~oittut. for Social Research.
University of Michigan, 1953), p- ,.
9
adjustment problems.
"Mental health implies a satisfactory
relationship to one's self and to one's environment. as well as
the possession of problem-solving techniques for establishing a
satisfactory relationship between the two. nl "Children are considered to be poorly adjusted if their behs"vior interferes with
their learning. their personal growth and development. or the
lives of others. HZ
Kough and DeHa.n said that a sociometric
teot will help identify children with problems and will show how
the children in your group teel about their classmates and
friends. 3
By asking certain questions, such as Who Are They?
questions, the teacher
~an
identity aggressive and withdrawn
behavior and friendship.~
There are several main types of maladjustment.
The teacher
will probably see that some of her children exhibit 80me of these
kinds of behavior.
Bowever, it is important to remember that
"the difference between maladjusted children and most children
is one of degree rather than of kind.
That is, maladjusted
children have the same problems most children do--only much more
so.
~hey
are much more unhappy. much more self-centered, much
more fearful."5
Some children show an aggressive maladjustment
such as:
1. Doesn't go along gracefully with decisions of
teacher or group.
2. Is quarrelsome, fights often, gets mad easily.
3. Is a bully, picks on others.
4. Is resent£ul, defiant, rude, sullen, or apt to
Iteas" adults.
5. Disrupts cla8s and is difficult to manage.
lDorothy Rogers, Mental !lliene !! Elementary Education
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company; Cambridge: The Riverside
Press, 1957), p. 15.
'Robert Deltaan and Jack K.ough, "Identifying Children With
Special Needs," Teachers Guidance Handbock, Vol. 1, (Chicago I
Science Research Associates, Inc., 1955), p. 58.
-
3Ibid' t p. 63.
-
4Ibid •• p. 65.
5DeHaan and Kough, "Identifying Children With Special Needs i t •
p. 119.
10
6.
1.
8.
9.
Is regarded 01 other children a8 a pest. Rub.
others the ""rong .a1. Ie exoluded -1 others ..hene.er they get the chanoe.
otten steala.
Lie. frequentl,_
Ooca.1onally 1. deetruct1.e ot property.l
others ex.b1b1t viithdr••" aaladjust•• nt .1to such traits as the
following:
2..
Is not not1ced by other cbildren. Ia neither
acti ••ly liked nor d1sl1ked--juet l.tt out.
Is one or more of tbe tollow1ag: ahy. t~dt
fearful, anxious, excessively quiet, tenae.
Daydr •••• a gre.t
Bever atends up for him.ell or his 1de.le.
la "too 1004'1 for hia own good.
rinde 1t diffioult to be 1n group aet1vit1es or
to be relax.d when with othera.
X. easill upaet, feeling. are readily hurt. 1e
ea.111 diecoura,ed. 2
,.al.
Other chtldrea aa1 ahow sympto. . ot general aaladjust•• nt such
&a1
2.
.h
2
Ne.ds an unusual .-oURt ot prodding to cet work
Gompleted.
ta 1nattent~.a and 1ndifferent. or apparently lazy.
Exhibits n.rYO"8 _neri ... eueh a8 nail b1tlnth
sucking thua~ or fingers. stutt&ra. extreme ~.Gt­
la.en.se, musole twitching, hair twisting, picking
and eoratabi ••• "eap u4 frequent eish1ng.
Is aetivel,. exolud,d _1 moat of tb. children wheneYer they get • chanee.
I. a failure in .ohool for DO partioular reaeon.
Ia aba.nt from school frequently or dislikes .cho~l
inteneel,..
Se ... to be aore unhappy than 808t of the ch1ldran.
Aohie.e. m~ch le •• in sohool than hi. ability
iadieat.d he ahould.
,
Is jealous or o•• reoapetitiye.
Ib14 •• p. 61.
-
'Xt.J.cl., p. 62.
11
116c.J th bdoL.
~
.1.•
Cli'
i:,e~ll
(:!,t<r.. tb.l llc~d..-l t t
Chilarc~ wit~ sound &Gotion'
-<-able to _,cc.e;;t ttl"..:. ,,1', .';
the,'u3rC,lv,,' •.:'. \!1ey ecti;!lote t \~~d:" "::,i.c:'!;~' rc;s..li~,tic l:~<., h,:,vin
n,;it,el' teo ::i [, J'!" t·;.: 1. C," LL
~,
\,,1
i:o.U€FE;nc~er;t
ir c:eci·:in:,. thi!' ..
Df th~ G ...
'rlhey ar~:" cOl,ficj.Ent nf trJci.:C t.jl;:_li
5i tuatioE .. to'. [, ·'d'., ceil,col t tr.,
chilJr~n
other
..?
4.
Ths
1
-.>~
gu~ltQ
5.
:r.ct co:";.)t.~~ntly iJ.11 -.:ctt.-J. \:;lt
'The,)"" a.T'>.;
feeli:-:
~.)i
at le,,;.(::·t
<)
l""
~~~r.~~
O":E
,;..;,n::·~.-·r,
tn(:J
trUE:t
clu:~:,
~heJ
co~ci~er
~:'rcuT;
•
tie
They
~ccent re0~o~aulc
(-j.
'l'he~.:--
'7.
grou~
r~·:
to
(~~x:~,~,
1
l~~..
,.1(2
:.~::."'~-!
3:"-:
',
..
·.',·or'::""~/,
r·l:>r
.'....I-~
or
r~·. . :dX(~\~.
to
i.ur~·.
lrie~!rJ.
so~e
t}lt:~
je-:.::JloUf-j:,'· t
SE:;al~!
ct~~
like
They
feel
u.
the
~"e~<L~
Ge~'-.(.~·;-).ll"\
lik. e
t
to
t.','
if.!. te rc
responsibilit~
tje"8e]v~
:.: t~:
ler t~
i nt
:~:.n
T~.~l
. . ..,: r t
t,'.::~.
Oi
rc~~on~i~llit~.
i:... ~'rcve their ,-,bil.j_ti.ec, ~:.··:.,llGt
2:.nd f:iee n(-::\. e:~},erJ..cricc':-;: e:,: crl.~!.
cJnj
L(,
.c·r
t~::le.),~t~ t
~
(.1.
in i .. : . covir:
relaticnG~i:6.
tc.c~ l.'
r
7i vinrS
1"0
1. "C'2C
tv 1.f .rn.
t
'y
..','
, ';1..:'-..
1;_
C ::' 1'1
.i..·:;,"'r
C " . r:
. 1. \;
::':
_~!.
/.;
" j
v:
.0','.,
,
V~
t,
l.
.:1
.,
...
;~
i,. ,- ~ .;
~
t·,
">"'~"~"~
._ '_..i-
' .... ,'
\
:.1- ::.
........
i •. " "
"
t
i. .........
\..L ..
(,
..........
r~
..~
:.. _~ 1,
t
c:r ..
,-.
c- ;
t
.'.
t: (l
Y'
,i C~
>_'...1.; ....',1
l. ::: .
.-~.
.
,-
,
"
~c
'I;
2. ri 1. .
(:0) "
:1:
-
it
i.-",,:
oi
'.,
.' (~
~
1.
..
•
J1..L
t
J0.,.'.
,.,
~. . : . {_
vi'
:
.K. ''''
,~
. • J,
...
---------_.._.,
~
J •
)
,
•
--.)
.
-;,....~
(,;
-,_.i-·.;;"
"
of
;..:.
hOUT6
clwlogy COt.:rf.r'L,
te . . ~t'1tt~rt u.1?'> :~,~~i:;:t~~
contu:~t
'.1. t./'. th.e
h.~~ v ';;.'
"'_:":' ~'?~
':)i
't ..i
c!.~: :~,o
....
"
/
.'
.
.
~ t~~<,",-J..L:.
.~ ~~
lli0~t~
IQC1,~,~
Dr
:cor'-': .':''',
:,..:
jv.<i
L
c.. :.,
..:;
tr~c
'
,) i.
...
,
v\. ..
j Ll, j
€
1:
D.'
tLv~ir
ecr:t,,;., "
,
,
l:
. t;:-
c.
O'::"'..A:C.;.~·l
,'.' ..
t ":
t ) I,
<,0
~.i.'
'; ", (: ,'C'
t (.
t.
c: ",
1
..
"
~I
~. ~.11
.~ t
.~ 1 !.: ,
: .i1.1
1.':,:,1; :,(·:1
-_.
to _
" 0
i
t
,- l:.
r', "
,
.
V" I'~:
~ ... ~._ ,.: j 1
.! .
1. l'
C "
l
•. j
the
.,-~
r t.)
.
y~:
....; .'
~
-..:: :'.... 1 'I::.
, .--~
t; "',
t
:;
.i...s- •
'"'>i:',i.:~L_Lo
1,-
... ~
]
,.,
L ..
t
0:;'
t
::
, ".
.~
l.n
..t '
tt
'.: 1 .....
'" !'
fl'\~f:::r
.... '
",-, •.
i.,.
r
<.... '
~.'
.,.i 1
r~~n.
C.: .
0
•
,(
cnc·.,,) 1 ,'1
Ci;'.
t
;-~c
1 i~
r:.J.,
)
..
..I':
Cl' ,:.<1':
~
-.--~
. I
h
:·li::",-rl:~ t
.;_'i' v_~:)r,t'
.~..' c:
•
,J
L
•
LJ +-
.
\.
)
to
,
,
,'-
(':. .1:n
~
.Lf: 'l'"n
T,
, (~
n <..
c i _...L ( n "
.
t • -,"
flU
,
"
r"i_
r'rinc:i. (,le
L
t,
t,;-"
V(';r j
;," ur
t
r.
1 '.
",!:':i. ;,",
; ,
,',.::."
l)j
t·
t·ne.
•. J. • .",
•.,t:,; \._'"-
',;: ,~
1~
. :'. Xl.
_"""",::c-
,-
.;.
' ..>
,
.
.--...
~,;,
'.l
...~--.- ..
t,
i,"
-------"'"
~;
10
.:rovide tlc' .-;t.i.loren ':,it;·
IV.
UF thc
~ettin~
cleci'"jes
s~e
~ocio~etrlc
iSbt.
.·:~nt
taoY.: that .-:iJ.n
tne
c1 ...'.;,:::: roo:....
tJ. '.'
i~tic
6itu~tioLC.
cbiloren.
be
C
import~nt
&~~
~ill
Licly.
ferent
''''rviU·
1
.~-' 'IA.
~'e
L)
<,
t..... •
·,3
.lYi
----------------------..)
r:... ";"':...:."'...:, L~
:7'."!: 1,1
oe useO.
.nin
t
... C-!';:: ,..
l
, II
'" :l
J. • •
•
...
.
l
"
."
I
\
•
..
.
..:...
(:, ,r.
,t:
jl\ . .!..i..~'lt-b-".:"
G,:':"11 C
V,:
r ._
,J
....>
.'::.~
(':.
.l ..
. .
....
~~
... '
~
I I .
t ;..'-
.... -~~\..1
t
~j G
t ,..I,i'e."-
.-
; ,(..'
.,.,'
·,·.d
f-:
L
:...,,,
t ."
1\,.;,
I'Ot:...
U; ·f
:'.:1. t
1. .,
..
'
i L"
.
, ::,:. t!
u ,.:. t i c-' ,;
.
.;
01.'
.~
.',
..
~"
,.
...
.....
.
;/
,-'
~J
t•
.'
..
J •
.::..
"J.. -:.
.'.
~
r:
')' t
, 01
t - .....
,l'Cj
~--,------
1
.::;'
..
'\
-"-':'--~-.....
'
T ,,'i.. ; •
i
"l"r'
5,
I".
':
'
o
. t
.. .
!'
(
..
IL
.~
It
i'~-...:.t .. t,r;.~c. /l":
+;" '._'J_
__ "",1J. ..
j·/..)·A ......
,.,i.
-:i;;';'u
~:.o.':.,t
,.~.;
it:'
.
.
... ..... ',' .....
1 • "
••
-;.. .'
+ ,
•
~
~
',',
J..,
C. L C l~ ({
1: .~.
t
~.~ 7"::
r
lr,:
lCulCi'iell,
.';rl'~tin'
Lcttc·r
~Inro1.~S'~ ;?_22io'':i~"tr::.c.i.(:;c:;.T:.~. lh.'::O,
}\'!
'~~.
:' .•
~,ocici
,:.
1J.
:2 I I ,
------_..&.
:.·.. J_~~£l-.... ·-.ri ~~~JC~:.:~ G.~n\l
l' ~), p. l)t
't
3rC'[LLUr.. .
pp. '"tU-'+/.
01.
'~~<o.,rOOt_
-------
1:;
this Ce,Se
h.:-~
tlH; I.lm; hasif! if'! on the' chooser' !.in.> the
t
gives to
student to
iii
mc.~;te
of t:hoices
than th(· numb"!,, of ehoiceB he receives
oth~rs rat~lt:rr
from other.s.t.ccordintJ: to John Burr, "it
allow
11umb~.r
:.1,,1
;u.:,r.y choices
<H;
IW&t
St1tJl'U5
effective to
he aeeires on c_.l.:h
qUb't'-
choosinz ffitny Dr f~~ clu6smataB. be
1
reveals information about himself."
"Such information i19 u6eful
In the very fact
tion.
01
in evaluating the individual's desire and drive for social intaraction.,,2
Mary I .• Northway sugGe sts usinf~ three criteria and. three
choices.
By using thCt same number of criteria and choicetl. the
sociometric resul t~, are more dil'ectly
equat~,-n8:.3
cOr?i~.relble
wi thcut statistical
Gronlund aloo \:.>"'-ys that a fixed number has statistical
and practical advantae;ea ..... the number beinE: influenced pE.rtly by the
age of
subject6 but mainly by the stability of the Bociometric
th~
re::oalto.
Nursery SChool and kinder/,arten child.ren have little
ability to aiscriminate beyond first choico.
In the early elementary
yeeJ"s there should be three choices for each criterion.
Frorn the
third gralie on, five choices can be made without difficulty.
Gron-
lund. also .bays that studien have shoY-,n thut five choices provide
the moet stable aociotnetric results. 4
In sur.llilary, to set up a t::ociometric teLt the te,_cner must
decide hoYt many questione and how many choices ahe v/ant:s to use.
Jl.lso, she needs u purpose behind h<'::r queotions
be real a~d have meanini for th3 children.
60
that they will
dnce she has the teat
set uP. she is then rehdy to ad:d.nister the test to her ola6oroom.
V.
Ad:ninistering the
0hen a
teach~r
decides to give & bociometric test to her class,
it it:; im90rtant that she have an
children. til! the
Test.
SOciol~etr.ie
teactl~r
eut.~"bli6hed
ru.pport with the
-haa alrel,dy gained a ,{oed working
lnarr, .:f.!!!. £lementary Teacher
.!E.2.
Guidance. p. 150.
2aronlund, bociometrl ~ ~ Classroom, p. 46 •
.3NorthvJay.
40ronlund,
.2! ~ocioll1etry t p. ~.
Sociometry !E !h! Classroom, p. 48.
!i
Primer
20
relationehip with the clas8. the resulte are likely to be more
vaLtd. n1 The atmosphere of the clas.rooa will affect tn. responses
to III sociometric test.
Do not «ive the eoeio•• tric test until the group has been
together from four to six wee!.ua. 2 The opportu.nity the children
h~ve to. know each other affects th~ re8pon~e8.
The children should
undex-'stand why the test is being given end wh1 the? should answer
the que'at1on6. '2h. instruct:ions shOUld b(j clear. The aneVier.
should be confidential. Only the teacher shOUld see them. The
ehiidren should be assured of th1~ before they begin. Be aure the
children understand that the;y /lay write the n.ame of any boy or girl.
The whole procedure ehould 'be as casua.l as poee1ble. "'the
queations should be pre~ent.d in an infora~l and natural manner-that itl. in such a .a.y that it dQel'S not ta'te on undue importance."3
Preeentthe teet '11th interest and some enthueiasm. It ia alao
good to aay hOl\! scon the e.rranf:.ement~ baaed 'on the test can 'be made.
Every blank should be filled unless the child absolutely feels he
can't or doesn't want to. 4
If the teet is being given to a class below "the fourth grade,
give the te$t to each child indiv1d~ally and record the answers for
}I..1m. G1 ve 1 t to the whole group wi thin 8.& shor t fA time a8 l;O$slble
80 chance for discussion is le&aened.5 ~~en giving the teet to the
wh.ole group attbe 8ame time. usually five minutes is enough time
for the ch1.ldren to make te.e:!.r eho:1.cea.
So. . t1.mes the tec:.cher might want to use .. suceeauye 80c1og1'&m
in order ,to di~gnol)e the effect ot changing rules and arrangements.
A successive sociogram i8 ~ aooi08r&= given after the firl~t sociogram ..a a follow-up. nThe cb:1et Vill.1U$ of 8uocessive 8oeiograms
lJarr,
1!:!!.
El"Blentul t.acher ted GSd.a.llce. p. l~.
2 Taba and other •• ,D1.al.noaipi
ii;tm.a.!
1iel.. t~.o,u N.ede, p. 16.
'rroehlloh &.nd Uarley. St!l!bJI!I stUdents. p. 330.
4Northway, ~ frf~~: !! Soc1oa. trl. pp. 6-7.
-
5 Ibid •• pp. ,5-6.
\
21
lies in their emphasis on the degree of stability within the
structure as a whole and on the relative slowness with which membere alter the feeling they have about
Olle
another."l
"The use of
successive sociograms gives individuals continuing opportunity to
exercise choice and to learn to act in their own behalf and to livee
by their decisions.,,2
If a second sociometric test is given. it
should be given after a time interval long enougb to make sense to
the group members--to justify it from their point of view.
For
children up to the third grade, wait four or five weeks; for fourth.
fifth, and sixth grade children, wait six vleeks. 3
VI.
Plotting the Results of the Sociometric Test.
Once the teacher hae given the
to know what to do with the results.
sociomet~ic
teet, then she has
These results have to be
plotted and interpreted before they can be of help to her.
the first things to do is to make a matrix chart.
given on page47'
One of
An example is
On the matrix chart the choices of the entire
class are tabulated.
The names of the pupils are listed in the
same order vertically and horizontally.
Then the choice and the
number of the choice are inserted in the proper sfluare to indicate
which choice is given.
At the bottom of the vertical column the
choices for each individual can be tabulated.
Add together the
choices from all the criterion and the result is the 60cial acceptance score or choice-status or
socio~etric
status.
Count the number
of different people who have chosen an individual and
the column of "number choosing."
en~er
this in
This is the sociul receptiveness
Bcore. 4 Count thE: number of different individuals whom the indiVidual
has chosen by counting the entries in the horizontal column.
this number under "number chosen."
This is the emotional expansion
lJennings, Sociometry ~ Group Relations, p. 47.
2 Ibid., p. 4.5.
3~.,
Enter
4.5.
4Northway, ! Primer £! Sociometry,
p.
p. 8.
22
Bcore. 1 It 10 also belpful to draw a diagonal 11ne from the upper
left-hand corner of the table to the lower rl,ht-hand corner. The
main purpose of tbiB i~ to 5~rv. a8 ~ guide ia ident1f7ing mutual
choic ••• 2 ~nia matrix chart will be helpful if the teacher chooses
to p~ot her results in another way.
The most comaon way to show the results or a sociometric t.st
i8 the 8oeio!p"am. This 1.e fl ltiap''' .hovae; the relationships
among a group of people ... n"ho onoae who,.." An example ot a 8Ociogram may be founci on pa~e4b. When plotting a SOCiogram, firet
decide 011 the symbols that are going to be useu. aeneI'ally Circles
are u.ed to represent girls and triangle-a tor bOYG. The IUU4. of
each pu.pil shou.ld be printed in full inside the 5;ymco1. Place the
girls on one Bide 01' the eb/irt and the boy. on the other. The
eyabols nearest the center should be used for frequently chosen
children. The Bymbols neare.t the. should b. for mutual choices.
The most distant symbols should repreeent children who have received
few or no oho1eee. To 8ho'6' one-way choices, si,."'!lply draw (:IJl arrow
from the chooser ;oint.1ng to the chosen peraon (--;.). A autual
choice 1e ehown with a line touching both .ymbole and a small
vertical bar at the center (~). A dotted 8ymbol 1s u$ed for
1\
&n.y person that 1s ab.ent the day the t.et 18 given ( :... ~ ). It
lIO_one is chosen outside the group, the situation 1s ind1c~ted in
the same way as for an unreoiprocated choice and a dotted symbol
should be drawl!. :1.11. 'Ihe connectin, linllt chould be left open eo
that an arro~ or a completed joining can be made later it the child's
ohoices becom. kno~n.3 It rejection questions arc ueed, plot these
the same way using a dirterent color.
Another way of sho_in, 8001al relationships obtained from
sociometrio testing is the target diagram. An example oan be found
in the az>penJ1x on pag~ 62.
~
target diagram.
I
M4ry L. Northway is an authority on the
target diagram contains tour concentric circles
..
lNerthway, ~ l~i~r £! hooia •• tEl. p. 9.
2aronlund, ~~~••etrl!ala! C~a8.roo~. p.
,8.
'Intergroup Lducatio!l in Cooperating .;3chools.
Work Guidv. p. 26.
!!
soc;oetr1c
23
thpt
~re
an equAl distance
center for
<1
sep~ration
~p~rt.
A vertic2l line is
of boys Imd girls.
dr~wn
through the
The numbers on each circle
indic~te the choice levels for each of the concentric circles. l
people with the highest scores
from each
choice.
rocpted.
individu~l
~re
ne?r the center.
An
~rrow
The
is drawn
to the person to whom he gives his higheft composite
A double arrow is drawn if the subjectts hiphest choice is recip2
"When the sociogram is plotted on this diagram the sociometric
status of
jnn;v;rlu~l
group is depicted."3
group members as well as the social structure of the
Northway has listed two important points or safe-
guards to remember when using the
t~rget
sociogrcm:
It is an abstraction--b,r depicting only dominating choices
(or else resulting in confusion), it is a further abstraction
from the living situation.
It is as.y.mbol. It is properly supposed that a higher
sociometric score, reflected in position of nearness to the
center of the target, is directly rglated to values of good
mental health. This is not proven.
1.
2.
The rainbow sociogram is a half-target sociogram with some additional
features.
It allows for the measurement of many factors and many individuals.
No other device is so helpful in detecting changes over a long period of
time.
This diagram can be read outwardly from the center out or inwardly.
The rainbow diagram does not show the intricate network of individual
choices.
Rather it shows the relative position of students in the class.'
IGronlund, Sociomet;r in ~ Classroom, p. 69.
2'Moreno, The Sociometry Reader, p. 224.
3Gronl1.md, Sociometry in
!:.!:!!!.
Classroom, p. 69.
4Moreno, The SOCiometry Reader, p. 227.
'Caldwell, Creating Better Social Cl~te in ~ Classroom Through
Sociometric Techniques, pp 25-29.
24
It is 'possible
t~
show the results of sociometric tests in many
ways. There are many ways that have not even been mentioned in this
paper.
However, I have tried to give the most common and the promary
ways of using the results so that they can be interpreted and put to use
by the teacher.
VII.
Interpreting the
~ociometric
Test.
Now that the teacher has plotted or shown the results of the sociometric test in some way, she needs to know how to interpret these results.
The sociogram only points out the relationships; it does not explain them.
"Interpretation involves attempting to account for the patterns that the
sociogram reveals."l
It is important to remember that "even the least
accepted is liked by someone, and the best accepted not liked by someone."2
So be cautious in interpreting sociograms.
To read the sociogram,concentrate on. one person and follow all the
likes t.hat lead from and to him.
plete~
If these patterns of relation are com-
self-contained with no arrows or lines
friendship is a clique.)
rmL~ing
between them, the
Note the pairs or mutual choices.
to see who the leaders or stars are.
named by several other children.
Also, look
These are the children who are
If there is a s.ymbol with no lines
leading to it, then this person probably is an isolate.
The most frequent
pattern in the youngest grades is a chain or string of one-way choices.
This is because younger children are "not consciously aware of the impression
they make on others.
Being reciprocated does not have importancA
lRogers, MAntal ~ene ~- -2'ClD'lnir'''''
~~-
25
the child is still self-centered.
Little children do not know much about
each other's feelings--one of their big problems is adjusting to others. ,,1
Sometimes the teacher is very surprised because certein children are
highly chosen or overlooked that few adults would have predicted. 2 Sometimes opposites or likes mark each other. 3
The teacher should also check the cliques or subgroups to see if
there are few lines or choices between the different subgroups.
be a sociometric cleavage among groups.
for this cleavage.
Sex, race, or religion may account
Usually there is a cleavage in sex.
girls prefer members of their own sex.
There may
Most boys and
The lowest percentage of cross-sex
choices appeared in the play companion criterion at all grade levels. 4
M8ny choice lines occur between boys and girls in kindergarten and the
first grade.
grpdes.
After this there is a decline into the fifth and sixth
The number of choices then remains fairly constant until the
eighth grade.
After that the trend is reversed.'
In the fifth and sixth
grades linked chains of mutual association become more constant, and there
is a strong tendency for homogeneous groups to appear. 6
When the teacher is interpreting a sociogram and sociometric scores,
it is important to keep in mind the fact that sociometric status obtained
in the usual groups is not related to I. Q., M. A., or C. A.; it is slightly
related to skills when these are important to the group and to measures
1
Intergroup Education in Cooperating Schools, A ~ociometric Work
Guide, p. 45.
2Jennings, Sociometry in Group Relations, p. 21.
3Ibid ., p. 28.
4Gronlund, Sociometry in the Classroom, p. 112.
'Jennings, SOCiometry in Group Relations, p.
6
Ibid., p. 75.
15.
26
of social adjustment and
p~rticipation.
Also, sociometric status is an
index of the degree to which an individual conforms to the folkways and
embodies the vp1ues of the group; it is not as close a measure of his
inner psychological security.1
Jennings has listed the following questions
that the teacher may ask herself when analyzing a sociogram:
l!
2.
3.
What appears that you had expected would appear?
What appears that you had not expected to appear?
What seems to account for certain pupils being the most
chosen and receiving few, if any, rejections?
4. What seems to account for certain pupils being unchosen
or receiving many rejections?
S. What seems to account for the mutual choices?
6. What seems to account for the mutual rejections?
7. Can you think of any classroom arrangements which may
account for the above choices or rejections?
8. Can you think of any classroom arrangements which might be
a factor in the general patterning of the sociogram?
9. What cle~vages appear in the sociogram? Absences of
choices between individuals related to a group factor.
10 0 Can you see any spots in the structure of the group as a
whole that need to be more closely related to the rest of
the group for better mors1e? "
11. In the light of your analysis of their inter-relation
structure, wh~t understandings and skills do you estimate
the pupils have already developed? Which do you estimate
they need to develop further?
12. What do the majority of most-chosen children have in
common?
13. What do the unchosen ~nd rejected children have in
common?
14. Are there visible signs of segmentalization in your community--association patterns which divide according to
race, religion, residence location, or any other factor?2'
Looking at the over-all pattern of a sociogram, one can see that
there is an uneven distribution of sociometric scores.
The tendency for
a larger percentage of pupils to appear in the low sociometric status
categories than in the high status categories has been shown to occur at
all age levels over different sociometric criteria, among both sexes,
and with varying numbers of sociometric choices •. When an increased
./
INorlhway, ~ Primer of Sociometry, pp. 30-3h
2
Jennings, SOCiometry in Group Relations, pp. 31-32.
27
number of sociometric choices is
m~de
pvailable to a group, there is a
tendency for the largest number of choices to continue to go to the
group members with high sociometric status while those with low sociometric
status continue to receive a disproportionately smpll
Shifts in sociometric status
positions.
~re
sh~re
of the choices.
1
relatively rare at the extreme sociometric
"This would tend to indicate that the high and low sociometric
status positions are more stable
th~n
those in the
aver~ge
categories and thus can be used with greater confidence. ,,2
sociometric
These facts
have been incorporated by Moreno into his sociodynamic law which indicates
that "the lIDeven distribution of
lIDeven distribution of
we~l th
socioill~G.c;;'c
in a society.
choicEi5 is
Sillli.li'ir
to the
Thus, few are "sociometrically
wealthy" but many are " sociometrically poor. 1t3
In interpreting the sociogram, the teacher needs to find out the
patterns in the
sociog~m
and the repsons behind them.
I~his
interrelat-
edness of human beings is viewed as the very foundation of human society.
The choices of children, then, take on new importance.
drawn to certain people because they see
personal appeal.
choose a
tr~its
Children feel
in them which have a
As noted on previous sociograms, the isolate tends to
st~'!I"'-he seems to sense thAt this person can help him. ,,4 "Socio-
metric findings show that individuals tend to form two kinds pf groups
in which different needs are paramount:
(1) groups in which the indi-
vidual as a person receives sustenance, recognition, approval, and apprecbtion for just being "himself"; (2) groups in which the individual f s
lGronlund, Sociometry in the Classroom, p. 111.
2Ibid., p. 131.
3Ibid., p. 95.
4Caldwell, Crepting Better Social Climate in the Classroom Through
Sociometric Techniques, p. 40.
26
efforts
~nd
ideals p-re focused
tow~rd
objectives which are not his
~lone
but represent the fulfilling of goals which a number of individuals agree
to seek."l The st~bility and cohesion of groups is determined by the
quantity of pairs and the interlocking between them and not the high or
low number of unchosen.
2
Sometimes children choose others because of a combination of emotional
and specific helpfulness which the chooser expects from the individual he
has np-med. 3 Sometimes the children know their needs better than the
teacher does.
Sometimes children
ence or problem.
~re
brought together by a common experi-
4 Children's responses are limited and modified by the
community social structure, the family responses they have had, their
residenti~l
proximity to other children, and social cleavages existing in
the community.
Sociometric results in some of these areas suggest that
the sociometric results reflect the social pattern in the community.'
Residential proximity has the greatest influence on children's actual
friendships.
In choosing desired associates, the influence of residential
proximity is minimized.
6 Usually children who are highly chosen by their
peers tend to be more intelligent, to have higher scholastic achievement,
to be younger in age, to have greater social and athletic skill, to participat.e more frequently in sports and special activities, to have a more
pleasant physical appearance, to have
mO~9
social and heterosexual
~reno, The Sociomet!l Read~, p. 87.
2Moreno, Who Shall Survive?, p. 132.
3Jennings, Sociometry in Group Relations, p. 72.
4Ibid., p. 73.
'Gronlund, Sociomet~ in the Classroom, p. 222.
6Ibid., p. 223.
29
interests, and to have more need-satisfying personality traits and
characteristics than children who receive few or no sociometric choices. l
In interpreting the sociometric scores, the "gross sociometric
status may be interpreted as an indication of the individual's external
social adjustment to the values of the particular group, but that it does
not reflect directly his degree of inner psychological security.,,2
It
is an "index of the degree to which he attempts to conform to and abet the
group's folkways and mores; in this sense it is a
towards external social adjustment. ,,3
me~sure
of his drive
It is suspected thpt there is a
tendency for an individual's sociometric status in one group to be positively related to his status in another similar group.
likes or dislikes
hL~,
4 If one group
then another group of similar people would prob-
ably tend to like or dislike him, also.
Norman E. Gronlund has listed some common errors that teachers make
in interpreting the sociogram.
1.
2.
3.
4.
These errors are:
A tendency to consider the socbl relations depicted as
actual relations among group members. Since the sociometric
test measures underlying social structure, this is neither
desirable or true.
The sociogram is sometimes viewed as a complete picture of
the social structure of the group. However, sociometric
criteria are limited, etc.
A network of choice patterns are frequently thought of as
representing a fixed group structure rather than a picture
of a changing social process.
The social structure depicted in the sociogram will look
5
slightly different when constructed by different individuals.
lGronlund, SOCiometry in the Classroom, pp. 221-222.
ZNorthway,
!
Primer of Sociometry:, p. 30.
3Ibid., p. 29.
4Ibid ., p. 28.
'Gronlund, Sociometry ~ the Classroom, p. 77.
30
Knowing how to read the sociogram, the common patterns in the
sociogram, and reasons behind some of the choices, is not enough to know
when the teacher is interpreting
t.hA
sociogram.
"The value of sociometric
testing, as in any testing program, lies in the interpretation and use of
the results.
The conclusions drawn and recommendations made from socio-
metric testldata necessarily are subjective.
The soundness of the con-
clusions depends to a great extent upon the teacher's skill in obtaining
additional information about his pupils from other tests, health records,
interviews with pupils and parents, and observation.
An
under~+'pnding
of
children, their motivations and prestige values, plus the ability to determine the causes of pupil behavior, are some of the skills needed to interpret sociometric data effectively."l The teacher needs to know something
about where the students live,
~omething
of their present situation and
background, local customs, and traditions of the school and community.
When the teacher has done an adequate job of interpretation and knows and
understands her children and their interrelationships, then she is ready
to put these results into active use.
VIII.
Using Results of the Sociometric Test.
The most important part of sociometry is putting the results of the
test into use.
This is the main purpose in giving the sociometric test--
as a guide or tool in helping the te?cher work with her class.
There is
no value in giving a sociometric test unless something is done with what
the teacher has learned from the test.
The sociometric test is valuable
to the teacher in helping her attain insight into group behavior and class
morale and into the individual children and their situations.
lLouis P. Thorpe and others, Studying 'Social Relationships in the
Classroom: Sociometric Methods for the Teacher (Chicago: Science---Research Associates, Inc., 1959);:P.~.
31
Since the sociometric test
cont~ined
criteria that were real
~nd
of
immediate importance to the children, the teacher should start here by
out the original agreement.
car~ing
She should group the class according
to the way the children made their choices.
Her object should be to pro-
vide for each student the best possible placement from his point of view
so
th~t
he can learn--both in human relations and for academic purposes.
When arranging sociometric groups, try to fulfill as many choices as
possible.
If the children have been allowed five choices, try to satisf.y
at least two of them.
The following are some good directions for forming
sociometric groups:
1.
2.
3.
h.
5.
6.
1.
8.
Decide on the size of the groups. Five is usually the most
effective for small group discussion.
Start with the unchosen pupils--place them with their
highest choices. Give them their first two choices if
possible, but do not place two isolates in the same group
unless it is necessary. Never place more than two isolates
in a group.
Consider those who received only one choice next. If the
choice ,a'-neglectee :r;-eoeived was reciprocated by him, place
the neglectee with the person with whom he has the mutual
choice regardless of the level of the choice. Then attempt
to satisfY his first choice or the highest level of choice
it is possible to satisfY without disrupting the groups that
have already been formed.
Continue to work from the pupils receiving the smallest
number of choices to the pupils receiving the largest
number of choices.
If there are conflicts in choices--several people having
chosen the same person--satisfY the choice of the child
who is in a weaker position in the group.
Do not put unchosen children near those who have rejected
them, into a closed cluster, or with a mutUEl pair.
Do not break up completely the existing associations, not
even those that may not be entirely desirable such as
closed groups.2
Check pupil arrangement to be sure eve~ pupil has at least
one of his choices fulfilled. 3
IGronlund, SOCiometry in ~ Classroom, p. 238.
2.raba and others, Diagnosing HtmWn Relations Needs, p. 238.
3Intergroup Education in Cooperating Schools,
Guide, p. hI.
!
Sociometric Work
32
It has already been said that we need to be aware of and value or use
group qynamics in the classroom because we then create a better learning
situation both academically and socially.
There are many different ways
that the teacher can use the sociometr1c data.
to organize effective groups.
Sociograms help the teacher
"Clioue patterns may indicate a need to
fom new groups for different kinds of activity to permit new friendships
to develop."l
"Through careful selection of the membership in a group
and proVision for a series of activities, it becomes possible for these
pupils to interact in desirable directions. n2
The teacher can use the results to fom committees and work groups
and to reseat the children.
Teachers are alerted to values or skills
needed in social relations.
Sociometric results can show the effect of
certain teaching techniques and learning experiences on social structure
in otherwise comparable groups of children. 3 The sociogram and its
results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of school practices or
to see how well a new pupil is integrated into the class. 4
It also helps
with disciplinary problems by providing clues to the attitudes and values
underlying the difficulty.5 The results can help determine the placement
of exceptional children in the Gchool program.
Some studies have shown
that mentally handicapped children are not socially accepted in the
regular classroom. 6 The results of the sociogram help to identify
lxto gers, Men~a! Hygiene in Elementary Education, p. 296.
2Caldwell; Creatin~ Better Social Climate in
Sociometric Technioues, p. 38.
~
Classroom Through
lraba and others, Diagnosing Human Relations Needs, p. 96.
4Gronltmd, Sociometry in the Classroom, p. 17.
5~.,
p. 18.
6Ibid., p. 17.
33
leadership potential so that this potential can be developed.
The results
are also useful in studying special needs of children who are having
difficulty in adjusting to the regular school program.
the results of sociograms is in parent counseling.
I
Another use of
Parents can be told
in which areas the child has the best ?cceptance and where he needs help.
Parents may also add to the sociometric data by telling the teacher about
the child's play activity outside the school. 2 By discussing and analyzing
with the class any problems of relationships that arise in the class, the
children will come to understand the behavior of others.
As the children
work in groups, "they are able to appreciate different abilities as they
are encouraged to work and plan together.
supportive toward one another.
Children feel warmer and more
Fundrunental needs for recognition, affec-
tion, and a sense of belonging are met in group life. ,,3 Through group
work, the atmosphere of the class is improved and pupils get to know and
understand each other better.
The atmosphere is more conducive for good
mental health.
After grouping the childreniil some way or another sociometrically,
the teacher should not expect to see all the problems in the classroom
solved.
This does not happen overnight.
"It is the adjustment that
gradually t?kes place in an enduring way which are so satisfying.,,4
"Teachers usually report that they notice an immediate change in pupils1
IGronl1md, Sociometry in ~ Classroom, p. 326.
2Barr , The ElementaEY Teacher and Guidance, p. 155.
3Los Angeles County-Superintendent of Schools ,Office, Guiding Today's
Children (Los Angeles: California Test Bureau, 1959), p. 54.
4Intergroup Education in Cooperating Schools,
Guide, p. 241.
!
Sociometric Work
34
attitudes when the sociometric choices are put into effect.
The isolated
pupils tend to feel accepted since they are placed with some of their
choices.
They have no way of knowing
are told by the other children.
th~t
they were unchosen unless they
The members of minority groups tend to
feel less tension since they are placed with majority group members and
the cleavage they feared did not appear in the sociometric grouping.
These feelings tend to be reflected in improved morale and more active
participation in classroom activities.
Thus, the groundwork is laid for
improving social relations. Hl
The children benefit greatly in their personal lives as a result of
group work.
"When the boys and girls can be associated closely with those
who respond to them and to whom, in return, they feel attracted, they
have a greater sense of inner security.
their inhibitions and act naturally.
Then they feel that they can shed
They feel free to be themselves and
to react positively without inner dread of possible disapproval. H2
"MOre
creative work should come about and fewer tensions within the classroom
should be noticed.
The flow of communication should improve, and natural
discipline should develop from children wanting to please others in the
group.H3
Using the sociometric results in group work begins
HAs the social climate of the class improves, so will the
a circle.
soci~l
adjustment
of the individual students, particularly those who have been isolated
because of group attitudes toward them.
And in turn, as each child grows
in social effectiveness, class social integration grows, too.Hh.
lOronlund, SOCiometry in the Classroom, p. 241.
2Caldwell, Creating Better Social Climate in the Classroom Through
Sociometric Techniques, p. 40.
3Melba A. Htming, "How Well Do You Know Your Class,ft ~ Teacher,
LXXIX (March, 1962), p. 107.
hrhorpe and others, Stugying Social Relationships in the Classroom:
Sociometric Methods for the Teacher, p. 37.
35
Sociometric results h:lve many uses.
By a sking certain
questions, the test can be used for different purposes.
should carry out the original agreement.
strongly.
particul~r
The teacher
This point is stressed very
If the teacher carries out the original agreement, the children
know they can trust and believe her.
Putting sociometric results to use in grouping the children in different ways gives the children an opportunity to know other children in
the
cl~ss.
Some children are too shy or do not have enough time in school
to become acquainted tmless they sit next to them, phy with them, or walk
wi th them to and from school.
The dynamic s wi thin the group should be
such that children learn to know and understand each other better.
They
also learn to appreciate and know others who are different in some way-another race, religion, or personality type--from them.
This is very good
because children need to know and appreciate people who are different from
them whether they live in the same neighborhood or in another part of the
world.
IX.
Isolates--Stars.
Working with isolates and stars is part of putting the sociometric
results to use.
It is up to the teacher to try to help these pupils ful-
fill their needs.
Although the star has received many choices and the
isolate none, this does not necessarily mean that the star is liked by
everyone. and is well adjusted or that the isolate is disliked by everyone.
No child in the
cl~ss
will be accepted by everyone, and few will be com-
pletely unaccepted by everyone.
The isolate is someone that the teacher needs to help because he has
several problems to work out.
The isolate may be the seldom confOrming
child that attracts everyone I s attention.
Usually this person cannot work
36
with a group.
The isolate may also be the overlooked child who is con-
forming and silent. 1 ·Some teachers feel that if a child is not accepted
by his peers in the early grades, he
,~ll
interpersonal reI a tions as he grOtIS up.
which indicates
th~t
not be able to develop normal
There is a good deRl of research
the child who is not accepted achieves at a lower
level than other members of his elementary-school class. H2 Since personality patterns are often formed. according to psychologists, by the
time the child is six years old, it is possible that the child will not
become accepted by his peers i f he is not accepted by them in the early
grades.
"Eve~
individual grows into a person whose
by me.ting the demands of his environment.")
begins.
The
enviro~~ent
beh~vior
is shaped
A vicious circle often
shapes the personality.
If this
personal~ty
is
not accepted by the pecor group because of certain ch3.racteristics or
behaVior, then the pesr group isolates the person.
§,ggravates the undesirable traits.
This in turn only
The person ...ho acts aggressively in
order to get ?ttention and is then rejected by his peers, only tries
harder to get attention and is only r3jected further.
Isolated children often
e)~ibit
certain
co~~on
characteristics.
Unpopular children are less self-confident, less cheerful, less enthusiastic, less acceptant of group standards, less conventional. and less
concerned with social approval than popular children. 4 Least popular
1Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools Office, Guiding
Today's Children, p. 61.
2Edmund Amidon, "The Isolate in Children's Groups," Journal of
Teacher Education, XII (December, 1961), p. 412.
)Jones, The Use of Sociometric Data and Observational Records as
Guides for PromotIng SOcial and Intd'iI'eCtual Growth of Primary Children, p. 2.
4Guinouard and ~chlak, "Personality Correlates of Sociometric
Popularity in E1ementa~ School Children," p. 442.
37
children show less Qbility or desire to control their emotions.
more self-centered. jmpulsive. and moody.
They are
Often they are unable to react
to a situation although they often have the desire to participate.
1
Sometimes a child is isolated. not because of his personality. but because
of certain factors ?resent in the classroom culture.
Also. i f a teacher
dislikes a child and communicates this c:islike to t:le class, this may
cause the children to isolate this child.
2
Each isolate should be treated as a separate case; the tool used
should be fitted to the particular situation.
used. the teacher ought to have
using the techniques, some
3.
"Before techniques are
clear understanding about why she is
~"ell-thought-out
hypotheses about how the
techniques will affect the group, ani a formal or informal procedure
which can be used for evaluating the SUCGess of the technique.")
The
teacher should take into consideration the pupil's social aspirations.
the pattern of factors causing the pupil's social difficulty. the pupil's
skills. abilities, and interests. the values held by group members, the
degree of emotional disturbance underlying the pupil's social behavior.
4
and thE pupil's social potential.
The teacher can do many things in the classroom to help the isolated
pupil.
She can encourage the child to take responsibilities that his
classmates 1fill recognize and 3.)preciate.
She can hel? him with his
personal apf)earance and to practice and develop skills and abilities which
1 NorthHay, ',fua t Is Popularity?, p. 12.
2Amidon. "The Isolate in Children's Groups." p. 412
)Ibid •• p. 416
4Gronlund. SOCiometry 1:ll ~ Clas':.;room, p. 297.
38
have prestige
i~th
his classmates.
The teacher can help the child under-
stand how his o'tm behavior affects the feelings of others.
If the child
has interests and hobbies. the teacher can help him vTi th these.
The
child can then share them tiith the class andpperhaps achieve some social
success and recognition. 1
If the teacher maintains an accepting attitude of
~ersonal
warmth
and acceptance, this adds to the child's feeling of security and belonging.
Group techniques such as group discussions and role playing will
also help the pupil see his own behavior and
acceptable behavior.
\\~ll
help him find more
The teacher can also help to modify the values of
the group through helping the children to increase their acceptances of
differences in themselves and others.
· , · · dua1 conf erences
through J.nO-J.vJ.
Changes can also be brought about
. th pUpl'1 s. 2
\oil. •
lI~fuen
the pupil does not
respond to the teach8r's remedial efforts. he should be referred to a
professional counselor for special help.")
Although it is easy to forget about the star because he must be
popular and
~-Jell-adjusted
since he
i'laS
chosen so often, the teacher should
not neglect the star.
The star or popular Jerson may have adjustment
problems of his own.
People today tend to regard popularity as an end
in itself.
The va.lue of a person is judged by the nu.'Tlber of friends he
has, how many people know him, and hOI<1 m:my organizations he belongs to.
However, it is .oossible .that even though he
knO:JS
a lot of people and has
a lot of friends, he might not have one real friend.
He may kn01'l a lot
1Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools Oftice, Guiding
Taday's Children, p. 62.
2Gronlund , SociometEY in the Classroom, pp. 280-285.
J Ibid., p. 297.
39
of people but be close to no one.
Northway asks the question of "is it
possible that we've overvalued popularity as an end in itself, and that
our emphasis of business and social success has made us lose sight of
some of the other values or human living?" 1
By
using a sociogram, it is possible to learn something about the
child's popularity and ,vh2- t i t consists of:
~.;hether
he has reciprocal
choices or is often chosen by people he does not choose; whether he likes
and is liked by both boys and girls; and whether belonging to a minority
group affects his popularity.2
popular.
It is hard to define what makes a person
Popularity appears to depend on the extent to which one's
energies are directed towards the goals the group values.
nSome children
work towards these goals easily, with genuine interest in and concern for
people.
Others do so with considerable effort and anxiety, not primarily
for the welfare of others. but to bolster their o".,rn insecurity and enhance
their o..m. egos."3
his environment.
light.
The very popular child shm{s a greater sensitivity to
He tends to
vie~·:
the situation in a conventional
Popular children do not shovT much originality in their thinking
nor do they seem to get a new slant on things.
They show a strong need
for affection and a conscious striving for approval. 4
Usually teachers consider the popular children to be the leaders of
the class.
"If we define a leader as a person with the ability to
influence others. we
1
Northway,
~
2Ibid • , p. 8.
3-..!2.L.
r °d I p. 17.
4Ibid •• p. 11.
c~n
see by looking at sociometric test results that
Is Ponularit;E? , p. 2.
almost everJ child is a leader to the extent that he influences those
\
who choose him.
'
','Ie can see. too. that most children also ?lay the part
of follmler; they choose and are influenced by others.
In fact, most
children are a mixture of lec.c.er and follo-;.;er, but some haves. stronger
tendency in one direction than in the other. n1
are at least
1.
2.
3.
~hree
different kinds of
Northway says that there
le~ders:
The popular leader--his influence is Ivide but not deep. He
forms no close associations with the people who choose him.
He gets others to follmT on impulsive ideas.
The po~{erful leader--he is not particularly powerful. He
has an average sociometric score. This score is made up
of popular children he has chosen in turn. Since he is
able to influence all of them. he holds the balance of power
in the group.
The Dower behind the throne--has a 1mV' score but is behind
the person vIho has the high score. 2
The teacher can see these different leaders among her pupils.
can help the leader or popullr child by helping
ship abilities.
leader.
She can help
hL~
hL~
The teacher
to develop his leader-
be a good follm,rer as well as a good
Perhaps she can help the leaders to develop some individual inter-
ests and talents.
Our society has a gres.t ne3d for good. responsible
leadership.
Popularity may be good or it may be bad.
The children who show some
of the following characteristics may be in need of help:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The child who is chosen by no other children. or by very
few, over a period of tL~e.
The child who receives a great many choices, but none of
them reciprocated.
The child I ..hose social behavior seel'lS far "too old" (or
"too young n ) for his years.
3
The child who is discontented with his ovm social pattern.
1NorthHay, >!hat Is Popularity?, p. 32.
2Ibid •• pp. 32-33.
3Ibid., pp. 27-30.
41
By knowing so:nething about the isol3.te and the sto.r and hOTIl to help
the:n, the teacher can help integrate the clJ.ss and build better working
relationshi-os t,.ithin the class.
It is possible that the child iIho is
not accepted while he is young T..rill not be accepted as an adult unless
he is given help. The popular child may also ne3d
know
::"0..1
to accept and use his
the stars, the teacher
m~y
popul~1rity.
so that he "l'Jill
hel~J
By hel~)ing
affect their whole lives.
the isoLltes and
Helping
the~
may
also chan;:;e the results of successive socioq;r'lI'lS in that they may show
more general acceptance of indiViduals.
Therefore, it is
L~portant
to
knovJ something about isolates and stars.
X.
Reliability and Validity of Sociometric Tests.
Most psychological and guidance tests have proven to be reliable
and valid.
With most tests, it is valueless to give them unless the
results are reliable and valid.
HOi-leVer ,·.ri th sociometric tests, the
terms reliability and validity have different meanings.
Sociograms have
not been proven to be definitely re1hble and v'llid according to the
usual meaning of these l,-J'ords.
Sociometric tests have their limitation as most tests do.
They paint
a black or a white oicture of choices of associates for certain activities
yet they give no clue as to the vJ.st shades of gray T,-J'hich must be present
between the extremes of rejection and acceptance
.'lS
first choice. 1 There
are also limitations or cautions in the construction and administration
of the test and in the interpretation and application of the results. 2
1Cunningham and Associates, UnderstQnding Group Behavior
Girls, p. 17l.
2Gronlund, SociometFY in the Classroom, p. 21.
££
Boys ~
42
Validity of a test usually refers to the degree that it
'tlhat it is supposed to measure.
me~sures
In the area of sociometric testing there
is little agreement as to wh:l.t it is supposed to measure. 1
tlIf the
sociometric test is limited to the measurement of choice behavior, it
is valid by definition. ,2
"The degree to which observed choices in the
life situation agree with reported choices on the sociometric test, when
the criterion of choice is held constant,
of validity.")
may be considered a measure
"A sociometric test is v~lid insofar as the choice
criterion has reality value for the subjects.,,4
Most psychological tests assume that they are measuring a trait
which remains constant--if the scores change. the test is inadequate.
"Therefore, correlation of the scores obtained on the test given on two
occasions is taken as a measure of reliability.
Sociometry, however, is
based on the assumption that social preferences change, and indeed that
by arranging fortuitous situati::ms we may bring about c:hanges "le consider
desirable.
For example. it is believed
th,~tt
by i.llproving social condi-
tions a teacher can help a child with a 10\" score beco;ne more fully
accepted by the group •• 5 If the scores on the socionetric test always
remain the same, then the r8asons behind
been met.
ad~inistering
the test have not
Changes in scores show the effect of changing conditions and
classroom atmosphere on the isolate.
1Gronlund, Sociometry
Every group will have cl1anges in
!!! ~ Classroom, p. 158.
2Ibid., p. 182.
3A• Paul Hare, Edgar F. Bargatta,and Robert T. Bales. Small GrouDS,
Studies in Social Interaction (New York:A1fred A. Knupf, 1955), p. 283.
-
4Ibid., .D. 289.
5Northway,
!
Primer of SociometEY, p. 16.
43
in the sociometric results because humJ.n beings are not static in choic8s.
The charting of a grOll? at anyone time is not sufficiently reliable
over a peri~j of ti~e.1
It is helpful to give successive sociometric
tests.
Sociometric test are more reliable on a group basis than for individual prediction. 2 The choices within the group may change, but the
overall pattern remains fairly constant.
lowest choice groups tend
categorie:;;.
~o
Those found in the highest and
be more stable than those in the average
It'Jihen choices given and mutua.l choices'1re conSidered, it
appears that the social structure of a g:coup tends to oe less st,lble than
the sociometric status score of its memb3rs.
Thus, the degree of social
acceptance an individual obtains in a group re:nains fairly constant,
even though the sources of the choices may var,y somewhat. H}
HSociometric
status on one criterion was closely related to sociometric status on
other criteriaj sociometric status tended to be consistent in groups of
varying membership, and sociom<3tric status remained fairly consistent
from one measuring technique to another. H4
In the elementar,y school,
the stability of sociometric status scores ,oJ'as reported Hto be similar to
the stability of intelligence and achievement test results over a oneyear interval. H5
1How To Construct A Sociogram ( Ne~T York: Horace Mann-Lincoln
Institute of School ElcDerimentation. Bureau of ?ublications, Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1947), p. 11.
2Barr, The Elementa~{'Teacher and Guidance, p. 160.
}Gronl'J.nd, SociolU8try.ia ~ Classroom, p.
4Ibid ., p. 152.
5Ibid., p. 152.
134.
44
It seeoms th'lt sociometric tests ar'3 relb.ble and valid in their own
way.
Ho:-!ever, "considering dil these reasons for not expecting sociometric
results to meet the usual measures of reliability and validity, the
au~zing
thing is
th~t
when such
~e~sures
are applied to these data rela-
tively high coefficients are discovered. n1
tively valid and reliable.
Sociometric tests are rela-
Their reliability and validity are partially
deDendent on the teacher--her professional qualifications and attitude
and thG degree of ra.?part she has
H.
~,i th
her pupils.
Action Research
3ince a good. ''lay to learn is by dOing, the Hriter decided to put
some of the information about sociometry into actual practice.
Fall
quarter of 1962 the Hriter was a student teacher in a fifth grade class
at:vestview School in :-1uncie, Indiana.
The teacher, Mrs. Gale, was very
helpful in encouraging the ]roject, and together we a&uinistered sociometric tests and tried to interpret and use the results.
A little background about this class will he1? to explain the research.
~lestview
School is located in an econamica11y ,·;ell-to-do suburban section
of Muncie, Indiana.
r10st of the people are of the middle-class or above.
Hany of the parents of the children
doctors or ?rofes :::ors.
~Tere
of professional st3.tus such as
People of this cOIJ1J."lluni ty are interested in the
school and support its activities.
Tne a tci10sphere of the school
':-TaS
de:nocra tic.
The teachers felt free
to conduct their classes as they thought best, and the children ,·Jere allo\ved
considerable freedom.
appreciates t and enjoys
Hrs. Gale is an enthusiastic teacher who loves,
childr~m
ver:/ much.
Since she respects and sho1-TS
45
that she loves the children, they respond to her in a sL'1lilar
is able to have fun learning
~rith
the childr8n.
~Jay.
' She
She has established
good rapport with them.
This class is a superior cl;:ss intellectually.
The
from 88 to 140 "lith the median score of 110 to 115.
I~'s
ranged
The cb.ss 1ns very
interested in learning and able to progress rapidly.
The first sociometric test
A sample of this test is on page
in sc:1001 for
a~)pro~d.mately
administered on September 27, 1962.
,laS
five
46.
At this time the children had been
~·lee~{s.
These childrcm had not been
together 'uefore Septer.1ber, sinc:e they had been in three different classrooms the previous ye:>.r.
Three of the children, pupils E,
were new to the school this year.
L, and 5,
The Jurpose in giving the sociometric
test "as to for.:! social studies committees.
The )urpose was explained
to the childr:m and they Vlere as .:;ured th:::. t their choices ,{Quld be confidential.
The
er:.~or
made in giving this sociometric test '::as that the
children ~..ere not allo'.·!8d to ma;c8 enough choices.
Therefore, the results
shm·red a large nmlber of unchosen )eo)le 'Nho :lre not really iso13.tes or
neglectees.
The Hatrix Ch?.rt No. 1. for the social studies committee question is
on page 47'..
The sociogra'!l is on )age 48 , and. the committees formed are
listed on :::)3.ge 49.
It can "be seen from looking at the sociogram that the
class has no cliques or
m2.ny dir2ctions.
s'.lbgr~:nps.
This is
~Jrob=~bly
The lines
a:.~e vcrJ
a result of the cL).ssroom atmosphere
which e:1courages interrelationshi?s among the children.
arrangements in tne room are continually changed.
\'iee;~s
complex and go in
Also, the seating
Although only five
have :?assed, the chilc.rsn ha79 been al)le to become better ac;uainted
and no e;li:;.ues have fomed.
The one ~)erson ~'lho Has absent received no
46
FIJ.URE NUN13ER 1
SOC IOMET1UC TEST NUMBER 1
Administered on September
27,
1962
Who would you like to work with an a social studies committee?
F±rst choice,___________________
Second choice~________________
Third choice____________________
Why did you make the above choices?
Which two states would you be interested in working on?
\{hat person in the room would you most like to play with after school?
First choice,____________________
Second choice__________________
Why
did you choose these people?
Who do you think makes a good committee leader?
First choice__________________
Second choice_________________
Why
did you make the above choices?
What person in the room has some of the most unusual or creative ideas?
First choice__________________
Second choice_________________
Why did
you choose these people?
~IATnIX
':;HAi:rr
n;11BEE~
1
Who would you like to work with on a social studies
4
co~~ittee?--Lt~eM
;Z
J3
~
D
Z
J
{
~
j
[
(i
&1
J.t 13 r
3/
--
-3
f
;2
/
1...
:3
2
1
_1
-J
1..
k 2..
2.3
I-11]
~\
C
;J
I
I 1
-0
3
~
3-<'
,;c
1
cZ
3
C
~
-;,
...J
3
f
:l.
!J
It
2
:3
21
(
:3
I
./
_3
.J.
&
J
2,3
1
:J
1
).'
1
"'--,
.,z
f
"-
2-
<1
-~
2
.3
"
,"
10
,~
/1
(2
13
rf
"-
;(
..:5
2.
Tctals
-'l 1/2 ;( fc -'lIS- (&
M lrtLLcd C h 0 lee:;;,
/2. J 3;z ~ ..1...) I -3
,
1.-
'-3
<-3.3
J.
I
/ ;2 ()
j
-<
g--3 I
C.2 J (
.;z..
1 7.5 S
.3
/.2. 7 I ~3 ~c
.,..(
Dol .3 0 J ;(,
C /.2~.:< /.2.2 0 1"<" (; I () () iJ () () / 0
48
FIGURE NUNBER
SOCIOGRAM
a
'Who would you like to work with on a social studies committee?--Three choices-
I
,
\
/
~
I
....
~\
'IiI
~ .'(
N:
)
\
."
'
i
'
/ >---. ~-!. '
~,,........,--
,:.
.
I
J
\
\
)..-i
\
\
.
I
\
1
\
I
\ '>--:\.
\, ( -1 j"
l!~
; "',
)
~
!,
.}
).
1-,,,,
J-
(:~ ~~,
"~'
,
~
(0)
j
,/
.~
/
~/ ---
---'-
'~~(~
-
, ·'.P r-'--~"~
;-
----.-----
~~-.~­
-----". -____
l·1utual choice
First choice
decond choice
Third choice
Person absent
49
FrGmE Kill,mER
3
SOCIAL STUDIES COMMI'ITEES
NOTE,
The number by each pupil denotes the number of choice. If there
is no number, then that person did not choose his working partner.
Southeastern States
Pupil 16 (2)--Pupil C
Pupil N (l)--.f'upil G (3}
Pupil S (l)--Pupil 11 (3)
Pupil 13--Pupil 6
Pupil M (2)--Pupil
fupil
~Pupil
0
F
Middle Atlantic States
Pupil D (I)--Pupil J (1)
Pupil R (l)--JUpil E (2)
Pupil 4 (2)-Pupil 17 (1)
Pupil 10--Pupil I
Pupil IS-Pupil ]2
New England States
Pupil!
Pupil
Pupil
Pupil
Pupil
Pupil
Pupil
I5-Pupil 7 (1)
L (I)-Pupil K (1)
14 (3)--Pupil 3
B (3)--Pupil H (1)
A (2)--Pupil P (2)
5 (3)--Pupil 2 (2)
1 (l)--Pupil 9 (1)
choices.
sin~e
It is possible that the children forgot about hL'11,
not present.
he
'~as
There: are very fe'" cross-sex choices I but this is nonnal
for the fifth grade.
In the prim:lry grades thc::'e are many choice lines
bet,leen boys and. girls.
After this there is a decline into the fifth and
si.;.:th grades \'1hich remains constant until the eighth grade.
the trend is reversed.
1
After th3.t
It is interestiI1g to note that more boys made
cross-sex choices than did girls.
T'nis is )rooably due to the fact th::ct
girls m3.ture earlier than boys.
The sociometric test certainly presented a clearer pictur8 of the
class structure.
Some of the childrzm expected by the teacher to be stars
were only average in number of choices.
childr2n
~·rould
The student teacher thought many
receive :nore choices than they did.
Ho-:rever, most of the
people expectsd to be either an isol2. te or a neglectee viere shovm to be
an isolate or a neglectee.
One isol:::.te I pupil H, has a f3.ther \.;ho seen-
ingly ex?ects too much of her.
She sometLnes docs not do her best \>1ork,
probably because she kno\>1s it Hill not be good enough.
average intelligence and
c~m
do good scnool wor;.;:.
see::ns to caase others to avoid h::r.
in her opinion.
She does have
.Her oessimistic attitude
}Jothing is done the way it should be,
She is not enthusiastic about anytning.
She did not
r.1a;-;:e any choices on the )1307 companion question giving as a reason,
"Because I like to :)l3.Y "Ii th myself. n
'rnis is a
~hild ~;j'ho
cert3.inly wants
to' be liked and accepted.
The other isola t~ i:3 a boy, o';upil 16.
the
socio~etric
He usually chooses girls en
tests ane is himself net chosen by anyone.
chosen because he does not get along
~1i th
:1e is not
the other children.
to be irn.'11ature, a shot-i-off, and rather "sissyish.'1
1Jennings, Sociometr;r in Grou? Rel:1tions. 9.
He se8ms
He has also begun
75.
51
th~t
taking things
of insecurity.
do not belong to him, which possibly reflects a feeling
He see::ns to need an abund:,nt amount of attention and
affection.
One of the neglectees is pupil A.
cl~ss
this
Hould undoubtecUy notice.
She is a child that a visitor to
She is over-weight.
because she is not h,:.)py at home :md eats to console
do not a)Dreciate her the t·ray she is.
out to her.
sive.
This may be
he::.~self.
Her :)arents
Her size is ahJJ.ys being pointed
This child reacts to the teasings of others by being aggres-
She tor:nents others 1.-rhich only causes them to
te~se
her ::lOrc.
Since she is so )reoccupied uith her rel;otionships \dth others, she is not
able to Hork up to her abili ty
acade~:lic7.1ly.
AI though she h:],s average
intelligence, she is uorking at the bottom of the class.
~-Jork8d
The te3.cher and student teacher
for an isolate.
on the ?l'oblem of '1·:ha t to do
They tried to accept e.;:c11 child in the class, including
the isolate, for himself.
Also, they tried to treat everyone in the room,
including the isolates and neglectees, in the same way with a feeling of
appreciation for everyone and no favoritism.
It '!las ;movm that if the
teachers acce::;t8d the isolate, then the rest of the class Hould.
vTaS
given a big hug quite often.
It
;;·[2.S
felt that if he Here given the
affection he ';[anted and needed his emotional and )ersonality
be helped.
Pupil 16
-~)roblems
might
Pupil A often st:.yed after school to cOr.l?lete her unfinished
schooh10rk.
Then S:le received individual attention and usually did better
school :wrl<.:.
The te2ch81' .?Yld the studeYlt teacher tried to acce:Jt pupil 16
for
hersel~.
classroom.
~ ch~nce
They tried to give her
~ ,..'n"ln"';
....lrJ
............. D - ng
th·:>'-'
c-p..,
.J_,_~
to be successful in the
r; nO' "'rr"''''O':O>''len+s
often " t'ne·
sol~t
,-;,.J,J.~ ~'
l...;
! . e s ,[ere
v_
Co
--.
__
',.J
in several different groups.
The teachers tried to
pupil had a chance to succeed
3. t
somet~:il1e;.
~Jlan
Pupil H ,:lid
the lwr:-c so each
~
very good job
52:
in a play.
She also 'won a urize for her Hallol,reen costume.
helped to elevate her st2.tUS somewh:'.t.
~)U9il
A realize
thc~t
to others, tiE t she
as long
~{ould
These
The teachers tried to help
she "\'ras ho:3.vy and r8acted aggressively
i1S
probably be teased by the other children.
The second socio.'1letric test 'Nas given a)?r::;ximately four "Teeks
A sam.ple of this test is on page S3.
later .:>n October 31, 1962.
~tfuen
the 'tlriter began talking to the c12_ss about forming committees for special
social studies projects, the students LTLr:J.ediately "mnV5d to knmv i f they
could choose people to ,IOr;',
~:ith
as they did before.
enthusiastic about making choices ag:dn.
Tiley were: very
Evidently they had been ple,lsed
vrith the results of the first sociometric test.
This seconi sociometric test allo,,;ed the children to ma 1{e five
choices.
Therefore, this test sho'.-l2d more reliable results.
five choices provides more stable
spread of the scores. 1
over-all resLtl ts :Tere
socio~etric
The use of
status scores because of the
Even though there uere more choices made, the
s:L~iL:_r
to the first sociometric test.
Evidently
the "sociometrically rich" remained "rich," and the "sociometrically
poor" remained "poor."
present on this test.
?upil 12, -...ho
1-laS
absent on the first test,
l..as
He received few choices. and they were usu,:::lly
reciprocated choices.
Although the childI' ,n
~.;ere
placed on conunittees sociometrically as
a result of this test, for many of the children the type of committee had
more appes.l than the people on the cOlTuni ttee.
changed from one conL'1littee to another.
according to their choices.
Therefore, many people
fhe childr'::m Here; also reseated
Figure No. 2 on page 54 presents these seating
1Gronlund, SOCiometry in the Classroom, p. 132.
53
FIGURE NUHBER 4
SOC IOMETRIC TES T NUMBER 2
Administered on October 31, 1962
1.
What five people in this classroom would you best like to work with
on a speCial pro,ject for the New England states?
1._______________________
2.________________________
3~
___________________
4
5
2.
If you could sit next to anyone in the class you wanted to, what
five people would you like to sit by?
1st choice,______________
2nd choice,____________________
3rd choice,_________________
4th choice,___________________
5th choice,________________
3. lihat five people in this room would you invite to a Halloween party?
.3
4
5
~
2
l~
____________________
____________________
54
If you could sit next to anyone in tte class you wanted to, what five
people would you like to sit by?
,
J.-,
!o"to....l t. hO 'L c.. e 5
J .::<. C; "6 35 7 'b 7 9 / S
0 /0 '6 </ / 3 -; b ~ 3 II (., :I g- 0
W\lA.-tLLoJ c ~ 0 \ c. e5
l / 3 .5 I / ~ I 3 -5 / 3 D.3 </.2 / ..3 ~ .33 J 2-':; ~3.,,2
-
,'.,.
j
7
-<'.3- 3
J.2..2.:3 1
/
~
-9' ~
0 () /
/
55
~ mF1GURE nm1BER 5
0EA.J.ING A..iRANGEl::ENT3
_______~J0
lJ]
G
I
GIl
-.
(EJ
ft- j
~7-
,01
\T\
-
I
:
Gl
: [II
I
U1l
i
I©
I
-./
I
[il
iM!
II-irS. Gale
".....,,--.,-
56
choices.
The seating arrangements are on page 55.
these places for
::l,
fevI
seating arrangeI!lents.
After sitting in
\vesks. there was evidence of need to ch3.nge the
The children new to the class received more choices
?upil 5 is even a. star.
on this test than they did on the first.
The length of time bet,{een sociometric tests ..ras not long enough to
show a major
differe~ce
in the children's attitude toward the isolates.
However. pupil H was nominated by her first choice on the seating question
for the office of class se'cr8tary.
seemed to change her 2.ttitude of
Placing her near her first choice also
~)essimism
somewhat.
The use of sociometry helped me a great deal in understanding and in
working .uth the children in the class.
It gave Hrs. Gale and me aid in
identifying the various people that we should be trying to help.
If
this class ,{ere to be given another sociometric test at the end of the
school year. the results might differ considerably from the results of
these first two tests.
Some of the children may have become better
acquainted Hith other members of the cl3.ss., Some people who chose each
other might no longer choose the same
interests change.
pe~son.
Friendships may change as
Some of the isolates or neglectees may
acceptance by others.
h~ve
greater
Other children may have lost some of their friends.
There J.re many reasons why a nei'! sociometric test might h2.ve different
results.
The use of sociometry in this classroom helped the teacher and
the student teacher in understanding the pupils and in trying to help each
pupil become a happier person by being able to relate positively ',vith the
other childrsn.
XII.
Conclusion.
This paper has answered the questions the writer set )ut to answer.
The group is vsry important in the classroom since everyone learns most
51
of ..rh::. t he
;mO~JS
personality.
from others.
Other;>eo;.:>le even shape and influence his
Therefore, it is necessar'J for the te:?cher to be concerned
about and to know something about the
influences and directs these groups.
the
cl~ssroom
grou~l)s
in her classroom.
The teacher
The teacher also sets the tone of
atmosphere and can exert a strong influence on the group.
She should try to :nake this a positive influence.
that sociometry may be helpful to the
te~cher
This paper has shown
because it ?oints out
relationships in the classroom of which the teacher may be unaware.
The question of seeking peer approval and acceo:yt,,:mce in order to be
secure and learn is still a difficult question to an Sitler.
On the basis
of the r.:;adings fJr this paper ani the information givan here in this
paper, the writer feels that children Hill be able to give m.ore attention
to learning if they ::.re accepted by their peers.
They are also happier
people.
Many questions to pursue further in the are::. of sociometrJ have been
raised.
These que3tions could be developed into other papers.
If the
isolate is helped to be )art of the group, are teJ.chers making them conform to the group and is this "good"?
Is the isolate
al·d~ys
an insecure
Is the star secure as a person?
pe~son7
HInt about the socially
unconcerned isolate--is he secure \fithin himself?
If a cohesive group
is usually a conforming group, do we, as teachers, want to promote group
cohesiveness -w"'ith conformity or individuality?
status groups are :nore stable, is it futile to
sociometric status?
~Jo-.::>ularity
t~r
to change an isolate's
Do childr2n select one another on the basis of simi-
larities or differences in personality?
child's
Since the high and lev;
Is it possible to change a
without first making basic changes in personality, or
is this a two-way street?
AFiENDIX
'What five ?eople in this classroor.l would you best like to work with. __~~
a special project for the New England states?
~
I
~
5
J
.::;
..;/
5:2-
\
I
I
4
Jj
3
I
h/
1
I
4/
.r23
.J
:<
./
if
~
3
...j
.).({
3'
//
:z.5
/..;,
51
t,J 1
If,.
,,i
/
TDted ~~o '[ c. e.5
1 2. 0' '6 3 .::,- 7 9 /I 9 / 7 () 7 7
1"\u. :tl.A..Gll c.h.o L c... e5
I -3 'f
~
3..<
3
35
I
)
1
3
.!J
3 u
-<.j '35,5-
I. 3
D
-'i
;.2
<I
3
3~
~i
/J
53
...:J
'
6- /
0~ /0 if 7 -</
.3 J
.21 E
~
1
J.
3
? 7 ~ 9 .3 02 7 I 3 3 --""-'~~1!iIl
) -4.;3
j ;2...0 /
3 I I
,
i
•-
-+----1...........w
I--~
1-----+--+'-!I
I
co~~ittee
Who do you think makes a good
A
2
f?,
:(
/
'-.J
2
£)
K
r-
f
.J.
:{
(".
2
tJ
/
J
2.
,J
leader?--Two choices
2.
K
L.,
I
A.
J...
I
rY)
JY
C
f
~
J.
I
;2.
J.
'"'
.z
......,<"
<;
)
'--,
It·,..,
/
2
To-\~\
{j I ~
Ckoic...e...s
2- 0 ..2 6- 6"co2 2- 0 /
0.6 6
/
/
9 ? .:< 3
0 0
<.; ( 3
..:; ()
...;>
0 0 ()
·.../hut ;Jerson in the roon has sor.Ie of the
:-:lO;;t
unusual or creative i .... _""'1~"""""'­
Two choices
'--'
0
,r--
r-
:<
I
I
r
2
2-
/
I
).
'--'"
J
J-+
1.
J
j
J-.
r
K
?.
I
f-....
I
~
--'
(Jj
Iy
:'
v'
p
.z
;Z
J
I
\
k.
~
:<.
I
I
\
~.
J
1
:<
..<
<....:
t
;<
7
;Z
1
Ie
/
1/
/~
1..1
1
/7
Tot a I
0/3 J.5
~
J..
Cho', c.. e.s
0 13...2 030 I
0..) 0
/0 biO/
/
I :<'-<12. J 0 0
Q CJ
0 0 () 0..2-<-
t,---
'~a t
five people in this room would you :Lnvi t e to a Halloween l:'arty'L
A
(J,
/.(
2
G
L.J
I
31
J)
3
Sf
i?
F
.2
/-J
1
.-J
3
r-
..J
), j
15
I..j 2
J..j I
!J
K
rY)
flJ
C
P
1
/
J
:<
3
I
A/2
3
[
!/ I
.2
~
Q
J
.3
3
~ ;(
2-.J"'
4
J
2.
1./).
3
3
J-...
J 1
j
3
45
21
3
-"
.I..{
2
I
\.....0
•
.J
0
j
/.I
-'
3
1...
3
R.
7<-
.L../
..3
"-1../
.23
0
2-
~.
I
(
.J
1-3
;Z
11
/-5
~
3-1./
:<
L.j.:J
1
!J
3
3
.J
1
!J
;Z
/
AI
3
:3
!
2.1
;Z
.J
1-/3 !J
.J 1;<
3--2
j
3
Tot (L/
Lh. D; c. e...5
3 ~ 9 3 ~ 1 1 1 /0 J .5 / 7 r- 6- 1 4./ 9.j- '6 -</ /3 7 ? f (p I 3 2- I .3 f~~
rY\. lA.'+ LA. CL ( c f.t ~ ; c. e..5
.z 3 "I ::2- 0 -1 .3 -1 s I 3 D ;L3 3 1.<./ -'/ 2... L/ / 2. 2- / -2 -<I 0 I ,z (] .=!-~~
G2
., 'CRE NUNBER 6
L'IG
"'IOG:)..AH
r
What f 1've people
.:::-..H~g
' hest
GET SOc
~"
>'arty,
•
TAR L
Halloween,
. te to a
'n this room waul d Yau inn
.
Reciprocate d choice
~
ChOl'ce
•
'~
~\
/1 '
".-/hat person in the room .,'ould you like to play with after schoo11--.
A
13
(J
!'
'I
~
.
2
~
J
1
j
/(1
II
1-<,
/
I
v:
I I
I. ______~----------------------~----~------------------~~~
TClt-O-.\ Lh.O·lC€.....s
) 3.35..2 /2.2-12/ 2
Wl L.l1U-..CL I ~ hoi c.. e....s
) 2. 0 1 0 J' 0 I 0 0 I 2.
02~1
0
6 I
(O,---).2..<.j;
/
0..2. I 2. /
'l2-/2--<-/ /
J / 0.2
DO /
;Z 0 / ()
U"v+::::~~
•
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Council on Educatioa. The Staff of the Division on Child
Development and Teacher Personnel. Helping Teachers Understand
Children. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education,
1945, 468 pp.
Amidon, Edmund, "The Isolate in Children's Groupsu, Journal of Teacher
Education, Volume 12, December, 1961, pp. 412-416.
Arnold, Dorcie Noble, Development of Desirable Personality Traits of
Fgurth Grade Elementary Punil'~, }'r.asters Thesis, Ball State
Teachers College, Muncie, Indiana, June, 1955, 147 pp.
Barr", John A., The E1.ementa.ry Teacher and Guidance. New Yo·rkr
Holt and Company, 1958, 435 pp.
Henry
Beauchamp, i>1'.ary ~ and Lane, }1J)ward, Human Relations in Teaching; The
Dynamics of Helping Children Grow. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955, 353 pp.
Boyd, Gertrude A. Understanding Children 'Through Informal Procedures.
Laramie, wyoming: The Curriculum and Research Center, College of
Education, University of Wyoming, Vol. XI(No. 1), 1957, 45 pp.
Caldwell, Edson. Creating Better Social Climate in the Classroom Through
S09iometric Techniques. ~an FranCiSCO, California: Fearon
Publishers, 1959, 76 pp.
Cartwright, Darwin; Zander, Alvin; Group Dynamics, Research and TheoI',I.
Second Edition, Evanston, IllinOis, Elmsford, New York: Row,
Peterson and Company, 1960, 826 pp.
Cha~in,
F. Stuart. Exnerimental Designs in Sociological Research,
New York, London: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1947, 206 pp.
•
Cunningham, Ruth and Associates, Understanding Group Behavior of Boys
and Girls. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1951, 446 pp.
DeHaan, Bobert; Kough, Jack. Helning Children 'with Special Needs,
Teachers Guidance Handbook, Volume 2, Chicago: Science rtesearch
Associates, Inc., 1956, 204 pp.
DeHaan, rlobert; Kough, Jack. Identifying Children With Sueoial Needs.
Teachers Guidance Handbook, Volume 1, Chicago: Science Research
Associates, Inc., 1955, 91 pp.
Flanders, Ned. Teaching tiith GrouDs.
Company, 1954, 45 pp.
Minneapolis:
Burgess Publishing
Flanders, Ned A.; Havumaki, Su10. "The Effect of Teacher-Pupil Contacts
Involving Praise on the Sociometric Choices of Students". Journal
a£ Educational Psycgology, Volume 51, April, 1960, pp. 65-68.
•
Froehlich, Clifford P.; Darley, John G., t:atlldying ::itudents.
Science Research Associates, Inc., 1952, Chapter 15.
Chicago:
Glidewell, John C. "Organization, Adjustment, and Classroom Achievement".
Teachers College Record, Volume 62, January, 1961, pp. 274-281.
Gronlund, Norman E. Sociometry in the Classroom.
Brothers, 1959, 340 pp.
New York:
Harper and
Gross, Neal. IIS ome Contributions of Sociology to the Field of Education".
Harvard Educational Review, Volume 29, No.4, Fall, 1959, pp. 275-287.
Guinouard, iionald E.; Rychlak, Joseph F. "Personal! ty Correlates of
of Sociometric Popularity in Elementary School Children".
Pers.onnel and Guidance Journal, Volume 40, January, 1962, pp. 438-442.
Hare, A. Paul; Bargatta, Edgar F.; Bales, Robert T. Small Groups,
hitlldies in Social Interaction. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1955, 665 pp.
How To Construct A Sociogram.. New York: Horace lV'"lalln-Lincoln Institute
of School Experimentation, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1947, 31 pp.
Biming, Melba A. "How Well Da You Know Your Class".
Volume 79, March, 1962, p. 12.
Grade Teacher.
Intergroup Education in Cooperating Schools, A Sociometric Work Guide.
Hilda Taba-Director, Elizabeth Hall Brady, Margaret H. Heaton,
Marie M. Hughes, Helen H. Jennings, Francis M. Marburg, John T.
Robinson, Herbert K. Walther. New York: American Council on
Education, 1947, 70 pp.
•
Jennings, Helen Hall • Sociometry in Group Relations, Second Edition,
Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1959, 105 pp.
Jones, Marilyn G. The Use of Sociometric Data and Observational Records
As Guides For Promoting Social and Intellectual Growth of Primary
Children_ Masters rhesis, Ball ~tate Teachers ~011ege, Muncie,
Indiana, May, 1955, 102 pp.
Laughlin, Frances. The Peer Status of Sixth and Seventh Grade Children.
New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1954, 85 pp.
Libo, Lester M. Measuring Group Cohesiveness. Ann Arbor: Research
Center for Group ~ics, Institute for Social Research, University
of Michigan, 1953, 111 pp.
Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools Office. Guiding Tod~y's
- Children. Los Angeles: California Test Bureau, 1959, 295 pp.
•
Mann, Isadora.
'tA Teacher's Responsibility:
Behavior".
Understanding Group
Education, Volume 81, November, 1960, pp. 171-173.
MOreno, Jacob L. Who Shall Survive? Beacon, New York:
Inc., 1953, 763 pp.
Beacon House,
MOreno, Jacob L., with Helen H. Jennings, Joan H. Criswell, Leo Katz,
Ro)bert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Merl E. Bonney, Mary L. Northway,
Charles P. Loomis, Charles Procter, Renato Taguiri, Jiri Nehnevajsa,
The Sociometry Reader. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1960, 773 pp.
Newcomb, Theodore M. The Acquaintance Process.
and Winston, 1961, 303 pp.
Northway, Mary L.
1952, 48 pp.
A Primer of Sociometry.
New York:
Holt,
Rinehart~
University of Toronto Press,
Northway, Mary L. What Is Popularity? Chicago:
Associates, Inc., 1955, 47 pp.
Science Research
Rogers, Dorothy. Mental HY~iene in Elementary Education. Boston:
Roughton Mifflin Company, Cambridge: The Riverside Press, 1957,
497 pp.
Routh, ¥J.a.ry R. ttSociometric Aids".
pp. 307-310.
Education.
Volume 80, January, 1960,
Sister Bernadette, "Social Development in the Elementary School".
Catholic School Journal, Volume 60, September, 1960, pp. 29-31.
•
Tab a, Hilda. Elementary Curriculum in Intergroup Relations.
D.e.: American Council on Education, 1950. 248 pp.
Washington,
•
Taba, Hildap Brady, Elizabeth Hall; Robinson, John T.; Vickery, WilliamE.
Diagnosing Human Relations Needs. Washington, D.C.: American
Council on Education, 1951, 155 pp.
Thorpe, Louis P.; Whitson, Milo E.; Baron, Denis; Adams, Georgia Sachs.
StudYing Social Relationships in the Classroom: ~ociometric Methods
For the Teacher. Chicago: Science Research ASSOCiates, Inc.
1959, 49 pp.