Summer1993
L
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New Mexico Bureau
----of~
Mines and Mineral
Resources
(NMBM&MR)
:.gi’
A quarterlypubhcat,on
for educatorsandtlie pubhc
contemporary
geologicaltopics, issues andevents
\
\
cosmic debris
makes dramatic
entrance
This Issue:
Earth Briefs-Meteorite wrecksteenager’s
car
Stream Meanders-why does water
wiggle?
Have you ever wondered...Howold are
the Sandta Mountains?
Fireworks and Natural Resources
Excerpts from "Ltfe on the MisstsstplK’-a
momenton the meandering river with
Mark Twain
Newsabout Earth Science EducationEarthltnks for Educators,
Current topics in Earth,Science--htghLites
EarthBriefs
Cosmic Debris Makes
DramaticEntrance
One autumnevening, 18-year-old
Micheile Knappwas at her homein
Peekskill, NewYork, watching TVwhen
she heard a crash outside. She and many
of her neighborscalled the police to
report whatthey believed was a car crash.
There was no sign of a wreck,’but when
police arrived, they discovered a
mysterious hole punched through
the trunk of Michelle’scar. Aninitial
police report suggested that the damage
resulted from an incident of "malicious
mischief by a very strong male." The
neighbors and police puzzled over how
someonecould accomplish such a feat.
After listening to the evidenceand
conjectures, one of Michl~lle’sneighbors,
a blind womannamed Rose Colluci,
deduced that thedisturbance must have
been causedby the arrival of a meteorite.
Sure enough,a piece of cosmic debris was
found underneath the car. The meteorite,
which was discovered about 20 minutes
after it landed, wasstill warm.
Onits journey to Michelle’s driveway,
the 27-poundmeteor(as it was called
before it landed) wasestimated to have
beentravelling so fast that it streaked
over WashingtonD.C., about one second/
before it slammedinto the Earth in
Peekskill, N.Y. That sameevening,
October9, 1992, several "shooting stars"
were sighted at various places along the
Atlantic Coast¯ The meteor shower was
even video-taped by a manat afootball
game in western NewYork.
The meteorite found under Michelle’s
car was a stony meteorite, or
chondrodite. It remainedrelatively intact
after the impact, althoughseveral small
¯ pieces brokeoff as it passedthroughthe
car trunk, and several other pieces were
removedby police.
Three persons collectively purchased
the meteoritewith plans to slice it into.
three sections-one for each purchaser.
Michellealso has sold her 1980red
Malibuwith the hole in its trunk. The car,
Lite Geology, Summer1993
o
Haveyou ever
wondered...
along with one of the slices of meteorite,
is destined for display at the American
Museumof Natural History in NewYork
city.
Frazier,Si, andFrazier,Ann,1993,Theskyis
falling--andeverybody
wantsa piece of it:
Lapidary
Journal,vol. 46, no. II, pp. 79--80,82,
84.
Summer1993, Lite Geology
Howold are the Sandia
Mountains?
p ¯
Charles E. Chapin
NMBM&MR
Director and State Geologist
The Sandia Mountainsare a tilted,
fault-block mountainrange
bordering Albuquerqueon the east.
The range is approximately 17
miles long north-south by 8 to 12
miles wide. The summit isat
an elevation of 10,678feet
comparedto about 6,000 feet
at its westernbase. The
west side looks
spectacularly steep, but
between the base and
the crest the slope
averages22° or less.
In comparison,the
east side slopes about
15° east. Mostof the west
face consists of the Sandia
Granite, a large intrusion
emplacedabout 1,445
million years ago. Overa
billion years of earth
history is missingin the rock record of the
Sandia Mountainsbetween intrusion of
the Sandia Granite and deposition of the
marinelimestones (305-320 million years
old) that formthe layered crest of the
range.
But if the Sandia area was once
beneaththe sea (and it was as recently as
70 million years ago) whendid it become
a mountainrange and howcan we tell?
One methodis to determine the age of
sediments eroded from the mountains
and deposited in adjacent basins.
Sometimesdistinctive rock types,
exposedto erosion by uplift of the
mountains, tell us which sedimentary
layers were laid downin nearby basins
during rise of the mountains. Suchlayers
maybe dated by determining the age of
fossils or volcanic rocks containedin the
layers. But datable materials are not
~lwayspresent.
Dr. Shari Kelley at Southern
MethodistUniversity in Dallas has used
an interesting high-tech methodto
determine not only whenthe Sandia
Mountainswere uplifted but the
approximaterate of uplift. The methodis
called fission-track dating. Afissioh track
is a microscopictube-shapedpath (Fig. 1)
of radiation damagein a mineral’s crystal
lattice (a 3-dimensionalarray of atoms
bondedtogether in a distinctive pattern).
Fission tracks form in minerals containing
uranium when the nucleus of a uranium
atom spontaneously splits
(fissions) into two
approximately equal parts. The
uraniumnucleus fissions
becauseit is too large to be
completelystable.
Whena fission event occurs,
the two parts of the
nucleus recoil from
each other in opposite
directions at high
velocity. Passageof
these fission products
damagesthe crystal
lattice, leavinga track.
The most abundant
isotope of uranium
(atomic weight 238)
fissions at a constant
rate that has been
very accurately
measured by nuclear
scientists.
Fission tracks are invisible to the
nakedeye, but can be observed
through a microscopein a thin,.highly
polishedslice of a mineralafter etching
with acid has widenedthe tracks (Fig. !).
The numberof tracks present is
proportional to the uraniumcontent, the
fission rate, and the age of the mineral.
The mineral apatite (calcium phosphate)
is present in manycommonrocks and
contains sufficient uraniumto produce
abundant fission tracks. At temperatures
belowapproximately100°C(actually
temperaturerange of 60-140°C)fission
tracks in apatite are relatively stable, but
at temperatures ahoyz 120-140"Cdiffusion
of ions in the crystal lattice is fast enough
to repair the fission tracks and they
disappear (are annealed).
Whena mountainrange rises, rocks at
depth cool as they ere uplifted
towardthe Earth’s surface. At
temperatures above 120-140°C,fission
tracks that form in apatite are quickly
erased. As the rocks ~:ool below
approximately100"C,fission tracks in
apatite start to becomestable and the rock
begins to accumulatea track history.
Rocktemperatures decrease toward the
surface of the earth at a rate (geothermal ~,j
gradient) generally between20 and 40°C
NewMexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
s
per kilometer (3,280 feet). Assuming
geothermal gradient of 30°C per
kilometer and a meanannual surface
temperatureof I0°C, fission tra~:ks in
apatite containedin rocks beneaththe
Sandia Mountains would begin to become
stable as they rose abovea depth of
approximatery3.0 kilometers (9,840 feet).
Dr. Kelley collected samplesof the
granite makingup the west face of
the Sandia Mountainsfrom near the top
to the lowest bedrockoutcrops. The
fission-track ages for the.mineral apatite ,
in these samples’ranged from 30 ± 5
million years near the top of the mountain
to 15 ± 2.6 million years near the bottom.
In other words, rocks near the top of the
SandiaMountains
cooledbelow100°C
30million
years
ago.Atlower
andlower
elevations
thesamples
yielded
progressively
younger
agesbecause
these
samples
started
their
journey
tothe
surface
fromdeeper
(hotter)
levels
inthe
earth.
Thefission
tracks
arelong,
indicating
thattherocks
cooled
rapidly.
Iftherocks
hadcooled
slo,wly,
partial
annealing
wouldhaveshortened
the
fission
tracks.
Thedifference
in elevation
between
thehighest
andlowest
samples
is
920meters (3018feet) and the difference
in fission-track agesis 15 million years.
This gives an apparent uplift rate of 61.3
meters(201 feet) per million years.
uplift continued atthe samerate Since 15
million years ago (the fission-track age of
the lowest elevation sample), the Sandia
Mountains would have risen an
additional 920meters(3,018 feet) for
total uplift of 1,840meters(6,036feet)
30million years. However, we knowthat
approximately3,050 meters (I0,000 feet)
of sedimentary strata have been removed
from the Sandia Mountainssince the last
sea retreated from the area about 70
million years ago. Someof these rocks
may have been removedbefore the
Sandiasbeganto rise, but other geologic
evidence indicates that most were
removedduring uplift of the mountain
range. Thus, uplift fates must have been
considerablyfaster since 15 million years
ago to allow for erosion of so muchrock
and still have a bold mountainrange
towering 5,000 feet above Albuquerque.
Several assumptions were made
during this application of the
fission-track method:I) cooling was
accomplishedprimarily by uplift towards
¯ the earth’s surface accompaniedby
erosion of the overlyingrock cover, 2) the
geothermalgradient was constant, and 3)
the 100°Cisotherm (surface of equal
temperature) was horizontal. Thus, Dr.
Kelley’s age determinations are
approximations because someof these
conditions maynot have been present
during the entire uplift history. Also, the
fission-track methodonly yields the time
and apparent rate of uplift of a mountain
range relative to the surroundingarea.
The entire region mayalso be uplifted in
an absolutesense (relative to sea level)
independentof the relative.uplift of
individual mountain ranges. Absolute
uplift is a muchmoredifficult problemto
solve and maybe the subject ofa future
column.
Readers
desiring
moreinformation
about
fission-track
dating
are
referred
to NMBM&MR
Bulletin
145
titled Late Mesozoicto Cenozoiccooling
histories of the flanksof the northernand
central RiQGranderift, ColoradoandNew
Mexicoby Kelley, Chapin, and Corrigan
(1992). TheBulletin sells for $7.50 plus
$2.50 postage, and is available from the
NMBM&MR,
Publication Sales Office,
Socorro, NM87801.
Figui’el-Fissiontracksin a crystal of apatite fromthe largedike.that extendssouthfrom
Sh/prock(about27millionyearsold). Thephotograph
wastakenof a thin slice of the
mineralafter the tracks hadbeenetchedwithacid to enlargethem(widthof field of view
is 0.2 millimeter).Photograph
courtesyof Dr. CharlesNaeser,U.S.GeologicalSurvey.
NewMexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
Lite Geology, Summer1993
Excerpts from
"Life on the
Mississippi"
by Mark Main, 1883
"...give me the opportunity of
introducing one of the Mississippi’s
oldest peculiarities---that of shortening
its length from time to time. If you will
throw a long, pliant apple-paring over
your shoulder, it will pretty fairly shape
itself into an average section of the
Mississippi River; that is, the nine or ten
hundred miles stretching from Cairo,
Illinois, southward to NewOrleans, the
same being wonderfully crooked, with a
brief straight bit here and ’there at wide
intervals. The two-hundred-mile stretch
from Cairo northward to St. Louis is by
¯ no meansso crooked, that being a rocky
country which the river cannot cut much.
’.’The water cuts the alluvial banks of
the ’lower’ river into deep horseshoe
curves; so deep, indeed, that in some
places if you were to get ashore at one
extremity of the horseshoe and walk
across the neck, half or three quarters of a
mile, you could sit downand rest a
couple of hours while your steamer was
coming around the long elbow, at a speed
of ten miles an hour, to take you aboard
again. Whenthe river is rising fast, some
scoundrel whose plantation is back in the
country, and therefore of inferior value,
has only to watch his chance, cut a little
gutter across the narrow neck of land
somedark night, and tu~rn the water into
it, and in a wonderfully short time a
miracle has happened: to wit, the whole
Mississippi has taken possession of that
little ditch, andplaced the countryman’s
plantation on its bank (quadrupling its
value), and the other party’s formerly
valuable plantation finds itself awayout
yonder on a big island; the old watercourse around it will soon shoal up, boats
cannot approach within ten miles of it,
and downgoes the value to a fourth of its
¯ formerworth....
"Pray observe someof the effects of this
ditching business..., the Mississippi
between Cairo and New Orleans was
twelve hundred and fifteen miles long
one hundred and seventy six years ago. It
was eleven hundred and eighty after the
cut-off of 1722. It was one thousand and
forty after the AmericanBend cut-off. It
same token any person can see
that seven hundred and forty-two
has lost sixty-seven miles since.
Consequently its length is only nine
hundred and seventy-three miles at
present.
"Now, if I wanted to be one of those
ponderous scientific people, and ’let on’ to
prove what had occurred in the remote
past by what had occurred in a given time
in the recent past, or what will occur in
the far future by what has occurred in late
years, what an opportunity is herel
Geology never had such a chance, nor
such exact data to argue froml Nor
’developmentof species,’ eitherl Glacial
epochs are great things, but they are
vague---vague. Please observe:-"In the space of one hundred and
seventy-six years the Lower Mississippi
has shortened itself two hundred and
forty-two miles. That is an average of a
trifle over one mile and a third per year.
Therefore, any calm person, who is not
blind or idiotic, can see that in the Old
Oolitic Silurian Period, just a million
years ago next November, the Lower
Mississippi River was upwards of one
million three hundred thousand miles
long, and Stuck out over the Gulf of
. Mexico like a fishing-rod. And by the
years from nowthe Lower
MississippiRiverwill beonlya mile
andthree quarters long, and Cairoand
NewOrleans will have joined their streets
together, and be plodding comfortably
along under a single mayor and a mutual
board of aldermen. There is something
fascinating about science. One gets such
wholesale returns of conjecture out of
such a trifling investment of fact."
MarkTwain, 1883
Life on the Mississippi
(public domain)
Questions and
answers about
stream meanders
Dave Love
Environmental Geologist, NMBM&MR
What does meander mean?
Stream meanders are one of the most
notable and intriguing aspects of many
drainages in NewMexico (Fig. 1).
Meanders are the sinuous paths many
streams take back and forth along their
course.
Figure 1-Aerial photographof meandersalong the Rio Puerco south of Cuba, New
Mexico.State Highway44 and vehicle for scale. Note older and impendingcutoffs.
(Photocourtesyof NewMexicoHighway
and TransportationDepartment)
Summer1993, Life Geology
New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
Whatdetermines a stream’s path?
The formation and persistence of
stream meanders depends On several
factors related to the developmentof
strean~s over geologictime as well as
physical principles of energyuse and selfregulation in complicatedsystems. All
streams operate within an area called a
watershed,and all streams havea history.
Streams gather and movewater and
sedimentin their headwaters, transport
and temporarily store sediments
downstream,and distribute water and
sediments at their’mouths. The removal
and movement
of sediment is called
erosion while the storage of sedimentis
called deposition. All stream systems
consist of channels and adjacent flood
plains.The movementof water and
sediment requires work to be done
(energy is used to movemasses of water
and sediment across the landscape). The
amountof work depends primarily on the
amountof water and the gradient
(vertical drop per horizontal distance)
the stream. Throughtime, streams adjust
their gradients, velocities, sedimentloads,
stream-bed roughness, widths, depths,
and pathways. Streams that meander
have a common
range in gradients,
sediment loads, and amountsof mudin
banks and beds, each determined by the
streams’ history and adjustments made
along the way.
~D,
channel width. Stream meanders
commonlyfollow paths that showthe
minimumvariation in changes in
direction along the channel length. Such
curves are knownmathematically as
"sine-generated" curves. Sine-generated
curves describe the most probable
randompath between two points (a
straight line is not the mostprobablepath
¯ betweentwo points whenyou only .know’
you’re headedgenerally downhill).
Does the sine-generated meanderfollow
the laziest path?
A sine-generated curve is also the
curve that minimizesthe work in forming
a bend. The form of meanderswithin a
streamvalley is the result of a balance
betweendoing the least amountof work
and equalizing the distribution of work
betweentwo points. In other words, the
work done along each segment of the
stream is uniform, while a minimum
amountof total work is done.
Whatdetermines the shape of the stream
bottom in a meanderingstream?
The shape of the stream bottom along
meanderingstreams, as most anglers and
cinoeist~ know,consists of shallowriffles
and barS along straight channel segments
¯ between meander bends and deeper
pools in the meanderbends themselves.
The pools ace deepest along the outer
edges of the meanderand are shallow on
the inside bankor point bar (Fig. 2).
Howaremeanders
described?
Water and bottom-movingsediment flow
Meanders
consist
ofstraight
and
fairly uniformlydownthe straight riffles,
curved
segments
ofa channel.
Thebanks
but the bulk of the water and bottomofthet:urved
bends
aredescribed
as
movingsediment separate and reo.rganize
outside,
orconcave
banks
andinside,
or
as both movethrough the bend. The
convex
banks.
Convex
banksare
commonly
called
pointbars.Thepattern water tries to continueflowingstraight,
but as theban]<forces it to turn, it crosses
ofmeanders
along
a valley
(Fig.
2)can
to the outer bank, piles up and moves
described
byI)sinuosity,
ortheratio
of
more quickly around the outside of the
channel
length
tostraight-line
length,
2)
bend. Deepcross-channel currents are set
wavelength,
ordistance
between
up in a counter-balanced motion to move~
repetitive
arcsofchannel,
and3)radius
of
somewater back toward the slowercurvature,
thelength
oftheradius
ofan
arcofa circle
drawn
around
thetightest movingside near the inner bank of the
channel. Asa result, there is a net
partof a meander
loop.
Sinuosities
may
corkscrew-like motionof water in the
range
from1.1tomorethan22.The
deeper part of the channel aroundthe
wavelength
ofmostmeanders
is sevento
bend. The corkscrew motion erodes the
. tentimes
thechannel
width.
Radii
of
outside of the bend, and helps move
cu.rvature
areonlytwotothree
times
the
~,
NewMexicoBureau of Mines’and Mineral Resources
\
channelwidth
convex
bank"
riffle
point bar surface
velocity_
toward outer
bank
flow
eddy velocity
toward
near-bottom
flow
bank
inner
bank
deposition
on inner
bank
erosion
of outer
bank
-)revious
chute
oxbow
channel)-
Figure 2--Common
terms and measurements
applied to streammeanders,water flow
directions aroundbends,andplacesof erosion
and deposillon.
-
Lite Geology, Summer1993
coarse sedimentalong the channel in fastmoving water. Both water and sediment
spread out at the downstreamend of the
bendand enter the next riffle. Secondary
eddies are also set up along the sides of
the meanders, movingsome water across
the channel or even upstream. The slower
movingwater on the inside of the bend
tends to deposit sedimenton the point
bar.
Oncea meanderforms, is tt stable?
The corkscrew movementof water,
erosion of the outer bank, and deposition
along the point bar meanthat through
time, the meandershifts laterally, eroding
the outside bank and building the inside
bank. Meandersalong major streams in
NewMexico may move several meters
per year, both in a cross-valley direction
and in a down-valleydirection.
Did you see the look
on that guy’s face?
What happens when meanders move?
’Because meanderloops tend to move
across and downvalley, someloops may
overtake others, causing channelsto cut
across narrowparts of the meanderloops
and form a new pathway. The process is
called neckcutoff (Fig. 2) and the
abandonedmeanderloop is called an
oxbow(Fig. 2). Cutoff can also happen
during floods whenhigh water takes
short cuts across low parts of the
stabilized point bar. This processis called
chute cutoff.
What happens when stream meanders
erode downward?
Manystream channels and even
canyons and valleys in NewMexicohave
becomeincised into the underlying rock
or sed~iment,while the stream maintained
a meanderingpattern. As a result the
meanders have becomeentrenched, with
high arroyo walls or bedrockcliffs
towering above present stream channels
(Fig. 3). Thesefeatures reflect the
persistence of meanderingstream flow
for long periods of time.
Suggested activities and questions:
I. Takea long piece of stiff fiberglass
strappingtape or spring steel, hold it at
twopoints and bendit into loops. It will
assumethe shape of least workand least
Summer1993, Lite Geology
Figure3--Entrenched
meandersof streamsin the Guadalupe
Mountains,southeastern
NewMex/co.Countyroadfor scale cuts diagonallyfromuppercenter to lowerleft.
(Photocourtesy of U.S. GeologicalSurvey)
Figure 4--Bends formed by steel tape (redrawn from Leopold and Wolman, 1966).
NewMexicoBureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
4
deflection from the maindirection
betweenthe twopoints (Fig. 4). Steel
cables draped between towers across
rivers to form suspensionbridges also
take on the configurationof least work.
Stream meandersmaintain a similar
shape. Describe someobvious differences
betweenstreams and stiff fiberglass or
steel.
2. After lookingat Figure 2, describe in ¯
whichdirections the stream current
wouldtend to movea canoe along as you
try to maintainthe canoein a center line
around a meanderbend. Describe the
deflections a mini-submarinewould
experienceif it tried to followthe same
center line near the bottomof the
meander bend.
3. Should you buy property with a
meanderingriver as one property-line
boundary? Why?
4. Work(W)is defined in basic physics
force (F) times distance (S) over which
~,, force operates
W=F,S
Force(F) is defined as mass(m) times
acceleration(a).
F = m.a
For streams, acceleration downslope is a
fraction of gravitational acceleration(g)
dependingon the stream gradient (note:
is a special designation of a). Couldequal
amountsof work be done by a large
stream with an extremely small gradient
and a smaller stream with an extremely
large gradient? Whatlimits the amount
of work done?
Suggested Reading:
Bloom,A.L., 1978, Geomorphology,
a
systematicanalysis of LateCenozoic
landforms:Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ,510pp.
Dietrich,W.E.,andSmith,J.D., Processes
controlling the equilibriumbed morphology
in river meanders,
in J. E. Glovera~dothers,
(eds.), Rivermeanderin&
proceedingsof the
Conference
Rivers’83: American
Societyof
Civil Engineers,NewYork,pp. 759--769.
Leopold
L.B., andLangbein,W.B.,1966,River
meanders:
ScientificAmerican,
v. 214, no. 6,
pp. 60-70.
Schumm,
S.A., 1977,Thefluvial system:John
Wileyand Sons, NewYork,338pp.
NewMexicoBureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
A Boulder Lesson
Jacques Renault
~nior Geologist, NMBM&MR
Downa wash here’s what I see:
This humongous
boulder in a tree,
Stuckin a crotch a yard or so
Abovewhere the tree decided to grow.
Probably weighed two hundred pounds.
Beenthere long before I cameround.
Wasthere a giant awfully bored,
With no one watching to record
Theterrible strain and pain to place it
WhereI’d have to wonderingface it?
Or did it drop right out of the sky,
A meteorite passing by?
Perhapsthe tree, from a tiny sprout,
Just grewand lifted it right out
Of its rocky sand and gravel bed
Just to makeme scratch myhead.
Instead of puzzlingon thin air,
I looked to see whatelse was there.
Highas myhead on the rocky wall,
Driftwood hungfrom nothing at all.
The wash was a narrow granite pass;
Waterhad to travel fast
Anddeep whenstorms were really great,
Rolling boulders through that gate.
Hey,I think I’ve got ifl See,
Theboulder rolled into the tree.
But howdid it get up into it?
Well,here’s the wayit had to do it.
Thetree trunk was a little buried
In all the sand and mudthat hurried
Downthe wash, you know. So when
A flood camerushing through again,
The crotch was in the gray and caught
That boulder just as quick as thought.
Another storm came washing by
Andl~ft ti~e boulder high and dry.
Now,after this I hope you’ll know
One way that rocks and water go,
But better yet you learned from me
To look beyondthe bouidered tree.
i’
Life Geology, Summer1993
Flreworks and
Natural Resources
Virginia T. McLemore
FieMEconomY"
C, eolog~st, NMBM&MR
Fireworks, or pyrotechnic devices,
have becomean important part in our
celebration of national holidays.
However,few people mayrealize that
morethan two dozen different materials
are required to producethe sparkling
displays we all enjoy. Pyrotechnicsare
manufacturedmaterials or devices that
producenoise, light, smoke,heat, or
motionwhenignited. In addition to
fireworks,
some common.
pyrotechnics include matches,
flares, and torches; less
commonl~utequally important
pyrotechnics include igniters, ~’l
incendiaries,
fuses (flares
used as danger signals),
and dispersing materials for
substances
suchas insecticides.
Fireworksare a combination
of gunpowder and
and other
combustible ingredients
ingredients
that explode
noises and emit
sparks
and flames when
burning. Today fireworks
are divided into two classes:
(1) force and spark, and
(2) flame(rockets). Theyconsist
oxidizers, fuels, and binders. Oxidizers
allow for the ignition of the fuel to burn
or explode and include compounds
containingnitrates, perchlorates,
chlorates, and peroxides of barium,
potassium, and strontium. The materials
that act as fuels includesulfur, charcoal,
boron, manganese, aluminum,titanium,
and antimonysulfide. Binders, typically
paper, hold the fireworks together.
The discoveryof fireworks is
attributed to the Chinese before 1000AD
during the Sung dynasty. Firecrackers
(consisting of a black powder)and simple
rockets, (containing black powderplus
propellant) were used during festivals
and celebrations. Fireworks were
introduced in Europeprior to 1242, when
Roger Bacon’s formulas were used. By
1320, black powderwasused as a
propellant in firearms and the European
militaries controlled its manufactureuntil
the 19th century. In 1677, black powder
,oud
Summer1993, Lite Geology
was used as a blasting agent in minesin
Hungary. The first black powderwas a
mixtureof saltpeter (potassiumnitrate),
charcoal, and sulfur. Saltpeter was
common
in the arid MiddleEast. Later
other nitrates, including bat guano,were
used in place of saltpeter.
Compounds
that produce special colors
were not addeduntil the 19th Century.
Green colors are producedby barium,
nitrate, and copper; reds are achievedby
adding strontium and calcium. Blue can
,.~
iil ,i
don’t
smoke
be obtained by combiningcopper with
calomel (a mercury compound).Yellow
produced by sodium, whereas sodium
plus strontium generates orange. Silvery
white colors are created by the addition of
titanium, zirconium, and magnesium.
Iron filings and charcoal yield gold
sparks; magnalium(a mixture of
magnesium and aluminum) produces
silvery-white flashes. Lithiumproduces
purple red.
Other materials and combinations
yield special effects. Fine aluminum
powderis the fuel that producesa loud
flash. Largerparticles yield longer,
shower-like effects. The combinationof
organic dyes and coolant results in
colored smokes. Potassium benzoate,
with its characteristic unstable burning,
produces a whistle. Charcoalgenerates a
sparkling, flaming tail. Sandand
potassium sulfite are used to modify
combustion.
Wheredo these materials come from?
Mines, of course. Aluminum
is derived
from bauxite (aluminumoxides and
hydroxides). Bariumcomes from barite
(BaSO,). Magnesiumand sodium come
from brines, magnesite (M8CO3),and
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).
Titanium
extracted fromilmenite (FeTiO~)or rutile
(TiO2). Strontiumis derived fromcelestite
(SrSO,). Mostof the materials used
fireworks comefrom the ground. Even
the clay used in makingthe paper binders
has to be mined.
Today, fireworks are used
worldwideand continue to
growin popularity. In the
last decadein the United
States, nearly 30,000stonsof
fireworks were used each
year. Private consumersbuy
approximatelytwo-thirds of
fireworks and public
displays account for the
rest. Otheruses of
pyrotechnic devices include
fuses (flares used as danger
signals on the highways),
:orpedoes (used by
railroads to warnof an
approachingtrain), and other
signal flares. About85%of consumer
fireworks and half of those used for
public displays are imported from China,
Japan, Korea, and Europe (France and
Italy). In the UnitedStates fireworksare
manufactured in NewMexico, Maryland,
Oklahoma,and a few other states. Many
materials used in fireworks
manufacturing are mined throughout the
United States or are importedfrom other
countries.
References
Encyclopedia
Americana,
International
Edition,1990:GrolierInc., Danbury,
Connecticut,
v. 30.
U.S.Bureauof Mines,1992,Mineral
commodity
summaries1992:U.S. Bureauof
MinesReport,204pp.
U.S.Bureauof Mines,1990,Fourthof July
fireworksdependon minerals:U.S. Bureau
of Mines,Information
Release,1 p.
WorldBookEncyclopedia,1990:WorldBook,
Inc., Chicago,
Illinois, v. 22.
NewMexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
Teachers’Resources:
morefreestuff
"Energy Education Resources...Kindergarten through 12th Grade"
contains a listing of free or low-cost
energy related educational materials for
educators and students. A free copy is
available from the National Energy
InformationCenter. Call (202) 586-8800.
*Hereare just a fewof the resourceslisted in
the booklet:
*The National Energy Foundation
offers a variety of energyeducation¯
materials for grades K-12,including inservice tl’aining programsand materials
packets. Toreceive a free catalog, write to
"the National EnergyFoundation,
National Office, 5160Wiley Post Way,
Suite 200, Salt LakeCity, UT84116or call
k,.(801)
539-1406.
*Kids For A Clean Environment (Kids
F.A.C,E.) provides free membershipto
teachers and children. The membership
includes "Our World, Our Future: A
Kid’s Guide for a Clean Environment"
and a subscription to a bimonthly
newsletter "Kids F.A.C.E." focusing on’
projects for homeor school. For a free
membership,write to Kids for a Clean
Environment,P.O. Box 158254, Nashville,
TN37215or call 1-(800) 952-3223.
*The American Coal Foundation
provides classroom materials (some
available for free) on coal production,
distribution, and use, along with a kit
containing several coal samples with
descriptions. A slide presentation is also
available for purchaseor free 19anfor
grades 7-12. Contact the AmericanCoal
Foundation, 1130 Seventeenth Street NW,
Suite 220, WashingtonD.C. 20036-4604,
or call (202)466--8630.
~
*The American Solar Energy Society
offers samplecopies of its magazine,
"Solar Today," and has two science
project booksavailable for purchase.
Write to the AmericanSolar Energ~
Society, 2400Central Avenue,Suite G-l,
BoulderCO80301,or call (303) 443-3130.
also...
whatIs...
Free lesson plans and ma~terialstitled
"Dinosaurs and PowerPlants," for use in
grades 5--8, are available fromthe
Departmentof Energy’sOffice of Fossil
Energy.Study areas include fossil fuel
history, extraction, transportation, use,
and environmentaleffects. To receive a
copy, write the Office of Fossil Energy
Communications,FE-5, Room4G--085,
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington
D.C.20585or call (202) 586--6503.
fossil ice?
Ice formedin and remaining from the
"geologicallyrecent past. It is foundin
glaciers, permafrostregions, and ice
caves.
UpcomlngGeologlcal
Meetingsand Events
August7---February 4, 1994
Ring of Fire, a movieabout volcanoesin
the Pacific Ocean,will be showndaily in
the DynamaxTheater of the NewMexico
Museumof Natural History and Science,
Albuquerque, NM.For information on
showtimes, etc., call the Museum
at
(505) 841-8837.
September 18--November7,1993
Dinotopia,a display featuring original art
from the fantasy world of Author/
Illustrator JamesGuroeywill be shownat
the NewMexico Museumof Natural
HistOry and Science. More.informationis
available by calling the Museum
at
(505) 841-8837.
October6--9, 1993
the NewMexicoGeological Society will
hold its AnnualFall Field Conference
in the
Carisbad, NMregion. For information
contact John Hawley,(505) 255--8005
(NMBM&MR,
Albuquerque), or Dave
Love, (505) 835--5146 (NMBM&MR,
Socorro).
October 27-29, 1993
The Rocky MountainGroundWater
Conferencewill be held at.the Hilton in
Albuquerque, NewMexico. Contact
Michael Campana,(505) 277-.3269,
WilliamJ. Stone,(505)827-5434,
DouglasEarp, (505) 768-2000for more
information.
NewMexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
oxbowlake?
A crescent-shaped body of standing
water situated in an abandonedstream
channel after the stream cut a newpath
across a meanderloop.
road 1o87
The descriptive record of the route taken
on a field trip and the geologyobserved
along the way.
Reference.-Raies,
R.L.,andlackson,
I.A. (editors),
1980,Glossary
of Geology:
American
Geological
Institute,Alexandria,
VA,2ndedition,749pp.
NMBM&MR
publications
profile...
Anexquisite collection of displayquality mineral specimens,featured in
full-color photographs,is presentedin a
set of 10 postcards titled NewMexico
Minerals L The showcasedspecimens are
azurite, sceptered amethyst, wire gold
crystals, smithsonite,cassiterite, cerussite,
cyanotrichite, Japan-law-twinquartz,
aurichalcite, and wulfenite. Each4" x 6"
postcard lists both dimensionsof the
specimenand its locality. The postcards
are enclosedin a cover that features three
additional minerals, linarite, smoky
quartz, and copper crystals. Inside the
cover is an index mapshowingthe
localities of the 13 minerals, and
information on ore deposits and mineral
specimens from each locality. ’
Photographyis by D.L. Wilson, text
written by M.L. Wilson, 1990. To order
the set of,10 postcards, NewMexico
Minerals L send your request along with
$3.25 plus $1.50 shipping to: Publications,
NewMexico Bureati of Mines and
Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM87801.
Please mentionLite Geologywhen
ordering.
Lite Geology, Summer1993
Earthllnksfor
Educators
WaterEcology Project--Summer1993
Overview
This summer,youngsters in the
seventh and eighth grade got wet and
learned about water ecology, thanks to a
grant from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Departmdnt and the NewMexiCo
Museumof Natural History and Science.
Sue McGuire,Director of Public Programs
for the Museum,designed the Water
EcologyProject (WEP)to integrate science
disciplines, history, mathand social skills.
Students in the project conducted
research on the water quality of rivers
and irrigation ditches at four NewMexico
locations---Albuquerque,Isleta, Cochiti,
and Las Vegas. The student researchers
collected data on water chemistry and silt
load, and analyzed the quality of molds,
algae, microscopicanimals, and aquatic
insects. Theyalso identified stream-side
plants and insects.
At the end of the three-weeksession,
participants fromall four locations
convened at the Museum
for the student congress,
where they presented
their results and
interacted with each
other and with the
professionals involved
in the program.For
information on the
WEP
in 1994, contact
Sue McGuireat the
NewMexico Museum
of Natural History, ,
phone(505) 841-8837.
Dinosaurby:
RobertSavenelli and
AdrianDes Georges,
8th Grade,TaosJr. High
Summer1993, Life Geology
Llte Geologymallbox...
Just a quick note to let youknowthat your
time andeffort in producing
Lite Geology
is
appreciatedby this scienceteacher. Witheach
issue, I learn something
newaboutthe state of
NM,andresource use. The addressesand
contactpersonslisted are helpfulin obtaining
cheapandfree teachingtools-animperativein
these tight economic
times. Yourillustrations
are humorous
andlight, the factualinfo solid,
andthe formatis entertainingandeasyto use.
I’m alwaysgladto see afreshissue in my
mailboxat school.
GeorgeJewett
Teacher, Koogler Middle School
Aztec, NM
Thankyou very muchfor sendingthe
Winter1992issue of Life Geology.It is a
super publicationEjustwhatis neededto
educateandstimulate teachers. Therangeof
information,activities, resources,and
conferenceopportunitiesis outstanding.
I also appreciatethe bold-facing
of terms
andthe definitions. Fundamental
earth
scienceinformation
for teachersis certainly
necessaryandmanyteachershavelittle or no
background
in geology.I will be passingon
muchof the issue to ourteachers.
Keepup your fine work.I amlooking
forwardto receiving your next issue. Thank
you.
J. M. Erdman
Elementary Science Coordinator
Menasha, WI
a new service at the NMBM&MR
....
The NewMexico Bureau of Mines and
Mineral Resources announces the
openingof its Earth ScienceLibrary/
Geotechnical Information Center (ESL/
GIC), a lending library containing videos,
slides, and printed material. Topics range
from geology and mining to
environmental concerns and natural
resources. To obtain a current listing of
available titles, write to TheresaLopez,
ESL/GIC, NewMexico Bureau of Mines
and Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM
87801.
NMBM&MR
1993 Minerals Education
Packet
The NewMexico Bureau of Mines and
Mineral Resourcesis pleased to offer New
MexicoTeachers a collection of Minerals
Education materials from th~ U.S.
Geological Survey, U.S. Bureauof Land
Management,U.S. Bureau of Mines,
Society for MiningEducation, Caterpillar,
Inc., and other sources. To receive the
1993 Minerals Education Packet, please
mail yourrequest on schoolletterhead,
indicating grade level and subjects
taught, to: NewMexicoBureau of Mines
and Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM
87801.
the early birdgets the videol...
The NMBM&MR
has acquired a limited
supply of Common
Ground, an educational
video producedby Caterpillar, Inc., to
distribute to NewMexicoteachers.
Common
Groundpresents the story of the
mineral products of our planet: what
minerals are present in the products we
use every day, howthey are formed, how
and wherethey are found, their role in
humancivilization, and howwe are
m~inagingand protecting our mineral
resources and the environment.The first
teacher from any NewMexicoschool (or
district, in small towns)to requestthis
videoon schoolletterheadwill receive a free
copy, while supplies last.
(editor’s note: A copy of Common
Ground
video can be purchased for $10.00
directly from Carl Haywoodat the
SME Foundation for
Public Education,
(303) 973--9550,
through your local
Caterpillar, Inc.
dealer.)
NewMexicoBureau of Mines anct Mineral Resources
i
Sourcesfor Earth Sclence
Information
oops...
The last sentence in exercise 2 following
the article Ground-water Overdraft and
Land Subsidence (Ltte Geology, Spring
1993) should read "The specific gravity of
the rock is its weight in air divided by the
difference between its weight in air and
its weight in water, which is between 2.5
and 3.0 for most rocks."
Teachers can receive free materials
including curricula, student handouts,
and reference materials for school
resource media centers by contacting:
U.S. Bureau of Mines
Guy Johnson, Staff Engineer
Building 20
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225-0086
(303)s-0747
For answers to questions on economic
mineral deposits and the extractive
mineral industry, contact:
Mine Registration & Geol. Serv. Bur.
Bill Hatchell
Mining and Minerala Division
2040 South Pacheco
Santa Fe, NM87505
(505) 827--5970
Dinosaurby: CharleneAbeyta, Jessica
Franzetti, and AbbeyJanosko. 8th grade,
Taos Jr. High.
Q
,|
A free teacher’s packet including a poster,
lesson plans, activities, and a list of
mineral resource information can be
obtained by calling or writing:
Mineral Information Institute
Jackie Evanger:. Vice President
475 17th Street; Suite 510
Denver,CO80202
(303) 297.3226
For information about state
environmental programs in New Mexico,
contact:
John Geddie, Administrative Asst.
Public Information
New Mexico Environment Dept.
p.O. Box 26110
Santa Fe, NM87502
(505) 827-2850
The Environmental Protection Agency
provides a free information hotline for
radon. Call:
1-(800) SOS--RADON.
Lite Geology
Subscription Order Form
Please confirm my free subscription:
Name
Mailing address
City
State
Zip
Howdid you hear about Lite Geology?
Are you a teacher?
Information on earth science projects,
programs, reports, products and their
sources is available from:
Earth Science Information Center
(ESIC). Call 1-(800)-USA-MAPS.
At what school do you teach?
Grade level?
Subject(s)’
Note: if your mailing label lists you as a Teacher (in NewMexicoi, your subscription is
automatic, and you need not return this form.
New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
Lite Geology, Summer1993
geology
"geologlc tlrne" files whenwe’re havlng f~l,.,~
This Summer
1993issue of Lite Geologymarksthe completionof our first year in
existence. Wenowlook forward to another year dedicated to the exploration of exciting
topics such as earthquakes, global climatology, volcanoes, and our precious mineral
resources. Weencourageour readers to save each copy of Lite Geologyfor reference;
future articles will build on the conceptsintroducedin earlier issues. In the past year, our
subscription list has nearly doubled, and the range of subscribers includes professionals
in education, geology, andresource-related fields as well as the public. Wethank our
readers for the manywonderfulletters, and will print someof themas we have space~
The NewMexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources (NMBM&MR)
would like
to help NewMexicoteachers launch another school year with our new Minerals
EducationPacket for 1993(see the special offer inside this issue) and lending library.
hope to continue to hear from teachers and others whoare interested in earth science
education.
Susan J. Welch
Editor, Lite Geology
Acknowledgments---Many
thanks to the NMBM&MR
staff memberswhohave supported this
projectthroughtheir ideas,articles, resources,andtime.
.~...’
:.::::’/;:
~’’.::
....::~.:"///~.!~/i!i
.....
-...~.;:...~.:::..
"’~
LI
ogy
NowMexicoBureauof Mines
and Mineral Resources
PublicationsOffice
Socorro, NM87801
Summer1993, Lite Geology
is published quarterly by NewMexico
Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources
(Dr. CharlesE. Chapin,DirectorandState
Geologist), a division of NewMexicoTech
(Dr. DanielH. Lopez,President).
Purpose: to help build earth science
awareness by presenting educators and
the public with contemporarygeological
topics, issues, and events. UseLite
Geologyas a sourcefor ideas in the
classroomor for public education.
Reproduction is encouraged With proper
recognitionof source. All rights reservedon
copyrightedmaterialreprintedwith
permission,
in this issue.
Lite GeologyStaff Information
Editor: SusanJ. Welch
Geological Coodinator: Dr. Dave Love
Educational Coordinator: Barbara Popp
Graphic Designer: Jan Thomas
Cartoonist: Jan Thomaswith inspiration
from Dr. Peter Mozley
Student Editorial Assistant: TobyClick
and Nyleen H. Troxel-Stowe
Creative and Technical Support:
NMBM&MR
Staff
Mailing address
NewMexico Bureau of Mines and
Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM87801.
Phone(505) 835-.5410.For a free
subscription, please call or write.
Lite Geologyis printed on recycledpaper.
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