Emilia Irzmańska,
*Jacek Dutkiewicz
Preliminary Evaluation of Airlaid Nonwovens
with Superabsorbent for Use in Protective
Footwear: Tests Involving a Thermal Foot
Model and Climatic Chamber
DOI: 10.5604/12303666.1167432
Central Institute for Labour Protection
– National Research Institute
E-mail: emirz@ciop.lodz.pl
*University of Bielsko-Biala,
Poland
Abstract
The paper presents preliminary results of simulation studies evaluating moisture absorption from the air that indicate the possibility of applying a superabsorbent polymer (SAP) in
the construction of protective footwear insoles. The performance of different types of nonwovens was tested in terms of moisture absorption from air of high relative humidity in a
climatic chamber and on a thermal foot model. The tests simulated the temperature and humidity conditions that occur inside all-rubber protective footwear. It was found that insoles
containing SAP dehumidified the air more effectively than either insoles not containing SAP
or traditional wool felt insoles. The tests showed a new application potential of absorbent
materials in protective footwear with a view to improving hygienic comfort during use.
Key words: nonwovens, superabsorbent, protective footwear, insoles.
excessive humidity in footwear lead to
decomposition of the organic substances contained in sweat, thus enhancing
the growth of pathogenic bacteria and
fungi. These processes detract from the
hygienic properties and comfort of use of
the footwear [2].
nIntroduction
In addition to exhibiting good protective
properties, personal protective equipment (PPE) should meet certain hygienic,
ergonomic, and health requirements [1].
This also applies to protective footwear,
which is often made of impermeable materials and equipped with additional protective elements. While those materials
and elements ensure protection of the feet
against hazardous and noxious factors, at
the same time they entail considerable
energy expenditure of the human body
and significantly deteriorate user comfort. The construction materials applied
in PPE hinder the distribution of heat
and sweat, which are profusely generated
upon exertion.
Commercially available protective footwear insoles are hygroscopic and retain large amounts of moisture in their
structure, adversely affecting their hygienic properties. High temperature and
138
Footwear insoles absorb from 85% to
90% of the sweat secreted by the feet
[3]. In particular, moisture tends to accumulate in the toe, plantar, and heel regions of the insoles (the density of sweat
glands on the foot sole is generally very
high). Insoles made of polymers or textile composites with moisture-buffering
properties hinder effective transport of
liquid moisture, and as a result sweat
accumulates within the structure of
these footwear textiles. However, desirable parameters of the microclimate inside impermeable protective footwear
may be obtained by means of modeling
the construction of insoles placed in it
[4]. It has been found that the more moisture is removed from the immediate vicinity of the foot, the better the footwear
microclimate becomes [5].
The hygienic properties and comfort of
use of protective footwear may be improved by means of support textiles,
such as liners, insoles, and socks [6].
The key factors influencing the distribution of heat and moisture inside protective footwear include the type of fibres
and their spatial arrangement in the structure of support textiles [7].
In this context, a major role may be played
by multifunctional liquid-absorbing nonwoven structures. Superabsorbents [8]
are hydrophilic materials hydrofilowymi
materiałami polimerowymi capable of
binding a very large amount of water.
The first water-binding polymers were
synthesised in 1938 - acrylic acid (AA)
and divinylbenzene synthesized by thermal polymerisation in water. The main
absorbing materials are hydrogels, which
are internally crosslinked polymers with
hydrophilic properties. 1 g of the hydrogel can absorb up to 1000 g of liquid [9].
For the synthesis of superabsorbents,
the following are usually used: acrylamide, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid and
its derivatives, divinyl monomers, ethylene glycol diacrylate, sodium divinylbenzosulfonate, tetrahydroxymetyloacetylenourea, allyl acrylate, poly (ethylene
glycol, poly (aspartic acid), poly (vinyl
alcohol), maleic anhydride copolymers,
poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone [9, 10].
Multifunctional nonwoven structures
with absorbent qualities were previously
used mainly in personal care products,
where they were designed to quickly
absorb and store physiological liquids
(urine or blood) [11].
The largest amount of absorbents produced worldwide is used in disposable
diapers. For this reason, most of the research was focused on hygiene species
which are normally used as powder in
diapers. In the past two decades, absorption has increased to about 30 g/g, while
Irzmańska E, Dutkiewicz J. Preliminary Evaluation of Airlaid Nonwovens with Superabsorbent for Use in Protective Footwear: Tests Involving
a Thermal Foot Model and Climatic Chamber. FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2015; 23, 6(114): 138-142. DOI: 10.5604/12303666.1167432
the free absorption capacity has decreased to about 50 g (salt)/g (polymer).
Due to market demands for thinner diapers, diaper includes more absorbent
than powder, which limits the maximum
amount of absorbent in the diaper to about
10 g/piece, which is achievable for
the absorbents have been improved.
However, the aim is to achieve absorption at a level of 45 - 50 g/g to obtain
much thinner diaper [12, 13].
Absorbent textiles must meet a range of
requirements, depending on their designation. Their essential functions include
liquid uptake, distribution, and prolonged
storage. To ensure that these functions
are fulfilled, designers must use appropriate raw materials and carefully design
product structure in terms of area density,
volumetric density, pore size, and porosity. Such materials can be manufactured
by airlaid technology, where products
may consist of several layers of different composition and structure, and hence
they may exhibit two or more functions.
Fast moisture absorption in the upper
layer of the nonwoven can be obtained
by using thicker and more rigid fibres,
which create larger pores in regions that
come into contact with the human skin
secreting sweat. Synthetic fibres are often
employed for such applications as they
do not lose their rigidity after wetting. In
turn, effective liquid distribution occurs
in a layer consisting of thinner cellulose
fibres, which form relatively smaller
pores resulting in increased capillary
pressure that allows moisture to be transported deeper and higher in the structure.
Finally a layer rich in superabsorbent
(SAP) granules ensures the absorption
capacity required [14, 15].
The literature provides examples of
the application of SAP fibres in underwear used with protective clothes exhibiting barrier properties [16, 17]. Bartkowiak [16] took on the development
of materials containing superabsorbents
characterised by a large sorption capacity which can be used in the construction
of protective clothes for the absorption
of sweat. On the basis of technological analysis of the different fibres, Oasis 102 fibres were selected, which are
cross-linked acrylate copolymer fibres
partially neutralised by sodium salt. They
have very good sorption properties for
salt water, which is very important for
the absorption of sweat through protective clothing (full time sorption is 15 seconds). Another very important feature of
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2015, Vol. 23, 6(114)
Oasis fibre is satisfactory absorption of
water vapor in the whole range of relative humidity.
Wawro et al conducted a study on
the microfibres of chitosan [18 - 20]. It
was shown that fibres of this type are
characterised by very high values of
the secondary swelling index (1300%),
which makes the fibres suitable for use
in sanitary and medical products. Das et
al [21] reported a method for producing
an ultra-thin sanitary absorbent core with
super-absorbent fibres (SAF), and blends
of viscose in a different percentage composition sandwiched between two layers
of nonwoven. Samples prepared were
thinner than the control one (a mixture
of cellulose and superabsorbent polymer
SAP), and had significantly improved
absorption rates for saline. It was demonstrated that there is a linear relationship
with the mass absorption and percentage
SAF, which will optimise the absorption
capacity of the core depending on the absorption amount desired.
Nowicka [22] in her work about
the sustainability of particle bonding in
the structure of absorbent non-woven describes the creation of an absorbing layer
using the melt- blown technique. A composite nonwoven fabric made with this
technique may include in its structure
particles of sorbents such as activated
carbon, aluminum oxide, or chitosan. It
is assumed that the large size of sorbent
particles allow for the creation of a nonwoven fabric porous structure of sorbent
particles well- „caught” by microfibres
through these particular pores. Nonwovens produced in this way may contain
from 10% to 90% (by weight) of the absorbent powder, without containing additional binders, which allows to maintain the unique characteristics of each of
the particles of the absorbent [23].
Bartkowiak and Szucht [24] studied
the sorption of sweat by materials to
be worn under protective clothing. We
analysed various double-layer systems
consisting of woven fabrics of synthetic
fibres and absorbent (polyester, polypropylene, cotton, rayon, wool). Studies
have confirmed the high usefulness of
the double-layer system with a diffusion
layer directly adjacent to the wearer’s skin
and an outer layer of sorption eliminating sweat. The optimal raw material for
the diffusion layers are non hygroscopic fibres, especially polyester textured
yarns. Experiments have shown that
the viscose fibres are the most favorable
of the traditional sorption materials. Both
the velocity and efficiency of sorption
of liquid sweat absorption are highest
in comparison with other hygroscopic
fibres. Superabsorbents absorb several
times more sweat than most traditional
absorbent cloth. The study of different
morphological structures of knitted fabrics have shown that fabrics with a complex spatial structure, such as the stitch
peak, have the best sorption parameters.
Thus the hypothesis of high utility porous materials for both the diffusion and
sorption of sweat was confirmed.
In his work, Sadikoglu [25] examined
the effect of moisture on the skin and
clothing for comfort. The study aimed
to determine the role of superabsorbent
fibres in parallel stiffening nonwovens
from the point of view of comfort. Five
persons evaluated sample nonwoven
fabrics comprising polyester, a mixture
of polyester/copolyester, and superabsorbent fibres in different proportions. As
used superabsorbent fibres are crosslinked acrylate copolymer, partially
neutralised to the sodium salt, in fibre
form. Studies have shown that the addition of 3.5% superabsorbent to the blend
significantly improves the perception
of wet feel, however, to employ a mixture of the clothes their properties after
repeated washing should be checked.
However, there are no reports in the literature regarding the use of SAP in protective footwear insoles. This paper presents
preliminary results of a simulation study
evaluating moisture absorption from
the air and examining the possibilities to
apply a superabsorbent polymer in protective footwear insoles. The study indicates a new application direction for absorbent materials in protective footwear
with a view to improving user comfort.
nMethods
Materials
The study involved 6 types of absorbent
airlaid nonwovens made of short cellulose fibrils extracted from coniferous
trees by the Kraft method (supplied by
Buckeye Technologies Inc., now Georgia-Pacific, Steinfurt, Germany). Table 1
(see page 140) provides the basic technical parameters of those materials. Two
of the variants studied (samples 4 and 5)
exhibited increased absorbent capacity
as they contained superabsorbent (SAP)
granules.
139
Table 1. Technical parameters of airlaid nonwovens studied.
Sample
Area density,
g/m2
Thickness,
mm
Tensile strength in
dry state, N/5 cm
Absorbent capacity,
g/g
SAP
1
80
0.87
19.0
10.0
-
2
80
1.05
24.5
8.5
-
3
60
0.95
16.0
12.0
-
4
150
1.35
27.0
30.0
Yes
5
175
3.00
20.0
40.0
Yes
6
300
5.00
55.0
12.0
-
of the surface of the thermal foot model
was 34°C. Changes in relative humidity
levels inside the footwear were measured and recorded on-line for 8 h (which
corresponds to one work shift). Relative
humidity was determined in the space between the plantar region of the foot and
nonwoven insole.
Statistical analysis
Assessment of moisture absorption by
nonwovens on a thermal foot model
Samples (insoles) were placed inside allrubber footwear. Moisture absorption in
this system was evaluated using a thermal foot model (ATTElectro, Poland).
A detailed description of the device and
its operating principles was given in
a previous publication [5]. Each variant
Sample 11
Sample
Sample 22
Sample
was tested five times. During the tests
the foot model was set to a constant sweat
production rate of 15 g/h, which is typical
of humans performing strenuous physical
activity. The tests were conducted under
static conditions (without foot movement
or pressure on the walking surface) in order to ensure conditions identical to those
in the climatic chamber. The temperature
Sample 33
Sample
Sample
Sample44
Sample
Sample55
Wool felt
Wool
felt
Moisture sorption, g
0.4
0.3
n Results and discussion
0.2
Study results are presented in Figures 1
and 2.
0.1
The absorbent capacity of the materials studied is given in Table 1. Considering the fact that during walking insoles are subjected to pressure, some of
the nonwovens selected contain a superabsorbent polymer in which water molecules are bound by solvation to carboxyl
groups (samples 4 and 5). Such materials
have a much greater absorbent capacity
than airlaid nonwovens without SAP. In
nonwovens containing SAP, polymer
granules are located in the internal material layer. The external layers consist
of fibres bonded together by means of
two-component synthetic fibres and
an adhesive deposited on their surface in
the form of emulsion. In this way, SAP
granules are trapped inside the material
and are not readily lost from the nonwoven during use. This structure also leads
to better liquid distribution between
the fibres before water particles become
firmly bound to SAP. An additional
benefit of placing polymer granules in
the internal layer of the material is that
their swelling does not block channels in
the external layers of the material, thanks
to which the liquid can easily move along
those channels. Insoles made of the airlaid nonwovens tested were applied in
all-rubber protective footwear.
0.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
Time, h
Figure 1. Moisture absorption curves for footwear insoles made of airlaid nonwovens with
and without a superabsorbent polymer (SAP) in comparison to wool felt; tests conducted
over water in a desiccator.
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
Wool felt
Relative humidity, %
100
95
90
85
80
0
2
4
6
8
Time, h
Figure 2. Relative humidity inside protective footwear with insoles made of airlaid nonwovens; tests on a thermal foot model.
140
Statistical analysis was used to evaluate
the significance of correlations between
sorption and relative humidity levels for
the airlaid nonwoven samples tested.
A 95% confidence interval was determined for the mean values of the parameters studied. It was checked whether
sorption and humidity readings exhibited a normal distribution. Correlations
were evaluated using Pearson’s r. Due to
the small number of measurements,
a posteriori bootstrapping with 1000 replicates was used. Analysis was conducted
using SPSS Statistics 21.0 software.
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2015, Vol. 23, 6(114)
Acting on the results above, the authors
subsequently decided to apply an experimental method involving a thermal foot
model. As can be seen from Figure 2,
insoles containing SAP (samples 4 and
5) considerably dehumidified the air inside the all-rubber protective footwear.
Relative humidity inside the footwear decreased from the initial value of 93% to
81%, which is close to the levels considered in the literature as comfortable for
users (80%) [2]. In turn, insoles made of
airlaid nonwovens without SAP did not
significantly decrease the relative humidity. In the case of insoles made of wool
felt, the relative humidity increased to
almost 100%.
These findings for the nonwovens studied are confirmed by the Pearson’s correlation coefficient between sorption
levels (recorded in the climatic chamber)
and relative humidity values (recorded
inside protective footwear on a thermal
foot model). As can be seen from Table 2, there is a statistically significant
correlation between those parameters for
the samples containing superabsorbent
(samples 4 and 5). Analysis of the relationship between moisture sorption
and relative humidity levels for insoles
containing SAP gave results close to -1,
which indicate a strong negative correlation (higher moisture sorption by insoles
is accompanied by lower relative humidity inside protective footwear). Therefore
there exists a clear interrelationship that
may be interpreted from a physical point
of view: the increasing ability of the
material to absorb water in the chamber
and the type of material studied decrease
relative humidity inside footwear. Therefore the above-mentioned correlation of
variables is determined by the affinity of
a given material to moisture sorption
(the physicochemical properties of
the material).
The test results showed that airlaid nonwovens with SAP are more efficient
at moisture absorption than wool felt,
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2015, Vol. 23, 6(114)
which is now typically applied in protective footwear. This conclusion is of great
interest because such nonwovens have
not been used in protective footwear to
date, and hence this paper presents a novel application possibility. Compared with
literature in the field of shoe insoles [2,
4, 6, 7, 26], the use of superabsorbents
(SAP) in airlaid nonwovens allows to
obtain better microclimate parameters,
which indicate footwear comfort when
using inserts containing SAP.
nConclusions
The study presented in the first step
towards the application of materials
containing a superabsorbent in protective footwear insoles. The results of
laboratory experiments have confirmed
the hypothesis that nonwovens with SAP
are much more efficient at absorbing
moisture from the air than nonwovens
without SAP or traditional wool felt materials. Finally the practical benefits predicted from those experiments were verified by means of a thermal foot model
simulating the use of protective footwear.
The resulting parameters of the microclimate in footwear indicate that the use of
airlaid nonwovens and SAP allows for
greater comfort footwear. Preliminary
data estimated using bootstrap statistical analysis allow us to conclude that
the data obtained warrant further research
with a view to developing a new technology for all-rubber protective footwear
containing insoles made of nonwovens
with a superabsorbent polymer.
Aknowledments
nThe publication draws on results obtained
as part of a research task implemented
under statutory activity of CIOP-PIB
(2010–2012) and research grant No.
N N404 068240 (contract number 0682/B/
P01/2011/40) financed by the National
Science Centre in the years 2011–2013
at the CIOP-PIB.
nThe publication was based on the results
of Phase II of the National Programme
“Safety and working conditions improvement”, funded in the years 2011-2013 in
the area of research and development
works by the Ministry of Science and
Higher Education/The National Centre
for Research and Development. The Programme coordinator: Central Institute for
Labour Protection – National Research
Institute
Table 2. Pearson’s correlation coefficients
between sorption levels in g and relative
humidity in % for the airlaid nonwovens
studied: * p ≤ 0.05; ** p ≤ 0.10 (statistical
tendency).
Moisture sorption, g
The nonwovens were tested with samples placed over water in a desiccator (at
37 °C and relative air humidity of 93%).
As expected, the absorption curves (Figure 1) showed the nonwovens containing
SAP to be more efficient at absorbing
moisture from the air than the other nonwovens. The results of experiments conducted in the climatic chamber and desiccator with water also indicate that airlaid
nonwovens perform better than the wool
felt typically used in protective footwear.
Relative
humidity, %
Sample 4 (with SAP)
-0.987**
Sample 5 (with SAP)
-0.975
Sample 4 (no SAP)
-0.846
Sample 5 (no SAP)
-0.893**
Sample 1 (no SAP)
-0.848*
Sample 2 (no SAP)
-0.864
Sample 3 (no SAP)
-0.884*
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142
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FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 2015, Vol. 23, 6(114)