2*p^l
BANKING AND THE INFORMATION UTILITY*
Martin Greenberger, Associate Professor
Sloan School of Management and Project MAC
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
124-65
MASS. INST. TECH
I:
21
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
50
MEMORIAL DRIVE
[BRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 0213
Qop<*\
]_
BANKING AND THE INFORMATION UTILITY*
Martin Greenberger, Associate Professor
Sloan School of Management and Project MAC
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
124-65
Prepared for presentation to the National Automation
Conference of the American Bankers Association, San
Francisco, March 8-10, 1965. This talk was typed and
edited at an on-line terminal of the M.I.T. time-shared
computer using the typset and runoff commands developed
by J.H. Saltzer. Work reported herein was supported by
Project MAC, an M.I.T. research program sponsored by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency, Department of Defense,
under Office of Naval Research contract number nonrReproduction in whole or in part is permitted
4102(01)
for any purpose of the United States Government.
.
.
RECEIVED
NOV
9
Mf/f
PAGE
BANKING AND THE
There
25 to
30
is a
INFORMATION UTILITY
very high probability that within
years
transformed into
the
a
vast
banking
probably
industry
electronic
information
identities under the
depends on the attitude and
role
assumes as its mode of doing
metamorphos
i
that
business
will
be
system
of
banking
incipient
Park
2. Progressive fires in the halls of 90
kindled
Avenue,
by
ABA's special
the
committee on automation;
3.
Scattered brush fires throughout the
banking community, such as the recent study
by Bankers Trust pointing
immediate
the
to
practicality of terminating check flow at the
paying bank;
Bonfires
ignited by
communications
the
industry
called
with
a
match
bi
-payment-by-phone and a lighting fluid
known as Touch-Tone;
o
1
computer
fanning
by
5„
Flame
the
IBM
manufacturers with a technology that
calls Tele-Processing and others call on-line
real-time systems;
6„
A
within
It
a
modern
s.
This conference and its two predecessors;
1
may
management
undergoes
as evidenced by:
k
or
transformation.
The metamorphosis is already in its
1.
next
the
national and international scope. Today's banks may
not maintain their
2
credit
15
card blaze
years from
which
the
has
local
spread
charge
stages,
PAGE
3
individual
of
accounts
stores,
to
the
credit
of
company-wide
geographically
dispersed firms, to the multi-purpose cards
oil
companies,
of hotel chains and
to
the
purpose
documents
of
general
American
Express/ Diners Club, Carte Blanche* and Bank
of America, to semi-automatic credit
bureaus
like Telecredit in Los Angeles, to the
still
more comprehensive citywide,
statewide,
and
nationwide
computerized systems currently
under di scuss ion;
7
Sparks from an accelerated speed up in the
velocity of money and a hotly competitive
money market.
I
choose
metaphor
the
burning,
of
not
to
be
inflammatory, but simply to dramatize the dream that many of
us have had of a complete conflagration of
checks and
Maybe that does seem inflammatory to some of you.
But
most of us paper currency is highly flammable in
that its volume of flow has
been
and is the biggest headache
of
Many is the tired vice president who
has
to
sense
the
exponentially
increasing
banking
cash.
operations
today.
refreshed
awoken
after dreaming of the cremation of the check,,
dream?
It
great deal of technical expertise to
see
Can elimination of the check be more than
does not require
a
that
There
it
can,
legal
are
a
problems,,
be
to
sure,
especially in the context of present laws (signatures, valid
documents, etc.),
I
shall
Clarke has to say about them.
and the physical
hardware
What
a
it
takes is
to
But the engineering
displace
network of simple,
placed at retail outlets around the
on-line to
a
complex
of
what
be interested to hear
central
checks
inexpensive
country
credit
and
files
John
know-how
are
ready,
terminals
connected
stored
on
PAGE
flexible computer systems with
memory.
cheaper.
Memories
relatively
are
fast
large,
cheap
Terminals like the Touch-Tone
random
and
to cost comparisons/
access
are
getting
telephone
set
fairly cheap, and they will get cheaper too. When
l»
are
comes
it
electronic communication will win hands
down over proof and transit.
wrote something about the possibility of an
I
credit exchange last May in
Atlantic,
the
automated
part
as
of
a
broader discussion of the concept of an information utility.
The ramifications extend far beyond the automatic payment of
John
bills.
opportunities
meeting,
I
considered
Case
practical
and
some
details
believe he may continue
July
last
on
that
notions several
years ago at
this
at
theme
Joseph Halina covered the communication side of
two years ago at this meeting,
banking
the
of
today,
system
the
John Cocke discussed similar
IBM;
and
I
ideas go back much further than that,
know that the basic
although
I
am not
the
that
the
one to try to trace them.
Let me mention just a word
about
credit instrument of the future may take
the universal
credit card,
key.
is
It
plastic
figuratively speaking, by insertion
terminal,
First
c
there
John Cocke has called
encoded
an
form
the
card
into
a
it
stored in the files
of
the
credit
simple
identifies the vendor,
The amount of the
and
sale
remote
money
The
exchange.
carries the account number of the owner,
money
a
unlocks,
that
the current contents of the customer's
is
the
is
box
card
terminal
entered
PAGE
into the terminal
5
and the computer does a fast turnaround to
be sure that the customer's balance and
credit
adequate for comsummation
of
safety measures range from
a
into the face of the card,
to a computer
rating
transaction.
the
are
Possible
photograph of the owner pressed
program
that
recognize the owner's voice and detect an imitation.
event of serious uncertainty or risk,
the computer
an on-line interrogation before it makes
the
In
conducts
evaluation.
its
From the individual's point of view /
can
the advantage of a
single credit card over the check book, wallet/ and plethora
of
cards
many
of
Operationally there are
carry
now
us
few small
a
needs
problems.
of a money key depends on ready access to
discussion
no
The
concept
information
in
a
central file and requires communicating and processing
each
separate transaction
real
in
But
time.
time is not justified for purchase of
than the cost of
negligible
transactions
a
toll
call
information
will
credit exchange,
as,
a
real
newspaper,
any
more
a
message
Furthermore,
content.
for
of
justified for
is
require
cost
the
with
a
when
J,G.
rushes
Wichita from New York to visit his ailing mother
off at the Wichita Florist for
Such long-distance
larger
threshold
a
transactions
amount
long-distance telephone
for
call
certain
communication
example,
demand
a
urgency or information content than
a
demands
local
to
stops
flowers.
proportionately
justification,
normally
distant
and
cheery bouquet of
of
call.
just
a
as
a
greater
PAGE
fall
6
There are several ways that transactions whose
amounts
below threshold levels may be handled,
can
Some
accumulated locally and transmitted by batch
store and forward procedure,,
the traditional
delayed
a
Others may be paid by cash
There
manner.
in
no reason why
be
in
all
traces
of coins and paper currency must be erased from this
system
of the future.
J„G„
is
presents his card to
a
terminal at
Wichita Bank and requests $100 to cover his
he
The
town.
in
is
transaction
$100
distance
connection,
whereas
flowers
may
A
not.
charge
service
small
long
a
transaction
$5
a
while
expenses
warrants
the
for
the
makes
the
transaction profitable to the Wichita Bank.
There
alternative
cashless
is one
science fiction.
Let me call
with the money kev
It
.
is
solid
his
identity
and
together with
other
him with
money card of equivalent
produced by
a
with $100 in cash,
the
terminal
J.G.'s money key is inserted into
is
exchange,
out.
entered,
a
working
the
information
on
Instead
of
va1ue
The
card
special machine at the bank which may
and the same with
amount
static
an on-line
of
the
this
credit
machine,
be
is
one
exchange.
the
inquiry is made at the
debit is registered^
that
the Wichita Bank provides
J
a
on
characteristics.
presenting
G.
device
state
electronically retains dynamic information
balance of its owner,
like
money card as constrasted
it a
a
sounds
that
$100
credit
and the new money card pops
Again the bank makes an appropriate charge
PAGE
7
The nice thing about the money card is that it replaces
a
wallet-full of bills
pocket-full
and
single document that need never be "broken".
simply
inserts
customer's
the
card
with
coins
of
The
into
a
retailer
specially
a
engineered device that he has on the premises and enters the
amount of
a
purchase.
amount
this
If
balance electronically recorded on the card,
simultaneously with the
balance
transmit the
exchange
account
terminal of
a
the purchase is
also inside the device, and it
is
same
on
via
local
his
bank.
money
card
on-line
own
retailer
credit
his
to
can
terminal
or
the
He normally does this at the
end
A few merchants
of the business day.
credited
is
The
amount,
his
the
A money card belonging to
approved and the balance debited.
the retailer
than
less
is
take their money cards
home with them at night and slip them under their pillows as
they fall off to sleep*
Notice that the money card differs from the money
not only in carrying
connection
requiring
own
its
to
balance,
credit
the
requiring real time communications,
a
limitation.
be noted by
discovers the
blocked.
When
the
a
loss,
exchange
This advantage
money key is misplaced,
credit
and
exchange
use
of
also
but
as
after the loss has been
its
discovered,
not
and
not
is
also
can
owner
soon
as
the
key
is
thereafter
the
The misplaced or stolen money card, on
hand, may be used repeatedly by
in
loss
its
key,
holder
unlawful
but
only
balance on the card at the time of the loss.
other
the
up
This
to
well
the
property
PAGE
the money card shares with cash.
a
its
lawful
The vendor
whether
exchange
coded
such as his birth
owner,
the vendor.
could be made more like
It
traveler's check by making the
the
also
can
card
has
8
characteristics
of
intelligible
to
date,
from
learn
been
credit
the
reported
missing.
Whether he would or not depends on where the liability lies
If
lies with the owner,
it
the money card is,
essentially variable cash,
ticket,
is
after the
If,
the liability lies with the vendor,
been reported,
money card
like
a
reusable check,
Like
real
a
loss
has
then
the
traveler's check,
a
cannot bounce because of overdrawn funds
if
c
its balance
it
was
produced legitimately and covers the sale,
I
think the main difficulty with the concept of
card, outside of the legal
thorns,
is
not
money
a
problem
the
of
designing the card itself, but rather the related problem of
designing the special device that processes the card.
device must be simple enough to be within the
of small
retailers,
cost
This
reaches
yet complicated enough to make tampering
next to impossible.
A device
that was
credits to the customer's card instead
rigged
of
register
to
debits,
without
the benefit of corresponding charges to the retailer's card„
would be
a
counterfeiting machine unparalleled
in
the annals
of crime.
We could go on to discuss ways of safeguarding
counterfeiting,
but
this
digression and the notion of
important
to
the
has
a
already
money
realization
of
card
an
been
is
a
in
automated
against
lengthy
no
way
credit
PAGE
exchange.
anything at all
If
realization,
it
is our
stands
own inertia,
way
the
in
of
9
its
built up over many years
of getting used to checks and cash,
We can piace the
blame
with our laws, but they reflect our attitudes, subject to
little lag.
Attitudes can change
quickly,
takes is one group to lead the way and make
from
Let me try to draw an analogy
history that is still
M.I.T. convened
a
a
All
it
success of
it.
some
recent
very
About six
the making.
in
under
however,
the duress of economic and competitive pressures.
a
years
faculty committee to study the
ago,
long-range
computational requirements of the Institute and recommend
future course of action.
find near unanimity,
but this one was an exception.
in
faculty
a
computer
large
terminals
spread
committee,
during
There developed
deliberations an overwhelming consensus that
very
you seldom
At a place like M.I.T
particularly
with
system
throughout
M, I.T„
the
needed
laboratories,
offices,
a
on-line
more
or
100
a
and
classrooms around the Institute.
The proposed method for operating the system was called
sharing.
time
processing
in
It
a
is
fundamental
The
way.
completely define his requirements for
does not submit the run to
merger on
fed
to
Instead,
a
the
a
computer
a
dispatching
batch tape with other
serially
runs;
with
the user enters his requirements
computer from his terminal.
customary
from
different
user
run
in
batch
does
advance;
intermediary
and runs
the
user
directly
He does not enter them
are
not
he
for
not
absent.
to
all
the
at
PAGE 10
but develops
once,
them gradually with the computer's
The computer provides
with
him
intermediate
detects his errors as he makes them.
him
over
vast programming library
a
a
period of
that
Although
time,,
a
It
help.
results
makes available
to
constructed
been
has
and
large number of users are
active at separate terminals simultaneously,
computer
the
gives each the impression that it is continuously accessible
responsive.
and immediately
between man and machine has
This
a
big payoff
contexts/ commercial as well as
I
kind
i
relationship
of
in
ntel lectual
variety
a
of
,
think it is fair to say that the idea of time sharing
was considered "far out" by most people as recently as 1959,
even in the academic and scientific communities*
held a lecture series to celebrate the M
In
Centennial,
T
I
1961 we
The subject of the series was Management and the Computer of
the Future.
McCarthy
John
conclusions
of
time-shared
computer
reviewed
systems,
emphatically for starting work
computers,
Robert
Fano
automated library, and
spoke enthusiastically,
a
committee
faculty
the
reasoning
the
in
Licklider
J,C„R„
immediately
commented
on
on
persuasively,
range of future possibilities,,
be listening attentively,
on
argued
interactive
prospects
large number of other
a
paper
a
and
for
an
participants
and authoritatively on
Computer users appeared to
but managements
in
the
computer
and communication industries were yet to be convinced of the
potentialities for
a
vast new market,
PAGE 11
relevant events
Since 1961 several
Corbato
F.J.
developed
and
group
his
the
at
taken
place,
Computation
Center
have
supervisory program called CTSS
a
M.l.T.'s current
computer
into
converted
that
time-shared
a
operation.
J.C.R Licklider joined the Advanced Research Projects Agency
of the Department of Defense to campaign
computers
interactive
country.
And encouraged by Licklider
M.I.T. formed
Project
Machine-Aided
Cognition)
CTSS
and
a
MAC
(Mul
with
computer
multi-access operation,
ti
Fano
was
that
intended
time
Project MAC began
alias
director.
as
not
of
Department,
Computer,
-Access
the
promise
the
Defense
Robert
for
throughout
and
support from the
financial
substantial
Using
sharing
time
and
energetically
sharing
for
in
the summer of 1963.
Today
the
around M.I.T. and its environs.
35
provision for
distributed
About half of the terminals
There are also
graphical
input
computer-aided
engineering
response times,
no
permitted to be
active
more
terminals and computer
special
some
of
teletypewriters and the other half are IBM 1050
selectric typewriters.
a
help
the
equipment, serves over 100 terminals
additional
are model
with
computer,
same
M.I
T„
is
30
once.
to
facilitate
maintain
To
of
with
few terminals
output
and
design,,
than
at
a
good
terminals
the
Communication
are
between
by voice-grade telephone lines via
private
established for this purpose.
branch
exchange
The computer
is
with the Bell System switched network and with
which
also
the
was
linked
Western
PAGE 12
Union International Telegraph network,
TELEX services are available.
so that both TWX
Demonstrations of
Norway.
and Buenos Aires,;
Project
By next year at this time the number of active
MAC terminals may have increased by
computer system, now on order,
for multi-access operation,
by then.
Planning for
a
identical
systems
system
new
their
for
universities, companies,
is
own
Corporation, Carnegie Tech,
or
California,
of
the Rand Corporation,
Motors, General
Electric, Wes
nghouse,
of Technology,
Dartmouth
Newman.
College,
As you would expect,
major
are mobilizing and reorganizing for
now
Development
Stanford University, Cal Tech,
ti
other
advanced
in
System
University
the
Many
establishments
operation
in
ordered
have
use.
These include;
c
running
cooperative
a
who
research
and
have time sharing systems
stages of construct on
expressly
designed
that was
should be installed and
the
A new
factor of five.
venture with Bell Telephone Laboratories
four
MAC
the
computer have been held at terminals in California,
Great Britain,
and
and
Beranek,
Bolt,
&
manufacturers
computer
the
Institute
Case
IBM,
General
blossoming
market
they now see ahead
The story is far from over,
could still turn out to
short-lived dream,
nothing
be
But
that
computation
Interactive
more
than
possibility
is
a
infinitely
remote to those of us who have been working regularly
terminal,,
I
could
no
old-style computation than
more
I
conceive
could
imagine
of
lovely,
at
returning
trading
in
a
to
my
PAGE 13
telephone for
within
10
carrier pigeon.
a
years from the time
began in earnest,
My guess is that
interactive
wi
using
sharing
time
on
computation
entrenched as the dominant mode of
research,
work
that
1
1969,
by
firmly
be
1
computer
the
in
engineering, and education throughout the country.
Automatic credit
could
probably will not because of
inertia.
It
customer,
its
will
come,
move
in
legal
barriers
however.
benefits
fast,
as
retailer,
but
financial
and
convenience
Its
the
to
just
and
the
to
its
other
economic incentives are too striking to be overlooked by our
entrepreneurial society.
Within 15 years it may already
be
challenging checks for sovereignty.
Let us speculate on the form the development will
Automatic credit bureaus will
scope.
in
has
a
take.
expand
increase in number and
information
They will find that supplying credit
limited potentials and that consummating transactions is
logical and profitable way to grow.
the customer's
cooperating
take
over
liability and begin to trade information with
banks and other credit operations.
networks
They will
Gradual ly,
connect
the
computers
enterprises,
and
new
will
and
communication
memories
organizations
will
of
be
created to forge the links and provide compatibility,
As the system evolves, more companies and
begin to appreciate the economic advantages
stores
of
eliminating
their receivables and credit activities.
Customers will
paying monthly bills by Touch-Tone,
mightily
the
consequent
reduction
in
and
check
writing
will
be
enjoying
and
book
PAGE 1U
They will be using separate
balancing.
each bill,
plus another for
will welcome the opportunity
to
general -purpose card that pays
credit exchange.
money key.
It
the customer
bank
their
trade
dialing
cards
for
account.
and
they
itemized
the
This card will be an
early
eventually be the same
will
carries
to
identify
credit when he goes shoppingo
for
one
bill
of
the
form
of
the
these
in
instrument
himself
that
establish
and
The customer will applaud its
replacing the onerous packet of credit cards he totes around
today.
By now the credit exchange will
be feeling the need for
greater liquidity*
Since the customer
key with him at all
times,
is
carrying his money
the credit exchange can encourage
him to pay for his purchases as he makes them by offering an
instant discount,,
It
future
consummation
date
for
can
also
to
specify
transaction
the
of
proportionate reduction in discount
has remarked,
him
permit
Putnam
As
at
a
a
Livingston
the time value of money is certain to
attract
greater attention as automatic credit systems bloom.
On the other side of
the
requesting the automatic assignment
accounts in the credit exchange.
network at
a
With
high state of development,
will
salaries
of
little reason to mail out pay checks.
shift,
employees
ledger,
the
network.
communication
companies
wi
credits
distributed to the proper accounts like messages
1
1
have
nighttime
During the
Payroll
their
to
their computer systems will feed the payroll
into the information
be
directly
will
through
be
a
PAGE 15
message
switching
center.
eliminated their receivables,
employees frequently,
Since
they
perhaps
companies
will
even
daily,
This will make it easier for
service.
themselves
discounts
instant
of
Ultimately, companies will send wage
as
rates
it
avail
purchases.
credit
the
to
only on an
basis and not regularly; for example, when an
special
to
making
pay
to
a
employees
when
exchange, and then communicate with
able
be
have
will
exception
employee
is
promoted.
Thus the flows of money into and out of the
of
economy
our
will
tend
become
to
units
more
smoother,
continuous/ and more synchronized with the physical flows of
goods and services and the productive
rise to them.
Float will vanish and
of the economy will
In
change
the
from
give
that
fluctuations
cyclical
be dampened.
ultimate
a
processes
automated
movement
transfer of information.
of
system,
documents
Bank accounts of
money
to
flow
will
electronic
an
individuals
and
corporations will become electronic records containing
data
on future earnings,
to facilitate credit ratings and payroll
processing,
as
as well
data on past accumul at ions,
Frequent
statements will be transmitted to subscribers with
detailed
listings of transactions,
transactions will
be
A complete historical
maintained
audits and error checks,
The
in
file of all
electronic
electronic
records
form
wi
1
for
1
be
conveniently accessible to persons with the authority to see
them,
and inaccessible to others.
PAGE 16
The fact is that money is
basically
i
nformat on,
the banking industry is what Oettinger called it
conference:
this
at
a
Financial
July
last
Information
Banking and finance are very important
System".
of
Fiduciary
"A
and
i
components
very big information business that includes: education,
statistical
research/
engineering
medical
surveys,
marketing,
diagnosis,
management
control,
communications, security and commodity trading,
publishing*
libraries,
design,
traffic
control,
federal
fiscal
operations, and numerous other intellectual,
political activities,,
economic,
continuing
The rapid and
monetary
and
growth
information processing technology is going to have
impact on all of these activities,,
higher levels of automation,
and
links
major
a
share
to
discussed
I
Atlantic article will provide the necessary
data
mutual
their
for
The information utility that
advantage.
of
they reach higher and
As
they will want
communication
establish
and
in
the
interfaces
and
make cooperation economically attractive,,
Early forms of the information utility are
various stages
of
budding.
Items:
experiments like Project MAC at MIT
and
researchers
future
in
the
sharing
educating
present
power
computers, and are pushing forward the state
(2)
the
bringing
extending
KEYDATA
time
it
from
System
of
sharing
the
smallest liquor dealer;
Charles
into
largest
(3)
the
in
time
(1)
are
already
Adams
of
interactive
of
art;
Associates
commercial
government
the
arena
agency
the QUICKTRAN Service
to
of
is
and
the
IBM
PAGE 17
has been given national
publicity
fu.l-page
in
advertisements, and this is just the start of
at
IBM;
(k)
sharing
time
the TRADIVAC System is planning to accept
match orders to buy and sell securities over
from
counter
newspaper
brokers
and
everywhere,,
and
electronic
an
expects
to
be
profitable as soon as volume exceeds 70*000 shares per day;
(5)
the company-wide computer systems of American
Metropolitan
to mention just a
and Westi nghouse,
Life,,
are continuing to create competitive pressures;
T,
brandishing
is
preparing
regulatory
for
honing
and
sheath;
while
(7)
remove
to
another
communications industry has been working with
few,,
A T
(6)
C
multi-edged
its
government
the
Airlines,
&
swords
some
of
the
giant
in
the
consulting
a
firm to test the temperature of the market.
If
these are pointers
indicate for banking?
but
a
and
The crystal ball
few things seem clear.
the
Checks,,
composed
elaborately
certificates of indebtedness that
gradually wither and disappear.
greater
certainty,
internally stabler.
more
sophisticated
The
in
money-market activities,
level
is
titles
we
Float
credit
and
cards*
ownership
of
have
clouded,
still
bills*
they
do
treasured
lags
and
the
commercial
his
money
in
will
economy
will
become
customer
will
become
investment
and demand deposit
out and possibly turn down.
and
will
Income and expenditure streams
flow will also vanisho
assume
what
future*
the
to
behavior
balances
and
will
PAGE 18
Some of these prospects sound fines
handling and
in paper
Others seem
costs,
is
dwindling
a
the structure of
change,
will
rates
loans
the process of underwriting new issues will
change,
and indeed the entire nature of
banking
will
change,
finance
and
will
My sketch of the future has deliberately left blank
change.
the identity of the credit
utilities, and
it
exchanges
and
These are
information
the
about
has said very little
paying what to whom.
will
change,
operations
negotiating
for
things
government regulation
interest
procedures
the
But
way
the
services and service charges will change, market
will
bank
for
customer,,
of
Laws are going to change,,
change/
operating
in
base
the
to judge tomorrow on the basis
look today.
will
ominous;
and increased competition from
loans,
this
reduction
consequent
a
sanity
return to
a
who
questions,
open
remain open questions until the participants
will
be
they
and
begin
to
take their places on the starting line.
In
enjoy
many ways bankers have
a
They have
industry
confidential
a
relationship
good understanding
of
finance.
They
and
They are
international affairs.
large volumes of information.
the
ways
of
networks,
They already
running lead.
a
with
whole
the
accustomed
through
of
American
knowledgeable
are
And they
customers,
their
branch
processing
to
familiar
are
and
in
with
corespondent
banking and membership in the Federal Reserve.
Bankers are on
carefully
a
cultivated
threshold.
reputation
In
the
for
past
is
conservatism
their
and
PAGE 19
deliberation.
out
In
the future is their urgent need
claim and pursue
a
The chairman of
Agemian/
it
with purpose and foresight.
conference
year,
Charles
postulated as the last of his five laws of
prudent
this
last
thinking that "those who lean too far into the
fall
flat on their faces".
advice
comment.
stake
to
for
the
reckless
The
practical
computer
Yet today we might add
a
future
wisdom
enthusiast
small
codicil:
Those who do not bend forward, when moving
into a stiff gale, will land on their backs;
and those who do not look
up
to
see where
they are going/ neither will they see who
is
ahead
of
needs
will
this
no