Chapter 5:
Consciousness
Expanding the Boundaries of
Psychological Inquiry
C. Brown Unit 5
Lecture Preview
Understand different types of sleep and
sleep disorders
Discuss theories regarding dreaming and
d
dream
analysis
l i
Explore scientific explanations for
alterations of consciousness
Distinguish different types of drugs which
alter consciousness
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Waking Consciousness
 ____________
Biology of Sleep
Consciousness - our subjective
experience of the world, our bodies, and
our mental perspectives
 An _________
of the
sensations,
ti
thoughts, and
feelings that
one is
attending to at
a given
moment.
_________ rhythm - cyclical changes
that occur on a roughly __ basis in many
biological processes (e.g., hormone release, body
temperature)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Biology of Sleep
EEG Waves During Different Sleep Stages
Biological _____ - the SCN
(suprachiasmatic nucleus) of the
hypothalamus, triggers our sense of
fatigue (via increasing melatonin)
Disruptions:
Jet lag
Night shifts
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
1
Sleep and Dreams
Measuring Sleep Activity
 Electrodes measure
 Measuring sleep activity
 eye movements
 EMG measures
 ________ tension
 EEG measures
 brain ________
 A camera may also record body
movements.
EEG
Typical Night’s Sleep
 Measures gross activity of large
numbers of neurons.
 High
High-amplitude
amplitude waves (stage 4) indicate
that more neurons are firing in a
___________ rhythm.
 Sleep cycle lasts about ___ minutes.
Stages in a Typical
Night’s Sleep
Minutes
of
Stage 4
and
REM
Decreasing
Stage 4
20
15
Increasing
REM
10
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
 Later episodes are
longer and farther
apart.
 Most “deep sleep”
(stages 3 & 4)
occurs early in the
night.
Sleeping Like a Baby
25
0
 Typically ____
episodes of REM
(rapid eye
movement) sleep
per night occur.
7
 Good sleep quality requires adequate
amounts of ____ sleep stages.
 In older adults - sleep tends to be
shallower and more fragmented and the
___________ effect of sleep is ______.
This is associated with reduced levels of
stage 4 sleep.
8
Hours of sleep
2
Stage 4 Sleep
 Quick transition from stage 1 to stage 4.
 A stage 4 bout typically lasts for 40 minutes.
 Characterized by ______ breathing, _____
h t rate,
heart
t _______ bl
blood
d pressure.
 If awakened in stage 4 the subject feels
_____________.
 Pulse of growth hormone is released in the
first two bouts of stage 4 sleep. May play a
role in memory consolidation.
REM Sleep
 Also called paradoxical sleep – breathing is
more shallow, heart rate and blood pressure
are variable, eeg pattern is similar to the
awake
k state,
t t th
the llarge postural
t l muscles
l are
__________, increased genital blood flow.
 Duration of REM bout increases over
successive sleep cycles.
 If awakened during REM the subject is NOT
disoriented.
Sleep Deprivation
PRS
If you want to feel rested following a nap,
it is best to time the nap duration so that
you awaken in stage ____ sleep.
A.
B.
C.
D.
 Effects of Sleep
Loss
 fatigue
 impaired
concentration
 depressed
________ system
 greater
vulnerability to
accidents
1
2
3
4
One third of our life…
We spend one third of our life sleeping.
Sleep Deprivation
Less sleep,
more accidents
Accident
frequency
More sleep,
fewer accidents
2,800
If an individual remains awake for several days they deteriorate, in terms of immune function, ___________ and accidents.
2 700
2,700
4 200
4,200
2,600
4000
2,500
3,800
2,400
3,600
Spring time change
(hour sleep loss)
Monday before time change
Fall time change
(hour sleep gained)
Monday after time change
3
PRS
Disorders of Sleep
The risk of accidents increases when
subjects ignore their circadian rhythms.
True/False
_______ - difficulty falling and staying
asleep
Higher rates in those with depression, pain,
medical conditions
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Sleeping Pills
Overcoming insomnia
Do not nap during the day.
Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and cigarettes
within five hours of bedtime.
Avoid exercise within two hours of
bedtime, but get adequate exercise.
____________ your sleep schedule.
If awake and anxious, leave bed and
return when sleepy.
Disorders of Sleep
 Sleeping pills are one of the major
causes of insomnia.
 Pills may be ________.
 Pills may prevent ________ REM sleep
bouts.
 Establishing adequate exercise levels
reduces the need for sleeping pills.
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy
 _________
 Characterized by irresistible and
sudden attacks of sleep during the
y Rates increase with heightened
g
day.
stress. Inherited trait.
Narcolepsy
Cataplexy
 ________
 Begin REM too soon. Subject may fall
down before they are ready to sleep.
Vivid hallucinations just before falling
asleep.
Sleep apnea
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4
Sleep Disorders
Sleep Apnea
 Sleep apnea – breathing stops while
sleeping (sage 4). Affects 10% of men
over 40 years of age
age, and 5% of the
overall population.
 Subjects partially reawakens to breathe.
Disorders of Sleep
__________ - during Stages 3 and 4,
sudden waking episodes characterized by
screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed
by a return to a deep sleep
Most common in children
__________ - usually occurs during nonREM sleep (not dreaming)
May include complex behaviors (e.g., climbing out
windows, driving)
Most common in children
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Other Sleep Disorders
 Sleep walking – a potentially fatal disorder.
Occurs in stage 3 or 4. It ____ in families,
and children ______________.
p talking
g – mayy occur in REM,, stage
g 1
 Sleep
or slow wave sleep.
 Night terrors – Calm the subject and put
them back to sleep. Usually occurs within 2 or
3 hours of falling asleep.
Establish and Defend
Your Sleep Cycle
 Learning disorders are associated with
_________ sleep patterns.
 Behavioral disorders are associated with
irregular sleep patterns.
 Memory disorders may be associated with
irregular sleep patterns (high rates of protein
synthesis during REM sleep, and pulses of
growth hormone are associated with slow
wave sleep).
REM Rebound
 If deprived of REM - subjects show increased
fantasy bouts while awake, increased anxiety,
irritability, and have difficulty concentrating.
 If permitted to sleep subjects _____ into REM
sleep and experience longer REM bouts.
 Subjects report vivid dreams when REM
deprived.
 Schizophrenics show fewer REM episodes
than normals, and no REM rebound effect.
Sleep and Dreams
 Psychologists used to believe that
dreaming occurred ___________.
 Now they believe that REM sleep and
dreaming are biologically adaptive.
 In fact, there is evidence that they are
important for brain maturation.
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Theory and Psychology of
Dreams
Freud’s wish fulfillment and dream
protection theory - dreams transform our sexual
and aggressive instincts into symbols that represent
wish fulfillment and require interpretation
Evidence against this:
most dreams have negative content (not wish
fulfillment)
sexual dreams are rare
many are straightforward details of everyday
activities (not disguised)
Sigmund Freud--The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
Freud believed that dreams expressed
wishes, often disguised.
 ___________ Content
 Conscious dream content that is
remembered after awakening
 ___________ Content
 Unconscious, censored meaning of a
dream.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Theory and Psychology of
Dreams
 Activation-synthesis
theory - dreams reflect
brain activation
originating in the pons,
followed by efforts of the
forebrain to weave these
inputs into a story
However, damage to the
forebrain can eliminate
dreaming, even when the
pons is intact
Dreams are fairly
consistent over time (not
random)
What do we dream about?
1. Negative Emotional Content: Eight out of 10 dreams have negative emotional content.
2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected or struck with misfortune
rejected or struck with misfortune.
3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.
4. Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men and women equally, men dream men more than women.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Cultural Influences on Dream
Content
Dreams reflect a culture’s beliefs, values,
and concerns.
Cross-cultural similarities are:
Aggression is more common than is
kindness
Gender differences in content
Cross-cultural differences reflect different
cultural emphases (e.g., Japanese dreams
versus U.S. American dreams).
So, what can we really say
about dreaming?
1. Dreams are often concerned with everyday
preoccupations, and they recur
2. Acetylcholine turns on REM sleep
3. The forebrain plays an important role in
dreaming
• And why do we dream? Although we still don’t
know, there are many theories concerning the
establishment of memories
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
6
Sleep Across the
Lifespan
PRS
Most dreams occur during REM sleep.
 True/False
Sleep & Aging
 Infants sleep ___ hours a day, about
_______ of this is in REM sleep.
 5 year olds sleep about 11 hours a day
day,
and the total hours of REM sleep
matched that of adults.
 60 year olds sleep about 6 hours a day.
Other Alterations of
Consciousness
Out-of-body experience (OBE) - sense of
consciousness leaving one’s body
No scientific evidence to support
Mayy be related to abilityy to fantasize and to become
extraordinarily absorbed in experiences
Near-death experience (NDE) - OBE reported
by people who have nearly died or thought they were
going to die
NDE-like experiences can be triggered by stimulating
the temporal lobes, lack of oxygen to the brain, and
psychedelic and anesthetic drugs
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Other Alterations of
Consciousness
 Déjà vu - feeling of reliving an experience that is new
Theories:
Small seizures in right temporal lobe
Dual processing theory – slightly out-of-sync arrival of
sensory info from separate pathways
Prior unconscious processing of the information
The present experience resembles an earlier experience
 Meditation - variety of practices that train attention and
awareness
Wide range of positive effects (increased empathy, alertness,
blood flow, immune function, etc)
Correlation vs. causation? Does meditation change brain activity
or do people with certain brain signaling patterns seek out
meditation?
Hypnosis
 Hypnosis
 a social interaction
in which one person
(the hypnotist)
suggests to another
(the subject) that
certain perceptions,
feelings, thoughts,
or behaviors will
spontaneously occur
Hypnos: Greek god of sleep
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7
Mesmerism
Hypnosis
http://www.general-anaesthesia.com
Credit for hypnosis popularity goes to Franz Anton Mesmer, a physician, who mistakenly thought had k l h
h h d
discovered “animal magnetism.” Some of his patients experienced trancelike state, and felt better on waking up.
 Practiced by many well known
scientists: Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund
Freud, Alfred Binet, Ivan Pavlov.
 The art of hypnotic application is
understood much better than its
________________.
Franz Mesmer (1734 ‐ 1815) provides people with suggestions
for changing their perceptions,
feelings, and behaviors
 Misconceptions:
p
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Produces a trance state in which “amazing” things happen
Hypnotic phenomena are unique
Hypnosis is a sleeplike state
Hypnotized people are unaware of their surroundings
Hypnotized people forget what happened during hypnosis
Hypnosis improves memory
Hypnosis can induce past life and age regression
Hypnosis
Strength, stamina, perceptual and memory abilities are similarly affected in h
hypnotized and ti d d
unhypnotized people. Unhypnotized
persons can also do
this
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Myths & Realities
Myths & Realities
Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power resides in the subject’s openness to suggestion.
Can anyone experience hypnosis?
Can hypnosis enhance recall of
forgotten events?
Yes, to some extent.
Can hypnosis force people to act
against their will?
No, subjects are aware
of what they are doing
Can hypnosis be therapeutic?
Yes. Self-suggestion
can heal too.
Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
Yes. Lamaze can
do that too.
No.
8
Hypnosis in Clinical Practice:
Smoking Cessation
Some advertisements for the
effectiveness of hypnosis in
treating smoking are misleading
gg
Still,,
and exaggerated.
hypnosis can sometimes be
combined with well-established
treatments as a cost-effective
means of helping some people
quit smoking.
Theories of Hypnosis
Sociocognitive Theory - approach to
explaining hypnosis based on people’s beliefs
and expectations
________________ model - approach
to explaining hypnosis based on separation of
the parts of the personality responsible for
planning from the part that controls memories
(dissociation from consciousness)
Hidden observer vs. flexible observer
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Hypnosis and the Suggestible
Eyewitness
 Participants saw a videotape
of a staged bank robbery.
 Half were then hypnotized.
 Interviewer mentioned robber
wore a mask.
 There was ___ mask.
 In highly hypnotizable
subjects, 63% reported a false
memory that the robber wore a
mask.
PRS
The art of inducing hypnosis is
understood better than its scientific
explanation.
 True/ False
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Is Hypnosis an “Altered” State?
The Hidden Observer
 Subjects held a
hand in ice water
and reported pain.
 Hypnotized
subjects reported
lower pain.
 Some hypnotized
subjects reported a
“hidden observer”
that was aware of
the pain.
Hypnotic Induction
 Progressive relaxation  Please close you eyes
 Allow your self to relax to the best of
your ability
 Allow your mind to relax as you allow
your body to relax
 Soon you will learn that all extraneous
noises will not distract you
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Hypnotic Induction
 Do not actively assist or resist any suggestion
I may give you
 You will respond to my suggestions only if
they are appropriate for you
 Allow yourself to focus on your fingers and
forearms
 By your ability to concentrate you will soon
become aware of a very pleasant and
relaxing sensation – allow this sensation to
spread
Hypnotic Induction
 Think of how your arm would feel if you were
to raise it ever so slightly – study the muscles
that you would use to raise your arm – now
l t that
let
th t ttension
i go
 Note how much more relaxed you are now
 You are developing mastery over a powerful
new skill - neuromuscular relaxation
 You are becoming exceptionally relaxed
Hypnosis
 Neuromuscular relaxation helps promote the
shift of executive functions to the therapist
 Disruption of memorial processes – “think
only of my voice”
 The subject’s initiative and planning are
suppressed
 The hypnotized subject does not
independently undertake new lines of thought
or action
Hypnotic Induction
 You will soon feel a tingle, a feeling of
lightness, numbness, or heaviness
 This is p
perfectlyy normal
 Allow this sensation to spread over your
fingers, your hands and your forearms
 By practicing your powers of
concentration you may permit this
feeling to spread
Hypnosis
 Not so much an altered state of
consciousness as an alteration in control
systems
 Requires the formation of the ‘hypnotic
contract’… an agreement to cooperate,
to let happen what will happen
 A cooperative subject is able to learn
hypnotic behavior
PRS
Most highly skilled hypnotists can trick
subjects into doing things against their
will.
 True/False
10
Consciousness-Altering Drugs
Dependence and
Addiction
 Psychoactive Drug
Big
effect
 A chemical substance that alters perceptions,
thoughts, behavior and mood.
Drug
effect
 Tolerance
 diminishing effect
with regular use
Response to
first exposure
 Physical Dependence
 Withdrawal
 An addiction in which a drug is needed to
prevent withdrawal.
After repeated
exposure, more
drug is needed
to produce
same effect
 Psychological Dependence
 An addiction is which a drug is needed to
maintain a sense of ____________.
Little
effect
Small
 discomfort and
distress that follow
discontinued use
Large
Drug dose
Drugs and
Consciousness
Depressants - decrease
nervous system activity
Alcohol - most widely
used and abused drug
Effects vary from
stimulation (low doses) to
sedation (high doses)
User expectancies
influence mood and social
behaviors
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Alcohol
Affects motor skills, judgment, and memory… increases aggressiveness reduces self awareness by ___________ brain areas that _____________ such behaviors
 Facilitates the release of _______
 Abuse may lead to ________ impairments
 Withdrawal – sweating, nausea,
sleeplessness, and sometimes
hallucinations and seizures
Depressants: Alcohol
Tolerance - reduction in the effect of a drug as a
result of repeated use, requires greater quantities to
achieve the same effect
Delirium tremens (DTs) - disorientation,
disorientation
confusion, visual hallucinations, memory problems
resulting from alcohol withdrawal, may be fatal without
proper medical care
Alcohol hallucinosis - auditory hallucinations,
sometimes with paranoid beliefs, resulting from alcohol
withdrawal
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Depressants:
Sedative--Hypnotics
Sedative
Prescribed for insomnia, anxiety
Facilitate the release of GABA.
Tend to be very addictive, and withdrawal is
similar to that for alcohol
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
11
Opiate Narcotic Drugs
 Opiates: (morphine and heroin) depress
neural activity,
 temporarily
il lessening
l
i pain
i and
d anxiety.
i
Are highly addictive.
Sedatives (Depressants)

Mimic ____________

Withdrawal –
heightened anxiety
and sensitivity to pain,
pain
appetite loss, vomiting,
diarrhea, sweating and
gagging
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Drugs and
Consciousness
Stimulants
1. Caffeine
2. Nicotine
3. Cocaine
Stimulants - Increase heart rate, respiration, blood
pressure
4. Ecstasy
5. Amphetamines
6. Methamphetamines
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Stimulants: Caffeine
Caffeine –
mild stimulant
affecting
_________
pathways.
Mixed Stimulant-Depressant
Nicotine
 Nicotine – stimulates
the CNS, but subjects
report a feeling of
relaxation.
l
ti
 Increases heat rate,
blood pressure, and
acetlycholine
pathways.
 Very addictive
12
Cocaine
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Crack a form of cocaine can be smoked. Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or injected.
Methamphetamine
Leads to obvious physical
changes. Photo on left at age
36, photo on right at age ___.
 Amphetamines
 drugs that stimulate neural
activity, causing ___________
body functions and associated
energy and mood changes
 Acts on the _________ pathway
Cooperative Learning
Meet with your group and discuss the following
question:
Crystal meth is a highly addictive stimulant
stimulant, but
a similar drug is used to treat attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder. Why don’t ADHD
patients become addicted?
60 seconds!
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Psychedelic Drugs:
Hallucinogenics
Produce alterations in __________, ______, and
thought
Marijuana
j
- activates cannabinoid receptors
p
Amotivational syndrome - correlation or causation?
Gateway drug? Rival hypothesis?
LSD - changes in sensation and perception,
paranoia, panic
Mystical experiences - sense of unity with world
Panic, paranoia, confusion, flashbacks
Marijuana –
Distortion of Experience
 Marijuana – (THC) mild effects, gives the illusion
that time is slowing down, and may intensify
some sensory experiences.
 THC binds with receptor sites in the forebrain and
hippocampus. Medically it has been used to suppress
tremors, reduce _______, treat glaucoma and reduce
pain. It dissolves in body fat, and is released again
when the fat is metabolized. Abuse may produce
learning and memory impairments.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
13
Hallucinogens
 Different hallucinogens (LSD,
PCP, mescaline, etc.) probably
effect different
neurotransmitter pathways.
 LSD – irregular pattern of
effect on the serotonin
pathway – the unpredictable
effect may produce the
hallucination.
 MDMA “Ecstasy” – both a
stimulant and a hallucinogen.
It also has an irregular effect
on _________ pathways, but
is a neurotoxin that eventually
________ serotonin
pathways. Subjects loose an
interest in the drug. Causes
brain damage.
Anabolic Steroids
More than a half million 8th and 10th
grade students are now using steroids,
and increasing numbers of high school
seniors don’t believe steroids are risky.
Some people are taking dietary
supplements that act as steroid precursors
without any knowledge of the dangers
associated with their abuse.
Side Effects
PRS
 High blood cholesterol levels - cardiovascular disease
 Severe acne
 Thinning of hair and baldness
 Fluid retention
 High
Hi h blood
bl d pressure
 Liver disorders (liver damage and jaundice)
 Steroids can affect fetal development during pregnancy
 Risk of contracting HIV and other blood-borne diseases
from sharing infected needles
 Sexual & reproductive disorders
 Psychological ___________
Only drugs that are stimulants are
addictive.
Trends in Drug Use
Cooperative Group Challenge
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
80%
High school
seniors
reporting
drug use
70
60
50
Al h l
Alcohol
40
Marijuana/
hashish
30
20
Cocaine
10
0
1975 ‘77 ‘79
‘81
‘83
‘85
‘87 ‘89
 True/False
‘91 ‘93
‘95
lucid dreaming
insomnia
circadian rhythm
consciousness
LSD
cocaine
dissociation
narcolepsy
‘97 ‘99
Year
14
Q1
Q2
1. People who have _____ fall asleep
suddenly.
2. The most powerful natural stimulant is
_____.
Q3
Q4
3. Hilgard’s _____ theory explained
hypnosis based on the separation of
memorial processes from planning
processes.
4. Changes in our biological processes
that occur in a 24-hour period are called
_____.
Q5
Q6
5. The most common sleep disorder is
_____.
6. If you realize that you are having a
dream while it is happening you are
experiencing a ______.
15
Q7
Q8
7. Hoffman created the hallucinogenic
drug _____ from chemicals found in a
fungus.
8. Our subjective experience of the
world, our bodies, and our mental
perspectives is called _____.
16