A
P"E
T T L i; 1r
NT
F' 0 R H E
0 L, U T
,N.
W. T.
by
Va.1dis Martins Alera
bArch.,Univereity of -1anitoba 1957.
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the de~reo of
Master of Architecture
at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
June, 1959.
Signaturo of the Authors
Accepted by
Pietro Delluschi,
Tlean, School of Architecture and Planning
Massachusetts
Institute
of
Technology.
Thesis Abstract.
0
TitM4: A SETTMENT FOR REsO!tTE, N.W.T.
Authors Valdis M. Alers, B, Arh.,
University of Manitoba, 1957,
For great many people of the Western world the Arntic
regions are expanses of barren lands, where the future war might
be fought. bat for Canada, the Arctic is more than a military
buffer cone. In view of the accelerating rate of raw material
conemaption te minerAls sAd resources of the Norh West Terrie
tories will be needed to ensure the country*s prosperity and to
guarantee the supply of strategic materials when the free world's
ether resources are exhansted. A controlled development of the
Polar regions presents a unique ohallenge to the government,
science and technology. Strengthened by te present day military
considerations, Arctic meteorology and geology are the most important facters in the development and existence of Northern
settlementa The climate is cold and harsh and carries with it
the majority of implications related to the future growth of the
region. Acess routes are long and supply Is still a big problem
in the Artic, where everything has to be brought in luring the
brief shipping season, leaving the air freight for nail delivery
and emergency flights,
The objectives of this thesis are to investigate the problems
of the North, their relation to the design and construction - and
to apply the obtained informtion by working out an overall arehie
teettral concept for an Arctic settlements research and supply base
for 275 people on Cornwallis Island in the Canadian Arntic Arehin
pelogo
Thesis Superviser: Imre Halass,
Assistant Professor of Architecture.
Cambridge, Massachusetts,
June 1, 1959.
Pietro Belluechi,
Dean, School of Architecture and Planning,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Dear Dean Belluschis
I hereby submit my thesis entitled,
A Settlemeut for Resolute, North Weat Territories, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Architecture.
Yours sincerely,
Valdis Mrtins Alera
Acknowledgements*
I am indebted to the faculty of the Department of
Architecture and the visiting advisors for their helpful
criticism. I would like to thank individually Professor
I# Hdtss for his advice as well as Mr. R.Uaxter, Department
of Northern Affairs, Ottawa; Mr. K. K. Parks, Department of
Transport, Ottawa, and Mr. R. F. Liggett, The National Research
Council of Canada for their aid9 suggestions and information
pertaining to the Canadian Northlands.
Valdia
M.
Alers
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
T
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C INT E NT S
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Thesis Abstract .
Acknowledgements
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Table of Contents , . . .
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List of Illustrations ,
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The Significance of the North American Arntic
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The Objectives of the Thesis .
Chap ter
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The Climate
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land, Water and Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperatures
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Precipitation
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Foundations and Related Engineering Aspects .
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Water Supply
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Superstructures: Special Considerations . .
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Resistance to Fire
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Sewage Disposal
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Permafrost
Heating
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Reinforced Concrete
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0eopsycholagy of the North . . .
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Polar NervOnesa
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Terrain and Soil .
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The Sumiary of the Dry Analysis
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The People .
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Area Requiremnts
Bibliography
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IV
The Funetions of the Settlement,
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48-50
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Precipitation and Cloudiness Charts . . . . . .
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Mean January te and Lowe t t 0 Charta
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Maps of Annual Frost Free Days . . .
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The Length of Day over the Arctic
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The Nrtafreot Map of Northern Canada
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A Map of the Arctic, 1*12 000 000 approx.
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47
I N T l0 )
U C TI 1
N.
The Significance of the North Amrican Arctic,
The North Aserican Arctis and Subarctic stand now in much
the sae relation to tin rest of the continent as did the far
West & century ego.
It is a vast frontier little known ada&I
most entirely undeveloped. Although the transportation can still
be done only at appreciable cost, the North has recently become
accessible by means of long range aircraft and the resources of
its lands and seas, particularly its mineral wealth, hold promise
of eenanie benefits for the entire continent. In addition this
area, covering all Alaska and Greenland and eighty percent of
Canada, has became within the past few decades an internationally
significant region.
There is in this tation a challenge to modern science.
for here is the opportunity, perhaps for the first time, to pro.
vide a scientific basis for te orderly levelopment of a new land
This region Is daily increasing in importance for goverment awl
industry. For a scientist, there is the unexcelled opportunity
offered in the Far North to add signifisant data to mants Enwledge of his environent and himself, This area constitutes a
huge laboratory, a natural experimental setup not to be matched
in temperate sons The atremes of temperature, the perennially
frowan ground; the alternating periods of constant daylight and
darkness, the remnants of glaciation, the Northern ights the
biological adaption of plants and animals and the meteorology
2
of the region as the weather4eternining faetor of the world
are features inviting alike to studies in the natural, bioleo.
gleal and social sciences.
Strengthened by the present day military considerations,
Arc
meteorology is a very powrful factor in the existtee
and development of the sottlements. The
ilitary forces eon-.
sequently knew a great deal about the particular areas in
question, whilo the average civilian, even in the relatively
high Canadian latitudes, astonishingly littl , Any increase in
the infomation and the popularity of the Arctic regions will
largely depend upon
ae
probability to provide acceptable living
tondivons on a year-round basis, As long as auch conditions do
not exist, the psychological reaction of the Artic personnelexcluding Eskimosoyear or to
will still be that of "camping out" for a
before coing home again The Department of Northern
Affair believes that the North West Territories will forever
remain sparsely populated - with the exception of few areas
north of Peace River, Alberta; South Youkn, West Maocenste and
the stbern tip of Baffin Island.
The destruetive character of the advancing Western eirilisation upon the castems and morals of the thousand-years old
Eskimo culture is only too evident, Like everywhere else, it is
also irreversible. The Eskim Rehabilitation Program, recently
initiated in the Canadian Arctic, has the goal to educate the
native and to provide him with an increasingly responsible
position. Mach work an
time will be required before the North
3
could be at least partially taken over by the Eskin again. It
will then be on an entirely different basis as their vanishing
indigenous culture,
The Objectives of this Thesis
are to investigate the problems
connected with the design and construetion of buildings in the
Arntic and to apply this knowledge in working out an overall
architectural concept for a settlement in the Canadian Arntic
Archipelago. The time permitting, this concept will be enlarged
by the design of the laboratory and social areas as a further
and final stady. The solution should provide supply storage
and distribution facilities, scientific research areas, and
indoor living conditions comparable to these existing at lower
latitudes, It abould also attempt to integrate new materials,
optia forms and procedures, which, with the exception of
Thaul,
Greenland9 have hitherto been absent from the Arctic
landscape.
CHAPTEFR
Is the climate
"In this storme betg the size and
twentieth of July there fell so much snow
with such bitter cold aire that we could
starce see one another for the same ...
.. whioh somewhat discouraged some of the
poor. men, who had not experience of the
like before, every man perarading himselfe
that the winter there must needs be extreme,
where they found so unseasonable a simer."
(
Martin Frobishera third expedition
to Baffin Island, A*). 1576
)
5
In the regions north of the Arctic Circle there is a period
in winter when the sun is continuously below the horson.
The
length of the dark period varies from a minimum of 36 hours near
the Arctic Circle to a maximum of six mouths at the Pole.
The
length of the Polar Night at Resolute is 04 days. Since no olar
radiation is received during the dark season, whereas the ground
continues to radiate beat into space, the length of the dark
period is an important aspect not only in determining the winter
temperatures, but also as a psychological factor for the Arctic
inhabitants.
The lowest possible winter temperature which may be reached
at Arctic stations has been computed theoretically by Sverdrup
as .103*F.
The lowest winter temperature which has ever been
recorded instrunentally occurred at Verchoyansk in Eastern Siberia
on February 1892 when a minimum temperature of -93.8 F was experienced. An equivalent mini=a= for the North American continent
is -88 F, recorded at Aklavik, N.W.T.
During the samer, the sun is above the horison continuously
for a period corresponding to the winter dark season. However,
the heating effect of the continuous insolation is lessened considerably by the obliquity of the sun's rays and the resultant
thickness of atmosphere through which they must pass to reach
the ground. The noon elevaton of the sun on June 21 is only
6
41 degrees at the Arctic Circle, 38 degrees at Resolute al 23}
degrees at the North Pole,
Another important factor which reduces the percentage of
the solar radiation that reaches the ground in the summer is the
extreme cloud cover over the Arctic Archipelago. The amount of
summer cloudinoss may be Judged from the fact that in August
1948, there were only 48 hours of sunshine recorded at Resolute
out of a possible 862 hours, This is undoubtedly an extrem
ase
but it serves well as an illustration, The finest weather is
experienced in April when light winds and clear skies spread
over the Arctic Islands.
Land, Water and Ice.
Since the Arctic Archipelago covers an area extending ever
twenty degrees of latitude, one would normally expect a considerable difference in temperature to exist between the southern.most and northernmost extremities. However, a gradual decrease
of temperature with increasing latitude is not appreciable in
the sumer months owing to the presence of large water areas.
During the brief summer period the ice filled polar waters with
a surface temperature near 301' prevent the air in contact with
them from warming up to any great extent. Moreover, an incursion
of warm air from the South is cooled rapidly in its lower layers
by contact with the cold water. As a result, the aumer tempe.ratures are uniformly cool with the average temperature of the
warmest moth, July, near 400F. Most of the water surfaces are
7
frozen over in the winter. The newly-formed ice is usually less
than six feet thick and there is sufficient radiation through the
ice from the water below to exert a slight moderating influence.
Along the shorelines adjacent to open water, moderation of winter
temperatures is evident. The distance to which this moderating
effect extends from the coast inland depends partly upon the topography, but in any case it is less than twenty miles. There is
always some open water in Barrow Strait. During two winters at
Resolute, 1947 - 1919, a bank of steam fog was often seen over
the Strait even in the coldest months indicating the presence of
leads of open
ater.
Temperatures.
The severe winters and cool
uimers over the Arctic Islands
result in low annual mean temperatures. The hardships and suffe.
ring from cold and scurvy of the earliest Arctic expeditions
gave the Islands a reputation, which is not entirely deserved,
of posessing an unendurable winter climate. These hardships were
overcome by later expeditions with the use of better clothing,
more efficient heating equipment, insulated quarters and proper
diet. An important point which is not brought out by the charts
of man tempratuf! 8 is the range of variability of the values
of the monthly mean temperatures from year to year. A lifference
of thirty or more degrees ?ahrenheit has been experienced between
the February mean temperaturea during the mild winter of 1947
at Resolute and the same six years later. As the elevation of
the sun increases in March, temperatures begin to rise. However,
winter is still in full sway and the lowest temperatures may
frequently occur during this period. Thus the absolute five.year minimm
of .- 0r
occurred at Resolute on March 5, 1948.
On the whole, the climate at Resolute is a mdified maritime
type, with extreme winter temperatures not as low and extreme
summer temperatures not as high as they would be in a continental area of the same latitude. The five-year average annual
high temperature at resolute has been 57 0 F.
Precipitation,.
With regards to the total annual precipitation, the Arctic
Archipelago is one of the driest regions of the world. The annual precipitation over the islands North of the Parry group averages less than five inches a year. From December to April precipitation over this area is entirely in the form of snow. The
snow crystals are sall and they are readily blown about by the
wind with the result that much of the ground is bare all winter
whereas deep compact drifts are formed around obstacles and in
ravines. In extremely cold weather, the water vapor in the air
may condense in the form of ice crystals which fall as light
snow out of a clear sky. Despite the small size of these crystals,
they occasionally fell at a sufficiently rapil rate at Pesolute
to prodluce a thin cover of snow in few hours.
June is a transitional month between the period of spring
snows and sumaer rains and most of the terrain is snow free
9
luring July and August except in ravines and gullies. The maximum rainfall occurs also in Augst, with an average near bne and
one.-half inches.
Winds.
An undisturbed air flow results in the prevailing northnws..
terly winds in Resolute area, with a mean annual of 104 mph. At
many Arctic stations the megin wind speed from some directions
is markedly higher than from others. In most cases the increase
in speed is caused by the fact that the wind i blowing downhill
so that there is a component of the force of gravity which acts
in the same direction as the pressure force, Thus at Resolute,
where a range of hills 600 to 800 feet high is situated to the
Northeast, winds from there are about five to ten miles per hour
faster on the average than wind from any other direction. Calms
are most frequent in late winter, while April is generally a
month with light winds and clear skies.
Monthly and Annual Averages of
Daily Mean Temperature at Resolute;
JF
-30
II
-34
-23
A
V
J
j
A
S
0
N
D
Year
.13
13
33
40
3
23
6
-8
~19
2
Monthly and Annual Averages of
Daily Maximum Temperature at Resolute;
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
D
Year
-23
-21
--16
-4
20
37
46
42
27
12
~1
-4
8
Monthly and Annual Averages of
Daily Minimm Temperature at Resolute;
J
-6
r
m
A
m
3
0
A
S
0
N
41 -
31
-21
8
29
35
33
19
0
-14
D
Year
-28
-4
Four - Year ( 1948 - 1952 ) Average Extremes:
59 "
Maximum
Minimum I-557
Average Monthly and Annual Precipitation ( See also the graph
at the end of this chapter ):
J
F
1
A
M
4
3
A
S
0
N
D
Year
0.07 0.14 0.20 0.13 0.62 0.68 1024 1.03 1.18 0,57 0427 0.10
Average Mean Cloudiness ( %# of Days per Month )
4
F
m
A
M4
30% 42% 39% 44% 67%
J
J
82% 80%
A
S
0
1947
-
1950
N
77% 83% T % 58%
3'9;
The length of Shipping Zeason: 2 - 3 Months a Year ( July,
August and September ).
6.23"
4~J
J F
J
F
M
M
A
A
M
M
J
J
J
J
A
A
S
S
0
0
N
N
D
D
J
COURTLSY
P&PT. -/ TRANSPORT, CANAPA
A P T ER
I
-
--
-. :-3.-ian-Ms--o
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en-.l.l..:--.-e--:ge-eu
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.:.... ,:.- r:rn
-:r-:v.2:g.pl
Permafrost.
It is not surprising to find that a large portion of the
surface layers of the northern land mass of the world is always
at a temperature below freezing point. It is not generally apprewtiated, however, that about one half of the area of Canada and
as much as one fifth of the land area of the world is perennially frozen near its surface. Some of this vast area consists
of exposures of solid rock - as also is often the case in the
Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The properties of rocky soils are
not significantly changed by freezing and thawing. But when
soils with organic content form the surface of the ground espe.
cdally if water is present in them, their character may be
strongly affected by changes of temperature above or below
freezing point. The term "termafrost" should therefore be
applied to all parts of geological strata, which are consistently below 32F aSd not merely to permanently frozen soils.
Permafrost was recognized already by the early travellers
of the North, but it is only in comparatively recent years that
it has become a problem. As long as water in the samer and
snow in the winter provided the necessary transportation routes
and with buildings of simple design, the sumer thawing out of
permafrost was relatively uniupafIbt. When, however, the frozen
ground had to be cleared either for road construction or for the
building of airfielda and heated buildings, the peculiar pro-.
porties of permafrost made themselves very evident.
In areas where the permafrost is encountered, the local
annual mean soil temperature is below freeing, with
the
coming of the saineer the temperature of the upper crust is rained
above freesing point. This thawing will be evident only in
soils containing water
(
fine sands and gravels
),
clays, silts and some soil mixtures,
and their consistency may change from
solid state to wet semifluidity, The depth of the active layer
may vary locally from year to year, but under natural conditions
the variations will be wall. The suskeg which is so prevalent
over the permafrost, especially in the lower latitudes, acts as
excellent insulating medium and tends to keep the attive layer
*hallow, When this or any other natural cover is removed1 the
normal thermal pattern is lowered. ?rosen soil which has not
previously been taved will be so affected ad the- problems of
the architect and engineer begin - especially if, as is so
frequently the case, the newly thawed - out soil has a high
moisture content, If the warmth from a heated basement is
applied to such froson ground, the problems created may extend
throughout the year instead of being confined to the warm months
of sumer. Many samples of soils in permarrost have an unusually
high water content and a structure rarely encountered in normal
soils today. This is particularly evident in the Western Aretic
and brings up an interesting question about their geological
origin and history, which, hoveter, belongs to a different field
of sciences.
Thawing out of such frozen soil following clearing for a
buildirg or road construction brings about a plastic state, wher,
the matter slumps and flows to places of lower elevations, once
the vegetation cover is removed. In cases where the local soil
is dry sand and gravel, the absence of
ater fails to reveal its
fromn state throurh visual inspection alone. These soil condi.
tiors appear almost ideal for builLling sites, but the possible
chare in ground conlitione due to removal of vegetation cover
or entrance of warm surface drainage may be serious. Much could
be learned about this type of influenwes from a research study
on location. This study, however, will have to be a long-term
project. P start has been rade at one approach by the installation of sensitive temperature measuring devices in at least
two very deep holes in the Aretic
One of these is the Canadian
undertaking At resolute %ay, the other one at Point Barrow,
Siaska.
r'eOults so far obtaIned show tht
the ground temperatures
a're below freezing at both locations to a depth considerably in
excess of one thousand feet.
Permafrost layers impele the vertical drainage.
ireat ex-
panses of land remain wet throughout the surmer and serve as
mosquitobreed!ing
groundIs in the lower latitudes. The moisture
content varies greatly with the physical structure of the soils,
and the volume of ice may be six times that of the soil, While
frozen, the ice acts like cement, bonding the individual
particles so that the result is a substance of considerable
18
strength. Since te
thawing characteristics topends upon the
type of the soil and the original ice content, little or no
complications are encountered
with frosen rock or frozen dry
sand and gravel.
iuilding Foundations and Rlated Engineering Aspects.
Just as the combination of wind and low temperatures rises
certain probleps for the northern building, so the combination
of the long duration of the northern winter and. its continuous
darkness rises difficulties of living in the North and seriously
limits the tin* luring which the construction can be carried out.
because of the relative isolation, lack of locally available manpower and materials, practically all of it must be brought in from
the outside at high cost. Similarly, the maintenance and replace
ment of damaged or lost parts create difficulties, This one
as-
pect alone demands that the equipment of buildings have simplicity
of design and reliabilty in operation. The technical problems
that arise in designing heated buildings for the Arktic, with
the exception of permafrost, differ in degree rather than in
kind from those encountered elsewhere in Canada. All types of
foundations can be used in the North, providing they lend themselves to the method adopted for preserving the permafrodt underneath. files have been found to be the most suitable type of
foundation there, They can be used with the ventilation method
and can support large structures even whsre it is tpossible to
maintain the per ;afrost on its original level. -urface founiations
are generally used for very small buildings. For more permanent
structures1 concrete slabs or concrete pads on a gravel mat have
been used. These generally require replacing the frost active
soil in the active layer with a substantial thickness of coarse
granular material. Among the types of structures requiring
special treatment are watertanks, fuel tanks an. pumphouses.
litre a layer of cloan sand is built up to a beight of three to
four feet above the surrounding terrain, care being taken not
to disturb the top soil except where the complete removal and
replacement is necessary. The layer of sand must estend wll
beyond the limits of the building ad its normal noon-day shadows,
In the case of boiler houses and large scale heated buildings,
the air space underneath the floor should be ample to allow free
circulation of air and maintain permafrost at a stable level.
The floor must be well insulated to reduce the beat transfer to
the ground. Piles, either wood, steel or precast concrete,
should be set at least twice the depth of te active layer in
permafrost. Me length of the piling in the active layer should
be surrounded with a layer of sand and gravel, the upper portion
must be well greased and encircled with a thick layer of tarpaper
to prevent the frost and adhesive forces from lifting the pile,
Por the same reason, the lower portion should be left rough or
notched,
The Water Supplys
Aithough there are numerous ponds and lakes existing through-
out the Arctie, these are relatively shallow, During the winter
period most of such bodies of water are froen to the bottom.
The water sources here must be deeper than ten to twelve feet
before they can be expected to provide some water throughout the
year. Although the ice cover rarely exceeds eight feet, only
little liquid water remains below. In addition to this, mineral
and organic contents of the lakes are concentrated in the unfrosen parts, often rendering the water undesireable or unsuitable
for domestic use. Most of the lakes are products of retarded
drainage through the peruarost layer and only few have under.
ground springs as a continuous source of supply.
Thor are comperatively few rivers in the Arctic, large
enough to maintain an appreciable flow throughout the year, but
none of them exists in the Arctic Archipelago, with the exception
of, perhaps, Baffin Island, Where the larger rivers do exist,
their utilisation in the permafrost region is further complicated by the bottom ice ad ice sash
(
frasil)
clogging the
intake structures at midstream.
Suggestions have been made that deep wells tapping the subpermafrost water offer excellent possibilities for a year-round
water supply. A particular advarAg to well water is its low
turbidity, eliminating the need for large settling basins.
Against thia stands the difficulty of locating the sub-permafrost
water and well drilling through a frosen layer of several hundred
or even over thousa nd feet - as is the case at Resolute, Due to
their scope and complexity, all these problems lie somewhat out-
side the limite of this thesis research.
Sewage Disposal.
tow temperatures are also the greatest drawback in the
effivient operation of sewage disposal systems. Biological and
chemical reduction of organic matter is very slow. Where the
customary practices of disposal are used, permafrost prevents
proper filtration and leaching into the soil, resulting in a
poor drainage and vaste accumulations on the surface, Unlined
pit privies and septic tanks are now in comon use, but have
proven a poor practice. Even the primitive pail system is often
used for disposal of human vastes. Because of the limitations
mentioned before and also due to the lack of sufficient water
systems, very few water - arried sewage collection syst ma have
been installed in permafrost areas, To keep the sewage lines
from freezing, they are usually enclosed in a heated conduit
or utilidor. Savings can be achieved if the pipes can be placed
directly into the ground, rather than in an enclosure above it.
The feasibility of such installations depends greatly upon the
behavior of soils and permafrost in the given area. Rock outcrops,
frost active soil and high ice contents are the liniting factors.
Due to the warm waters, severs are less vulnerable to
freesing than water mains. Sewer lines should be veil insulated
even below the ground and their placement under roads or other
compacted soils should be avoided.
One method of sewage treatment receiving increased con-
22
aLderation is sewage lagooning. Providing for biological or
secondary treatments, this system discharges raw sewage into
large shallow oxidation ponds. Pperience has indicated,
that
properly constructed ponds work satisfactorily in cold climates.
The main advartages here are the low initial and maintenance
costs and trouble free operation*
Superstructuresa Special Considerations for the North.
One of the advantages of the standard wood frame construeo
tion hitherto used in the Arctic is its ability to deform aut
ficiently without damage,
thus taking up some of the movement
that may be produced by the action of permatrost on shallow
foundations. The same point has been a definite disadvantage to
prefabricated rigid panel structures: reduced weathertightness
at the joints has resulted because of the foundation movements.
panels made out of synthetic materials, with properly detailed
weathertight connections and greater elaeticity are holding a
definite promise to the improvement of weatherproofing in the
Northern construction of the future.
Thermal insulation materials in bulk form are preferable
to the multiple air layer systems or reflective insulators.
The obvious advantage of the latter is their lightness and
compactness in transportation. However, reflective materials
used alone, have given poor performance in very cold areas due
to convective actions in air spaces. The same, although in a
less pronounced way, can be said about the insulating materials
relying on I" to 2" deep flat air spaces as their only elements
to resist the heat flow.
Condensation of water on the interior surfaces of the outside walls and within the walls themselves to perhaps the greatest
single source of difficulty with the buildings in the Arctic.
Rotting of wooden structures, water stains on the ralls and
ceilings, wet insulation and the consequent compaction and dim-.
placement of the rockwool pads used, peeling of paint on the
exterior wood surfaces have shown the disadvantages of the cue.
tomary design and construction procedures. Because of the lower
surface temperatures, condensation occurs first on the windows,
This can be controlled by using triple glazing. Other areas of
high heat flow, such as metal clipa, exposed nail heads and
recessed switch boxes have to be eliminated or covered with the
maximum of insulating materials. The installing of an unbroken
plastic film or impregnated paper on the inner side of the wall
has been effective insofar it has maintained continuity of vapor
control across the panel or construction joints. Thermal conditions in the wood panels or stud construction hitherto used
are also made difficult by the incorporation of mechanical or
electrical conduits and other parts, particularly of interrupted
vapor barriers. This has resulted in the surface mounting of
the same and consequent unsightly arrangements visually.
The result of airtight construction is an increase of relative humidity within the buildings, which in turn introluces
condensation. Forced air ventilation or small louvered outlets
may have to be introduced to solve this problem.
Resistance to Fire.
Becouse of the isolation of Arctic settlements, the length
of the cold season and the extremely dry climate, the danger
of fire in the North is of far more serious consequences than
anywhere else. By the use of wooden construction it is difficult
to erect structures of more than one hour fire rating. Exterior
and interior finishes may have an important part in remedying
the situation, but the solution of the problem lies in the
selection of other materials ad methods. While the cold climate
and related beating questions denad compact design features in
any building for the Arctic# the location of the buildings and
their wide spacing because of the necessary fire separations
has hitherto worked in the opposite direction. The paint alone
has been unable to render the conventional wooden structures
safe.
Heating.
The greatest possible temperature differenoes occur luring
the polar nights when a gradient of 120*F to 1300? may be ex.
perienced. Fortunately, during the extreme cold spells the
weather is nearly always calm, The units of any dwolling complex should be not only well insulated but also with small
perimeter dimensions :id outside surface areas. Theoretically,
np'erical shapes are the most advanta eous. They are but of
limited use only where ine.rnal
importanec.
nace subdivision is of any
To keep the foundtions in their frozen state, open space
is left on the underside of buildings. Adequate heating at the
floor level is difficult in such conditions because of a high
heat loss through the floor. Even
ith substantial amounts of
insulation the heat must be introduced on or at the floor level
to naintain acceptable temperatures and to combat the convective
air entrents. Without proper heat distribution, temperature
differences of 5 0 F have been experienced between floor and
ceiling. This ca~n be soved by either forced air circulation
or a double floor design, to be used as a plenum through which
the warm air is drawn before entering the room. The latter
method does not require fA systems thus saving electricity
which in turn can be used for more advantageous purposes.
areas are generally small,
rinlow
and the psychological impression is
rather depressingo To reluce the beat loss of large
inhows,
triple gazing is used, At night, a drapery woven of wilium reflective material could also be drcsn around the inside of
windows or dome lights.
1; C.A. Mills, "A Year's Operating Results for Reflective
Radiant Conditioning."
26
New Alaterials aw
Methods.
The value of factory-produced components is universally
recognited as a means of rapid and economic building, particularly
where vaste and the amount of field work has to be reduced to a
minimum. The high cos
of transportation is the result of the
absence of shipping piers land mechanized unloading facilities
at the preient Northern supply baaes, but it also suggests econoiies in using light weight materials. This has led to increased
interest in building sybtemsa in which 4weight reductions can be
achieved, particularly those using plastics. Foamed polystyrenes
and plastic impreginated paper honeycombs have recently been used
as lightweight
core materials in sandwich panels. The skins of
such structural panels may be of a variety of materials. The
foamed polystyrenes with their high strength - weight ratio,
resilience, excellent thermal properties and high resistance to
water vapor transmission and absorption have already proven to
be particularly suitable for this type of use.
Because of higher strongth than poiystyrenes, but also
more expeasive, polyurethane is also a promising material for
sandwich panels. Improvements in manufacturing techniques have
made the prefabrication of plastic panels with lightweight
plastic cores competitive with wood frame panel systems, hitherto extensively used in the Canadian Arctic. In contrast with the
plastic foam corea, fiberglasarcinforced polyester sandwich
panels or shells have not entered the northern construction
field at all. laining its strength in a manner similar to
reinforced concrete with steel rods, the physical properties
of this compound product are superior to stal in several
respects: the strength-weight ratio to higher, it
is immune
to corrosion and its resistance to abrasion is another asset
in loading processes. To obtain the highest strength characteristics, the fiberglas reinforceAg can be obtained in fabric
weaves. Another advantage of its use in the Aretic is the improvement of the structural properties by a decrease in tem.
perature. By choice of the proper resin, it
is possible to
determine the degree of flexibility of the resulting product.
It is also possible to obtain transparent sheets - such as
t Duralux",
transmitting 90% or more of the visible light. The
allowable tensile strength for fiberglas cloth No. 14P, a unidirectional weave laid in cross laminate is 47800 pai, and
panels or roof shells would have to be manufactured with several
layers of translucent or opaque insulation between them,
When considered in their relation to their potential
savings in transportation charges resulting from tecreased
weight volume and the reduction of on the site construction
time, all-plastic panels do offer a means of reducing overall
building costs in the North. They may aiso provide an answer
to great many other Aretic construction problems and a better
future environment within and without.
28
The appearance of liquid plastics in architecture has
been scareely investigated. Casting, impregnating concrete
with a liquid, setting resin which would mechanically fill the
tiny pores and transfer concrete into a positively impervious
material has been thought of, but very little use has been
made of the forming technique by blowing. Characteristically
inherent to meny plastic materials, this procedure has been
limited to the manufacture of small objects from a viscous
liquid or from heated and softened material. The excessive
labor costs required for forming the wooden negative is the
hindwance to the progress of reinforced concrete shells. To
blow a large shell out of a plastics material would simply
require placing of the viscous resin in a saucer - like shell
built on the ground or atop a base structure and blowing a
current of compressed air from underneath. The viscosity of
the resin and the pressure required has to be worked out, but
once achieved, this procedure could be adopted for great many
types of structures, rendering the formwork obsolete* The
resulting structure would be a smooth sphere or a modification
of it
and even the forming bowl could often stay in place and
serve as a foundation.
Reinforced Concrete.
What is the durability of plastics in a long time span under
northern conditions, we do not know. Concrete will possibly endure for centuries, while steel gives every indication it will
29
not. The latter is also unsuited for Arctic requirements.
Plastics are materials of definite serviceable properties. They
can be used and they can be protected, but for certain structural
functions, particularly loadbearing below grade, no replacement
for concrete can be foreseen in the nearest future, Auger
-
sunk
concrete piles, concrete mat foundations on gravel pads and
below grade parts of retaining valls have serviced well in
supporting imposed loads on permafrost. Duildings at Thule Air
Force base in Greenland were first prefabricated from aluminam
-clad plywood, then, in successive years from metals and
finally from concrete, as the experiments in the field led to
improvements of design. It would be also inapropriate not to
mention the extensive use of concrete in the T*.E.. line and
the corresponding Mid-Canada line. The fact that they were
carried out without regard to normal economic considerations
does not make all the construction experience gained directly
applicable to civilian building in the North, but the completion
of the o...
line on schedule will be a continuing challenge
what can be done in the Arctic when the necessity calls.
Concrete is heavy in its pure form, but the abundance, of
gravel, sand and water at many Arctic building sites justifies
its use even for cast in place procedures. A satisfactory
result is dependant on
irmple, light and reusable formork.
There the same set of forms can be used reneatedly for many
buildings over a "ide Northern district,
plastic £orms seem to hold a great promise.
'a
fibre reinforced
MLk
C HAP T E R
IlI
the site
The -ite for the thesis desig
study has been chosen at
r$esolute Pay, on the southern tip of Cornwallis Island. The
motivations for the particular location were as follows:
"esolute in a comperatively swall but ireportant Arctie
outpost, whick till renain relative ly stable in its size and
the number of inhabitatnts because of its Far North location
and the charactor of its fuwction. It is a point 4ohere the
main wreather data of the Aretic Archi pelago are collected and4
broa-cast, the :teriniral of the Arctic supply convoys and the
wain iistribntion centre for the northern half of the trchipelagvo
an rel as the ireite
lands routh. The shiping season at
Resolute is two to three 'uonths a year and this baze is the
inst point accessible by regular ships and ocean tankers accompanied by an icebreaker.
Terrain and Soil.
Rtesolute is located 74041*03" N, 945417" W at an elevvtion of 56 feet above sea lotel. The terrain of Corwallis
isand is characterired by a plateau remnant in the southettstern
cuarter of the island, where it borders about twenty miles of
the 2onth and East coasts that face Harrow !trait and Wellington
Channel respectively.
The surface of the plateau is undulating
and truncated nountains are a characteristic feature. It is
crossed by several streams, steep in gradient and characterised
by canyons with numerOus waterfalls, while large intervening
areas are devoid of
riAinage lines. A range of hills up to
800 feet high rise innetiately to the North and North East of
Resolute Day. There is another, seperately standing hill of
approximately same elevation Southeast of the site, Many parts
of the coastal regions of Cornwaltis Island are low lying plains,
especially in the reat and Northwest, that slope gently seaward and on which major streams flow through generally evengradb1 channels,
often several miles in length, before reaching
the sea. By far the greater part of the surface of the island
is covered with Clay admixed with frost-shattered debris from
bedrock or of frost shattered rock alone. Limestone and dolomite
formations with shale, sandstonesand coal deposits Northwest
of the stony Resolute Flats should be noted. The settlement
area is a well-graded slope of frost shattered limestone and
small clay admixture, falling gently towards the Barrow Strait
and Wellington Channel, The depth of permafrost is well in ex..
cess of one thousand feet with an active layer of twelve inches.
Plants, represented mainly by grasses, lichens and mosses, grow
mostly in broad valley floors and on the coastal slopes about
Resolute and other points. Uplands in excess of 300 feet have
little or no plant cover, There are several small fresh water
lAkos immediately adjacent to the site, most of which freeze
to the bottom during the more severe winters. The sea, particularly in the center of the Straits, has open leads even in the
severest of winters.
A Sumary of the Dry Analysis.
Because of the peculiar climatic conditions, the
shortness of the building season and long and expensive supply routes, a satisfactory solution
requires the mobilisation of all technical reIsolation.
sources of the day. Remoteness and transportation
problems are still the most serious considerations
of all northern building. When thought is given to
the volume and weight of materials involved in the
construction, it can be readily seen that marine
transport, though sometimes complicated by the sea
ice conditions, is the only sensible approach to
building material shipments. To make a full advan.
tage of the short summer, planning and freight
deliveries shoult be made at least a year in adVance,
enerally high cost of imported fuel justifies
Cold
The
Climate.
heavy insulation. Effectite vapor barriers are a
collateral requirement. In selecting thermal materials, bulk type fire resistant insulations such
as synthetic foams or mineral wools are preferred
to multiple air layer systems. The need for conservation of heat 'uggeSts introvert structures
with heating, water and sever lines combined and
buildings of minim= exterior surface areas.
Snow
Because of the dryness of Resolute area luring the
Drifting.
winter months, the formation of very dense snow
drifts around the obstacles is of lesser importance
than in the Western Arctic, Flat roof structures
to not accumlate snow on rooftops, while all
pitched roofs do. Proper orientation and shape of
buildings is here also important.
Practically all of the builling materials
have to be transported from lower latitudes. As
much as possible has to be prefabricated and easily
Properties
stowable - either compact or light in weight. Other
of
properties required are high insulation values,
Materials.
high resistance to low-temperature weathering,
fire resistance, simplicity of asnembly and low
maintenance factor.
Permatrost.
For large structures at Resolute, concrete pile
foundations on bedrock could be used, with the
gravel paA
-
concrete mat system for buildings of
less founlation load. Water would be supplied either
by a deep well or from one of the freshwater lakes.
The dredging of a deep and insulated filtration
reservoir would be necessary in the latter case.
Chemical toilets or frost-protected sewer lines
with moss insulated oxidation ponds seem to be the
two alternatives for sewage lisposal in permafrost.
Cf
A P T E
IV
Geopsychology of the North.
Climatic and weather conditions, together with fort, color,
existing light and movement in any landscape are important in-.
fluential factors of human psychology. The
m total of such
influences seems to remain constants in locations, vhere some
of the natural phenomena have a diminishing intensity or are
absent, more importance is grained by others.
The problem od acclimatization is closely related to the
natural characteristics of the Arntic and Subarctic regions.
It is also a rather peculiar one. The polar winter night leaves
a very powerful impression upon everybody who has lived through
it.
Even the natives or people with long northern experiences
cannot be looked upon as fully acelimatizedl to the cold nights
of several months duration. Melancholy, the lowering of mental
productivity and other psychological symptoms are experienced
subjectively as well as observed by others.
Perceptible chan-
ges are evident ifter every winter. Their intensity depends on
the combined environmental influences and may occasionally give
a person the feeling of sickend*g
waknens.
Thile the subarctic
sumner with its sun, high temperatures and liit winds more
than compensates for the polar darkness, the tretic proper with
similar geophysical occurences of much longer duration, carries
new problems with it. Here the polar night tnd polar day give
experiences of much greater psychological intensity and the
35
expected degree of acclimatization is less both physically and
psychologically, Because of the white Arctic samwer nights,
sleep in difficult and often neglected. The absence of daily
changes of light and darkness lessens its depth under all conditions.
Polar Nervousness.
In the stricter sense of the word1 Amost all people
living in the proximity of the Arctic ticle
are influenced by
the climate and only partially acclimatized. For many a newcomer
it is even more difficult to adjust himself to the existing
conditions. The reaction appears after the first arctic night
and lies deep. Not everything can be corrected by the following
sner
day. Compulsion is to brood, mental sidetracking, whimsies,
weakening og memory, loss of self-reliance may all be created
during the dark season. with the advent of continually lit
arctic spring, te long periods of brilliant sunshine carries
with it an almost unpleasant and jarring impression. Exitement
is experienced without the disappearmnce of winter nervousness
and a rurious mixture of indefineare feelings is unavoidable.
A yearly graph depicting the physical and neAtal capacities of an individual in the North cin be drawn. The line here
would show a general detachment of the above capacities during
the long winter montha, whereby the mental activity is on a
downgrade, while the physical one rises. The spring and early
sumar brings both together again, while another low occurs
during the latter part of the smer and early fall, The
oscillations described here are based upon medical, psychiatric
and educational observations and are in general lines characteristic to the majority of arctic personnel. The modern has a
tendency to identify himself more with his microclimate both
physically and psychologically, replacing the powerful natural
forces to a secondary plane, and rendering himself far less
susceptible to te Polar nervousness.
An intereeting byline on the topic periolicity can be
seen in the hybernation of animals. Wile a number of nations
call this phenomenon the "winter sleep",
the affected creature
may get into the lethargical condition at various times of the
year be it
in the summer, spring or 'Anter. Uowever, there are
many reasons to believe that hybernation has been as&cciated
only with the cold period of the year and has been displaced
or oppressed by the migrution and associated climatic changes
in the following willeniums. The feeling of tiredness, the loss
of interests and depression are unusual feelings for people
during the subpolar and polar winter, but may be quite natural
reactions of atavistic nature.
In the parts of the North, where rzoified maritime climate
with overcast susmrers prevails, the efIfects of polar night have
a cumulative nature. The spring sun and clear April flies cannot be, the equivalent to the long sunny day elswlore in the
Continental Arctie: the short and overcast sumer sets in too
soon. Here the importance of controlled microclimate to the
psychology of arctic personnel becomes much more evident:
low hanging clouds and foggy landscape is a poor improvement
over the crisp and clear atmosphere of the polar night,
Ath the passing of time, northern service personnel
show an increased desire for privacy. An intense wish to be
alone, to read or study is more pronounced in small isolated
conunities of loss than 20 to 30 men, where the same faces
are seen for monets on end. in a group ten times larger the
quest for privacy should be less important reason for creating
mutual tensions, particularly under the balancing influence of
residing wives and farailies,
C H AP
TER V
A major consideration with reference to the future levee
lopment of the
rctic will be based On its supply of raw
materials. One of the immeliate taka is to find ways and
means of supplying fuels for local consumption. Until nuclear
reactors are available on a comaercial basis, the finlinga of
geoilogy section will have to serve this purpose. All research
personnel would be operating from Resolute as the main center,
while sub--bases are changed constantly to enable a thorough
coverage and familiarity of field conditions4
Lutomatie weather
stations are accepted in meteorology, but their information is
not always sufficient and reliable, Pesides the two branches
mentioned, the research of the atmospheric strata with balloons
and rockets can only be carried out by professional personnel.
The distribution of life forms in the atmosphere, on land and
at sea has to be aaother phase ia the overall Arctic research
pattern. Biology, oeanography and timnotogy are closely con-.
nected in this investiration of the natural environment and
means by which life exists wider prevailinr con Iitions. Much
of it has alrealy beaaccouplished but even more has to be
done. The territory is very large in every sense of the word
and hitherto understaffed in scientific and service personnel.
39
The People.
At the present, the civilian population of Cornwallis Island
is about 15u people, 80 of whom are Eskimos 9 the remainder is the
personnel at Resolute settlement. The station there Is being enIarged on a bunkhouse-after-bunkhouse basis. A part of the go.
veramental Northern Administration apparatus will be established
here and substantial expanaion of te scientific activities are
planned. The future number of people at Resolute is estimated at
250 to 275. The settlement would be operated by a Crown Corpora.
tion and the character of the stay in the proposed colony would
still be on & temporary basis.. with the exception of the rehebilitated Eskimos, The
.C.A.F. establishment and its function
at Resolute has been purposedly ezluded.
The following is a tentative suggestion of the administrative, professional and maintenance personnel required for the
various objectives mentioned beforehand and determined mostly
from the interviews with Canadian Government officials in the
Department of Transport and Department of Northern Affairs.
Administration:
Msass
2
Supply Officiers
2
Assistant$
8
Assistants
2
Northern Admin
4
R.C.M.P.
Office Personnel 2
Stores Clerks
4
H*B.C. Personnel
2
WMAWL
Maintenatnce :
Scientific Operations
Maintenance Foreman
Meteorologists
8
Mech.Equipment Rep.,
Technicians
0
Building Repairrnen
Biologists
2
Boiler - Furnace
Marine Biologists
Cleaners
and LiMnologists
2
Cooks
Oceanographists
3
Assistants
Technicians
5
Maintenance Office
Physicians
2
Nurses
3
Orderlies
2
Technical Services:
Padiomen
3
Geologists
8
TV Men
2
Technicians
8
Typists
2
Anthropologists
1
Technicians
2
Librarian
1
Pilots
4
Tenchers
3
Mechanics
4
Total Active Personnels
ombardior and/or
Boat Operators
147
3
Mechanice
One of the basic requirements for the sucesful deve lopment
and existence of a commnnity of this character is a stable family
life. The wives and children of the personnel ,ill be stayting in
the North for the duration of
ti,
but the numerical increments
of family setup will be somewhat different than in an usual
community of lower latittdes.
41
More than one half of the present personnel at Resolute
are bachelors, This factor, although strongly uodified, may
be carried over to the future developments of the Northern
Arctic. A couple without ebildren will in many instances be
both in the numbers of the active personnel, and with the pos.
sible exception of the Eskimos, there will be very few - if
any - large families of five or more persons. Imposed limitations
in the schooling of children and other factors, such as high
cost of living, will force this ecological groug to
tay out-
side the Northern Anetic.
The average family with children is calculated to be 3.3
people, and the population setup is tentatitely inticated belows
Population Grouping by Family
Working Women a
Northern AdmindBranch
3
Status and Numbers
Supplies Office
2
Single Men
Maintenance office
I
Orderlies - Cleaners
2
Married Couples
.!itchen Personnel
5
no Children
Technical Serv. Off.
3
56 Families with
scientific Serw, Otf.
7
27 pre-school age and
Nurses
3
45 school age children
Teachers
2
Totals
28
37
Women
2
28
184
Otal #
275
(52)
Percentage Grouping of Families#
15% single
39 people
19% Couples
50 people
30a Famibs of 3
84 people
25%
Families of 4
72 people
11%
Families of 5
30 people
100%
275
Because the functions of the settlement are represented
not only by a long range research program in the Arctic and a
distribution center for the area, but also by the rehabilittion
of the Eskimo, the schooling of the natives would be integrated
with the existing setup. This could be arranged by daytime
activities for all childrem and evening classes for aults.
Besides emall recreational areas for each of the families,
larger facilities for common recreational purposes are very
importqnt. Because of the low temperatures, wind and darkness,
the people will stay indoors for the ;roatest part of the year.
The erettion of enclosed passages between buildings is a common and proven arctic practice. These corridors eliminate the
unpleasant experiences of a possible 1200F to 130
difference
in temperature and become vitally important under polar blisard
conditions.
While the climate is rfther vigorous, the Polar air is
remarkably germ free. Colds and flu are experienced very seldom
and accidents or disorders of biological nature cause the
greatest number of medical mercy flights. Most of the serious
cases are flown out and only local infirmaries of small scale
are used for the personnel tending the Arctic stations.
To provide amenable living conditions for the 275t,
facilities have to be included which would normally represent
a settlement of much larger size. Although few of the areas
nay double in their purposes, providing church services in a
library area or movie shows in a dining room, certain minimm
possibilities of combined functions exist.
Projecting a concept in broad outlinea, the organization
of the settlement would include a section housing the adminiatrational and non-scientifie functions, with living quarters
somewhat detached, Their subdivision in several apartment like groupangs vould eliminate a forced feeling of couaunal
quarters. Such a layout would also reduce expensive hetting
and utilities, normally associated with decentralized single
family dwellings in cold climates, Since only a limited nm.ber of supplies and food requires protection from the cold, a
large part of the storage area would be left unheated, All
laboratories could be interrelated but not necessarily in the
immediate proximity of the other areas.
44
Area RtquirEments.
Based on the functior.z of the Resolute settlement outlined
before and on the data supplieg by the Governmental Offices in
Ottawa, the biggest enclosed space by far is require
for the
storage of supplies.
In awer 1958, the amount of cargo for Resolute and all
other outposts in the Eastern Arctic totalled 53 tons per man
per year, including construction materials, supplies and
machinery. With the base construction finished, a warehouse ~
storage space of
1.5 to 175
million cubic feet should be
considered ample to meet the current requiretments of the area,
Ther would be apperate storage aroas for the scientifio mate.
rials and for the goods of the Hudson's fay Company.
Living space indicated below includes sleeping and lining
for all residents and recreational areas for the families only.
Other areas for indoor sports and more specialized recreational
facilities should be added, The figures here representttrea
totals of above minimum averages required for one to five per.son groups living under normal conditions, Since the objective
of this study it the development of an overall architectural
concept, the working out of minor details would not contribute
appreciably to this stage of work.
45
Administration:
Techn.Mgr.and Assistant 400
Connmunication Services:
Radio
450
Scient.Operations Mgr.
400
TV
900
Northern Administration
900
Office
200
1550
(R.C.M.P. included":
Supply Officerts Office
350
T iving
2 Gen.Offices 9 300t400
700
Library and Chapel
3500
H. B. C. Office
400
Movies
2500
3000
3150
Areast
Sports
Maintenances
Lounge (a)
2 Gen.Off ices 0 250&300 550
500
Supply Room
Multipurpose
3000
Dining 3 @ 500
Kitchen
1500
750
School 2 0 900
1800
2 lep. orkshop98250&400
650
1700
School Office
Medical Services:
Infirmary, 2 rns.@ 500
200
1000
X - Ray
T!aboratory
200
2 Physicians Offices
500
Nurse's Office
150
200
2050
Laboratories:
16250
individual Living:
Space
82500
out of which areas
Married couples
550
Family, I child
Family, 2 children
Family, 3 children
890
1200
1400
Meteorology
050
Geology
Geophysics
750
350
Biology & Botany
Anthropology
450
300
J.B.C. Trading Ctr.
2000
and Storage
fleta.Storage (unboat. )200000
Oceanography
500
Combined Offices
75.i
Scientific Mat's Stor.3000
209000
Limnology and
82500
Boiler Room
4000
3750
Total:
319950
Plus circulation space*
Conclusion.
The architectural solution for the Resolute settlement
has to be a clear statement speaking by itself rather than
blending in the surrounding landscape. The use of color and
an overall impression of mass and fom have a definite psycho-.
logical influene against the barren landsaepe of the North.
More than in the temperate monea,
the settlements of the Aretie
take on a character of very definite landmarks rather than
remain anonymous concentrations of poaple.
It would be incorret
to ignore this aspect and to provide a different answer to the
rocky island's climatic rigors by building mostly underground.
The seiquence of interior spaccs and a feeling of protection
would have the greatest importance for the inhabitants of the
future rzosoluto at all times. The architectural content of the
development should therefore express both the climatie conditions
as well as the functions and aspirations for which it has been
intended *
-AMMOMMOMMAI.-
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