MANAfilNfi END IL^FR
John
C.
niCHAEL
COnPUTING
Henderson
E.
TREACY
May 1984
CISR WP #114
Sloan WP #1565-84
Center for Information Systems Research
Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology
Sloan School of Management
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139
MANAGING END USER COMPUTING
John
C.
Michael
Henderson
E.
Treacy
May 1984
CISR WP #114
Sloan WP #1565-84
©
J.
C.
Henderson.
M.
E.
Treacy
1984
Center for Information Systems Research
Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
"
1.1
Introduction
The CEO of an eastern manufacturing company was frustrated.
sat
Presidents
Vice
the
Information
of
They were embroiled
Manufacturing.
in
an
Marketing,
Services,
emotional
Before him
"Give
debate.
and
the
us
said the Vice President of Marketing.
computer tools my people want!"
you want productivity improvement from my managers
and
staff,
"If
if you
want
better decision making, give us what we need--not what some computer expert
wants."
The Vice President of Manufacturing jumped in:
sixteen-year-old kid can break
into
national
a
across the country, and our computer people tell
"Why
is
that a
it
security computer half way
us that there
is no way to
get data from the corporate data center computers to the machines we bought
for my
machine,
group?
Your people are
their
might not know
software,
a
protocol
their
just
uncooperative
recommendation.
standard
know the business and they don't.
from a
It
because
it's
doesn't make
relational
data
their
not
sense!
base,
but
I
I
do
And I've been telling you my people need
that corporate data.
The Vice President for Information Systems shuddered.
understand.
pay
for
it
incompatible
If
they
let things get out of control
later.
with
the
Marketing
wanted
company's
basic
a
now,
minicomputer
system.
They just didn't
they would
system
Manufacturing
surely
that
was
was
already
paying the price for buying microcomputers from three different vendors.
He
-2-
had tried to force Manufacturing to accept his recommendations,
ended up feeling further isolated.
He looked at the CEO
but he just
and knew what was
coming.
The
Director
of
MIS
for
large
a
insurance
company
was
nervous.
Two
years ago he had acquiesced to the demands of users to bring in micros in
big
He
way.
had
thrown
open
the
doors
information center to support any and all
risks, but what else could he do?
to junk all
more was
innovation
end user activities.
user
an
He knew the
Now he was trying to explain why they had
The
more
he
supported end
users,
the
more
demanding
First it was access to data, then electronic mail.
his
audit report.
He
had
been
ripped
programs.
There was
such
a
vast array
of
they
What hurt even
apart over
His best people were swamped with patching poorly written,
end
establishing
by
those micros and a lot of the end user developments on their two
minicomputers.
became.
to
a
data
security.
poorly documented
software
hardware
and
that he couldn't even tell you what was out there, much less provide support
for
it.
And communication was
there were
so
many vague
a
joke.
and conflicting
Even
if
he
could
definitions of key
business variables that users never knew what they had.
bite
the bullet and clean
move
the
data,
financial
and
Now the company had
knew what they
do,
but
they were no closer to getting there than they had been two years ago.
In
to
it up.
fact, they were even farther away.
anticipate the CEO's comments.
him more than money.
He
needed
to
He looked at his report and could easily
Before this was over,
it was
going
to
cost
-3-
For information systems managers of today, end user computing represents
a
these common
those who follow either of
for
grounded
conflict
In
of
recent
remainder of
the
economic
this
we
will
relative
importance of these issues changes
discuss
how
problems
closely
are
improvements
over
related
firmly grounded
must be
for
argue
As such,
an
priorities
of
evolving
an
end
overall
user
computing
organizational
goals,
strategy
the
3,
we
absorption
of
in
end
But any solution
change management.
We
adjusts
the
strategy
structure,
Section
learning curve
a
of
issues
examine how the
these conflicts can be managed.
in
technology.
in
In
to
and
it is the
underlying
the
time.
technology by organizations and their movement up
user computing.
Rather,
Section 2 will
that have led to this management problem.
these
centralized
between
identify
irresolvable
an
it
Is
We think not.
functional
and
section,
paths.
battle
traditional
the
in
decentralized philosophies of management?
consequence
failure looms ahead
As illustrated by the senarios above,
clear dilemmma.
and
that
means
of
control
in
concert with the changing demands and needs of the organization.
The strategy proposed recognizes four key management issues and maps the
change in importance of these issues over time as the organization learns to
absorb
new
direction
quicken
that
and
the
will
technology.
short
term
transition
ultimately
fabric of the firm.
It
provides
management
from
weave
for
these
solutions
the
current
end
user
issues
both
long
term
will
both
smooth
and
that
technological
computing
into
environment
the
very
to
one
management
-4-
^
The Issues
.2
The use of computers by non data processing professionals,
is
one of
the most
last decade.
It is the leading edge of a
of managerial work
corporations
many
challenge
significant developments
for
(Zuboff,
information
corporate computing
in
the
in
major transformation of the nature
and is of growing strategic importance to
1981)
(Parsons,
"end users,"
Rockart
and
managers
is
1983;
systems
Scott
Morton,
satisfy
to
The
1983).
demands
the
of
users while evolving end user computing to meet corporate objectives.
This task
made more difficult by phenomenal
is
Corporation estimates that in 1981,
computing
1982).
consumed
Rockart
and
A0%
50%
to
this percentage will
By 1991,
Flannery
of
Xerox
of change.
25% of the company's computer resources
were dedicated to end user computing.
(Benjamin,
rate
the
(1983)
reported
computing
that
resources
triple
user
end
in
several
companies surveyed and that it is growing at rates between 50% to 90% per
year.
Similar results are reported by Benson (1984).
The rapid growth of end user computing has been accompanied by a set of
difficult
standards
avoid
is
for
Two
so
For
issues.
hardware
standards
absorbed?
mini,
management
new and
innovative
distinct end user computing
or mainframe-based
appropriate or should
timesharing
the
two
system,
managements
should
facilitate machine
to
that
example,
to
machine
technology
and
environments
be
communications
can
environments
be
are
more
brought
Is
together?
or
easily
evolving:
the microcomputer.
are concerns with the management and security of data.
invoke
the
Which
There
this a continuing
-5-
or will
role for the Information systems department,
and
systems
users
allow end
training
managers
asked
oeing
are
their own
manage
to
rationalize,
least
at
information
Many
data?
or
justify,
to
appropriate technology
a
The analysis is usually
large and growing investment in end user systems.
impossible to perform.
Many of these issues are familiar to information systems management in
but end user computing
another context,
is
unfamiliar and appears to need
different solutions than have worked in the past.
rapid growth has
As well,
given an appearance that all these problems need solutions at once.
A starting point for analyzing the management of end user computing
to
obtain
clarity
some
Fundamental
issues
the phenomenon
and
those
are
what
on
that are
critical
that underlie several
solutions to fundamental
problems,
a
fundamental
the
to
really
issues
is
are.
effective management of
apparent problems.
By
addressing
parsimonious set of end user computing
policies can be constructed.
There
are
management
four
fundamental
end
of
infrastructures
user
computing.
hardware,
for
issues
software,
that
need
Three
of
data
and
be
to
them
addressed
with
deal
support
in
services
the
the
that
should be put in place to facilitate the orderly use of information systems
by
end
users.
The
last
issue
concerns
the
evaluation,
justification,
and
planning of end user computing expenditures.
The
issue of
appropriate
technological
hardware,
software,
infrastructure
and
includes
communications
decisions about the
equipment
for
the
end
-6-
user computing environment.
in use suggests
technology.
difficult
standards are
This
or
standardize
major issue for any discussion of end user
a
diversity
communications
makes
expensive
technical
task
certain
packages
for
on
the current diversity of equipment
general,
In
also
and
end
user
between
decreases
machines
a
ability
to
our
computing.
Each
package has its own command set and unique way of handling data.
is
very
difficult for models,
and data developed
analyses,
type of computer system to be used in another.
the
ability
simpler.
to
But,
share
analyses
software
and
standards
suitable or desirable software.
data
can
or
software
Thus,
used
in
it
one
Software standards promote
make
and
prevent
support
from
users
and
using
training
the
most
And standards are difficult to invoke after
several packages are in use.
The
issue
standards,
Flannery
the
(1983)
of
need
infrastructure
data
for
data
subject
includes
bases,
and
questions
security.
about
data
Rockart
and
report that of the timesharing based end users interviewed,
one third of their data
is
retrieved directly
one third is keyed in from reports.
than 10% of the data used by personal
Qui
Hard
from production
et
al_.
(1983)
systems
and
found that less
computer based end users was obtained
directly from production information systems, while half the information was
keyed in directly from reports.
explained partly
by
the
lack
The difference between these results can be
of
centrally
managed
and
available
data
for
users of personal computers.
The issue of organizational
implementation and leadership.
infrastructure concerns support mechanisms,
Rockart and Flannery (1983) provide
a
useful
-7-
classification
command
end
leva!
personnel,
end
of
end
into
computing
user
observed
end
level
each
and
end
of
type
end
processing
data
different
needs
user
risers,
support
functional
users,
personnel,
support
that
non-programming
types:
six
programming
users,
They
programmers.
jser-s
education and support and that much of this is provided by one type of user
The diversity of end users and their interdependence creates a
to another.
difficulty
designing
in
A
computing.
user
any
all
information
centralized
supporting end user computing
infrastructure
organizational
(Hammond,
center
other
or
support
end
structure
for
to
may not address the needs of
1982)
types of users and may be of only secondary
importance to the informal
support provided by other users.
another fundamental
Finally,
of
growth
summarized
(1983)
opportunity
for
them
EUC
information
service
hardware
and
information.
user
end
of
evaluation and justification
the
has
been
computing
into
among
needs,
software,
four
are
areas:
managers,
the
numerous.
a
growing
dissatisfaction
availability
of
and business conditions
Rockart
but this is still
awareness
DP's
with
of
ability
cheaper and
easier
that heighten
the
to
the
to
use
need for
The growing need for information perhaps comes closest,
some distance from providing an economic rationale for the
expenditure of large amounts of money on end user computing.
is not cheap and by
End
Flannery
and
None of the four underlying factors directly relate to adding
value to the firm.
user.
difficult
a
The underlying factors responsible for the recent and
issue for some time.
rapid
is
Evaluation and justification
user computing.
end
issue
user
The technology
some estimates costs almost thirty thousand dollars per
computing
management
is
"flying
blind"
until
a
tool
is
8-
developed
and
financial
the
assess
to
organizational
the
of
impact
investment in these systems.
These four issues summarize the most difficult questions at the core of
the
end
computing
user
management
Successful
dilemma.
in
context
this
depends upon successfully addressing these issues in a timely fashion.
2.1
Critical ity of Issues
presented
vignettes
The
the
in
single management
produced by applying a
illustrate
introduction
solution
the
to
conflicts
the
problems
end
of
The management framework presented in this paper is based
user computing.
on the observation that the relative importance of the issues identified in
Section
1
change
management
over
time.
over
strategy
As
Greiner
time.
organizations rarely evolve
smoothly
there
change,
they
is
a
and continuously.
to
Rather,
vary
that
observed
has
(1972)
need
problem
as
solving approaches and management strategy successfully address a particular
set of problems, a new set arises with which current management strategy can
not cope.
As a
evolutionary
computing.
result,
pattern.
But,
a
discontinuous shift,
The
same
is
true
in
a
revolution,
the
evolution
occurs
of
the
in
end
user
experience with the absorption of other information systems
technologies allows
us
to
predict future
issues.
Thus,
the
transition
to
alternate management policies can be planned.
One powerful
on
the
model
diffusion
of
of this evolutionary pattern is provided by
research
consumer
markets
innovation
in
organizations
and
9-
This
1979).
(Majahan,
characterizes
research
difference
the
pattern
o^^er
time as an S-shaped curve.
alternate
An
characterization
the
of
evolutionary
same
patterns
of
information technology is provided by Gibson and Nolan (1974), McKenney and
McFarland
Nolan's
(1982),
model
(1979)
phenomenon
as
proved
has
While some have questioned the
others.
and
stage
a
quite
theory
useful
its
in
portrayal
of
learning
a
McKenney
practice.
validity of
curve
McFarlan
and
(1982) also note that organizations high on the learning curve for one type
of
must
technology
instigate
(1983)
new,
a
careful
be
separate
to
recognize
curve
learning
that
curve
essence,
we
discussed
Qui Hard
phenomenon.
that
argue,
above
has
a
just
been
learning
illustrates
not
initiated
curve
only
model
the
most
in
approach
need
for
strategy but also allows one to understand how the
major issues change over time.
the
technology
may
et
al_.
suggest that end user computing is an example of a new technological
learning
the
new
a
a
organizations.
similar
to
In
those
management
dynamic
importance of the
Each of the following subsections will
four
trace
importance of an issue over time and provide brief justifications
proposed
management
relationships.
strategies
that
Section
respond
to
3
the
will
then
changing
define
for
alternative
importance
of
these
issues.
^ Si nee
the relationships are proposed and not empirically validated,
simple linear or piecewise linear functions are used.
The authors recognize
that
the
actual
importance
function
may
mere
take
nonlinear
not
characteristics.
-10-
Support and Education
2.2
during the early phase of learning how to use end
As shown in Figure 1,
computing
user
technology,
importance
the
support and comprehensive education is
effective
of
dominating issue.
a
organizational
A rich tradition
of change management (Kolb and Frohman, 1970; Schein, 1969) and innovation
research
(Allen,
Tushman
1977;
and
Katz,
compatible
quite
is
with
methodologies used by most end users.
the
relative
support
skills
importance
This
decreases.
methods
and
resulting
from
magnitude,
decline.
As
remains an
from
organizational
both
importance
in
Figure
issue of some
1,
support
importance.
attention
design
Yet
and
its
educational
of
other
to
these other issues
As
support
of
and
diffusion
successful
for
pressures
uncontrolled growth.
relative
shown
from
adaptive
and
However, as the organization evolves,
specialized
results
and
rapid,
the
of
participatory
the
explicit
This process-oriented
methodologies for creating a supportive environment.
research
provide
1980)
and
education
education
issues
grow
in
continue
to
users
of
basic
always
dominance clearly diminishes
over time.
2.3
Technology Infrastructure
The
term
technology
andcommunications
environment.
management
The
concern
infrastructure
technology
importance
varies
that
of
refers
make
this
significantly
up
to
the
technology
over
the
time.
hardware,
end
user
oriented
Figure
software,
computing
issue
1
as
a
illustrates
-n-
issue
management
the
in
microcomputers
economics
finiacial
and
of
user
end
computing.
user-friendly
advanced
drop
and
computing
of
initially
and communication
software,
hardware,
that
software
net
The
major
is
acquisition
the
are
to
impact
change
the
cost
important
an
personal
in
of
the
and
Further, given that most initial end
terms below some threshhold.
user systems, though functionally sophisticated are relatively simple from a
systems perspective, the power or enhanced features of hardware and software
Beyond avoiding obviously poor technology,
are relatively unimportant.
software
equipment and
the
end user
utilizes
much
is
important
less
the
than
obtaining active involvement and enthusiasm.
As Henderson and Schilling
user
growth
rapid
of
interdependence
transfering
technology
numbers
the
between
programs
issue
with
increases
usually
systems
the
users
Requirements
users.
increase.
through
end
of
passage
the
Thus,
high
an
growth
complexity of end
the technical
note,
(1984)
of
begins
to
for
data
increasing
phase
Further,
time.
reaches
a
higher
create
sharing
importance
peak
the
and
of
the
during
the
control phase.
phase where an important event occurs.
It is at this control
goal
of
a
standards
well
managed maturity phase is the
that
allow
infrastructure
economic perspective.
As a result,
the
will
alternatives
discuss
this
to
be
of
policies
evaluated
from
and
an
point further in section 3.)
importance of the technology issue declines.
taken during the control
investment.
(We
introduction
A primary
The
actions
phase provide a basis for managing technology as an
-12-
Data Management
2 .4
Data management
consistent,
refers
to
the
need to make
This issue has long been recognized by information
and secure.
phase of end user computing,
Yet, during the initial
systems professionals.
data is relatively unimportant.
The Quillard et
(1983) findings suggest
aj^.
that over 80% of the data used by end users are hand entered.
tend
applications
address
to
coordinating
for
the
use
become
associated
with
increasingly
data
of
end
encoding
importance
The
problems
user,
maintaining
and
Further, the potential
electronically
apparent.
the
of
Since early
However, as rapid growth sets in, the
consistency, and security increase.
scale
problems
specific
other than accessibility are minimal.
needs
reliable,
accessible,
data
issue
this
of
for economies of
element
data
a
reliability,
only
once
continues
to
increase through the mature phase.
during
Ideally,
would
information
software,
the
the
mature
developed.
be
relative
importance of
However, as shown in Figure 1,
but
continues
inability
to
measurable
to
rise
treat
value.
Thus,
in
in
as
case
the
management
data
evaluating
for
hardware
of
could
then
and
decrease.
the proposed relationship does not decrease,
importance.
information
Current
models
economic
phase,
This
effectively
theories
for
the
trend
as
based on
is
an
value
economic
of
our current
good
information
with
are
a
not
sufficiently robust nor pragmatic enough to move the management of data into
an economic
continues.
framework effectively.
Thus,
the
importance of data management
-13-
Evaluation and Justifications
2.5
economic mechanism for managing end
The relative importance of a formal
user computing increases directly with the size of investment over time.
the
justification
the
phase,
initial
However,
formal
justification from end users.
grows,
the magnitude of organizational
attention.
close
Ultimately,
organization
truly
has
from a management
absorbed
We
issue.
as
the
not
do
perspective,
That is to say,
new
a
require
number of end users
requiring
investment reaches a level
evaluation and justification dominates.
an
not an
is
In
technology,
the
issue
of
at the point when
it
have
also
will
learned to manage that technology within the basic economic framework used
to manage other organizational
resources.
Summary
2.6
There are two important implications that can be drawn from the dynamic
nature of these isses.
First, the changing importance of issues requires an
evolving management strategy.
Second, the framework provides the means to anticipate future management
requirements.
lower
phase.
initiating
deal
while the issue of hardware and software is
it
constitutes
the
most
critical
will
management
cope
with
the
importance,
in
control
Thus,
and
How
expanding
with the need for
potential
a
the
use
of
this
technology,
coherent technological
issue
immediate
and yet
infrastructure?
ability to manage today's problem while building
the
initially
during
the
problems
of
successfully
It
is
this
capacity to
-14-
tomor'-ow that
address the problems of
management.
illustrates
and
how
various
perspectives
management
implementation
sequenced
properly
their
provided by our view of end user
defines
section
following
The
is
only
not
addresses immediate problems but provides the means to smooth the transition
between phases of the learning curve.
Alternative Management Perspectives
3.1
There are at least four basic management perspectives that can be used
to
contend
Marketing,
with
the
Operations,
problems
and
Implementation,
inherently
perspective
Each
Economic.
computing:
user
end
of
varying weight on each of the issues defined in Section 1.
we
will
define
perspective
each
organizational
strategy,
illustrate
prefered
the
indicate
will
stage
of
how each
and
discuss
sequence
for
implementing
satisfies
the
dominant
evolution while also
organizational
Section 3.2
In
for
implications
the
control.
and
structure,
places
Section
these
concerns
3.3
will
and
perspectives
for
the
enabling management
immediate
to
shift
perspectives at the appropriate time.
3.2.1
Implementation
Implementation is defined as organizational
the
definition
resulting
systems.
from
This
of
goals,
these
the
goals,
design
and
definition originates
of
systems
proper
in
the
innovation achieved through
to
meet
the
requirements
institutionalization
of
these
work of change management,
the
-If.-
most
for
basis
theoretical
organizational
development
innovation
therefore
and
infonnation
strategies.
is
It
is
consistent with
and
research
perspective
appropriate
particularly
a
implementation
system
of
on
an
organization's initial use of new technology.
The
1).
objective
overall
implementation
The
management
(Keen
individual
and
and
increased usage
is
perspective
Scott Morton,
organizational
suggests
1978)
The
education.
strategy
a
with
satisfaction
user
and
a
heavy
of
participatory
emphasis
concept of
(Table
placed
Decision
on
Support
Systems (DSS) emphasized the necessity to consider implementation issues and
to manage the
development of systems as a change process.
non-technical
enthusiasm
for
users.
change
success of
for successfully initiating the use of computers
OSS provides a clear model
by
The
In
both
essence,
through
this
strategy
education
and
attempts
by
build
to
an
effective
providing
facilitative roles.
The
structural
implications
for
this
perspective
"help" centers and heavy
use of roving consultants.
consultants
computer
good
rather
interpersonal
problem.
than
skills
with
experts.
an
The
understanding
call
centralized
for
Emphasis is placed on
facilitating
of
the
role
user's
demands
business
Success is achieved by problem solving, not by providing technical
sophistication.
Thus,
there is a need to
provide organizational
structure
that encourages a demand-pull orientation.
Control mechanisms are minimal
the objective,
and focus on innovators.
As indicated by
performance measures are directed at usage and satisfaction.
-16-
difficult,
since measures of benefits are
this
early
Again,
stage.
control
the
if
impossible,
not
innovation
emphasizes
system
obtain at
to
and
rewards effective versus efficient behavior.
3.2.2
Marketing
The marketing perspective views end users as consumers and attempts to
consumer
influence
choice
advertising, and distribution management.
perspective
assumes
evaluative,
but perhaps underinformed.
adding
value
competition,
to
the
consumers
products
(individual
Thus,
services
and
product
design,
The primary objectives are market
often measured by market growth,
penetration,
effective
through
(demand)
to
education of consumers about the
The market
and market share.
end
users)
are
rational
and
the strategy must provide
for
differentiate
the
benefits
them
these
of
from
products,
and appropriate distribution planning to maximize availability.
Instead of a centralized "help" center, the organization concentrates on
understanding
and
needs
services,
and
of
the
shaping
"market"
the
for
high
demand
payoff,
fit
to
value
the
Education affects attempts to influence choice as well
added products
available
as
products.
transfer skills.
implications are to departmentalize or functional ize support
The structural
services.
This
approach.
The
perspective
provides
a
transition
from
the
implementation
implementation structure creates organizations that directly
affect sales and services, geared to the unique needs of each customer.
essence,
they
operate
a
small
retail /distributor relationship
business.
is
formed.
In
the
Each
marketing
departmental
perspective,
In
a
unit operates
17-
a
direct support organization.
"local"
The central
group provides indirect
support through these local groups by providing services such as specialized
training, enhanced products such as software that allows up loading and down
loading of data, and business consulting to the local units.
builds
upon
implementation perspective but extends the
efforts of the
the
This structure
capability to understand the market and support distribution through the use
of formal
Why
is
market
support groups.
local
the
of
market
acheiving
reflects
share
throughout
objective
the
organization.
the
But
critical?
share
as
of
goal
we
will
market share also creates a de facto standard.
coherent
infrastructure
can
coherent marketing strategy.
effectively
be
For example,
Of
course,
diffusing
discuss
Thus,
increased
technology
this
later,
a
dominant
the need to move to a
addressed
by
implementing
successfully marketing
a
single
a
vendor's integrated technology may be an intelligent approach to move toward
coherence.
The
key
to
success
for
this
approach
is
that
it
can
be
successfully sold with value added services against competing products.
The control
mechanisms focus on holding each department accountable for
its expenditures.
to
As in most marketing oriented organizations,
recognize and reward outstanding individual
is critical.
Control
the ability
performance in support roles
mechanisms should be consistent with this and designed
to maximize market share and market penetration.
A second key control
relates to the strategy of base building.
implementation perspective,
key
individuals,
innovators,
were
the
In
basis
the
of
•18-
control
a
resources should be directed to ensure
the market perspective,
In
.
strong market presence; that is, a clear competitive edge that can be the
basis for expansion.
Operations
3.2.3
Operations is defined as the ongoing management of equipment,
other
and
personnel
information
collecting,
storing,
perspective
directly
technology
resources
analyzing,
and
distributing
addresses
the
objective
for
the
software,
purpose
information.
This
and
integrating
of
of
rationalizing information technology so as to maximize the efficient use of
The
resources.
these
achieve
policies
and
standards
key
efficiencies.
strategies
and
automate
to
Thus,
are
to
data
integrate
we
integrate
through
management
and
communication
our
high
level
support
to
capability
through standard protocols rather than standardizing on hardware or specific
application
into
formal
a
Clearly,
of
software
this
strategy
translates
information systems planning process for end user computing.
perspective will
information
managing
standardization
This
packages.
other
systems
major
draw heavily on the knowledge and expertise
who
professionals
technology,
such
as
have
used
on-line
this
perspective
transaction
in
processing
systems.
The structure implied by this perspective is
policy organization with
major
end
user
applications,
a
centralized planning and
monitoring and advisory role on the operations of
projects.
but
a
ensures
This
role
that
does
not
established
attempt
to
policies
force
specific
are
adapted.
Accountability for support services is distributed to the departmental level.
-19-
discussed in the previous section,
As
evaluation and justification and
data management also take on more importance in this perspective.
Thus, key
controls will be centered around traditional cost/benefit analysis requiring
a
solid business case to justify expenditures and to enforce data standards
for a
"core"
group of corporate related data elements.
stage, hardware and software policies will
be
the end of this
By
permit compatibility tradeoffs to
incorporated into a cost/benefit analysis
providing
foundation
the
for
the next stage of development.
Economic
3.2.4
The economic perspective treats information as a corporate resource and
strives to maximize the organizations'
technology.
regulating
A
the
key
"end
element
user"
market and
Keen
(1981)
information market.
was
largely
based
resource allocation.
sources
together
for
to
supply
on
He
information
construct
perspective
this
in
has
return on investments in information
s
permitting
the
is
suggested traditional
economics,
hence
toward
movement
a
efficiency
between
balance
data
free
a
processing
centralized
and
argues the new technology has resulted in multiple
technology,
custom
small
systems,
building
and,
blocks
hence,
a
that can
move
toward
be
put
demand
economics where issues of fast delivery and benefits provided far outweigh
cost and efficiency considerations.
users have far more options to
"buy"
It would seem clear that,
applications
rather than
at
a
minimum,
"make"
them.
This perspective builds upon these trends in an attempt to manage end users
using
a
market, incentive-based approach.
-20-
objective of this perspective is to translate investment in
The overall
information technology into competitive advantage.
link
to
element
information
of
systems
planning
strategic
this
planning
strategic
to
process
should
The key strategy will
business
be
to
base building process and ultimately provide the captial
critical
extend the
This targeted regulation will
investment areas for regulation.
An
planning.
target
be
resources necessary
to achieve competitive advantage.
The structure for this perspective is similar to operations.
the
monitoring
role
is
relaxed
in
non-regulated
emphasis is on self sustaining organization units.
target
However,
areas
the
and
These operational
units
have clear policy direction for the IS strategic planning unit but have wide
degrees of freedom to innovate and evolve.
The
structure
control
management.
data
remains
However,
the
focused
on
incentives
evaluation/justification
introduced
by
the
a
control
The target
mechanism are based on the organization's return on investment.
regulated areas reflect critical
and
growth or base building effort and receive
close monitoring/advisory control structure.
Evolving Management Strategy
3.3
Each
times
each
in
of
of
the
these
perspectives
provides
particular
evolution of end user computing.
these
perspectives
is
wholly
strengths
There
inadequate.
are
The
at
different
other times when
first
information
systems executive at the beginning of this article is a case in point.
His
-21-
is
perspective
operational
the
hardware in
knowledge
groups
user
of
and
has
He
interconnection
the
of
not established enough credibility with
but has
network,
a
computing.
user
end
to
management
data
about
concerns
legitimate
applied
influence
to
decisions.
their
well,
As
manufacturing has only recently gained enough experience with computers
appreciate the issues that the
for more
to address
than
a
IS
or
to
executive has been unsuccessfully trying
year.
had earlier addressed
he
If
the
users'
he would today be in a position
concerns for support and access to systems,
to influence decisions that address his own concerns.
The IS executive at the insurance company was suffering a different set
of
problems.
had
He
built
his
with
credibility
users
end
support and education where they thought it was needed.
computing
from
would
a
be
steering
an
important
very
the
need is to
implementation
and
ship
apply
each
it
element
soon
sequence
of
perspective at
operations,
the
and
appropriate
perspectives:
finally
sequence
(4)
and
his
of
a
This
section
stage prepares
how each
thought
left
it
one
no
The
reef.
strengths match
the
The strategic framework calls for
implementation,
economic.
That
technology
its
provding
viewed end user
never
he
business.
time when
a
issues.
(1)
because
stranded on
became
requirements of the most critical
a
perspective
He
by
(2)
marketing,
discusses why
the
(3)
this
organization
is
for
transition to the next.
The implementation perspective clearly places emphasis on organizational
support
and
suggesting
education.
tactics
for
There
is
participatory
a
solid,
management,
pragmatic
a
skill
knowledge
requirement
base
for
-22-
internal
consultants
agents,
change
or
methods
and
for
identifying
key
innovators (Allen, 1977).
While
management
these
user evolution effectively,
shifting to a marketing
about their clients'
payoff,
they also provide a
Effective
perspective.
means
very
to
initiate
the
end
strong foundation for
consultants learn
internal
This becomes the basis for value added products
needs.
low risk
projects establishes
initital
important,
Equally
effort.
the
A clear, targeted strategy for identifying key innovators and
and services.
high
provide
tactics
educational
the
trust
a
solid base building
generates
an
informed
"consumer" so one has confidence that rational choice will dominate.
current
The
framework
of
an
most successful
That
services.
phase.
use
information
of
implementation
centers
has
often
One
common
perspective.
evolved
into
experience
the
among
information centers is the rapid growth in demands for their
they
is,
have
been
effective
in
supporting
the
initial
The key is to have also retained knowledge of the "market place"
so
they can begin the transition into a marketing perspective.
The downward economic trend in hardware and software suggests the length
of
for
time
the
initial
phase
is
decreasing.
In
fact,
organizations may
begin this phase spontaneously, moving quickly to a rapid growth phase.
danger
in
knowledge
this
undirected
required
to
move
evolution
is
effectively
marketplace
the
to
lacking, resulting in a difficult transition.
a
marketing
and
base
The
building
perspective may
be
23-
support decreases as management pushes responsibility and
Organizational
accountability
important
for
demands
number
the
as
for example,
This
increases.
strategies
increase
limiting
require
more
creates
accuracy/integrity
and
problems,
becomes
range
the
of
This limiting should be done by creating value added
supporting communication to
Rather than dictating
computers.
set of personal
users
management
Data
units.
security
service
hardware and software.
products;
end
of
sharing,
data
Feasible
problems.
department
to
out
for a
host
the
certain
standards at this point,
the same objective can be met by aggressively marketing to the organization
particular packages of hardware and
Traditionally,
software.
this
means by which standards and technologies have been established.
to translate knowledge about users acquired during
the
is
the
The key is
implementation phase
into value added packages and to establish a presence through base building.
Again,
these activities provide the crucial
transition.
As discussed earlier,
perspective is standardization.
introduces
the
choose
user,
priorities
the
communication
and
functionality
key
strategy in the upcoming operation
Through a value added approach, management
standards,
first phase of
and
a
foundation to make the next
standards.
appear,
lets
and
As
the
case
the
end
of
increased
for
corporate
the
proactive
benefits
business
the
consumer,
the
policy is being established.
As
the
organization
standardizing
and
system professional
bear
technical
formal
moves
into
planning
the
control
activities
stage,
increase.
plays a key role in this stage as
expertise concerning
standards.
This
he
The
or
information
she brings
technical
to
perspective
-24-
is combined with the knowledge of the market gained
create effective standards.
traditional
issues
process
This
analogous
to
such
stage
next
stage.
allows
well
established
First,
'technologies
can
two
viewed
effective
process
economic
an
justification
investment
to
standards
the
as
vital
data
and
space,
on
and
business
goals
through
be
emphasis
increased
also
accomplishes
This
security,
capacity,
stage to
planning process can cope with
The more formal
as
in the previous
good.
integrity.
in
planning
manner
a
processes.
transition
into
the
alternative
information
That
variety
is,
a
of
equipment can be obtained so long as it meets reasonable corporate standards
such as compatability with communication
protocols.
market pressures
Thus,
begin to insure appropriate pricing.
Second,
organization learns how to
the
planning
formal
benchmarks
are
Appropriate
process.
established.
The
user computing
end
fold
terminology,
difficulty
of
related to the sophistication of the existing
is
probably
information
strategic
a
and
assumptions
exercise
this
into
system
planning process.
Thus,
the
evolution.
existing
The
stage
capability
strategic
end
regulation
targeted
set
is
to
for
transition
link
results
since
strategic
the
user computing
into
plan
the
business
established.
is
projects
final
directed
plan
The
toward
phase
of
with
an
notion
of
competitive
advantage many require specialized service or resource commitment.
End user
organization has fully absorbed the technology and now can manage both the
technology
Thus
in
and
this
the
human
stage,
the
resource
issues
organization
that
seeks
accompany
to
convert
knowledge into an ever incresing competitive position.
this
this
technology.
management
4.0
Conclusion
Three
First,
nature
in
management
plan
actions
early
as
pragmatic
a
Management
process.
that
stages
directed
is
for
map
road
organization
the
issues
is
comprehensive
a
toward
and ultimately into a mature stage.
transition into control
provides
dynamic
this
initiation
the
as
offers
framework
the
framework.
this
information
of
critical ity
the
with
coping
viewing
upon
made
be
accepted,
is
for
can
that
assumption
the
if
dynamic
conclusions
general
takes
smooth
In essence,
through
this
it
learning
process.
conflict
postulate
we
Second,
perspective
the
is
management.
There
and
is
critical
decision
shaping
consultation
that
to
embraced
impose
The result is the
One consequence
the
standards
with
macrostrategy
at
often
the
control
in
IS
permits
IS
of
The
current
by
this
operations
information
perspective
on
the
manager loses credibility and
this
his
is
or
her experience
may
be
missing.
stages may
be
made without effective
stage,
early
organizational
increase
will
productivity.
and
tendency
a
ultimately bypassed.
advice,
most
one
organization too early.
is
phase
a
effectiveness
reduce
and
skipping
professional.
This
organizational
growth,
Further,
framework
yet
suggests
key
a
maintains
the
for
the
important role of the information systems professional.
Third,
future.
the
framework
suggest
important
researcher
issues
Given the view that end user computing represents an organizational
thrust in DSS,
the
current inability
to
evaluate
the
impact of DSS
or
to
26-
justify DSS efforts will
As
indicated
in
the
limit the organization's usage of this technology.
evaluation
framework,
increasing importance over time.
and
justification
take
on
The research community must repond to this
trend by providing the means to carry out evaluation and justification.
Finally,
the
management
during
theoretical
means
inability
the
to
last
treat
to
reduce
stage
data
is
as
the
relative
importance
significant.
We
economic
resource;
an
do
of
not
thus,
data
have
the
we
are
limited in our ability to manage information from an economic perspective.
The research issue is to determine the policy set that allows
value of information measure and,
thus,
the economic management perspective.
a
pragmatic
provides the key building block for
-27-
Flgure
1
Critical ity of Issues over Time
Low
^
Initiation
Contagion
Stages
of
Control
Maturity
Development
LEARNING CURVE
HARDWARE/SOFTWARE
SUPPORT/EDUCATION
JUSTIFICATION/EVALUATION
DATA
-28-
Table
1
Different Perspectives for Managing End User Computing
IMPLEMENTATION
MARKETING
OPERATIONS
Objective:
Usage and
satisfaction
Growth and
penetration
Integration
and
efficiency
Competi ti ve
advantage
Strategy
Opportunistic
Supportive
Educational
Value
added
products
& services
Base building
Standards
Automati on
Link IS plan
to strategy
Targeted
investment
Centralized
Departmental
support
expert
Centralized
Distributed
operations
:
Structure;
general
help
facility
Rovi ng
formal
ECONOMIC
planning
Decentralized
support
consultants
Control
Mechanisms:
Minimal
through
innovators
Departmental
accountability
Centralized
policies
Formal
justification
Organizational
incentives
-29-
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Psychological and Organizational
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